AP 59 98 Cities For Tomorrow PDF Kit PDF

A recommendation...
Tony Wilson, John Campbell,

Austroads Chairman and General President, Australian Local Government
Manager Policy And Planning, Tasmanian Association
Department of Infrastructure, Energy &
Resources Local Government faces an
enormous challenge in ensur-
Austroads, as an association ing the living and travel needs
of road transport and traffic of the people it represents
agencies, is committed to a are balanced with the long-
safe and sustainable future term care of the environment
for all Australians. That is why in which they live. ‘Cities for
it worked with experts from Tomorrow’ provides a frame-
other fields to produce this Guide. Planning prac- work within which to seek such a balance. I
titioners of all types and at all levels will find this believe this Guide is an essential reference tool
Guide a valuable tool to planning the future of for Local Government and the broader communi-
our cities in an integrated manner. I commend it ty alike.
to you and encourage you to join us in making
Australia’s urban landscape safer and better for
all.
Cities for Tomorrow

Testimonials
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CITIES FOR
TOMORROW
Integrating Land Use, Transport and the Environment
Commissioned by AUSTROADS as a contribution to integrated planning
Hans L Westerman AM
Professor Emeritus of Town Planning
Westerman Consultants Pty Ltd
1998
Better Practice Guide

Cities for Tomorrow Better Practice Guide
First published 1998 Mr Brett Hughes: Manager Road, Development, Main Roads Western
©Austroads Incorporated 1998 Australia
Mr Leigh Palmer: Senior Manager, ACT Infrastructure Management,
This work is copyright. Apart from any use as permitted under the Copyright Department of Urban Services, ACT
Act 1968, no part may be reproduced for any process without prior permission Mr Neville Potter: Assistant Secretary, Roads Branch, Land Transport Policy
from Austroads. Requests and inquiries concerning reproduction and rights Division, Commonwealth Department of Transport & Regional Development
should be addressed to the Executive Director, Austroads, PO Box K659, Mr Andrew Rooney: Co-ordinator Transport (Policy and Strategy), Department
Haymarket, NSW 2000 of Transport, Urban Planning and the Arts, South Australia
Mr Ken Russell: Manager: Highway and Network Strategies, Vic Roads,
AP-57/98 Victoria
Mr Steve Stewart: State Highway Policy Manager, Transit New Zealand
ISBN 0 85588 504 1
DISCLAIMER
Front cover designed by Simon Palmer Cities for Tomorrow - Integrating Land Use, Transport and the Environment;
Text and diagrams produced by Hans L Westerman AM, FRAPI, MIEAust, Better Practice Guide and the Resource Document are prepared by an
Professor Emeritus of Town Planning independent consultant. They should not be construed as representing any
government policy, advocating particular positions, nor reflecting the views of
Printed by Bookcraft Printing Company Pty Ltd Austroads or its member organizations.
Published by Austroads Incorporated
AUSTROADS ROAD SYSTEM MANAGEMENT PROGRAM
Project Management Team
Mr Allan Krosch: Executive Director (Roads), Department of Main Roads,

Queensland
Mr Graham Taylor: Senior Advisor (National Practice), Department of Main
Roads, Queensland
Mr Alex Pelevin: Senior Advisor (National Practice), Department of Main
Roads, Queensland
Mr Jason Day, Communications Manager, Austroads
ADVISORY GROUP MEMBERS
Mr Graham Callaghan: Chief Engineer/Australian Local Government

Association Representative, Waggamba Council
Mr Raeburn Chapman: Manager, Network Strategy, NSW Roads and Traffic
Authority
Mr Ian Gibbs: Manager: Planning and Development, Department of Transport,
Tasmania
Mr Ken Hornsby: Assistant Secretary, Major Projects & Services, Department
of Transport and Works, Northern Territory

Preface
In 1997, Austroads published a major work entitled ‘Roads in the I have been assisted in the oversight of the work by the members
Community’. This work highlights the broad view being taken by of the Advisory Panel of the Road System Management
Austroads and the importance it places on the important inter- Program. I wish to thank them for their contribution.
relationships between roads and land use and other modes of
transport. This report does not represent Austroads’ policy. Nor is it written
to fit within any par ticular land-use-planning/legislative
‘Cities for Tomorrow’ continues this stance. In this project, framework; because clearly such frameworks vary between
Austroads has sponsored a major piece of work which provides Austroads’ member jurisdictions and over time.
guidance and resource material to assist practitioners in the
integration of planning for land use, transpor t and the It is the aspiration of the Austroads RSM Program that
environment. practitioners throughout Australia, involved in the planning for
land use and transport, will take the ideas from ‘Cities for
The objective of this project has been an ambitious one; none Tomorrow’ which are suited to their circumstances, and apply
less than to contribute to an improvement in the standard of them as appropriate.
practice in planning our ‘Cities for Tomorrow’. Of course there
has been a realisation that such a lift in the standard of planning It is also hoped that this work will form part of the education of a
practice will require the active support of many people beyond future generation of professionals who will be involved in shaping
those who work under the auspices of the Austroads member our ‘Cities for Tomorrow’.
authorities.
It will be Austroads’ best expectation that this work is found
This project has been a centrepiece of the Road System valuable in practice, and helps to shape ‘Cities for Tomorrow’ that
Management Program for several years. It has drawn on the better meet the needs of their citizens. And if that should cause
best modern planning practice in Australia and overseas. It has a constituency wider than Austroads alone, to wish to further
involved two separate rounds of consultation workshops, develop and update this work through time, to make it of greater
throughout Australia and New Zealand on each occasion. value, then Austroads will be well pleased.
The project has been undertaken by Professor Emeritus Hans Allan Krosch
Westerman, and has been a work of enormous devotion and Program Manager
persistence on his part. Austroads has not sought to constrain Road System Management Program
him in the choice and presentation of material that he has made.

Acknowledgments
The development of the Better Practice Guide was assisted by Notwithstanding these contributions, the author carries the sole
many people. responsibility for the selection and interpretation of the material
and the views expressed.
Dr Richard Kirwan contributed Tools R-9 (with additional material
from Peter Cummings of the Brisbane City Council), L-14 and C-
9; Bruce Masson L-7; Ray Brindle provided the material for C-6;
Professor Michael Taylor for C-10, and Elizabeth Ampt R-15.
Constructive criticism and comment on the first draft was given at
a series of workshops in Australia and New Zealand during
August 1997 and attended by some 200 engineers, planners and
others involved in urban development.
A considerable amount of useful material was provided during an

overseas visit in late 1996 to Portland, Oregon, the UK and the
Netherlands. Dr Shiran, a doctoral student in integrated land use
and transport planning at the School of Civil Engineering, UNSW,
assisted with a literature search.
Bruce Sinclair AM, consultant and Carolyn Stone, PPM

Consultants in Sydney, acted in a role of friends in court. Their
perceptive critique led to significant changes in the approach and
content of the document Their contribution is gratefully
acknowledged. However, their association should not be
interpreted as an endorsement of everything that is contained in
the Guide.
The active interest and encouragement of the Advisory Panel

and the detailed comments on the draft were of substantial
assistance. Special thanks are expressed to Allan Krosch,
Program Manager, whose superb management led to a
constructive partnership, and Graham Taylor, Project Manager,
for his efficient support.

Foreword
The Better Practice Guide brings together ideas and applications The Guide provides special ‘tools’. The notion of tools - although
of practical value to those who, like me, are searching for better a fashionable term - may give the impression of a backyard
ways of managing cities and towns. handyman at work. The tools are a convenient shorthand for
principles, approaches and techniques. Some tools appear
Integrated planning cannot be achieved by following a recipe. similar, yet they vary according to intent. We expect that the
The Guide, unlike other guidelines, does not advocate a Guide will be used as a reference, and not as a text to be studied
particular position nor does it tell people interested in integrated from beginning to end. In order to make it easier to use, yet
approaches how to do it. It is a process of thinking and working ensure integration between tools, cross references are provided
beyond traditional confines set by institutional and professional and there will, inevitably, be some duplication.
boundaries. How this is done depends on local conditions and
the purpose of the Guide is to assist practitioners with this Integration is as much about outcomes as it is about processes.
process. There are key steps towards achieving greater integration, and
the reader is encouraged to look at the Overview (Part A). If the
The issues involved touch the essence of planning as a holistic reader is left with sufficient stamina, it may be helpful to get the
activity. Cities have always been complex and today, more than essence of Part B, Chapters 1 and 2, before getting lost in the
ever, there is a need to plan in a holistic way. There are toolbox.
principles, strategies, policies, and guidelines to achieve the
outcomes, which appear in our vision statements and goals. Clearly, it is not practical to include all aspects in one document
However, there also are barriers and the Guide tries to lower dealing with such complex issues. The selection brings together
them. those key elements which are considered important in planning
Cities for Tomorrow. The Guide is not pie in the sky. It is based
In developing a structure which is conceptually sound and on extensive practical experience and nothing in the Guide is
operationally useful, the hierarchical distinction between regional beyond reach.
and local responsibilities was obvious. However, this left a critical
area untouched: the notion of corridors comprising transport Hans L Westerman AM
routes and their associated land use and environment. The February 1999
Guide, therefore, adds a third area of application: corridors,
comprising transport routes and their environment.

Glossary of terms Impact - the effects of transport and traffic on adjoining land use and
quality of the environment
Internal stakeholders - those agencies with a responsibility for, or a

Access management - the process of controlling the interface role in, policy formulation and implementation.
between a traffic carriageway and the adjacent land, to provide
for adequate interaction between them, while protecting the utility Key regional centres - centres with a significant employment and
and amenity of both. commercial function, attracting a large number of visitors and
served by high-quality public transport and road access.
Accessibility profile- an account of a location’s proximity to public
transport, its accessibility to major roads, and its parking facilities Mobility profile - expresses the characteristics of businesses and
or limitations. The accessibility profile of a location is determined services in respect of their transport needs.
both by its infrastructure and by policies regarding the use of the
Precincts - areas with a cohesion and quality which allow activities
infrastructure (e.g. parking pricing policies).
within them to function in an environment which has an intrinsic
Core/frame - the core represents the area of greatest pedestrian amenity and unifying quality. Precincts may be residential areas,
activity in a centre; the frame is the area surrounding the core commercial centres, campuses, institutions and many other land-
where there is a direct association with the core but a greater use associations.
vehicle orientation.
Traffic calming - the process of developing and implementing an
Corridors - comprises transport routes and the adjoining land and acceptable relationship between traffic and the local
development. environment, and setting priorities for different road and street
users.
Environmental traffic capacity - the limit to the impact of traffic (and,
by implication, the amount of traffic, the type and speed of Transit centres - centres built around, and integrated with, a station or
vehicles, and the behaviour of drivers) that is compatible with the major public transport node, comprising a mix of land uses with a
types and levels of environmental criteria appropriate for a given significant residential component.
type of area.
Type I corridors - primary transport routes and their environments,
External stakeholders - groups and individuals who are affected by where the through- transport function is dominant and adjoining
the outcome of proposals as users or as owners, occupiers and areas are planned, designed and managed to reduce or
community groups. eliminate friction and impact.
Friction - impedance to the transport function of the road; attributed to Type II corridors - secondary transport routes and their environments,
frontage-related activities or to road design and management. where both the transport function and frontage function are
important.

Part A
OVERVIEW
CONTENT
1
2
Purpose of this overview
A focus on integration
Overview
3 What is the Guide?
4 Issues and interactions
5 Tools and areas of application
6 Opportunities and constraints
7 Processes
8 Some possible outcomes
9 How is the Guide structured?
10 How to Use the Guide

1 Purpose of this overview The short answer is that today there is an expectation of better
outcomes and for better results. This is not just a view held by
professional people, but it is also apparent in the comments
This overview (Part A) explains in simple terms what ‘Cities for made by people in business and the community.
Tomorrow’ aims to achieve.
For example:
• Why focus on integration?
• Community expectations appear to differ from what
• Why do we need a Guide; who is it for and what does it planners are able to deliver.
cover?
• There is no community consensus about what outcomes
• Which aspects require integration? should be achieved.
• Which tools are available? • Transport authorities are under pressure from those who
question the need for more roads and those who complain
• What are the opportunities and constraints? about congestion and delay.
• Which processes should be used? • Local authorities are caught up in the pressure between
development and conservation.
• Which outcomes are sought?
• Responsibilities are unclear or divided between agencies
• How is the Guide structured? at the same level of government and between different
spheres of government.
• How should it be used?
• Agencies pursue their own projects without the benefit of
a whole-of-government view - if there is one!
2 A focus on integration
• Roles of the public and private sectors are changing in
WHY FOCUS ON INTEGRATION?
relation to development, but in what direction?
The planning of regions, cities and towns has always been a
• Government funding is more stringent , yet citizens want
process of integrating land use, transport and the environment.
more quality in their cities.
Why, then, is there a need for a Guide with a focus on
integration?

• Urban management has become more complex, yet the • between government and the community; and
demands for better performance have increased.
• between different professional disciplines.
Integration is about outcomes and processes. Very little analysis
is needed to demonstrate that we need, and deser ve, Experience shows that the best results are obtained when
substantially better outcomes and processes than have generally stakeholders participate in determining what is to be achieved,
been achieved in the planning of our cities over recent years. and how different interests can be reconciled. In developments,
where outcomes are adverse or less than optimal, it is almost
universally true that there has been an absence of co-operation,
WHAT DOES GREATER INTEGRATION MEAN? lack of recognition or respect for the objectives and agendas of
other players.
‘Integration’ implies a concern with the whole; agreement on the
kind of outcomes we wish to achieve; having the means of The value systems of people, groups and institutions pervade
achieving them; and a collective commitment to make it happen. everything we do and they largely set the context for integrated
Integration, therefore, is more than co-ordination, which still approaches. Perceptions and behaviour can be changed, but it
allows different outcomes to be pursued. requires significant advances in understanding and acceptance
of a need for change. Proposals involving a shift in behaviour
Integration centres on ‘corporate’ outcomes, not only for the are unlikely to succeed, unless alternatives have been explored
whole of government, but also for urban regions or local areas as with the stakeholders, and the consequences are understood
a whole. Integration involves both public and private sectors, the and accepted.
relationships between different spheres of government, and
between organisations and the community. Market forces are an indication of current preferences and are
a powerful influence in the development of cities and towns.
There is a need for integration: They can be influenced if necessary, yet should never be
ignored. However, the market is not aware of all the costs.
• between land use, transport and the environment; Integrated planning must address the relationship between
market behaviour and the public interest, so that all benefits
• in the use of physical, human, economic and financial and costs are accounted for.
resources;
• between the public and private sectors;
• between different levels of government;
• between institutions and agencies;

