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SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL DEPARTMENT

STUDENT MANUAL IN PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2

Understanding Data and Ways to Systematically Collect Data
Prepared by: Christopher I. Cabañog, LPT

Learning Competencies:

The learner:
1. chooses appropriate quantitative research design
2. describes sampling procedure and sample
3. constructs an instrument and establishes its validity and reliability
4. describes intervention (if applicable)
5. plans data collection procedure
6. plans data analysis using statistics and hypothesis testing
7. presents written research methodology
8. implements design principles to produce creative artwork

 QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS (Based on a handout by Dr. Reston, 2019)

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
- Aims to establish causal relationships, such as testing the effect or impact of an intervention
(as cause) on an outcome, controlling all other factors that might influence that outcome

Criteria in choosing appropriate experimental A. Pre-Experimental Designs

designs:
1. Answer research questions
2. Control of extraneous variables
3. Generalizability
4. Internal and external validity
1. One-shot case study
2. One-group Pretest-Posttest
Design
3. Static Group Comparison/Posttest
only with Non-equivalent groups
4. Alternative Treatment Posttest
only with Non-equivalent Group
Design

Requirements B. Quasi-Experimental Designs

1. Intervention or manipulation 1. Non-equivalent (Pretest Post-test)
(treatment) Control
2. Control (groups and extraneous 2. Single-group interrupted time
variables) series design
3. Randomization (in selection and 3. Control-group interrupted time
assignment of subjects groups) series design

Main Types (Cresswell, 2019) C. True-Experimental Designs

A. Pre-experimental 1. Pretest-Posttest Control Group
B. Quasi-experimental Design
C. True-experimental 2. Posttest Only Control Group
D. Single-subject designs Design
 3. Solomon Four-group Design
4. Factorial Designs

Understanding Experimental Designs

Legend:
R – random selection
O1 – pretest
O – posttest
X – intervention

A. Pre-Experimental Design
1. One-shot Case Study
Procedure:
X O
2. One-group Pretest-Posttest Design
Procedure:
O1 X O2
3. Static Group Comparisons/posttest only with Non-equivalent Groups
Procedure:
X O2 (experimental group)
O2 (control group)

B. Quasi-Experimental Design
1. Non-equivalent controlled group design
Procedure:
O1 X O2 (experimental group)
O1 O2 (control group)
2. Single-group interrupted time series design – uses several waves of information
before and after the introduction of the independent variable (treatment) X.
 Procedure:
O1 O2 O3 O4 X O5 O6 O7 O8
Example:
A study design to test whether the implementation of a crackdown on speeding in a given state
reduces the traffic fatality rate in that state

T-4 T-3 T-2 T-1 X T+1 T+2 T+3 T+4

Fatality Fatality Fatality Fatality Crack- Fatality Fatality Fatality Fatality
Rate Rate Rate Rate down Rate Rate Rate Rate
(4 yrs. (3 yrs. (2 yrs. (1 year (1 year (2 yrs. (3 yrs. (4 yrs.
Before) Before) Before) Before) after) after) after) after)

3. Control-group interrupted time series design

Procedure:
State A O1 O2 O3 O4 X O5 O6 O7 O8 (experimental)
State B O1 O2 O3 O4 O5 O6 O7 O8 (control group)
Example:
A study designed to assess the effect of crackdown on drunk driving on automobile fatalities in
one state, compared to automobile fatalities in another state without similar crackdown.