3 What is the Guide? AIMS
The aims of the Guide are to:

WHY A GUIDE?
• encourage organisations and professionals to consider
Why do we need a Better Practice Guide and what are its issues within a broader perspective;
objectives?
• improve awareness of the relationships between transport,
Integration is a way of thinking about issues, problems and land use and the environment;
solutions in an encompassing contextual framework. It is also
a way of doing things by involving the relevant public agencies • assist users in establishing integrated approaches towards
and the private sector to work towards common goals. issues and solutions;
The aim of the Guide is to encourage and assist practitioners • provide a framework and guidelines for the management
and decision makers to think, plan and work within a larger of planning and development processes;
framework. Although we work for different agencies and in
different professions, the decisions we make should be made in • provide a basis for improved co-ordination between
a holistic context and not in isolation. different government agencies, the private sector,
stakeholders and the community; and
There are guidelines on a wide range of topics. Integration is
more than bringing them together. It addresses the whole, which • provide a range of strategies and ‘tools’ for guidance in
is always greater than the sum of the parts. The Guide provides a achieving desired outcomes.
framework for relating guidelines on separate topics and for
identifying where further specific guidelines may be needed. The Guide does not recommend any particular strategies,
because they must be developed in a specific context. It
presents ideas and processes which users may want to consider.
Ideas presented in this Guide may seem controversial to some,
while appearing to others as not going far enough. Many
principles are already being applied, but there is additional
material, which may be useful.
There is much at stake in the planning of cities for tomorrow. We

have inherited a land-use, transport and environment system
which will require adaptation and change. The land-use and
Figure A-1 Integration requires a broad approach transport decisions we make today - good as well as bad - will

have great impact on lifestyle, to the benefit or cost of future In addition, there is material in the Guide which will be of interest
generations. It is hoped that the Guide will contribute to the to:
making of better decisions.
• stakeholders, communities, special interest and focus
SCOPE groups;
The Guide primarily deals with urban regions and towns, but • elected representatives who seek to increase their
some of the concepts and applications are also of relevance and understanding of the role of planning;
interest to rural communities. It does not include sea and air
transport. • members of the community involved in, or concerned
The Guide: about, the process and results arising from urban
development; and
• is a compendium of information, processes, ideas and
tools aimed at achieving better practice; • developers and investors in urban development.
• recognises the need to understand community values, as WHAT THE GUIDE IS NOT
well as the economic, social, financial, legal, equity and
urban design context; and The Guide is NOT:
• provides criteria as a basis for assessing past actions and • a policy or management document;
developments, and for achieving better practice in the
future. • a Code or Manual of Practice, as this would imply
mandatory practice and processes, which would clearly
WHO SHOULD USE IT? not be appropriate in such a diverse field; or
The Guide is intended for use by: • a textbook, treatise or research monograph, although it
could well have a side-benefit for students of the planning
• government agencies involved in land-use and transport and development process.
planning at all levels;
WHAT VALUES DOES IT REFLECT?
• transport, planning and design professionals in
government and private practice; and The Guide is based on the premise that greater integration is
necessary to achieve better outcomes. It does not advocate
• educational institutions involved in the development of particular outcomes, because they must be determined by the
professional skills in urban planning and management. users in consultation with the stakeholders. The Guide shows

how that can be done. makers to make the right decisions for the right reasons. It
provides information and ideas, and leaves it to the user to
However, it is impossible to compile a document which is ‘value interpret and apply them as appropriate. Its status will follow from
free’. Judgments are implicit in the selection of the tools, the the contribution it makes in specific situations.
examples and treatment of the tools. Much of this judgment is
based on extensive practical experience, and supplemented by
literature study, observation and discussions with professional
colleagues in Australia, New Zealand and overseas.
The value system on which these judgements are based is

encapsulated by four goals:
• sustainability - in a broad sense - in ecological, human

and economic terms;
• quality in urban living;
• efficiency and cost-effectiveness; and
• equity.
These goals need interpretation, and there will be differences of

view about the interpretation given in the Guide. However, the Figure A-2 Greater attention should be given to transport routes
author believes that the processes, ideas and tools can equally as corridors, in which adjoining development and the needs of
be applied against other value systems, and this is encouraged. different road users are recognised. Beamish Street, Campsie,
Sydney is a busy sub-arterial road,which has been adapted.
WHAT STATUS DOES THE GUIDE HAVE?
Austroads commissioned the preparation and publication of the

Guide as a contribution to the achievement of better outcomes in
land-use, transport and environmental planning. The Guide does
not necessarily reflect the views or policies of Austroads
members.
The Guide is designed to assist practitioners and decision

4 Issues and interactions networks (including bus routes and cycleways), interchanges,
commuter parking, road safety, pedestrian-friendly centres, traffic
noise, mixed use zoning, neighbourhood design.
ISSUES ADDRESSED
MICRO ISSUES (related to small local areas)
There are many issues which can best be addressed by
integrated approaches. For convenience, these issues can be Key words: traffic noise, air quality, road safety, traffic calming
grouped under ‘macro’, ‘meso’ and ‘micro’ headings (although and vehicle speed, environmental capacity, community
some may occur under more than one heading). severance, parking, site access, property values, streetscape,
building siting and design.
MACRO ISSUES (affecting the entire region)
While individual agencies are addressing many of these issues,
Key words: sustainable cities, greenhouse emissions and air they often only address them as single issues or projects.
quality, energy, urban form and structure, densities, activity and The probability of achieving better integration is enhanced,
accessibility, multi-use centres, transport mode, regional parking, if such issues are addressed collectively. Experience suggests
freight transpor t, primary network development, transport that an integrated approach works best, if it recognises the
corridors, travel demand management, congestion management hierarchical structure of responsibility and decision-making. In
and transport pricing. some countries, integrated planning takes place at the national
level and this then provides a basis for integrated planning at
regional levels. This is not presently the case in Australia and to a
limited extent (i.e. protection of the environment) in New Zealand.
Therefore, an initial focus on integration at regional and local
levels is of the most practical value.
There are no strict boundaries between ‘regional’ and ‘local’

matters. It is important to identify which sphere of government
has primacy in relation to a particular issue, and to concentrate
on achieving the best outcome at that particular level.
There is a need for a third level requiring integrated approaches,

namely transport corridors. Transport corridors are linear and
MESO ISSUES (related to urban districts and country towns) may be of regional as well as local significance. Therefore,
greater integration is required between transport, land use and
Key words: transport mode and route choice, urban villages, the environment at both levels.
precincts and environmental protection, district and local

Accordingly, the Guide identifies three broad areas of application Networks, transport modes and transport space
for integrated approaches, with different types of responsibility:
Transpor t space is a scarce resource and is becoming
• regional level; increaingly scarcer. Continuing growth in traffic is creating
congestion and delay. Building more roads may bring local and
• local level; and temporary relief, but is costly, often shifts problems elsewhere
and may increase car dependence. In this context, it is of interest
• transport corridors. to note that there is at present an embargo on creating new
major urban roads in the United Kingdom. Providing better public
Some planning and development proposals will occur in transport is a factor, which will assist if it serves the needs of
situations where there is no clear regional, local or corridor prospective users.
‘playing field’. A combination of regional, local and corridor issues
may pertain to such proposals (see ‘Section 5: Tools and areas of A central issue is how the available transport space should be
application). allocated to different transport modes, such as freight, private car
travel, public transport, cycling and walking. Some transport
INTERACTIONS modes are compatible, others are not, and there may be different
priorities in different locations and at different times.
There are three interactions which are of particular significance:
Transport and the environment
The relationship between accessibility and activity
Traffic is the outcome of land-use/transport interaction. The
Land-use activities produce and attract trips. These trips are relationship between traffic and the environment is under close
distributed over the transport network depending on available scrutiny. In the seventies, an understanding of this relationship
choices in transport mode and route, distance, time and cost of led to the need to protect local communities from the intrusion of
travel. The characteristics and density of the population, the nature through traffic and high vehicle speeds. Traffic calming measures
and distribution of employment, and the location of activities all have were introduced. In the eighties, there was recognition that the
a bearing on the use of the transport system. The transport system impact of road proposals on the environment should be
influences decisions on the location and kind of land-use activities. assessed and mitigated. ‘Sustainable development’ is the
watchword of the nineties (and probably beyond). Now there is
To achieve greater integration, the location of land-use activities and concern about air and noise emissions, energy consumption,
the development of the transport networks should not be planned exposure to risk and many other environmental factors.
independently. There is scope for considerable improvement in this The achievement of greater integration requires much more than
regard. It is particularly relevant to reduce car dependence and environmental impact statements. There is a need to look at
move from ‘auto accessibility’ to ‘people accessibility’. treating causes, rather than just effects. Travel demand
management, ‘green cars’, mode choice, transport pricing,

creating areas for people protected from traffic are all matters
appearing on the agenda today.
5 Tools and areas of application
WHY ‘TOOLS’?
The ‘tools’ in the Guide are to be used in achieving the objectives

and desired outcomes established during the planning process.
They represent planning principles, approaches and techniques.
Tools are related to the interaction between
• land use and transport, such as ‘The right activity in the

right location’;
• networks, modes and the utilisation of the road space,

such as
‘The right transport task on the right mode’; and
• transport and the environment, such as ‘Traffic calming’.
AREAS OF APPLICATION
The tools developed for the Guide can generally be related

to a prime purpose for use in one of the following areas of
application:
• Regional;
• Local;
Figure A-3 Relationships between transport
and the environment • Corridor; and
• Multiple areas of application.

It should not be assumed that there is a distinct boundary Tools and combinations of tools need to be selected, which relate
between these areas for applying the tools. Indeed, some tools to the objectives and desired outcomes of the project in hand.
are relevant across the board. They may, for example, include:
An indication how the tools can be used in these areas of • Tools designed to encourage ‘the right type of activity in
application is given in the next three pages. A list of the tools, the right place’. An example is locating activities with a
with an indication of their intent, is set out in Tables A-1 to A-3. high level of employment and visitors in areas with good
Their particular uses are described in Part C of the Guide. access to public transport;
PLANNING FOR REGIONAL OUTCOMES • Tools, which focus on major elements of urban structure,
growth corridors and major centres, such as integrated
Integrated planning in a regional context almost always involves development areas, multi-purpose activity centres, and
the interests of local government and regional transportation key regional and transit centres;
agencies, as well as those of the regional planning authority. It is
therefore important that the sequence of Steps set out in Part B • Tools intended to integrate the planning of transport
of the Guide is followed, to set the scene for favourable networks and land use at the regional level, particularly
outcomes. those related to public, private and freight transport;
• Tools related to regional development, such as urban
containment and density, urban structure, and
conservation of environmental assets of regional
significance; and
• Tools for making the most effective use of transport

Transport Planning
systems, such as demand and congestion management,

transport pricing and tolls, parking policies and travel
blending.
Land-use and environmental planning
Figure A-4 Regional focus

• Choice in transport mode;
TOPIC
• Access to public transport;
R-1 Urban structure and form
R-2 Urban density • Precincts for environmental protection and enhancement;
R-3 The right activity in the right location
R-4 A hierarchy of multi-purpose centres • Pedestrian-friendly and safe environments, and centres
R-5 Key regional and transit centres containing mutually supporting activities; and
R-6 Public transport and land use
R-7 Freight movement and land use • Transport corridors and facilities which enhance, rather
R-8 Road systems and land use than detract from, the local environment.
R-9 Integrated development areas
R-10 Integrating investment
R-11 Air quality and traffic noise
R-12 Regional parking policies
R-13 Travel demand management
R-14 Commuter planning
R-15 Travel blending
Transport Planning
R-16 Keeping options open
Table A-1 Predominantly regional tools

(some also apply elsewhere)
PLANNING FOR LOCAL OUTCOMES
An integrated approach to Local Planning addresses issues Land-use and environmental planning
such as:
• Local urban structure with opportunities for more Figure A-5 Local focus
sustainable development;
• Integration between local land use and transport to

maximise accessibility;

Planning for corridors involves:
TOPIC
• Roads and their environments being planned, designed,
L-1 Activity/accessibility zoning developed and managed as integrated facilities, with
L-2 Transit-friendly land use provision for more than one transport mode;
L-3 Increasing choices in transport
L-4 Increasing choices in land use • Recognition of the relationship between the corridor and
L-5 Cycle networks and land use the adjoining communities, land uses, built form, amenity
L-6 Pedestrians and land use and environment;
L-7 Parking standards and management
L-8 Corridors and precincts • Planning for integration of development controls and traffic
L-9 Centres as precincts management; and
L-10 Residential precincts
L-11 Traffic calming • Consideration of traffic on safety of pedestrians and
L-12 Safety cyclists, parking, local businesses and activities, and
L-13 Visibility environmental assets.
L-14 Incentives and contributions
L-15 Performance-based development control
Table A-2 Predominantly local tools

Transport Planning
PLANNING FOR CORRIDORS
Corridors are defined as transport routes and their associated

environments. This association is important and needs to be
clearly recognised. In the context of this Guide the references
relate mainly to road corridors including associated public
transport (buses and/or light rail). Similar principles apply to any
public transport facility (buses, light or heavy rail) in an exclusive
right-of-way.
Figure A-6 Corridor focus

• Network strategy. This may include regional and corridor
TOPIC levels, or local and corridor levels;
C-1 Corridor categorisation • Development of regional centres, where there are regional
C-2 Planning new Type I corridors and local dimensions;
C-3 Planning new Type II corridors
C-4 Adapting Type I corridors • Country centres with local and corridor dimensions;
C-5 Adapting Type II corridors
C-6 Access to roads • Inner suburbs (see the example in Part B, Chapter 2,
C-7 The right transport task on the right mode Section 2: Local planning);
C-8 Congestion management
C-9 Transport pricing and tolls • A housing strategy with policy aspects at regional level,
C-10 Intelligent Transport Systems and detailed planning at local levels; and
C-11 Reducing noise exposure through design
C-12 Maintaining community cohesion • Urban villages, where there are regional location issues
C-13 Visual enhancement and local planning and design issues.
C-14 Urban corridor management
C-15 Rural corridor management Figure A-7 gives an example of the selection of tools for the
C-16 Roadside services integrated planning of a regional centre.
Section B of the Guide provides further examples of the selection
of tools appropriate to situations involving regional,
Table A-3 Predominantly corridor tools local and corridor considerations.
PLANNING FOR OUTCOMES AT SEVERAL LEVELS
Situations occur where there is no clear regional, local or corridor

‘playing field’, but a combination of some or all of them.
Examples include:
• A greenhouse or air quality strategy, which involves many

aspects of planning;

6 Opportunities and constraints
FACTORS AFFECTING THE ACHIEVEMENT
OF INTEGRATION
While examples of successful integration exist, there is

considerable scope for greater integration. Why has so little been
achieved?
The short answer is that there is often a gap between what we

wish to achieve and what we are able to deliver. It has become
fashionable to produce high-sounding mission and vision
statements. They can serve as a rallying cry, but are of little avail
if the troops and armoury are inadequate and the command
structure confused with an abundance of generals. All these
areas of potential failure exist in efforts towards more integrated
planning. Some of the critical issues in achieving greater
integration centre around roles and responsibilities, awareness of
the tools available, and expertise in using them.
There is also much that can be done to achieve greater

integration. Opportunities range from changes in perception and
behaviour of people and organisations, the priorities of
government and the electorate, and leadership.
Roles of different organisations
The difference between conventional and integrated planning is

that the latter focuses on the whole and is not just the sum of the
parts. In other words, integrated planning requires that transport,
Figure A-7 Footprint of the tools for achieving land-use planning and environmental agencies agree that there
greater integration in regional centres is a common problem, that they work out together the overall
desired outcome and the roles they will play. This means setting
different priorities than those they would probably have selected

management questions: who leads; where should resources come The objectives of the public and private sector
from; and how should they be applied.
The public and private sectors usually have different objectives. A
Relationships between agencies at different levels key question is whether urban planning and management should
be based on a plan-led approach, a market-led approach, or an
Integration between agencies at different levels is essential for approach based on a partnership between the public and private
effective urban planning. Generally, higher levels of government sectors. There will be different responses in different situations
determine the broad parameters and standards, and leave it to and they will also vary with time.
lower levels to work within them. However, where is the dividing
line? For example, regional planning parameters are essential for There are always options available. This is implicit in the different
integrated urban management, because regional activity and approaches followed in Australian States and Territories and New
regional accessibility are intertwined. But which agency is Zealand. There are also different models overseas. The British
responsible for implementation? In the case of key regional
model, encapsulated in Planning Policy Guidance (PPG) 13,
centres, for example, should regional transport management be
provides strong public secto r leadership at the regional level and
undertaken by a regional agency and land-use control by a local
guidance at the local level. The Dutch model is based on strong
agency? The issue of responsibility is of critical importance in
national leadership and on co-operative and infor med
integrated management. This importance is reflected in the
structure of this Guide. partnerships between the public and private sectors. The State of
Oregon (USA) has deter mined ‘Rules’ on environmental
Appropriate structures protection, which require compliance by both the public and
private sectors.
Co-ordination between agencies can achieve a measure of
integration and does occur, for example, the new Ministry of Urban Awareness of the tools available
Infrastructure Management in NSW. Its purpose is to co-ordinate
the strategies and projects from ministries responsible for There are many different strategies, which can be used to
providing infrastructure in the Greater Metropolitan Area, in order achieve greater integration. Part C of the Guide contains 47 such
to improve the process of infrastructure management and delivery. tools. All of them are being used to varying degrees in our part of
Of course, more than co-ordination is desirable for effective the world or overseas. Some are well known; others may not be
integration. It is doubtful whether existing structures are capable of known.
achieving such a level of integration through co-ordination alone.
The recent establishment of the Department of Infrastructure in What intervention (if any) is acceptable?
Victoria is indicative of the search within government for other
models. This Guide does not discuss appropriate structures for This is a critical issue. There are many ways to achieve a more
better integration, as this is a matter for government policy and has sustainable environment, and there will be different views on
to be determined in each situation. However, the Guide suggests a what we should do. This may require a degree of intervention,
process which can assist in establishing appropriate structures to which has significant consequences or may not be politically
deal with particular planning issues.

acceptable in our current context. Higher fuel taxes is one
example which, in some European countries, is increased by
7 Processes
5% every year. Apart from the political dimensions, there are
major economic and social consequences, which need to be PLANNING PROCESSES
made explicit.
Austroads recently completed and published a document on
There are also less complex forms of intervention and many do strategic planning principles (Austroads, 1998). That document is
exist. Finding a balance between sticks and carrots, or ‘push’ and highly relevant as it provides a useful basis for establishing
‘pull’ influences, is always a difficult task, especially in large objectives with the stakeholders; exploring alternative strategies;
cities. The value systems of the community need to be carefully and assessing and evaluating them. The process also addresses
considered in assessing the likely success of intervention. the preparation and implementation of action programs. They
identify which agency is responsible for a particular action and
This Guide does not provide answers. Rather it provides the monitoring of progress.
information on alternative means of achieving outcomes and the
trade-offs involved, so that there can be informed debate on Strategic planning is the precursor for other planning processes.
which means to use in specific situations. In some cases there is a need for development planning which
addresses development patterns and the relationship between
land use, transport space, property boundaries and built form.
With a specific project there will be a need for a project planning
process involving, for example, the preparation of an
Environmental Impact Study. When there are proposals for traffic
management, an operational planning process may be called for.
STEPS FOR INTEGR

ATED PLANNING APPROACHES
Integrated approaches require a focus on aspects which may be

taken for granted in conventional processes. The Guide calls
them ‘Steps’ and the purpose in highlighting them is to ensure
that the real problem is discussed and addressed; the right
agencies are involved; and objectives are set with an awareness
and knowledge of the tools available.
Figure A-8 Conversion of a main street in a country town to a There are eight steps which may assist when setting up and
shared road in which pedestrian safety and amenity are implementing an integrated planning process. They are
increased (Tamworth, NSW) (figure A-9):
Cities fo r Tomorr ow Better Practice Guide

1. Problem definition; Although figure A-9 shows these steps in sequence, there may
2. Institutional setting; be a need to retrace some of the steps as new understanding is
3. Establish integrated outcomes; gained, the agenda is changed or the goal posts are moved
4. Define the scope; during the process.
5. Set the objectives;
6. Select the tools; 1. Problem definition
7. Determine required actions; and
8. Monitor and feedback. The purpose of this step is to get a handle on the problem,
a provisional notion of the desired outcome, and how to
approach the task. It involves:
• gaining an understanding of the real problem, its context

and what may be a desired outcome;
• knowledge of the stakeholders, their expectations and

concerns;
• the value systems which apply;
• opportunities for integration; and
• the processes needed to address the issues.
Figure A-9 Steps towards achieving integrated outcomes

The starting point is getting an appreciation of the real problem. • management structure;
This should not be too readily assumed. There are numerous
examples where perceptions of the issues or problem are • a formal or tacit agreement for the project; and
influenced by depar tmental objectives and professional
experience. Integrated planning requires a broader perspective. • allocation of resources for the project.
A good focus on the problem at the outset avoids this difficulty,
clarifies the issues, and sets the context for each of the 3. Determine desired outcomes
subsequent steps.
The purpose of this step is to establish priority outcomes. It
2. Institutional setting concentrates on issues such as relevant relationships, the areas
of conflict and overlap in the various outcomes being sought by
Many projects have had a disappointing outcome, or even failed, the relevant parties, and the processes needed to determine a
because the lines and areas of responsibility were not clearly common set of integrated outcomes sought by all parties.
defined at the outset. The statutory planning and budgetary
frameworks should also be recognised.
It should result in an agreed understanding of:
• the relationships between stakeholders and potential

Concentration on this step will define: areas of conflict;
• the public and private agencies, whose involvement is • approaches towards resolving conflicts and achieving
essential for a successful outcome; outcomes, which all parties are working towards;
• which agency provides the leadership; • establishment of agreed priorities; and

• mechanisms to reduce conflict between the agreed At the regional level the focus is on how to structure and adapt
outcomes and those other outcomes being sought by urban areas for growth, while enhancing and not diminishing
relevant parties individually. existing amenities and values.
Planning processes depend on the desired outcomes. Planning At the local level, strategies will seek a close fit between
failures can often be attributed to the use of inappropriate housing, jobs, services and facilities and transport; safe and
processes. For example, the preparation of an EIS, when there attractive precincts; and careful husbanding of resources.
are unresolved strategic issues can lead to community concern
and a political dilemma. Transport corridors traverse through local areas and serve both
regional and local functions. The focus could be on the
It is possible that the agenda may change and evolve in the development of multi-modal facilities; the relationship between
course of a project. As a consequence, this step may need to be transport routes and their environments; or on setting priorities
revisited to reflect changes in thinking as the project proceeds. for the use of the available transport space.
There will also be many areas where there is no clear regional,
4. Define the scope local or corridor ‘playing field’, but a combination of some or all of
them. Examples were given in section 6.4.
This step is designed to settle ‘where the game is played’ and
what to aim for. Again, these things should not be taken for 5. Set specific objectives
granted. Choosing the ground brings into focus the important
relationships between issues and areas of application at the Any problem-solving approach needs clearly defined objectives.
regional, local and corridor level. They provide the basis for the selection of strategies, policies
and actions. Discussion of the ‘agenda’ and the ‘goal posts’ will
have established the overall aims and outcomes to be achieved.
The purpose of this step is to be more specific.

With integrated planning there is a need to ensure that the • adapt and develop the package to the point where it
objectives cover the full range of possibilities and not only becomes clear how the strategy, policy, project or plan of
those with which participants are familiar. It is useful to scan the operations can be achieved.
tools first to develop an appreciation of the range of possibilities
(see the next step). 7. Determine required actions
This step will result in a set of agreed long and short-term This crucial step involves obtaining understanding of, and
objectives, with the long term objectives providing clear agreement on, how the package of tools is to be applied and
directions, and the short-term objectives being specific and which mechanisms need to be set in place to get results.
measurable.
6. Select the ‘tools’
One of the aims of this Guide is to present ideas for a wide range
of strategies or actions, which may be relevant for particular
tasks. The user should:
This step should ensure that:
• all stakeholders agree on the same outcomes, agenda

and objectives;
• explore the range of tools available, gain an understanding • realistic targets are set and the practicality of achieving
of their potential and decide which tools may be relevant them has been examined;
for the specific task;
• interlinked policies and strategies have been defined;
• gain an appreciation how they are linked to each other;
• institutional and procedural arrangements are defined and
• select a package of tools; and agreed;

• programs, budgets and financial arrangements are
established; and
• outputs are agreed, practical and affordable.
8. Monitor and feedback
Monitoring and feedback during and after implementation are

essential for an understanding of the effectiveness of an
integrated process, and the taking of corrective action if
necessary. It requires indicators for measuring performance,
agreement on responsibilities for collecting information and
processes for reviewing performance.
An example how these steps can be applied in practice is

provided in Part B, Chapter 1. Figure A-10 Integration between rail and bus:
Blacktown (Sydney) interchange

8 Some possible outcomes communities and urban villages would be developed in
partnership with the private sector. Safe pedestrian and cycle
routes to stations and bus stops would be given priority.
Outcomes from integrated approaches include: Performance-based zoning, streetscape development control and
traffic calming would be key elements in managing the local
GETTING THE RIGHT ACTIVITY IN THE RIGHT PLACE environment.
Key areas would be identified as pr ime locations for a FROM CAR PLACES TO PEOPLE PLACES
concentration of development and for investment in public
transport infrastructure. There could be incentives for enterprises Places where people congregate, such as shopping and
to locate at points of high accessibility and disincentives for those business centres, would be adapted from ‘car places’ to ‘people
who choose to ignore such opportunities. Regional parking places’. Single-purpose centres would be converted into centres
policies could be designed to encourage use of the public with a wide range of services and facilities which attract workers
transport investment in such centres and influence travel and visitors during the day and at night. There would be mixed
behaviour. There could be clearly targeted and programmed developments with housing above commercial premises. In the
improvements in transpor t infrastructure. There could be core, priority would be given to pedestrians. A sense of place
partnerships with the private sector, such as joint ventures or would be created where people would like to come, because it
small development corporations, to establish appropriate land would be safe, convenient and attractive. Close attention would
uses. be given to streetscape, public spaces and the siting and design
of buildings. Accessibility would be managed to give priority to
THE RIGHT TRANSPORT TASK, RIGHT MODE AND ROUTE public transport; through traffic would be routed elsewhere and
‘sharing the main street’ principles would be applied in areas
Transport corridors would be categorised for priority allocation to where there are pedestrians and vehicles. Some shopping
particular transport modes. Reservations and their adjoining land strings would be converted to ‘activity streets’.
uses would be determined for particular transport tasks and
modes. The routes would be planned, designed and managed to FROM TRANSPORT ROUTES TO INTEGRATED CORRIDORS
enable efficient performance, as well as compatibility between
transport modes and adjoining land uses. Routes would be Current practice would be changed, and transport routes and
identified for the introduction of intelligent transport systems. their environments would be planned, designed and managed as
corridors in which transport, land use, building siting and design,
FROM HOUSING TO LIVING AREAS access, traffic management and visual enhancement are
considered together. Existing corridors would be categorised.
Areas would be developed with housing choices, local services, Friction and impact conditions would be recorded. Guidelines for
local employment, mixed use, home offices and densities acceptable levels of friction and impact would be established and
sufficient to suppor t choice in transpor t mode. Station used to determine areas in need of remedial action. Innovative

partnerships would be developed to improve sections where
there is a need for change because of increasing transport
demands and/or unacceptable environmental impacts. Corridor
management plans would be prepared and local planning
instruments would be amended to account for the relationship
between a transport route and its environment.
REDUCING GREENHOUSE EMISSIONS
International pressure is already leading to proposals for the

setting of emission targets. Assuming that there will be an
international convention and that some targets will have to be
set, all aspects contributing to greenhouse emissions will come
under scrutiny. One of those is vehicle emissions in urban areas.
There are many aspects associated with the need to reduce
vehicle emissions (such as cleaner vehicles), but in the context of Figure A-11 From car places to people places in centres:
integrated land use, transport and environmental planning, there Robina Town Centre (SE Qld)
is a need to focus on a reduction in vehicle travel and increased
use of alternative transport modes.
There are many suggestions in the Draft National Greenhouse

Strategy and many are addressed in this Guide. However, there
is a problem with targets. They must be achievable and the link
between measures introduced and their effects in reducing
vehicle travel must be clearly established. For example, road
pricing is complex and controversial, demand management as
currently perceived has little effect, and increased expenditure on
public transport will have only marginal effects in outer areas,
where development patterns are dispersed.

9 How is the guide structured? Resource Document
The Guide is accompanied by a Resource Document which

This Guide comprises four parts: presents an overview of the literature, relevant research,
significant interactions, planning principles and planning
Part A (which you are now reading), which introduces the Guide approaches elsewhere. It contains an index and list of
and provides an overview of the subsequent Parts B and C. references for the material presented in both the Guide and the
Resource Document.
Part B Steps and applications
Chapter 1 leads the reader through a sequence of the seven
steps recommended to establish a corporate or ‘whole of
government’ approach to issues and problems. Chapter 2 shows
how these steps can be used in different areas of application:
Regional, Local and Corridor contexts, as well as combinations
of these.
Part C Planning for desired outcomes

Part C provides details of tools which can be used in practice
and applied in Regional, Local, Corridor and multiple planning
contexts.
Part D Processes
There are four chapters which cover Planning Processes and
Community Involvement. These may be well known to the
professionals, but are seen as essential to achieve the objectives
of the Guide and are therefore included as separate items.
The Guide may appear somewhat daunting to the administrator,

busy professional or elected politician. It could not have become
a guide for such a complex issue, if it had been kept to a small or
simple format. However, it has been structured to provide quick
and easy access to the required details.
Figure A-12 Structure of the Guide

10 How to use the Guide Finally, the user should remember that the Guide is a guide
and needs to be read and understood in that light. It is not a
mandatory or statutory code, nor is it a textbook.
The Guide can be used as a whole or in part. It highlights issues
which should be considered at all times when the purpose is to
achieve greater integration.
The principal use of the Guide is in the development of a

package of measures to achieve a particular outcome. For
example, if the goal is to reduce greenhouse emissions, the
guide can assist in the development of a package with the
objectives of reducing vehicle travel and increasing choice in
transport mode. Different packages can be assembled with
different combinations of ‘carrots’ and ‘sticks’ and for different
forms of partnerships with the private sector.
There is also scope for different levels of intervention, with

greater intervention in areas where the quality of the environment
is at stake, or where there is risk of foreclosing options for future
generations.
It is suggested that:
• planning professionals, whether in planning, development

or transportation, should read Part B and scan Part C, to
gain an understanding of the steps and the tools; and
• anyone currently involved in a planning task should take

the steps in Part B and select the tools from Part C as a
guide to the use of their own professional judgement.
Some government agencies may wish to use part or all of the

Guide. Agencies are encouraged to commend the use of the
Guide, as appropriate, to their staff.

Part B
INTEGRATION
CONTENT
Introduction to Part B
Integration
Chapter 1 Steps towards integration
Chapter 2 Areas of application

Introduction to Part B
“It had taken three government departments, four Acts of

parliament and 20 regulations to agree on a 28 km cycleway
around Sydney Harbour, but a year later it was no nearer
starting, NSW Minister for Urban Affairs, Planning and Housing,
Mr Knowles, said. WHAT IS ITS PURPOSE?
No one is to blame because no one is responsible. Everyone The fundamental premise of integrated planning is that outcomes
agrees the cycleway is a good idea, yet they just can’t seem to are determined and pursued in a ‘whole-of-government’ or a
get it together. Each agency is performing to its own agenda and ‘whole-of-society’ context. Instead of sector planning or planning
needs. The community interest is submerged in bureaucracy. based on professional discipline, integrated planning is
concerned with outcomes achieved through an ‘across the board’
Now if we can’t build a cycleway, how can we aspire to manage approach.
. . . competing developments? “
The effectiveness of integrated approaches depends on asking
(Sydney Morning Herald, 14.3.1997) the right questions, deter mining achievable outcomes,
establishing the right mechanisms, and having the appropriate
tools to achieve the desired outcome. Part B focuses on these
outcomes and suggests ways in which the application of
integrated planning can be improved. It highlights the important
steps and shows how they can be used in different situations.

Part B has two chapters:
Chapter 1: Steps towards integrated approaches
Chapter 2: Areas of application.
HOW PART B RELATES TO OTHER PARTS OF THIS GUIDE
The relationship between Part B and other parts of the Guide is

shown in figure B-1.
Part B provides information on the development and application

of integrated approaches.
Part C contains a compendium of ‘tools’. The tools are principles,

approaches and techniques which can be used to achieve
specific objectives.
Part D provides an outline of relevant planning processes and

public consultation.
Figure B-1 Structure of Part B

in relation to other parts of this Guide

Chapter 1 Steps towards EIGHT STEPS
integration There are eight steps, which together can be regarded as a

checklist for integrated planning:
1 Problem definition. Its primary purpose is to explore

what is needed and why;
INTRODUCTION 2 Institutional setting. Using a football analogy, this

involves: selecting the team, the players and the roles they
This chapter is about ends and means. With a focus on play;
integrated planning, the ends intended are outcomes beyond
what individual organisations can achieve, while the means of 3 Determine desired outcomes. Using the same analogy,
achieving them depend on a wide range of public and private determining desired outcomes means setting the aims
agencies working towards the same overall goal. The process for and selecting the approach to how the game is played;
integrated planning is similar to other kinds of planning (see
Chapters 1 to 3, Part D). Yet there are aspects of special 4 Define the scope. In the context of the Guide, it means
importance in integrated planning. They are: determining where the game is played; for example, a
region, local area or transport corridor;
• integrated planning cuts across individual agencies and
professions. The steps ensure there is common ground; 5 Set objectives. Objectives may be general, such as
winning the game, or specific, such as winning with a
• there is a need for organisational arrangements, which will certain margin. However, here the football analogy breaks
ensure that integrated planning reflects the diversity down as the desired outcome of integrated planning
of interests and expertise; and should be win-win;
• determining what is to be achieved through integrated 6 Select and develop a package of tools. This step is to
planning must be conditioned by what actually can be ensure that there is awareness and understanding of the
achieved. There is material in Part C of the Guide (and means available to achieve a particular outcome;
also in the Resource Document) which may lead to some
lateral thinking about possibilities before specific 7 Determine required actions. Specific actions, which
objectives are defined and targets set. The following steps need to be implemented to meet the objectives and
show how this can be done. outcomes are determined; and targets against which
performance is assessed are specified; and

8 Monitoring and feedback. This step is ongoing to check This is most important as there may be means available of which
performance during and after implementation. we are unaware, or there are unrealistic expectations. A too-
limited horizon may conceal opportunities which should be
considered when decisions on desired outcomes are made. On
the other hand, targets may be set without a realistic assessment
at to whether they are achievable. For this reason, ‘setting
objectives’ (step 5) is followed by an exploration of available
‘tools’ (step 6).
Figure B-2 Steps
The relationship between these steps is illustrated in figure B-2.