State T-4 T-3 T-2 T-1 X T+1 T+2 T+3 T+4

Fatality Fatality Fatality Fatality Crack Fatality Fatality Fatality Fatality
A Rate Rate Rate Rate down Rate Rate Rate Rate

B Fatality Fatality Fatality Fatality - Fatality Fatality Fatality Fatality

Rate Rate Rate Rate Rate Rate Rate Rate

C. True-Experimental Design
1. Pretest-Posttest Controlled Group Design
Procedure:
R O1 X O2 (experimental group)
R O1 O2 (control group)
2. Posttest Only Control Group Design
Procedure:
R X O2 (experimental group)
 R O2 (control group)
3. Solomon Four Group Design
Procedure:
R O1 X O2 (experimental group 1)
R O1 O2 (control group 1)
R X O2 (experimental group 2)
R O2 (control group 2)
 INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL VALIDITY
There are some important things to consider when using experimental designs. Study
the following:
1. CONTROL of intervening or confounding or extraneous variables
- these are variables that may affect the dependent variable and therefore
threaten internal validity
2. INTERNAL VALIDITY
- “linking power of a study”
- the effect on the dependent variable is attribute to the intervention or
treatment (independent variable) alone
Threats:
1. Selection bias
2. Maturation
3. History
4. Instrumentation Change
5. Mortality
6. Testing

3. EXTERNAL VALIDITY
- the degree to which the conclusions in your study would hold for other
persons in other places and at other times
Threats:
1. Experimenter effect – the characteristics of the researcher
affect the behavior of the subjects or respondents
 2. Hawthorne effect – respondents respond artificially because
they know they are being observed
3. Measure Effect – subjects have been exposed to the treatment
through taking the pretest

NON-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
- seek to describe a phenomenon, explain relationships between variables or conditions of
a phenomenon, or predict outcomes on such relationships without any intervention or
manipulation of independent variables

Conventional classification/design types:

 exploratory studies descriptive design

 correlational design predictive studies
 causal-exploratory causal-explanatory
 Ex post facto survey designs
 Meta-analysis causal-comparative

Understanding Non-Experimental Designs

1. Survey Studies
- conducted through self-reports
- respondents usually report their attitudes, opinions, perceptions, or behaviors
- used to described the characteristics, opinions, attitudes, and behaviors of a
population
Surveys can be categorized according to:
1.1 Methods used in data collection:
a. telephone
b. text messages
c. snail mail
d. e-mail or other social media platforms like twitter, facebook, etc.
e. face-to-face interaction – still the best method due to its high retrieval
 1.2 Time orientation
a. retrospective
- dependent variable is identified in the present and an attempt is
made to determine the independent variable that occurred in the past
- “present to past”

b. cross-sectional
- data is collected a single point in time
- requires subjects at different points, phases, or stages of an
experience
c. Longitudinal
- “present to future”
- researcher collects data from the same people at different times
1.3 Purpose or objectives
a. descriptive
- used to portray the characteristics of a population
- used to develop theories, identify problems with a current
practice, justify current practices, aid in making professional
judgments etc.
b. comparative
- used to compare and contrast representative samples from two
Or more groups of subjects
c. correlational
- used to investigate the direction and magnitude of relationships
among variables in a particular population
d. evaluative
- involves making a judgment of worth or value
Example of a Research Design

This study is utilized a true experimental design or a pretest-posttest design

(Cristobal, 2009). In a pretest-posttest design, a pretest was given to students of
Algebra. Then, after the pretest, an intervention method was conducted. Polynomials
were taught using a computer program. After 10 hours of teaching, a posttest was
given to students.
 SAMPLING DESIGN
Different Probability Sampling Method
A. Probability Sampling – sampling design in which all members of the population are given
equal chance of being selected
1. Random sampling (“lottery method”)
- every single member of the population has an equal chance to get selected as a
respondent
- requires the researcher to name or number the entire population and select randomly
from them (in a bowl or hat)
- eliminates the bias and it represents the entire population

2. Stratified sampling
- the population is divided into different groups (strata) according to age, gender, or
educational qualifications
- take equal number of people to represent each of the groups
Example:
Study: Causes and Effects of Smoking among Senior High School Students
1st stratum – Public and Private Schools
2nd stratum – grade levels
3rd stratum - gender
3. Systematic sampling
- selecting every nth element of the population
a. determine sampling interval
- calculated by dividing population size by the desired sample size
b. choose starting point by randomly selecting it from the sampling ratio
c. fixed periodic interval until desired sample size is reached
Example:
Selecting a random group of 100 students from a population of 1,200 students at a
school