Their arrangement is deliberate. Instead of determining first what Figure B-3 Linking ends and means
we want to achieve and then looking for ways to achieve them
(as we often do), the steps recognise that what we want to
achieve must from the outset be related to the means available.

Integrated planning brings together diverse interests with their WHAT IS THE OUTCOME?
own particular objectives and targets. It is important to spend
time and thought in preparation. Chapter D-4 (Community The main outcome of this step should be a shared commitment
participation) also underscores this need. Although the steps are to proceed with, for example:.
sequential, it is often necessary to retrace some of them, as new
insights are obtained or when fundamental areas of • a brief for a study, the preparation of a strategy, policy or
disagreement become apparent. plan;
If each of the descriptions seems somewhat abstract, it might • an interdisciplinary working group or task force;
assist the reader to examine the case example at the end of this
chapter. • a call for expressions of interest for a study or project;
• a proposal for a change in working practices or

Step 1 PROBLEM DEFINITION organisational arrangements;
WHAT IS INVOLVED? • understanding of the processes, which may

be the most appropriate for addressing the problem;
Defining the problem is the process of:
• comments on how an existing project or policy can be
• recognising that there is an issue or problem, which needs improved; and
an integrated approach;
• a proposal for funding in the next budget.
• understanding the context;
HOW CAN IT BE DONE?
• moving from an initial perception of the problem to a clear
understanding of the real problem and what we should be • Problem scoping.
trying to achieve;
• Identifying likely ‘areas of application’.
• becoming aware of the value systems and beliefs, which
impinge on the problem and its possible solutions; and • Scanning the tools.
• getting a feel for what is needed to address the problem. • Preliminary exploration of ends and means.
• Initial perception of practical approaches.

• Giving thought to value systems. Areas of application, also, may not be immediately obvious.
Planners are well-versed in problems which require an
• Considering involvement of other agencies or individuals. understanding of the physical and environmental context.
However, solutions may well lie in economic, social, financial and
• Redefining the problem. institutional approaches.
PROBLEM SCOPING SCANNING THE TOOLS
The perceived problem may not be the real problem and the It is useful to explore the opor tunities and constraints of
solution may not be as obvious as it initially appears. This integrated approaches in a preliminary way. It could include the
happens when responsibilities are divided between different mapping of constraints, which are immutable and those, which
agencies or different professions. Defining the problem, within are capable of being modified Some constraints may be difficult
the context of this Guide, is a conscious attempt to examine a to overcome (e.g. where there is a need for legislation or
problem from a broader and more comprehensive perspective. It priorities for expenditure), but there may be many, which can be
is often useful to invite a group of people with different overcome simply by doing things better. A brief scan of the tools
perspectives for a structured or unstructured brainstorming in Part C can give an insight into different approaches and
discussion. provide ideas which may be worth pursuing subsequently.
Focusing on the problem in this way is an opportunity to get a PRELIMINARY EXPLORATION OF ENDS AND MEANS
feel for what may be needed in organising a study. An apt
description is a ‘dry run’, a thinking through of the process Many planning processes start with the preparation of a vision
ahead, possible outcomes, agencies with an interest, tools, statement followed by a statement of objectives. There is an
which may become relevant, constraints and opportunities for implicit assumption that the means are available to achieve them,
overcoming them. The fundamental questions are: ‘what are we yet this may not always be the case. Another situation occurs
really trying to achieve and how can that be done?’. where we are not aware of the availability of a range of possible
means and unwittingly limit our vision and objectives. This is
IDENTIFYING LIKELY ‘AREAS OF APPLICATION’ especially relevant in the case of integrated planning, which is
usually more complex. An iterative process is often needed.
It is important to identify likely ‘areas of application’. They could
be areas with different levels of responsibility (such as national, INITIAL PERCEPTION OF PRACTICAL APPROACHES
regional or local). They could deal with different aspects of urban
management (such as physical, financial, regulatory). They could A preliminary exploration of different packages of desired
address different interactions (such as land-use activity and outcomes and the means of achieving them, is also useful. It
accessibility, environmental quality and transport). gives a practical edge to the process and will influence the
selection of agencies invited to participate (step 2) and the

discussion on desired outcomes (step 3). CONSIDERING THE POSSIBLE INVOLVEMENT OF OTHERS
GIVE THOUGHT TO VALUE SYSTEMS Initial exploration leads to a clearer appreciation of what kind and
level of involvement is appropriate. This is crucial and must be
The value systems of people, groups and institutions pervade faced at the beginning, as it determines the process and the
everything we do and largely set the context for integrated outcome. This aspect will be examined in more detail in Step 2.
approaches. Sometimes policies are proposed which do not
align with current values. They may not succeed without changes REDEFINING THE PROBLEM
in perception (figure B-4).
Next, it is possible to confirm what the real problem is and how it
Perceptions and behaviour can be changed, but this requires can be effectively addressed.
significant advances in understanding, and acceptance of the
need for change and the trade-offs involved. It is essential, EXAMPLES OF INADEQUATE PROBLEM DEFINITION
therefore, that alternatives are explored with the stakeholders
and the consequences understood and accepted. There are numerous examples where better problem definition
could have avoided problems later on or produced different
solutions.
A corridor may be planned to serve a new urban area, and has a

road reservation with sufficient width for light rail public transport
at a later stage. However, a light rail route with many stations
becomes a people corridor and is not compatible with a high-
capacity vehicle corridor. Each type of transport route has
different land uses associated with it. The real problem may be to
separate them and develop different land-use associations with
each route.
A policy in Melbourne in the eighties required new office

developments, above a minimum floor space, to be located near
railway stations. It lasted less than 2 months because the
development industry claimed that suitable sites were not
Figure B-4 Strategies and policies involving available, property values near stations were forced up, and
a shift in perceptions and behaviour require consultation offices would move interstate. The real issue can also be what
form of partnerships with the private sector can be established
(see Part C: R-10 Integrating investment) to

encourage and facilitate the integrated development of specific achieved and how it can be done?
areas.
• Is there an understanding of the likely stakeholders and
Setting targets for increasing the public transport share in trip- their values?
making may provide a basis for infrastructure planning and
development, but they are unlikely to be achieved without • Has the real problem been clearly identified?; and
changes in values and behaviour. This is not impossible -
changes in driver behaviour to increase amenity and safety in • Has thought been given to the possibility for greater
residential areas have been accepted but should not be taken for integration and its relative priority?
granted.
There is a need for lateral thinking in integrated planning.

EXAMPLES OF FOCUSING ON INTEGRATED APPROACHES
‘Bill Drakopoulos, of Harbour Watch restaurant at Pier One,
A country town of about 20,000 people was served by a highway
Walsh Bay, phoned a computer company at Chatswood for
and a river crossing. Proposals for expansion of the town across
a service call. $50 a half-hour, he was told. That’s OK.
the river would involve another crossing. The real problem was
Plus an hour each way travelling time. That’s an extra $100
identified as finding a land-use solution, which obviated the need
each way. Whaaat? The explanation: The service man
for a second bridge.
would be coming by train then walking from Wynyard’.
(Column 8, SMH 16.9.97)
A high-density node in Auckland was served by public transport
and roads and the local authority was faced with problems of
congestion, amenity and redevelopment. After an exploration of
the problem it became clear that the real problem was not local,
but a regional issue. The future role of the node had to be Step 2 INSTITUTIONAL SETTING
considered first in a regional context.
WHAT IS INVOLVED?
CHECKLIST
The process involves clarifying:
• Has a problem definition exercise been undertaken?
• which public and private agencies are involved in the
• Is there an appreciation of the range of means available process;
for implementation? • their roles and contributions; and
• Has there been a preliminary exploration of what might be • which agency or individual has primary responsibility.

WHAT IS THE OUTCOME? • seeking high-level commitment;
The outcome of this step will depend on the results of Step 1: • negotiations and agreements.
Problem definition. In general, the following outputs are possible:
• identification of public agencies whose involvement is CRITICAL RELATIONSHIPS TO THE OUTCOME

essential for defining outcomes and achieving results;
Relationships between the public and private sector
• identification of private sector agencies (where
appropriate), whose involvement is essential or desirable; In general terms, the public sector is responsible for overall
regional or local urban management, and for providing and
• a charter or agreement on the task; managing public infrastructure and services. The public sector
does this in the public interest and, through governments, is
• agreement on the leadership; accountable to the electorate. The private sector, legitimately, has
another agenda. It is responsible for private development and
• an executive structure and/or a project structure; investment, concerned with the market, and accountable to
shareholders for profitability, and must operate within statutory
• agreement on decision-making or the responsibility for and regulatory conditions.
decisions;
The boundaries between the two sectors are not always clear.
• the role of the project leader and the relationship to the There are examples of private funding in public infrastructure and
executive group (if appropriate); and joint ventures for key development areas. While the overall
responsibility for the management of regional and local areas
• allocation of resources for undertaking rests within the public sector, an improved integration between
the task. the public and private sectors would require clarity (if not
agreement) on overall goals and objectives, and the means to
HOW CAN IT BE DONE? achieve them.
• identifying the institutional, statutory and budgetary Integration between agencies with different levels of
relationships, which are critical to the outcome and the responsibility.
achievement of targets;
Many aspects of integration touch the responsibility of different
• seeking support for an integrated approach; agencies operating at national, State, regional and local levels.
For example, reduction in greenhouse emissions involves the
• developing an appropriate model; integration of physical, regulatory, pricing and taxation measures

which span across the board. There is a need for a hierarchical does it. Integration needs government support; obtaining this
level of integrated planning and management and for recognising support, therefore, is a key issue.
the interaction between different levels. Understanding of these
interactions and their associated responsibilities is the DEVELOPING AN APPROPRIATE MODEL
cornerstone of integrated planning and essential for the planning
and achievement of desirable outcomes. Development of an appropriate institutional structure requires
considerable thought. There is a history of attempts and failures
Integration between agencies at the same level. with little evidence of learning. Desirably, responsibilities should
be clarified and structures established which permit ‘corporate’
Issues often arise because agencies have their own charter, planning and management for defined areas of collective
objectives and budget allocations. Integration requires a shift responsibility. How this is done in practice will depend on State
from optimising performance within their own charter to a and local conditions.
broader ‘whole of government’ accountability. Interdependency is
generally well recognised, and mechanisms for co-ordination are SEEKING HIGH-LEVEL COMMITMENT
well established and widely used. However, integration requires a
further commitment to common outcomes. What A high level of commitment to integrated approaches is essential.
is an optimal outcome for one agency may not necessarily be In some cases, it may require political and government support.
optimal in a whole of government context. In all cases it requires support from the Chief Executives.
Integration within agencies.

NEGOTIATIONS AND AGREEMENTS
The change from a professionally dominant culture towards a
management culture has created problems in many government Alternative models of institutional arrangements should be
agencies with the communication of matters requiring technical explored and discussed with the major parties involved. This
knowledge. Greater integration within organisations themselves should include the contributions each party is prepared to make
is beyond the scope of this Guide. to the process.
SEEKING SUPPORT EXAMPLES OF A NEED FOR BETTER ARRANGEMENTS
It is not sufficient for one agency or discipline to recognise the Regional centres are critical elements in urban structure. There is
need for an integrated approach. Others will need to be a need to link funding of transport infrastructure (e.g. public
convinced too. This may require extensive networking, seeking transpor t) with the level and kind of private and public
the involvement of professional bodies, and enlisting the support development in such centres. Regional parking policies are also
of the media to gain community support. It should be recognised needed, to ensure that the effectiveness of public investment is
that the structure of government affects what it does and how it maximised. Usually there are no integrated structures to manage

these issues. • Does the proposed structure have the potential for
addressing the necessary interactions and at the
Integration at the transpor t corridor level is relatively appropriate level?
undeveloped. Arrangements are needed which reflect
interactions between transport, land use and the environment, at • Has high-level commitment been obtained?
all stages of planning and management. The primar y
responsibility and institutional structure can vary, depending on • Have agreements for participation and roles been
the focus: whether it is towards strategic or project outcomes. negotiated?
Regional councils in New Zealand are constituted as groupings
of local authorities. They have responsibilities for planning • Is there a charter and a program?
regional public transport, but no powers in respect of land use
(which creates the demand for travel) or other forms transport • Have the issues of leadership and decision making been
(which influences mode choice). resolved?
EXAMPLES OF POTENTIALLY EFFECTIVE STRUCTURES • Are there resources to undertake the task?
Examples of effective structures are not easy to give, because

much depends on the context. An example is the now defunct Step 3 DETERMINE OUTCOMES
National Capital Development Commission, which was an
appropriate model for the planning, development and WHAT IS INVOLVED?
construction of Canberra as the national capital
at a time of rapid growth. It had extraordinary powers and Integrated approaches are more demanding than single-purpose
resources, which are unlikely to be granted today. approaches, because there are often many interactions of
potential significance (institutional, physical, financial etc).
CHECKLIST Priorities will be seen differently, and there are different ways in
which they can be addressed. The purpose of this step is to
• Has the need for integrated institutional arrangements determine desired outcomes and set priorities.
been understood and accepted?
It concentrates on issues such as:
• Has an assessment been made of the institutional,
statutory and budgetary relationships, which are critical to • relevant relationships;
the outcome?
• the areas of conflict and overlap in the various outcomes
• Are there any private sector agencies, whose involvement being sought by the relevant parties; and
is essential or desirable?

• the processes needed to determine a common set of REVIEWING RELATIONSHIPS
integrated outcomes sought by all parties.
The purpose of this review is to examine the problem or issue
The initial agenda may well evolve as the process unfolds. from a perspective beyond the limits set by organisational
charters and professional domains. There may be important
WHAT IS THE OUTCOME? economic or regulatory aspects requiring integration. There may
be physical aspects requiring interdisciplinary approaches.
This step results in an agreed understanding of: Some boundaries will have to be set because there are aspects
which can neither be planned for nor controlled. Other constraints
• the relationships between stakeholders and potential may be overcome in the long term, but not in the short term. A
areas of conflict; review of the relationships assists to survey the ground and the
• approaches towards resolving conflicts and achieving setting up of internal or external working groups, and other
integrated outcomes, which all parties are working techniques (see Chapter D-4: Community involvement).
towards;
EXPLORING OPTIONS FOR DIFFERENT APPROACHES
• establishment of agreed priorities;
Responsible authorities can adopt different positions in their
• mechanisms to reduce conflict between the agreed approach towards integrated planning. They can take a proactive
outcomes and those other outcomes being sought by stance or respond to needs as they occur.
relevant parties; and
With a proactive stance there is a greater emphasis on what one
• a statement of agreed outcomes.
would like to happen. This means leadership, organising the
HOW CAN IT BE DONE? planning process and implementating mechanisms to increase
the probability of achieving desired outcomes. It also means that
• Reviewing relationships between physical, economic, deliberate effor ts are made to overcome constraints, and
social, legal and financial aspects. increase opportunities for achieving targets - if not in the short
term, then certainly in the longer term.
• Exploring options for different approaches.
With a reactive position there may be a greater emphasis on
• Deciding on the relationship between the public and
developing packages which respond to market changes. This
private sector.
approach may be relevant in communities with little growth, and
• Determining the kind and degree of intervention. where opportunities for local private investment are seized upon
when they prove to be important for the local economy.
• Setting priorities. A combination of the two approaches is also possible. There may
be a clearly targeted, proactive stance in respect to matters of

key importance (such as regional centres) and a reactive position influence the course of events towards desired outcomes for the
in response to the generation of employment opportunities. urban area as a whole. Some of these measures may be in the
form of incentives (‘carrots’ or ‘pull’ factors), disincentives (‘sticks’
DECIDING ON THE PUBLIC AND PRIVATE SECTOR ROLES or ‘push’ factors) or a combination of the two.
Public authorities need to have an understanding of market Examples of pull factors are infrastructure provision and high-
forces and the consequences of inter vention. Private occupancy vehicle lanes; examples of push factors are
organisations need, and may be required, to take account of the development controls and parking charges (figure B-5).
outcomes of their actions in the broader public interest.
The balance between push and pull factors will be determined
An important question is what role public authorities play in the later in the process, but the general approach towards
development of infrastructure in relation to private sector intervention requires discussion up-front, as it influences the
development. agenda.
Public authorities can: SETTING PRIORITIES
• play a leadership role in providing a framework for private Priorities need to be set and discussed with an understanding of
investment (e.g. the National Capital Development the relationship between strategies and actions. For example, if
Commission in Canberra between 1957 and 1989; priority is given to achieve greater accessibility to public
Development Corporations, such as for Homebush in transport, a strategy to increase investment in buses, trams or
Sydney; Docklands, Melbourne). trains alone may not achieve the desired outcome. Other
measures need to be on the agenda as well. Channelling
• develop a partnership with the private sector (e.g. Joint employment and higher-density forms of housing towards
Ventures); locations near transit stations and stops, and setting maximum
(instead of minimum) standards for the provision of parking in
• largely rely on persuasion and co-ordination (as in the UK developments near stations are examples of other methods,
and, to some extent, in the Netherlands); and which could be incorporated.
• rely on controls over the location and form of private EXAMPLES OF INADEQUATE OUTCOMES
development investment (as in most Australian cities).
In the context of integrated planning, examples of inadequate
DETERMINING THE KIND AND DEGREE OF INTERVENTION outcomes would be:
The planning and management of urban areas (or parts thereof) • Developing a land-use strategy without an understanding
as entities inevitably involves the use of measures designed to of the transport consequences; and

EXAMPLES OF POTENTIALLY EFFECTIVE OUTCOMES
• A strategy to reduce through traffic in residential or
commercial precincts, without provision for alternative Examples of potentially effective goals are those which display
routes and/or policies to reduce transport demand. an understanding of the interactions between land use, transport
and the environment; and between outcomes and the means to
achieve them. Integrated approaches require more demanding
agendas. A significant aspect in determining desired outcomes
involves identifying linkages and setting priorities.
There may be situations where more than one set of desired

outcomes is carried forward. This can happen when there are
fundamentally different views about the purpose of a study,
preferences for a market-led or plan-led approach, or the form
and extent of intervention.
CHECKLIST
• Have the principal relationships been identified?
• Have options for different approaches been considered?
• Has a decision been made on a proactive or reactive

position?
• Has there been a review, whether a market-led or plan-led

approach, or a combination of the two, is the most
appropriate?
• Have priorities been set, based on an understanding of

related strategies and actions?
Figure B-5: Examples of push and pull strategies • Is there a statement of agreed outcomes?