 Sampling interval (fraction)

1200/100 = 12
So, every twelfth (12th) student will be included in the sample
  Starting point
- chosen randomly
Example: by blindly picking 1 out of 12 pieces of paper, numbered 1 to 12;
If number 6 is picked, then the first respondent is # 6. So from the 6th student, every 12th
individual in the list will be included in the sample
So the participants are # - 6, 18, 30, 42, 54, 66, etc.
4. Cluster sampling
- used in large-scale studies in which the population is geographically spread out
Clusters:
Geographical units
- Districts
- Villages
Organizational units
- Clinics
- Training groups

Steps in cluster sampling:

1. The researcher randomly selects groups or clusters
2. The researcher selects the individual subjects from each cluster by either:
- simple random
- systematic random sampling
The researcher can even opt to include the entire cluster and not just a subset from it.
Example: A survey on academic performance of high school students in the
Philippines.
Steps:
1. Divide the entire population (population of Philippines) into different clusters
(cities).
2. The researcher selects a number of clusters depending on his research
through simple or systematic random sampling.
3. Then, from the selected clusters (randomly selected cities), the researcher can
either include all the high school students as subjects or he can select a number
of subjects from each cluster through simple or systematic random sampling.
Types of Cluster Sample:
1. One-stage Cluster Sample
- the researcher includes all the high school students from all the randomly selected
clusters as sample
2. Two-stage Cluster Sample
- the researcher only selects a number of students from each cluster by using
simple or systematic random sampling

Differences between cluster and stratified sampling

- lies with the inclusion of the cluster or strata
Stratified sampling
- all the strata of the population is sampled
Cluster sampling
- only a number of clusters are selected
- only a number of clusters are sampled

B. Non-Probability Sampling
- a sampling technique that does not give all the individuals in the population equal
chances of being selected
Subjects are selected based on their:
a. accessibility
b. by the purposive judgment of the researcher
Downside of non-probability sampling:
- unknown proportion of the entire population was not sampled
- may not represent the entire population accurately
Non-Probability Sampling Methods:
1. Convenience sampling/accidental/incidental
- samples are selected because they are accessible to the researcher
- samples are chosen because they are easy to recruit
- easiest, cheapest and least time consuming
2. Consecutive sampling
 - very similar to convenience sampling except:
- it includes ALL accessible subjects as part of the sample
- the LEAST BIASED of all non-probability samples
- it includes ALL subjects that are available
- makes the sample a better representation of the entire
population
3. Quota sampling
- the researcher ensures equal or proportionate representation of subjects depending
on which trait is considered as basis
Example: basis of quota: college year level
Sample size = 100
- The researcher must select 25 1st year students, 25 2nd
year students, 25 3rd year students and 25 4th year students.
Bases of quota:
usually:
- age
- gender
- race
- religion
- socioeconomic status

4. Judgmental sampling/purposive sampling

- subjects are chosen to be part of the sample
- with a specific purpose in mind
- the researcher believes that some subjects are more fit for the research compared
to other individuals
5. Snowball sampling
- usually done when there is a very small population size
- the researcher asks the initial subject
- to identify another potential subject who also meets the
criteria of the research
 DETERMINING THE SAMPLE SIZE

Terms:

Population – persons or objects that possess some common characteristics that are
of interest to the researcher
Sample – representative of the population
Element – a single member of the sample
Parameter – a numeric characteristic of a population
Statistic – a numeric characteristic of a sample

Factors to Consider in Determining the Sample Size

1. Homogeneity of the population
2. Degree of precision desired by the researcher
3. Types of sampling procedure
4. The Use of Formulas:

a. Slovin’s Formula
- used when there is limited information about the characteristics of the
population
- used in non-probability sampling procedure

Formula:

n = N/1+Ne2
where:
n - a sample size
N - population size
e - desired margin of error
b. Calmorin’s Formula
- used when the population is more than 100
- used in scientific sampling
Formula:

Ss = NV + [(Se)2 x (1-p)] / NSe + [V2 x p(1-p)]

Where:
Ss - sample size
N - population size
 V – standard value (2.58) of 1% level of probability with 0.99 reliability
Se – sampling
P – the largest possible proportion
Other Considerations:
1. Sample sizes as small as 30 are generally adequate to ensure that the sampling
distribution of the mean will approximate the normal curve (Shott, 1990).
2. A sample size of 30 for a total population equal or less than 100 is also
applicable. This is called universal sampling.
3. Other acceptable sizes for different types of research (Gay, 1976).
a. Descriptive research – 10%-20% may be required
b. Correlational research – 30 subjects or responents
c. Comparative research – 15 subjects/group
d. Experimental design – 15-30 subjects per group

Sample Research Respondents (Note: This section includes the sampling design utilized.)

The researcher chose the 4th year college students of Saint Paul School of
Professional studies taking up Bachelor of Science in Accountancy as the
respondents of this study. This was practical to the researcher since he belonged to
this class, would have no difficulty in talking with his classmates, and would save
time, energy, money and efforts.
This fourth year Batch Siklab had a total population of 400. It was large;
thus, the sampling method was applied to come up with an acceptable number of
samples. The researcher used the Slovin’s formula (N/1+Ne) with a desired margin
of error of .05 and arrived at a sample size of 200. To choose the final 200 samples,
simple random sampling was applied to give all elements a chance to be included in
the sample.
All students in each block of Batch Siklab during the sampling was equally
given a chance since their names was put in a fish bowl. Then, the 200 students
picked up comprised the respondents.
  INSTRUMENT DEVELOPMENT

1. Documentary analysis – used to analyze primary and secondary sources e.g. in

churches, schools, public or private offices, hospitals or in community, muncipal and city
halls

3.
2. Interview
a. uses interview schedule
b. focus group discussions
c. life histories
d. other materials include audiotapes, videotapes, cell phones or smartphones

Three Types of Interviews

a. Unstructured – free-wheeling exchange of ideas
b. Structured – The interviewer does not ask questions that are not part of the
questionnaire, but he can ask the interviewee to clarify his answers.
c. semi-structured – There is specific set of questions, but there are additional
probes

3. Observation
- uses observation guide or observation checklist

Two types:
a. structured – involves the use of checklist
b. unstructured – observe things as they happen
4. Physiological Measures
- e.g. thermometer, sthethoscope, weighing scale, pH meter etc.

5. Psychological Tests
a. personality inventories – ex. Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)
and the Edwards Personal Preference Schedule (EPPS)
b. projective techniques – ex. Rorshach Inkblot Test and Thematic Apperception
Test

6. Questionnaire
a. structured
b. unstructured – open-ended questions

TYPES OF QUESTIONS
a. Yes or No Type.

Ex: Do caregivers have the right to refuse calls? ( ) Yes ( ) No

Do senior high school students come to class early? ( ) Yes ( ) No
 b. Recognition Type
Ex:
Specialization in Technical-Vocational Track
___ Home Economics ___ Information Comm. Technology
___ Agriculture ___ Automotive
___ Welding ___ Electricity
___ Hair Culture ___ others; please specify _____
Educational Qualifications
___ Elementary Graduate ___ College Graduate
___ High school Graduate ___ MA/PhD
___ Technical Graduate ___ others; please specify _____
c. Completion Type

Ex: When I see a misbehaving students, I will, as a teacher,

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________.