Step 4 DEFINE THE SCOPE HOW CAN IT BE DONE?
WHAT IS ITS PURPOSE? • Survey potential areas or topics of application.
The previous step (determining desired outcomes) will have • Analyse the opportunities and constraints.
identified the purpose and priority for integrated planning and
management. We now need to determine the ‘area of application’ • Define the boundaries.
- where the game is played and which boundaries should be
observed. • Decide what to aim for.
WHAT IS THE OUTCOME? In the explanation which follows the focus is on the first example
of areas of application.
This step delivers a clear understanding of, and agreement on,
the area(s) where integrated strategies or other actions are
developed.
Examples of possible areas of application are:
• a region, metropolitan area, local area, a combination of

adjoining local areas, or the relationship between regional
and local areas;
• a particular land-use/transport/environment interaction -

such as the relationship between activity and accessibility;
transport and the environment; the allocation of transport
space to different transport modes (such as high
occupancy vehicles);
• physical, financial, or regulatory areas of application (or a

combination of them); and Figure B-6 Adaptation of a ‘Main Street’
involves many interactions (Blacktown, NSW)
• a combination of the above.

SURVEYING THE FIELD The distinction between regional and local levels is not always
reflected in decision-making and organisational structures. For
The purpose of this step is to identify relevant principles and example, regional centres are often planned and managed by
define the area(s) where they could be applied. local authorities, yet their influence on the wider regional
structure is profound.
Fragmentation in responsibility is one of the principal reasons for
a lack of performance in integrated planning. A useful way to There are many situations where greater integration between the
address the issue of responsibility is by making a distinction different levels is needed. This applies, for example, to inner
between three main areas of application: suburbs, key regional centres and urban development corridors,
where both regional and local factors must be considered (see
• the regional level; Chapter B-2 Local Planning). The key to determine the focus in
such cases is to start with a preliminary assessment of desired
• the local level; and outcomes and then decide whether the achievement of such
outcomes can best be accomplished through a regional, local or
• transport corridors (where there are often important corridor focus, or by a combination of both.
interactions between regional and local levels of planning
and management).
The distinction between ‘regional’ and ‘local’ reflects a hierarchy

of functional relationships and decision-making. At the regional
level, issues of integration arise, which can only be addressed at
that level. Decisions made at that level then become inputs into
decisions at the local level.
The regional level includes the ‘metropolitan region’ - an area

which comprises the entire urban area. The distinction between
regional and local responsibility is not always easy to define. In
most cases, ‘local’ equates with a local government jurisdiction,
but where a local authority controls a large area (such as the
Brisbane City Council), it may have a layer of regional functions
in addition to traditional local functions. The same situation may
arise where a number of local authorities combine to form a
regional council or a sub-regional planning unit.

Transport Planning
Transport Planning
SELECTING THE REGIONAL LEVEL SELECTING THE LOCAL LEVEL
At the regional level, the focus is on the structuring and At the local level similar issues arise, but on a different scale. The
adaptation of urban regions, providing for growth and change, ‘goal posts’ may involve establishing a local land-use/transport
while moving towards more sustainable, efficient and equitable system with a closer fit between housing, local employment and
urban areas. The ‘goal posts’ may be related to land use and services. Other key issues are environmental protection and
infrastructure planning, travel demand management, the enhancement, especially at the local level, and creating safe and
management of accessibility and activity, and the protection of attractive precincts where, vehicular traffic is subservient. Other
the regional environment. Strategies related to a reduction of key issues are related to the establishment and conversion of
greenhouse emissions, for example, can best be considered at activity centres, making them more pedestrian-friendly, with a
the regional level. wider range of facilities and services, and providing for day and
night, week and weekend activities.

One of the key issues is how to adapt existing road corridors, to
ensure that their function as movement routes is in balance, with
the need to protect adjoining properties, business activities and
local communities. Another important issue is the urban design
relationship between transpor t routes and adjoining
Transport Planning
development.
SELECTING OTHER AREAS OF APPLICATION
There are other possible areas of application. For example, these

may be related to a particular type of land-use/transport/
environment interaction or a particular relationship, such as
integrated approaches to pricing and regulation.
EXAMPLE OF INADEQUATE ‘AREAS OF APPLICATION’

SELECTING THE CORRIDOR LEVEL
In the context of achieving greater integration, the following
Transport corridors do not fit into such a hierarchical area-based example could be described as inadequate in scope:
system. They are linear and have regional or district functions
traversing through local areas. Transport corridors may be rail or • Improvement in public transport without working towards
road corridors or a combination with road-based public transport land use patterns, which support public transport.
or light rail reservations within them. There is a great need for
greater integration in the planning and management of transport EXAMPLES OF POTENTIALLY EFFECTIVE ‘AREAS OF
corridors. APPLICATION’
The ‘goal posts’ could be the joint management of roads and Potentially effective scoping is where the key aspects of
their environments, developing them as multi-modal routes, and integration can be properly examined and addressed. For
planning them in a regional and local context. There are two example:
major categories of corridors: Primary transport - or ‘Type I’ -
corridors, such as regional transpor t routes and their • Regional centres: the relationship between activity and
environments; and Secondary - or ‘Type II’ - corridors, such as accessibility;
sub-arterials and their environments. The function of the corridor
and the relationship with the environment for these categories
vary and require different approaches.

• ‘Sharing the Main Street’: the relationship between safety, a package of tools has been selected. This is necessary to
accessibility, environmental quality, business activity and ensure that ends and means are integrated.
transport modes.
WHAT IS THE OUTCOME?
CHECKLIST
The outcome from this step is a set of agreed long-term and
• Have potential areas for integration been identified? short-term objectives, with the long-term objectives providing
clear directions, and the short-term objectives being:
• Has the range of interactions, appropriate for these
potential areas been assessed ? • comprehensive;
• Does the selection of the preferred area of application • specific;

reflect all the interactions, which are critical to a
successful outcome? • achievable; and
• Is there agreement on the aims? • measurable.
HOW CAN IT BE DONE?
Step 5 SET OBJECTIVES • Setting objectives which reflect integrated outcomes.
WHAT IS ITS PURPOSE? • Developing objectives based on outcome areas.
The aim of this Guide is to encourage and facilitate approaches • Making a distinction between short-term and long-term
which contribute to the development of cities and towns as a objectives.
whole. Achieving greater integration means giving greater weight
to critical interactions between land use, transport and the • Consulting and seeking agreement.
environment in planning and decision-making. An understanding
is needed as to how these interactions come into play to achieve • If agreement cannot be reached, retrace some, or all, of
desired outcomes. the preceding steps.
This understanding leads to a definition of specific objectives.
These objectives, in turn, require tools (discussed in the next

step). Hence there may be a need to review the objectives, once

SETTING OBJECTIVES WHICH REFLECT INTEGRATED There is less certainty whether they can be achieved. However,
OUTCOMES their omission may lead to an incomplete statement of desired
outcomes. For this reason it is desirable to distinguish between
A key aspect in setting objectives in the context of integrated those readily achievable objectives and those objectives which
cities is that the objectives are designed to provide an optimal state an intent without assurance of being achieved in the short
outcome for the area of application as a whole, and not for each term.
of the issues, which may relevant. The set of objectives,
therefore, is more than the sum of the objectives, which each CONSULTING AND SEEKING AGREEMENT
participating agency itself may seek to achieve. It is the well-
being of the ‘body cor porate’ which matters, and not the Specific objectives are not motherhood statements. They have to
combination of the strongest bones and healthiest arteries. be expressed in explicit terms and avoid conflict between them.
This may involve setting priorities, which will affect stakeholders
In order to arrive at such a set of objectives, there will be a need differently, and making consultation essential. The aim is to seek
to understand the relationships between land use, transport and agreement with the stakeholders.
the environment and the contribution, which each objective can
make to the desired outcome as a whole. This may not be IF NECESSARY, RETRACE STEPS
obvious at first sight and scanning of the tools in Part C will give
some direction. It may be difficult to obtain agreement on objectives or on a
ranking of them. For example, agreement on a par ticular
DEVELOPING OBJECTIVES BASED ON OUTCOME AREAS objective or priority may appear to unduly complicate matters for
one agency. Whether this is true will become clearer in steps 6
‘Outcome areas’ are areas where specific objectives are and 7. It may be necessary on occasions to retrace earlier steps
developed, e.g. accessibility, efficiency, equity. For each outcome or to carry some objectives forward with a question mark
area a needs statement should be prepared which describes the attached to them. Options can then be tested, and their relative
aspects which need to be addressed in specific objectives. significance in achieving the desired outcomes can be assessed.
Specific objectives are then devised which address each need
identified in the needs statement. Table B-1 gives an example. AN EXAMPLE OF INADEQUATE OBJECTIVES
DISTINGUISHING LONG-TERM AND SHORT-TERM An inadequate approach in setting objectives would be one
OBJECTIVES which simply treated integration as the sum of the objectives of
the different agencies involved.
Short-term objectives are intended to be achievable within a For example, the objectives of a road authority may be to develop
short time frame and there can be more certainty about them. the most efficient and cost-effective road network. A public
Long-term objectives may involve fundamental changes in transport authority may have a similar objective for the services it
legislation, administrative arrangements or community behaviour. provides. In the context of achieving integrated outcomes, the

OUTCOME AREA NEEDS STATEMENT SPECIFIC OBJECTIVE
Sustainable structure To provide opportunities for the location and functioning of E.g.: Regional centres are located along transit routes;
and form regional land-use activities which promote the efficient, selected existing regional shopping centres are developed
equitable and sustainable performance of the regional land as multi-purpose centres with a significant employment
use/transport system, and to constrain activities which component.
detract or impair such performance.
Accessibility To provide access to regional activities according to the E.g.: Targets are set for a mode split to all regional
needs for different kinds and levels of mobility and activities; all regional centres are developed as public
consistent with the need for an efficient, equitable and transport nodes and interconnected; parking policies
sustainable land use/transport system.. discourage all-day commuter parking.
Efficiency To ensure that the land use/transport system facilitates the E.g.: Freight handling centres are located near arterial
efficient functioning of economic and social activities. roads and goods railways; Priority is given to freight
movement on selected routes.
Cost-effectiveness To make best use of existing and proposed infrastructure, E.g.: Demand management policies are developed to
and take account of the costs and benefits of intervention. reduce congestion; networks are designed and operated
for off-peak conditions.
Environmental quality To improve the quality of the road environment for all E.g.: Type I and II corridors are identified; policies are
users; minimise the impact on local communities; ensure developed for access, friction and impact management,
that adjoining land uses are protected from the impact of and visual enhancement (including advertising); priorities
traffic; and encourage adjoining development with urban are identified and action programs for amelioration are
design qualities, appropriate for the transport function and developed.
traffic characteristics.
Equity
To ensure that community groups are not disadvantaged in E.g.: Standards are developed for accessibility for all
gaining access to and using regional facilities and groups and used
services; that the interests of future generations are in development control and traffic management schemes.
protected; and that the needs of groups, businesses and
individuals who may be disadvantaged by plan-led
approaches are properly addressed.
Table B-1 Outcome areas, needs and specific objectives

objective is to develop a transport system which offers choice in Step 6 SELECT TOOLS
transport mode, convenience, efficiency, cost-effectiveness and
environmental protection. In other words, the set of specific WHAT IS ITS PURPOSE?
objectives transcends those of the road agency and the public
transport authority acting independently. The ‘tools’ in Part C provide information on measures to be used
in achieving desired outcomes. The tools could otherwise be
AN EXAMPLE OF POTENTIALLY EFFECTIVE OBJECTIVES described as policy fields or topics for the development of a
strategy, policy, project, or plan of operations.
The desired outcome may be to increase choice in transport
mode in a particular sub-region. In the context of achieving The purpose of this step is to:
greater integration, the specific objectives need to address not
only the improvement of public transport, but also the location of • explore the range of tools available and decide which tools
centres, employment and housing, and a range of other matters. may be relevant for the specific task;
By setting specific objectives within the context of achieving
greater integration, there is an opportunity to ensure that the full • gain an appreciation of how such tools are linked to each
range of aspects are covered. other;
CHECKLIST • select a package of tools; and
• Have objectives been prepared which recognise the need • adapt and develop the package to the point where it
for integrated outcomes? becomes clear how the strategy, policy, project, or plan of
operations can be achieved.
• Have objectives been identified for all necessary aspects?
• Have the stakeholders with an interest been identified?
The outcome is a package of tools:
• Has a set of specific, achievable and measurable
objectives been determined? • with an understanding of what they can do;
• Have longer-term objectives been determined? • what is involved in their application; and
• Has a needs statements been prepared for each • how they contribute collectively towards greater
objective?; and integration.
• Has agreement been reached with the stakeholders?

HOW CAN IT BE DONE? BECOME FAMILIAR WITH THE TOOLS
• Become familiar with the tools. The tools provide information on principles, approaches and
matters to be taken into account in for mulating detailed
• Decide which tools have potential relevance for the strategies, plans, policies and projects. There are many areas
objectives developed in Step 6. where tools may be needed and this is reflected in their diversity.
Some tools are related to the structure and form of urban regions
• Select a package of tools. and towns. Other tools are related to the adaptation and
improvement of established areas, and still others are concerned
• Develop and adapt the tools. with operational aspects, such as development control and traffic
management.
Most tools have a bearing on the way public authorities approach

development for which they are responsible. Some are applicable
to regional and local situations (or both), and others to transport
corridors (there is basic distinction between primary or ‘Type I’
corridors and secondary or ‘Type II’ corridors). The application of
the tools also depends on the size of area (i.e. from a large urban
region to a country town), and on the significance of a transport
route (e.g. a major transport corridor or a Main Street).
Tools have been selected according to their relevance for the

purpose of achieving integrated planning. For this reason,
aspects which relate to only land-use planning, transpor t
planning or environmental planning practice have not been
included.
The selection and treatment of the tools do not reflect any

Figure B-7 The ‘Main Street’ in Wellington, New Zealand - an preference on the part of the author or Austroads. The Guide is
example of active land use and a variety of transport modes in no more (and no less) than a compendium of ideas and practices
an urban setting which may be of value. It is not intended to be a textbook or
manual, but simply a source of information with potential for
further development and application.
There are many areas where guidelines exist. Where such

information is known to the author, the Guide refers to it, but Many tools do not fit solely into one of the three application areas
does not provide details. There has been no systematic survey of alone (regional, local or corridor). Also, there clearly are links
guidelines in the States and Territories in Australia and in New between regional, local and corridor issues. The column with the
Zealand, and, no doubt, some will have been missed. It is heading ‘Also applies’ is relevant here.
recommended that the existence and purpose of any relevant
guidelines be ascertained when an integrated planning project is SELECT PACKAGES OF TOOLS
commenced.
It is desirable to make packages of tools according to different
For technical information and information about research needs, such as a greenhouse strategy, a development control
aspects, the reader is referred to the Resource Document and system for a local area, or a policy for corridor planning and
other sources. management. An illustration of packaging is given in Chapter 2
under ‘Applications with multiple outcome areas’.
A framework has been devised to make it relatively easy to select
tools. Part C consists of three sections: DEVELOP AND ADAPT THE TOOLS
1. Regional tools; The use of a tool depends on the specific context, the perceived
need for intervention and the form this should take. The tools will
2. Local tools; and need to be developed and adapted to suit the context and an
indication is given, in each tool, how to do this.
3. Corridor tools.
The adaptation process could lead to the production of an
DECIDE WHICH TOOLS HAVE POTENTIAL RELEVANCE adapted version of Part C - or parts thereof, distributed to people
within and without the organisation as a statement of agreed
There will be a need for tools to address a specific planning task objectives and targets, or the introduction of new procedures.
or problem, such as establishing a busway, dealing with a Another possible outcome is incorporation of the adapted tools
particular form of development, or formulating a parking policy. into existing local or regional implementation practices and
To assist the search for a relevant tool, an index is provided at development control.
the back of the Guide.
The private sector should be invited to participate in the process
The following tables show the general intent of each tool. There of adaptation. However, even without adaptation, this document
are overlaps. This occurs because there are different ways of will probably contain material which will assist the private sector
approaching a topic and the current format offers flexibility in in developing proposals where the integration of road, land use
selection. Some users may find one tool relevant in and environmental planning is important, or where there may be
their context, but other users may want to select alternatives. arguments with public authorities about the interpretation of
performance-based conditions.

TOPIC INTENT ALSO APPLIES
Regional Corridor
R-1 Urban structure and form Urban structure and form, which increase the potential for sustainable and economic y
development.
y
R-2 Urban density To limit the sprawl of cities and protect agricultural land.
R-3 The right activity in the right To encourage the location of activities according to mobility needs and the accessibility Y Y
location provided by the infrastructure, and thereby link private investment in development to public
investment in infrastructure.
R-4 A hierarchy of multi-purpose To encourage the development of new centres and adapt existing centres as interconnected Y y
centres and multi-activity centres, accessible by a wide range of transport modes.
y
R-5 Key regional and transit centres To facilitate the development of selected centres as key regional centres and transit centres.
R-6 Public transport and land use To develop land-use structures, which create opportunities for convenient, cost-effective and Y y
efficient travel, and public transport systems, which suit different types of land-use
environments.
Y y
R-7 Freight movement and land use To integrate the location of freight handling areas and freight movement routes.
R-8 Road systems and land use To ensure that planning of road systems takes full account of land use (and the converse) at Y y
all stages and levels.
R-9 Integrated development areas To encourage the development and application of mechanisms to achieve whole of y y
government outcomes for areas of new urban development and major redevelopment.
R-10 Integrating investment To develop and apply mechanisms for effective implementation of policies, plans and Y Y
projects based on ‘partnership’ between the public and private sectors.
R-11 Air quality and traffic noise To develop, update and apply standards and targets related to air and noise exposure. y Y
R-12 Regional parking policies To influence transport demand in order to reduce traffic congestion, make better use of the Y y
public transport infrastructure and reduce parking intrusion by commuters in residential
areas.
R-13 Travel demand management To minimise the need to expand the road system, prevent further congestion, reduce air y
pollution, conserve scarce resources and increase use of non-car based transport modes.
R-14 Commuter planning To encourage changes in travel to work by the preparation and implementation of commuter Y
plans at sites with a significant number of employees.
R-15 Travel blending To encourage and facilitate a shift in travel behaviour. Y

R-16 Keeping options open To ensure that the land-use and transport infrastructure evolves in a manner which does not Y Y
foreclose options for future generations.
Table B-2 Predominantly REGIONAL tools Explanation Y = highly relevant; y = potentially relevant

Regional Corridor
L-1 Activity/accessibility zoning To zone areas for activities according to mobility and accessibility, and to link private Y
investment in the development of land-use activities with public investment in transport
infrastructure.
L-2 Transit-friendly land use To influence the location, type and intensity of land use particularly around stations; facilitate Y
inter-modal transfer; and improve the quality of the public environment.
L-3 Increasing choices in To develop and adapt transport and land-use structures to increase access to, and choices in, Y
transport modes of transport.
L-4 Increasing choices in land To increase opportunities for multiple trip-making and for reducing the need for car-based Y
use travel.
L-5 Cycle networks and land To increase opportunities for using bicycles through integrated planning and management of Y y
use land use and transport.
L-6 Pedestrians and land use To facilitate and encourage walking as a significant transport mode. Y y
L-7 Parking standards and To encourage the development of parking standards and management which reflect not only Y
management the needs for transport efficiency and convenience, but also the broaderimplications for
accessibility, land-use efficiency and amenity.
L-8 Corridors and precincts To protect local environments from through traffic and facilitate the performance of major Y y
transport routes in catering for through movement.
L-9 Centres as precincts To create and adapt centres as precincts where pedestrian safety and amenity are paramount. Y
L-10 Residential precincts To adapt existing residential areas as precincts and create new precincts which are safe, Y
convenient, with a high level of amenity and accessibility by non-car based modes.
L-11 Traffic calming To reduce the incidence and impact of traffic on the environment. Y y
L-12 Safety To increase safety of all road users through more integrated planning and management. Y Y
L-13 Visibility To ensure that proper attention is given to visibility of pedestrians, cyclists and vehicles. Y y
L-14 Incentives and contributions To encourage preferred development and to exact contributions where infrastructure Y y
enhancement is necessary.
L-15 Performance- To encourage the development of land use and traffic management with a focus on desired Y y
based development control outcomes instead of being prescriptive.
Table B-3 Predominantly LOCAL tools Explanation Y = highly relevant; y = potentially relevant

Regional Corridor
C-1 Corridor categorisation To identify road/environment corridors and categorise them for the purpose of integrated Y Y
planning, design and management.
C-2 Planning new Type I corridors To encourage the planning of major transport routes as corridors, in which transport, land Y Y
use and the environment are integrated at all stages.
C-3 Planning new Type II corridors To ensure that the transport function and performance are planned together with adjoining Y Y
land use, and to create an effective secondary route with a safe and attractive environment.
C-4 Adapting Type I corridors To encourage the adaptation and enhancement of major transport routes as corridors in y Y
which transport, land use and the environment are integrated at all stages.
C-5 Adapting Type II corridors To ensure that the transport function, traffic performance and adjoining land uses are Y Y
adapted together, to create a safe and attractive secondary transport route.
C-6 Access to roads To ensure that access to sites and local streets, along major traffic routes, does not impede y Y
the function of such routes and the safety of road users.
C-7 The right transport task on the To ensure that transport reservations are planned and managed for a range of compatible Y Y
right mode transport modes.
C-8 Congestion management To reduce the cause and incidence of congestion, without recourse to major additions to the y Y
existing road network.
C-9 Transport pricing and tolls To reduce the amount of vehicle travel in congested areas, and explore the impact of tolls on y
the management of accessibility, land use and the environment.
C-10 Intelligent Transport Systems To make better use of existing infrastructure and reduce the environmental impact of traffic. y Y
C-11 Reducing noise exposure through To ensure that land-use planning, building, siting and design, road design and traffic Y Y
design management reduce noise exposure.
C-12 Maintaining community cohesion To ensure that roads and traffic do not become barriers to the functioning of a community. y Y
C-13 Visual enhancement To promote the development and application of guidelines for design elements along roads Y Y
and streets.
C-14 Urban corridor management To ensure that the management of traffic and land use is integrated. y Y
C-15 Rural corridor management To ensure that transport corridors in rural regions are managed as environmental assets. y Y
C-16 Roadside services To ensure that provision is made for roadside services along limited access roads.
Table B-4 Predominantly CORRIDOR tools Explanation Y = highly relevant; y = potentially relevant

Step 7 DETERMINE ACTIONS financial arrangements.
WHAT IS ITS PURPOSE? HOW CAN IT BE DONE?
Desired outcomes, in the context of this Guide, are intended to • Preparing a statement of the actions required to achieve
be attainable achievements. Whether they are actually achieved the agreed outcomes;
depends on the strategies and actions, which follow. The
purpose of this step is to ensure that: • Setting targets for each action;
• there is agreement on the final outcomes and required • Defining performance indicators and establishing
actions; milestones;
• the actions lead, collectively, to the attainment of desired • Seeking agreement on what each party will undertake in
outcomes for all agencies involved; and implementation; and
• targets are set which are practical, achievable, and, • Value management.
wherever possible, can be measured.
WHAT IS THE OUTCOME? PREPARING A STATEMENT OF ACTIONS
The outcome of this step is a statement of agreed actions. The The desired outcomes were established in Step 3, the areas of
actions can take many different forms: application in Step 4, the objectives in Step 5 and the package of
tools in Step 6. Steps 3 to 5 represent the ends, Step 6
• strategic and policy development; represents the means, and there will appear a clear relationship
between them.
• development plans and designs;
The statement of actions indicates agreement on what to aim for
• target setting; and how to achieve it. The actions required to achieve the
outcomes should be comprehensive. They can include the
• reform of institutional and procedural arrangements; strategies, policies, zoning proposals, guidelines, research to be
undertaken, institutional arrangements, changes to procedures,
• statutory provisions (including any changes which need to awareness campaigns or other actions selected.
be made); and
The desired impact of each action in delivering the target also
• implementation of integrated programs, budgets or needs to be specified.

An example of the relationship between goals, outcome areas, such as the number of dwellings exposed to traffic noise above
tools and outputs is shown in Table B-5. It should be noted that certain thresholds along arterial roads. This requires a database
specific objectives have not been included, because they depend and a monitoring system which keeps track of changes. Without
on the particular case. such information, there is no way of telling which target should be
aimed at and what progress is made towards achieving it.
SETTING TARGETS
It is sometimes difficult to identify indicators which are specific to
Targets are set for achieving defined outcomes by given future a particular action. For example, a target may be set for an
dates. Targets may be related to outcome areas or specific increase in the proportion of trips made by public transport, and
objectives: the related action may be an increase in expenditure on public
transport. However, the link between increased expenditure on
• environmental quality: - e.g. air quality, traffic noise, road infrastructure and patronage is tenuous, because many more
safety; factors are involved in people’s choice of transport mode.
• cost-effectiveness: - e.g. number of freight deliveries per SEEKING AGREEMENT ON WHAT EACH PARTY WILL DO
truck per day, infrastructure utilisation, travel time and
costs; An essential part of the process is an agreement on what each
party will undertake to do in implementation. This should also
• efficiency: - e.g. vehicle speed on arterial roads; include agreement on ongoing arrangements, such as the
monitoring and reviewing of performance.
• compact urban areas: - e.g. proportion of new dwellings
built within established urban areas; VALUE MANAGEMENT
• accessibility: - e.g. number of new dwellings built near Finally, there is a need to check that all aspects have been
public transport stations and stops; and addressed and the risks of possible consequences have been
assessed. Value management should examine whether:
• equity: - e.g. funding for mobility improvement for special
groups: visually impaired cyclists. • there are compelling benefits in relation to the costs (not
necessarily in monetary terms);
DEFINING PERFORMANCE INDICATORS
• there is community and industry support;
Setting targets should not be divorced from the ability of
achieving them. Targets need to be linked to performance • a significant shift in values is involved and how this can be
indicators, which are capable of being measured. For example, a managed;
target for reducing exposure to traffic noise needs an indicator,

DESIRED OUTCOMES OUTCOME AREAS TOOLS ACTIONS
Transport corridor (Type I) Roads Accessibility: provision for multi- L-8 Corridors and precincts Commitment to developing a strategy
and their environments are planned as modal transport use of the transport C-1 Corridor categorisation for (i) the definition of corridors and
integrated corridors in which the reservation; and minimal friction from C-7 The right transport task on the precincts; and (ii) the categorisation of
relationship between transport and adjoining development right mode and route corridors by transport task and modes
frontage functions and environmental
protection are considered together Activity: limited vehicle-generating C-6 Access to roads Commitment to the development and
land uses along major transport route application of performance
characteristics for adjoining land uses
Efficiency: efficient movement of and frontage access for specified
through traffic corridors
Cost-effectiveness: measures of C-8 Congestion management Policy for black spots

cost-effectiveness which take full
account of the costs and operating C-4 Adapting new Type I corridors Commitment to the preparation of
costs within and adjoining the road C-14 Urban corridor management corridor development and
reservation management plans
Safety: reduced conflict between L-12 Safety Zoning to discourage pedestrian-

pedestrians, cyclists and vehicles L-13 Visibility generating developments; guidelines
L-11 Traffic Calming for safety management
Research to identify and classify

pedestrian/vehicle conflict
Environmental quality: improvement R-11 Air quality Guidelines for land uses and building
in the quality of the transport C-11 Reducing noise exposure siting and design
environment for all users; reduced through design
impact on local communities; and C-13 Visual enhancement
development, appropriate for the
transport function
Equity: community and business C-12 Maintaining community cohesion Guidelines for cross connectivity
groups are not disadvantaged by the L-11 Traffic calming Guidelines for Area Improvement
establishment or upgrading of a Planning, where local access may be
corridor restricted
Table B-5 Example of the link between desired outcomes, objectives, tools and actions

• targets are realistic and achievable; • targets are being achieved;
• implementation requires threshold commitments and • the actions taken are effective in achieving the desired
what they are; and outcomes;
• there is political support. • there are unexpected impacts which require remedial
action;
• there are changed circumstances which require a review

of the objectives and/or actions; and
• the mechanisms used and agreed arrangements are

working effectively.
The outcome is a performance review which identifies strengths

and weaknesses in the integrated approach, and a meeting of all
parties to decide which objectives and actions need to be
adjusted.
Figure B-8 More than 1000 vehicles per hour and the same
number of pedestriansvie for the same road space on a Saturday HOW CAN IT BE DONE?
morning. Resolving such a conflict requiresmore than a few traffic
signals (Chatswood, NSW). • Agreement on responsibilities and processes for
monitoring the performance indicators identified in Step 7,
including the undertaking of an integrated assessment.
Step 8 MONITOR AND FEEDBACK
• Collecting and interpreting data.
WHAT IS ITS PURPOSE? • Preparing an integrated assessment.
• Undertaking an evaluation with the stakeholders.
With an agreed action plan in place identifying what each party • Seeking political support (if required) for any changes
will do, and agreements on when and how these actions will be considered necessary.
taken, implementation can commence, The pur pose of
monitoring and feedback is to determine whether:

EXAMPLE of the Council’s Planning Committee will chair it and that a
representative of the Chamber of Commerce be invited to take
HOW THE STEPS RELATE TO PLANNING PROCESSES part. Both Departmental Heads say their staff are too busy with
other urgent projects and they do not have the resources. It is
As explained at the beginning of this chapter, the steps do not agreed that a brief be issued to a consultant, the report be
take the place of usual planning processes, but highlight some of presented in 6 months, and that the brief should stipulate
the important aspects in such processes for effective integrated consultation with the community and the Chamber of Commerce.
planning. The following example (based on a real case with some
variations) illustrates how the steps relate to a typical planning Establishing desired outcomes
process.
The Director of Planning prepares a brief in consultation with the
Understanding the problem Director of Engineering and finds there are other issues to be
considered as well. A proposal has been submitted for a Market
The Mayor calls a meeting of senior staff. A by-pass is proposed, Place development outside the Main Street, which will affect
which will take through traffic from the Main Street. The Chamber businesses and shift the transport demand.
of Commerce is worried about the impact on business and has
asked the Council to increase on-street parking to attract It is agreed that there is a larger agenda and a need for a
business. broader approach. The brief should have three stages: (i) a
strategic assessment of issues and options for the Main Street in
The Director of Engineering comments that this can be done by relation to the future of the centre; (ii) a concept plan for the
converting parallel parking to angle parking, but requires a traffic upgrading of the Main Street, and (iii) an indicative design with
management plan. The Director of Planning and Building says estimates of costs.
that such a proposition would turn the Main Street into a parking
lot. The Main Street should be made more attractive and the On this basis, a brief is prepared which defines the study area,
space not needed for traffic be used for widening the footpath. the objectives, scope of the work, matters to be considered, the
requirements for consultation, the points for decision and the
The Mayor asks whether they can do both. It is decided to ‘deliverables’.
establish a joint task force, which will report back to Council in 6
weeks time. Defining the scope
Institutional settings The consultant is selected and appointed. At the first meeting,
the consultant draws attention to the fact that the future of the
The Director of Engineering thinks he should chair the task force; Main Street is not only a transport and environmental issue, but
the Director of Planning and Building believes that it is a planning also one of economic survival. There is scope for redeveloping
matter and he should chair it. The Mayor says that the Chairman the frontages and permitting mixed use. Alternative access can

be provided from the rear and increase the number of parking pointed out. For example, a more pedestr ian-friendly
spaces in front, if the property owners can be induced to environment can be created; there will be business opportunities
collaborate. for outdoor activities on the widened footpaths, but there will be a
loss of a few parking spaces.
The Director of Planning comments, that it would involve a
change in the Council’s Development Plan; property integration After receiving comments, the consultant presents the findings to
would not occur unless there was provision for a bonus for the Steering Committee.
additional development rights, if amalgamation occurred.
The Steering Committee expresses a preference for a particular
The Steering Committee decides to ask the Director of Planning option, but decides that the options and consequences be
for a report and instructs the consultant to continue on the presented to Council for a decision in principle.
assumption that redevelopment is an option.
Determining required actions
Setting specific objectives
The Council makes a decision in principle and the consultant
The consultant meets with community groups, the Chamber of works up the option with the preferred package of measures to
Commerce and Council officers and identifies the issues of the point where it is clear what the plan will achieve and how it
concern. The consultant then prepares a range of objectives can be implemented. Costs and possible staging are determined
which address these issues. Some cover the longer-term and a report is prepared.
development of the land-use and transport pattern; others focus
on specific objectives for the Main Street. The consultant informs The Director of Planning and the Director of Engineering meet
the Steering Committee of the type of measures which could be with the General Manager, develop a proposal for funding and
considered, such as environmental adaptation, traffic calming, settle on their respective roles and responsibilities for
parking controls, provision for pedestrians and cyclists, improved implementation. These are presented to Council for decision.
access to public transport, visual enhancement and increased
parking space, if property access was consolidated. Council adopts the plan, and makes a commitment to funding
over the next two years.
It is agreed that these ideas be developed in the preparation of
the Concept Plan. The principles of a new development control plan for the
properties fronting the Main Street are developed by the Director
Selecting the tools of Planning; the Director of Engineering completes a study of
changes in the road hierarchy and prepares engineering
The consultant now presents alternative concept plans to drawings for the Main Street adaptation.
community groups. The plans incorporate different packages of
measures. The advantages, disadvantages and trade-offs are

Monitoring and feedback
The plan is now under construction. Performance indicators have

been determined and monitoring will occur within one month
after completion and again three years later.
Figure B-9 There usually is a policy/political and technical

dimension to integrated planning projects. This influences the
institutional and organisational approach (based on Parkin, 1996)

Chapter 2 Areas of application
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this chapter is to outline how the steps and tools
can be used to achieve greater integration in practice.
There are four areas of application:
1 Regional planning;
2 Local planning;
3 Corridor planning; and
4 Planning for outcomes at several levels.
Figure B-10 A public transport/activity spine

(New Jersey Transit, 1994)

REGIONAL PLANNING • What kind of policies are needed to make better use of
roads, public transport and parking, and reflect regional
TYPICAL ISSUES goals of efficiency, environmental protection and equity?
Typical questions at the regional level are: All these issues are linked.
• How can we develop regional and urban structures, which Step 1 PROBLEM DEFINITION
are more sustainable?
A critical factor in developing an integrated approach to such
• Which strategies should be pursued for urban growth and issues is an understanding of the real problem and which
change; which make best use of existing physical, agencies must be involved. If, for example, a public transport
economic and social infrastructure; and which strategies strategy is to be developed, the real problem may not be that of
limit pressures on land, air and water resources? considering alternatives between light rail or bus and the
commitment of funds, but how demand can be created and used
• How can we create more choice in mode of travel, and by land-use and density strategies. In that event, a broadly based
reduce dependence on car-based travel? approach involving regional land-use and transport planning
agencies is necessary. Where such land-use strategies already
• How should networks be developed and used to promote exist, it may be possible to build on them with the development of
accessibility to economic and social activities, provide for an integrated transport strategy, with improved access to public
the efficient movement of people (including road-based transport being one of the main outcome areas.
public transport) and goods, yet take full account of the
need for environmental protection? Step 2 INSTITUTIONAL SETTING
• What kind of hierarchy of centres should be developed, Roles and responsibilities need to be clarified. This activity
what should they contain and where should they be should consider the relationship between the public and private
located to provide a high level of accessibility? sectors, between jurisdictions at different levels and between
agencies at the regional level. It is assumed that agencies with
• What kind of accessibility to these centres should be State responsibilities in the region are regarded as regional
provided, and how can the development of transport agencies. Issues to be addressed include:
infrastructure be co-ordinated with their development?
• Which aspects are matters of regional public responsibility
• How can regional employment centres be established? for planning and management?
• Should provision be made for urban villages and transit • How is this responsibility exercised by existing agencies at
communities? the regional level?

• How is this responsibility expressed in relation to • What approach should be taken towards the provision of
jurisdictions at lower levels? infrastructure and how should it be linked with private
investment?
• Are there implications in relation to statutory requirements
and funding arrangements?
• Which agency assumes a leadership role?
Step 3 DETERMINE DESIRED OUTCOMES
This step involves addressing, in a wide perspective, the issues

and desired outcomes. One of the important aspects to be
discussed at the regional level is the role of government in
relation to the private sector:
• What is the relationship between the plan and the market?
• Should incentives (‘pull’) or restrictive (‘push’) measures

be used? Figure B-11 Fragmentation of responsibility
Examples of public-private sector relationships
In the Netherlands, for example, the approach is to lead private investment to desired locations by persuasion and in partnership with
the public sector (VROM, 1995). In the US, there are statutory requirements such as the submission of commuter plans (Tri-County,
1996).
In the UK, a sequential approach is used. If the private sector proposes a development which does not conform with a strategy, plan
or policy, the proponent is given the opportunity to demonstrate why the next best option should not be pursued. The requirements
become progressively more demanding, the further the proposal moves from the planning intent. If all these efforts fail and
developers are seeking to locate in an undesirable location,permission may be refused or stringent conditions (including
infrastructure contributions) may have to be met (PPG6, 1996).

Step 4 DEFINE THE SCOPE Step 5 SET SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
By selecting the region as the area of application, the ground for The preparation of a statement of what is to be achieved is a
the game has been chosen, but there is still a need to determine fundamental part of the planning process, because everything
the boundaries. There are great differences in regional problems else flows from it. The statement should lead to a set of specific
and needs, and there will be widely different interpretations on objectives for each outcome area and these objectives lead to
how to deal with them. The Resource Document identifies a the tools needed to achieve the objectives (Table B-7).
range of relevant matters (Chapter 5). Assuming, for example,
that the desired outcome is an integrated regional land-use and The following outcome areas and needs statements indicate the
transport strategy, the scope could be defined in a simple range of aspects for which specific objectives need to be
statement, such as a strategy which: developed at the regional level.
• increases opportunities for implementing policies for • Activity location: to provide opportunities for the location
sustainable development; and functioning of regional land-use activities, which
promote the efficient, equitable and sustainable
• encourages economic development, and efficient and performance of the land- use/transport system and to
convenient movement; constrain activities which detract or impair such
performance.
• improves the quality of the environment; and
• provides equity for present and future generations. • Accessibility: to provide access to regional activities
according to the needs of different kinds and levels of
In integrated regional planning, there usually is a focus on mobility and consistent with the need for an efficient,
strategic processes, because they establish the principal equitable and sustainable land use/transport system.
directions for State, regional and local agencies to follow.
However, there are also aspects of regional significance which • Efficiency: to ensure that the land-use/transport system
need to be taken through a development process and/or an facilitates the efficient functioning of economic and social
operational planning process. activities.
This is the case with regional centres. There is generally no • Cost-effectiveness: to make best use of existing and
effective integration between accessibility to these centres and proposed infrastructure, and take account of the costs and
the type and level of activity (see insert next page). As shown benefits of intervention.
in tools R-4 Hierarchy of centres and R-5 Key regional and transit
centres, there are strategic, developmental and operational • Environmental quality: to protect and enhance the regional
issues. environment, and the amenity, health and safety of living
and working areas.

• Equity: to ensure that community groups are not objectives to be achieved. Questions to ask are:
disadvantaged in gaining access to, and use of, regional
facilities and services; that the interests of future • Do the tools address the preferred strategies and actions?
generations are protected; and that the needs of groups,
businesses and individuals, who could be disadvantaged • Are there important links between different strategies
are properly addressed. (see, for example, the link between activity and
accessibility in regional centres)?
• Flexibility: to ensure that options are ‘built in’, which enable
the regional structure to adapt to changes in the type and • What is involved in implementation?
location of activities, without unacceptable loss in
functional efficiency and environmental quality. • Which agencies have the responsibility for
implementation?
Step 6 SELECT TOOLS
• What level of implementation is acceptable and
An initial selection of the tools will be made by the body or bodies achievable?
responsible for the development of integrated strategies, but
other stakeholders should be invited as participants in the • Are responsible agencies capable of delivery?
process.
The result is a package of tools for each of the desired outcomes
The process starts with an exploration of the tools or package of (See Table B-7).
tools available, and selection of those which are relevant for the
The problem with regional centres
State or regional planning authorities may indicate intentions, but local authorities set the land-use parameters. Regional public
transport and roads are the responsibility of State authorities; the planning and development of sub-arterial and other roads, and
community transport are a local responsibility. The level of provision of parking is determined by the local authority with the spaces
being provided by the private sector and local authority. Traffic and parking management are local government responsibilities.
Duration and pricing of public parking spaces is determined by local authorities, whereas the private sector sets these parameters for
spaces under its control.
This fragmentation leads to a lack of integration of activity; accessibility; private investment in development; public provision of
regional transport infrastructure; and the management of transport. There are no procedures for overall management, for setting
common goals, objectives and desired outcomes, and for determining the means of achieving them.

DESIRED OUTCOMES OUTCOME AREAS FOR TOOLS
DEVELOPING SPECIFIC
OBJECTIVES
Increased opportunities for Accessibility R-1 Urban form and structure

implementing policies for Activity location R-2 Urban density
sustainable development Environmental quality R-3 The right activity in the right location
R-8 Road systems and land use
R-5 Key regional and transit centres
C-7 The right transport task on the right mode
L-2 Transit friendly land use
R-11 Air quality and traffic noise Etc
Economic development Efficiency R-3 The right activity in the right location
and efficient and convenient Cost-effectiveness R-7 Freight movement and land use
movement Flexibility R-9 Integrated development areas
R-4 A hierarchy of centres
C-9 Transport pricing and tolls
C-10 Intelligent transport systems
R-16 Keeping options open Etc
Improved quality of the Environmental quality R-11 Air quality and traffic noise
environment Activity L-8 Corridors and precincts
Accessibility L-9 Centres as precincts
Equity L-10 Residential precincts
L-11 Traffic calming
C-5 Adapting Type II corridors Etc
Equity for present and future Equity L-3 Increasing choices in transport
generations Flexibility R-16 Keeping options open Etc
Table B-7 Development of a regional land-use and transport strategy -

an example of the link between desired outcomes, outcome areas and tools

Step 7 DETERMINE REQUIRED ACTIONS approaches recognise the interactions, not only between land
use, transport and the environment, but also between agencies
At this stage alternative regional strategies can be explored and and their responsibilities; between the public and private sectors;
evaluated. Targets are set and indicators are determined for and between those agencies and enterprises, which change the
measuring performance. Depending on the desired outcome, face and structure of cities (the ‘doers’) and the community (the
examples of performance indicators and measures are: users).
• Air quality: reduction in CO2 emissions; There will be different outcomes and targets, depending on
knowledge and acceptance of tools to be used, and ability to
• Urbanisation: proportion of new dwellings built within apply them. Development of joint ownership in the process and
established urban areas; the outcomes is essential. For this reason, integrated regional
• Accessibility by public transport: number of dwellings planning is an interactive learning process with whole of
served by ‘frequent’ services in off- peak conditions; government and ‘corporate’ outcomes and achievable targets.
For such a process to work, careful thought should be given, up-
• Changes in travel behaviour of households: number of front, to the steps outlined above.
trips made by different transport modes by census
collection districts (or other unit of measurement); In the following example (Integrated Regional Transport Planning
in Queensland, 1997), there is evidence that this was done. It is
• Traffic noise: reduction in the number of dwellings exposed an excellent example of integrated regional planning and the
to unacceptable levels; brief summary does not do justice to it. However, the study also
raises several generic questions, such as the setting of targets
• Road safety: number of fatalities, accidents involving and the ability to achieve them with the tools used.
injury, property damage; and
• Freight: number of deliveries per day per truck, tonnage

carried, hazardous goods by defined routes.
Step 8 MONITORING AND FEEDBACK
WHAT IS DIFFERENT?
The aim of integrated planning is to achieve better outcomes in

the management of cities and towns. Putting it simply, integrated
regional approaches involve a shift from single agency output
planning to multi-agency outcome planning. Integrated

What is Integrated Regional Transport Planning? • Provide efficient road and freight networks
It is a new approach to transport planning that: • Co-ordinate land use and transport planning
• is more inclusive • Improve social justice and environmental outcomes
• involves cooperation between all stakeholders Key players
• involves extensive consultation • Three spheres of government
• balances the future needs for all modes • Relevant Federal Government agencies
in one process
• Relevant State Government agencies, such as:
• public transport
Queensland Transport
• freight
Department of Main Roads
• general motor traffic
Department of Local Government and Planning
• non-motorised transport (i.e. walking and cycling)
• Local Governments and representative bodies (i.e.
• travel demand management Regional organisation of councils (ROCS).
• ensures that land use and transport planning support • Private sector
each other
• Service providers (public and private)
IRTP objectives
• Community
• Develop a more sustainable transport system
• Improve public transport

EXAMPLE: Integrated Regional Transport Planning in
Queensland
• Provide improved pedestrian and cycling facilities
• Restrain growth in peak period car travel Source: Integrated Regional Transport Plan for SE Queensland
(1997) Queensland Government

Roles • Growth corridors
Queensland Government • Economic development
• Delivering high-quality integrated transport planning for • Employment

demand areas in Queensland
• Freight movements
• Facilitating the provision of efficient transport
infrastructure to support state economic development • Densities and mixed use developments
• Preparing integrated transport strategies and plans and • Total population

contributing to transport policy development
• Transit oriented development (TOD) principles
• Reviewing strategies on a 5-yearly basis producing
a rolling 3-year program • Performance measures
• Preparing guidelines
Local Government
• Incorporating ITP principles into the development and

review of:strategic plans.and planning schemes which
require compliance with State government policy
Regional framework for growth management (RFGM)
Integrated regional transport plan (IRTP)
• Preparing integrated local transport plans

Local transport plans are to address
• Infrastructure provision
• Pedestrian and cycling network
• Effects on centres policy

Strategies and actions
Strategies are determined for a wide range of issues. A three-

year rolling program is prepared which identifies action items, the
lead agency, supporting agencies and duration. Extracts of this
program are shown in Table B-8.
Action statements cover a wide range of activities e.g. for ‘transit’

precincts:
S 10.10 Initiate a project for a ‘transit’ precinct redevelopment to

show how the current urban form can be made to support more
sustainable transport.
S 10.11 Promote establishment of ‘transit’ precincts to encourage

more intensive urban development within easy reach of public
transport.
S 10.12 Provide incentives in local planning schemes and other

Figure B-12 Role of Local Government regulations to encourage more intensive development in ‘transit’
precincts.
How the IRTP works
Figure B-12 illustrates the role of Local Government. Figure B-13

shows the organisational structure and Figure B-14 how the IRTP
works. Figure B-15 indicates the consultation arrangements.