In order to pass my failing subjects, will _______________________ regularly.

d. Coding Type – numbers are assigned to names, choices and other pertinent data

Ex: On a scale of one (1) to ten (10), how will you rate the skills of your manager?

e. Subjective type.
Ex: What can you say about the teachers who are deeply committed to their work?
Will senior high school students be allowed to change their specialization?

f. Combination type – combination of two or more types of questions

Scales Commonly Used in an Instrument

1. Likert scale
Ex: Likert scale to measure attitudes towards Mathematics

ITEMS
1. I am interesting solving numbers and questions. SA A D SD
2. I enjoy using calculators.
3. I am so engrossed in reading too many instructions
4. Symbols and numbers are visibly catchy.
5. I find it easy to memorize formulas.
 2. Semantic Differential Scale – respondents rate concepts in a series of bipolar
adjectives
Ex: Description of the class president
Competent 5 4 3 2 1 Incompetent
Punctual 5 4 3 2 1 Not punctual
Pleasesant 5 4 3 2 1 Unpleasant

WORDINGS OF QUESTIONS
1. State questions in an AFFIRMATION rather than in a negative manner.
2. Avoid AMBIGUOUS questions
3. Avoid DOUBLE NEGATIVES (e.g. Don’t you disagree ...? Aren’t failing students be
not hindered...?)
4. Avoid DOUBLE-BARRELED questions (i.e. asking two questions in one questions)
Ex: Will you be happy joining the Division Quiz, Bee and be given additional
examination afterwards?

Do you want to run for the Student Council and aim to be valedictorian?
GUIDE QUESTIONS IN CREATING RESEARCH QUESTIONNAIRES
1. Is the questionnaire valid? In other words, is the questionnaire measuring what it
intended to measure?
2. Does it represent the content?
3. Is it appropriate for the sample/population?
4. Is the questionnaire comprehensive enough to collect all the information needed to
address the purpose and goals of the study?
5. Does the instrument look like a questionnaire?
6. Does the questionnaire exhibit reliability?

 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF THE INSTRUMENT

Validity – is the ability of an instrument to measure what it intends to measure.
Types of Validity:
1. Face validity or logical validity – pertains to the scaling e.g. size of the font or
typeface, spacing, size of the paper used etc.
2. Content validity- ‘Does the questionnaire measure what is intented to measure?’
3. Construct validity – refers to whether the test corresponds to its theoretical
construct
4. Criterion-related validity or equivalence test – an expression of how scores from
the test are correlated with an external criterion
a. Concurrent
b. Predictive
 Reliability – refers to the consistency of results. A reliable instrument yields the same
results for individuals who take the test more than once.
Ex: A lady who is monitoring her weight uses a weighing scale. Early in the morning, her
weight is 65 lbs; in the afternoon it is 68 lbs; and it is 70 lbs in the evening. In this case,
the weighing scale is not reliable since it yields different results.

METHODS IN ESTABLISHING RELIABILITY

1. Test-rest or Stability Test. The same test is given to a group of respondents twice
within a given period of time. Then, the two sets of scores are correlated.

Cronbach’s Alpha

- NOTE: The closer Cronbach’s alpha coefficient is to 1.0, the greather

the reliability of the items in the scale.
George and Mallery’s Rule of Thumb
- >.9 = excellent
- > .8 = Good
- >.7 = Acceptable
- >.6 = Questionable
- >.5 = Poor
- >.4 = Unacceptable
This can be done in Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS)
2. Split-half
- An example of a single-administration method
- This means that a test is given only once to the respondents.
Steps:
a. Administering a test to a selected sample of respondents
b. Splitting the test in half (odds and evens)
c. Correlating scores on one half of the test with scores
on the other half the test
PLANNING THE DATA COLLECTION
The following should be considered in the data collection:
1. Transmittal Letters
2. Costs
3. Timeline for Data Collection
4. Miscellaneous – e.g. equipment for data collection
Establishing the Validity and Reliability of an Instrument Example

Data gathering employed two sets of survey questionnaires for the students and for
the teachers. These sets developed by the researcher with the approval of the
advisory committee. Pre-testing was done to improve the survey-questionnaire for
the students at the Doña Juana Chico National High School and for the teachers at
the Rizal National High School. These students and teachers did not serve as
respondents of the study.
The results of the pre-test were analyzed to ensure clarity and to determine
whether they could yield data needed for the study. The pre-test results showed a
Cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficient of 0.923 indicating a good reliability of the
instrument. As a rule, Cronbach’s alpha must be at least 0.80 to be considered
reliable.