Figure B-13 Organisation structure

Figure B-14 How the IRTP works

ACTION DESCRIPTION LEAD SUPPORTING DURATION
AGENCY AGENCIES (YEARS)
KA 9.6 d Additional lanes on the Gateway Motorway MR 1
KA 9.6g Upgrade the Pacific Highway to improve travel times and safety and to MR QT, LG 5
protect the strategic inter-regional function of this highway from
clogging by local traffic
A 9.10 b A rail/road transfer facility at Charlton, west of Toowoomba LG QT, QR, MR 2
KA 9.11 Identify freight needs in economic development strategies LG QT ongoing
A 10.3 Support Local Government integrated transport planning QT/LG MR 3
A10.3a Assistance, both financial and professional, for local government to QT MR 3

prepare integrated local planning strategies
A 10.3 Workshops involving State and local government, community and LG MR, QT, DLGP 3
developers, where a development plan for a new growth area is
prepared
A 10.6 Give priority to Key Centres with transport services SG LG ongoing
A 10.6 a Develop Maroochydore as a key regional centre SG LG ongoing
A 10.7 Give second priority for transport to Major District Centres QT LG, MR, DLGP ongoing
KA 10.13 Concentrate urban growth at key public transport nodes LG SG ongoing
KA 10.16 Incorporate infrastructure plans in planning legislation DLGP LG, MR, QT ongoing
Table B-8 Three Year Rolling Program Integrated Regional Transport Plan for SE Qld (Extract) - 1997/1998 Financial Year

LOCAL PLANNING
TYPICAL ISSUES
Integration at the local level will involve different issues and

depend on the context: fringe areas, infill areas, inner and
intermediate suburbs, and country towns. Typical considerations
are:
• How can local urban structures be developed which are

more sustainable?
• What strategies are needed to achieve a closer fit

between local land use and accessibility, with a built-in
choice in transport mode and priority measures for the
operation of local and express bus services?
• Where should land uses be located in relation to their

employment and visitor characteristics, and the type and
level of accessibility provided by the transport
infrastructure?
• How can we create precincts for environmental protection

and corridors for movement?
Figure B-15 Consultation arrangements • What is needed to develop environments for living and
remodel established areas with a high level of amenity
and safety, a variety of local land uses, and convenient
pedestrian and cycle routes?
• Can the road hierarchy be adapted to recognise different

types of environments and different modes of transport?

• What is needed to create pedestrian-friendly centres with • the need for local government to play a leadership role in
provision for vehicle restraint in the core and a mixture of bringing about more effective strategic planning and
mutually supporting activities? integration at the local or regional level.
ALL THESE ISSUES ARE LINKED A Guide to Integrated Local Area Planning, published by the
Australian Local Government Association, sets out the major
Individual strategies may achieve outcomes which satisfy specific principles underlying the concept of ILAP responses to distinctive
objectives, but do not necessarily lead to livable, efficient and local circumstances and needs (ALGA, 1993). Central to the
equitable communities. ‘The whole is greater than the sum’ and ILAP approach is the proposition that a local council should
this requires understanding how individual strategies contribute canvass the full range of significant issues facing its locality. It
to the whole. In addition, local areas play a role within a regional should actively set out to explore the linkages between different
framework. There are linkages between regional and local issues, functions, expenditure programs, agencies, and spheres
strategies. of government relating to the efficient and effective planning,
development and management of a locality.
Step 1 PROBLEM DEFINITION
ILAP proposes that:
The importance of defining the problem was highlighted in
Integrated Local Area Planning (ILAP), developed jointly by the • local areas should be viewed holistically, linking land use,
Australian Local Government Association (ALGA) and the transport, environmental, economic, social and cultural
Commonwealth to promote a ‘whole of government, whole of issues, rather than treating them separately;
community’ approach to strategic planning and program
management at the local/regional level. • it is necessary to develop a shared understanding of key
issues among all those concerned with the well-being of
ILAP promotes three major themes (see AMCORD Practice Note local communities and, as far as possible, a shared vision
PNP 1, Integrated Local Area Planning): of desired futures; and
• the need for partnership between the three spheres of • related activities of different departments within councils,
government, local communities and the private sector to organisations and spheres of government should be co-
work towards establishing and achieving shared objectives ordinated in order to address key issues and achieve
for enhanced local well-being; desired futures.
• the need for the public sector to improve its performance, Step 2 INSTITUTIONAL SETTING
ensuring that its various activities are effectively integrated
and directed towards enhancing the overall well-being of ILAP suggests that the local government area provides a
local communities and their environments; and convenient unit for planning because councils need to integrate

activities and balance resource allocation at that scale. However, Step 3 DETERMINE DESIRED OUTCOMES
in some cases, the process may need to span two or more
adjoining local government areas in order to address issues of There are several critical questions:
subregional or regional significance. Where there are matters of
regional significance, the responsibilities between regional and • Are the existing activities of council and other agencies
local jurisdictions need to be clearly defined (and this may appropriate to meeting priority local needs?
include integrated funding).
• Which geographical area should be considered: select
ILAP identifies four mechanisms to provide a suppor tive part of a local government area which is undergoing
framework: development or redevelopment; or is there a joint program
for adjoining local government areas?
• shared commitment and partnership among key • Are there regional planning policies and action plans?
stakeholders;
• What position should a local authority take in relation to
• adequate processes for community consultation and infrastructure development and the private sector,
involvement, including the private sector; including incentives and contributions?
• effective corporate planning and management within the • Should it play a proactive role in attracting development or
responsible council; and in improving the quality of the local area?
• ongoing arrangements for inter-agency co-operation and Step 4 DEFINE THE SCOPE
review of outcomes.
By selecting ‘local’ as the area of application the ground for the
game has been chosen, but there is still a need to determine the
The case for greater integration in development and operational planning
There is considerable scope for greater integration in development and operational planning. Planners have produced development
control plans which address land use (after obtaining the ‘requirements’ for roads and traffic from engineers) and aspects of urban
design. Engineers have produced traffic calming schemes without much consideration of land use.
This practice should be replaced by an integrated approach, where land use, transport and the environment are considered together
from the start. It is likely that there will be land-use solutions to transport problems and vice versa.

scope. There are great differences in local problems and needs, fundamental part of the planning process. Everything else flows
and there will be widely different interpretations of how to deal from it. The statement should lead to a set of specific objectives
with them (Resource Document Chapters 8 and 9). Assuming, for each outcome area, and the objectives, in turn, lead to the
for example, that the desired outcome is an integrated local land- tools needed.
use and transport strategy, the scope could be defined in a
simple statement, such as a strategy which: The outcome areas are similar to those in regional planning, but
the needs statements are different at the local level:
• increases opportunities for implementing policies for
sustainable development; • Activity location: for example, to provide opportunities
for the location and functioning of local land-use activities,
• encourages economic development and efficient and which promote the efficient, equitable and sustainable
convenient movement; performance of the local land-use/transport system, and
to constrain activities which detract or impair such
• improves the quality of the environment; and performance.
• provides equity for present and future generations. • Accessibility: to provide access to local activities
according to the needs for different kinds and levels of
There are clearly advantages if processes aimed at greater mobility and consistent with the need for an efficient,
integration start at the strategic level. At the core of an Integrated equitable, convenient and sustainable land-use/transport
Local Area Planning process is the combination of a holistic system.
assessment of the relevant local area with subsequent focusing
upon a limited number of key issues. In this way, significant • Efficiency: to ensure that the local land-use/transport
linkages between different areas of activity and priorities are system facilitates the efficient functioning of economic and
identified . The priorities become ‘action areas’ and are then social activities.
developed further through a development planning process or an
operational planning process (see Part D). • Cost-effectiveness: to make best use of existing and
proposed infrastructure, and take account of the costs and
There are always links between the various processes and there benefits of intervention.
may be situations where it is necessary to use a strategic and
development process in parallel, and not in sequence (see the • Environmental quality: to protect and enhance the local
example of Inner Suburbs at the end of this section). environment; to integrate new and existing development,
while preserving heritage; to achieve a sense of ‘place’
Step 5 SET SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES with its own identity, and a high level of amenity, health
and safety.
The preparation of a statement on what is to be achieved is a

• Equity: to ensure that all community groups have the shared responsibility for implementation?
opportunity to use local facilities and services; that the
interests of future generations are protected, and that the • What level of practice is acceptable and achievable?
needs of groups, businesses and individuals are properly
assessed and addressed. • Are responsible agencies capable of delivery?
• Flexibility: to allow for change in the type and location of • What targets (if any) should be set and how should
activities, without loss in functional efficiency and progress be monitored?
environmental quality.
As explained in Chapter 1, the tools are approaches and
Step 6 SELECT TOOLS principles for a particular topic, and the list of tools in the Guide is
by no means exhaustive. Often tools already exist, such as
There are many tools available which can be used at the local guidelines for reducing the impact of traffic noise or promoting
level. They may be land-use planning and regulatory policies, the use of public transport in residential development. However,
actions for the provision of transpor t, policies for traffic there will also be areas where new tools will need to be
management, policies for better access to public transport and developed and used.
safe routes to school, programs for the development of bikeways,
and parking pricing policies. The result of this step is a package of tools for each of the
desired outcomes (Table B-9).
Some of the tools will be par t of regional strategies and
implemented at the local level. The initial selection of other tools Step 7 DETERMINE REQUIRED ACTIONS
will be made by the local author ity responsible for the
development of integrated local plans, but other relevant At this stage alternative local strategies can be explored and
stakeholders should also be involved. evaluated. Actions are identified and targets are set. Performance
indicators are also determined so that there is a basis for
The process starts with an exploration of the tools or package of measuring progress towards the achievement of targets.
tools available and selection of those which are relevant for the Depending on desired outcomes and actions, examples of
objectives to be achieved. Questions to ask are: performance indicators and measures are:
• Do the tools address the preferred strategies and actions? • Traffic noise: reduction in the number of dwellings
exposed to unacceptable levels;
• What is involved in their development as policies and
practices? • Incidence of traffic penetration into precincts;
• Which agencies other than the local authority have a • Road safety: number of fatalities, accidents involving

injury, property damage; isolation. In the example which follows the need to integrate
regional, local and precinct issues is highlighted. This is a
• Vehicle speed near sensitive land uses; particular problem in inner suburbs, which often suffer because
of regional traffic and parking intrusion.
• Proportion of heavy vehicles along local traffic routes;
This is the focus in the following example.
• Proportion of higher density housing built within
established urban areas and new residential areas;
• Accessibility by public transport: number of dwellings

served by ‘frequent’ services in off- peak conditions; and
• Equity: Council expenditure on improving access by

disabled people to public buildings and spaces.
Step 8 MONITORING AND FEEDBACK
This depends on the particular topic. It is important that the

evaluation be undertaken with full involvement of the council.
WHAT IS DIFFERENT?
The aim of integrated planning is to achieve better outcomes in

the management of cities and towns At the local level, ILAP has
shown the way, and the approach outlined here is entirely
consistent with it. The example of Integrated Local Area
Planning, shown in Par t D, Chapter 2, is an appropriate
illustration of how it can be done.
The goals and tools to be used depend on knowledge of

available tools, agreement to use them and ability to apply them.
There are tools in Part C which may not have been considered
before (e.g. L-1 Accessibility zoning).
Local area planning can rarely be undertaken successfully in

DEVELOPING SPECIFIC
OBJECTIVES
Increased opportunities to Activity L-1 Activity/accessibility zoning

implement policies for sustainable Accessibility L-2 Transit-friendly land use
development L-5 Cycle networks and land use
L-4 Increasing choices in land use
R-11 Air quality and traffic noise Etc
Economic development and Efficiency L-1 Activity/accessibility zoning

efficient and convenient movement Cost-effectiveness R-7 Freight movement and land use
Flexibility to respond R-8 Road systems and land use
to opportunities R-15 Travel blending
R-9 Integrated development areas Etc
Improved quality of the environment Air quality L-6 Pedestrians and land use
Activity L-8 Corridors and precincts
Accessibility L-9 Centres as precincts
Equity L-10 Residential precincts
L-12 Safety
C-13 Visual enhancement Etc
Equity for present and Equity L-3 Increasing choices in transport

future generations L-4 Increasing choices in land use
Table B-9 Development of an integrated local land-use and transport strategy-

an example of the link between desired outcomes, outcome areas and tools

EXAMPLE Parallel integrated processes for inner suburbs measures have a major impact on the local community. One of
the consequences is likely to be greater local use of Type II
Integrated planning of inner suburban areas is complex. There is corridors and other local traffic routes.
pressure:
A bottom up approach
• from without: re-urbanisation of, and increased regional
accessibility through, the area; and At the precinct level, the objective of environmental protection
predominates. There is a need to examine the factors which
• from within: improvement in the quality of the local determine their environmental traffic capacity in order to
environment, while maintaining community and property determine the balance between accessibility, activity and
values, heritage and lifestyle. environmental quality. With up-front investigation and the
completion of plans which address traffic calming, streetscape
There are three levels of consideration in the relationship profiles and land-use mix criteria, a basis exists for addressing
between road and land-use planning: the scope for re-urbanisation and environmental protection.
1 Regional (‘macro planning’) Starting at the middle
2 Local (‘meso planning’) Land-use policies should aim to improve the link between the
accessibility and mobility needs of people and businesses in the
3 Precinct (‘micro planning’) area, and use broad zoning tools to achieve it.
None of these levels of planning can be considered in isolation; Two critical aspects of local transport planning are: (i) the
they are always linked. The approach to local land-use and identification of Type II corridors and (ii) the links between the
transport planning must encompass all three levels, but can start local street network and Type I and Type II corridors. There will be
at the top (regional), at the bottom (precinct) or at the middle. many roads in inner suburbs with through traffic, including heavy
vehicles. Narrow road reservations, competition for use of the
A top down approach limited road space and unacceptable environmental impacts add
to the problem. The redistribution of the use of the limited road
A top down approach starts at the regional level. The regional space will affect the stakeholders differently.
agenda usually determines the priorities for accessibility and re-
urbanisation. This may include actions such as giving priority to
regional movements (including express public transport), limiting
the number of intersections and/or turning movements, limiting
vehicle access to sites (including on-street parking) and reducing
pedestrian-generating activities along them. All of these

There is a need to: The relationship between these levels
• provide accessibility along clearly defined routes; The regional level sets constraints at the local level and the
adjoining road environment. The precinct level sets constraints
• create precincts and protect them from through traffic; and for regional vehicle movement because of the priority for
• provide connections between precincts without environmental protection in precincts. It is at the local level where
encouraging through traffic. these conflicts must be resolved. Hence the spacing and role of
Type II corridors and other local traffic routes are such significant
factors in finding a balance between regional and local needs.
It is not presently common practice to plan the regional level with

a full appreciation of the local and precinct levels, nor is it
common practice, when introducing traffic calming in local
precincts, to consider the possible consequences at regional
levels.
Yet, the entire system is interdependent and should be treated as

such. Action at one level will have significant repercussions at all
other levels.
This is becoming increasingly important in inner suburbs, where

the capacity of the major transport system is fully utilised.
Figure B-16 Regional policies

Figure B-17 Road/environment relationships Figure B-18 Accessibility and activity policies

CORRIDOR PLANNING Step 1 PROBLEM DEFINITION
TYPICAL ISSUES Transpor t corridors can be rail or road routes and their
environments. However, the association between a road route
Corridors are defined as roads and their environments. Typical and the environment is more complex - rail routes are usually
issues are: located in exclusive reservations without any access. In the
following section, the focus is on corridors, which may include
• How can roads and their environments be planned, road-based public transport and light rail.
designed, developed and managed as integrated corridors
with provision for a range of transport modes?
• How can the different types and functions of corridors be

recognised in their relationship with adjoining
communities, land uses and built form?
• How should corridor development and management plans

be prepared and used as the basis for development
control and traffic management?
• How can such plans address the management of friction

and impact, including site access; the location of
pedestrian-generating activities; the safety of pedestrians
and cyclists, on-street parking,; and the impact on
business activity, traffic noise, building siting and design?
• How can speed and activity profiles be used as the basis

for development control and traffic management?
• How can the built form of the transport route and adjoining
development reflect the nature and scale of the corridor;
recognise the environmental impact of traffic on adjoining
development; and give a sense of direction to drivers and Figure B-19 Road and environment model
passengers in motion?

There are different types of corridors, but the main types are Step 2 INSTITUTIONAL SETTING
primary and secondary corridors (described herein as Type I and
Type II corridors). Institutional arrangements should recognise that there are five
important relationships:
• In Type I corridors, the transport function is always
dominant, yet the environment should be protected from 1 the links between transport, land use and the
the impact of traffic. environment, i.e. the need to consider them
simultaneously, and not the road first and subsequently
• In Type II corridors, transport and environment functions the impact on the environment;
must be made compatible.
2 the links between different levels of planning: regional,
There are also different problems, depending on the local and adjacent development;
planning, development and management situations (figure
B-20): 3 the links between areas of responsible agencies and
jurisdictions;
• a new corridor through an area without significant urban
development;
No development
yet
• a new corridor through an area with significant urban
development, but where a road reservation exists;
Development
• a new corridor through an established urban area, where Reservation exists
no reservation pre-existed;
exists
No reservation
• an existing traffic route without significant urban exists
development along it; No urban
development
Upgrade
• an existing traffic route with development alongside it; and
• an existing traffic route with development alongside and

proposals to upgrade its traffic function.
CBD
Figure B-20 Corridor situations

4 the relationship between the different processes involved:
strategic, development and implementation planning; and
5 the appropriate kind of stakeholder involvement related to

the level of planning and the type of process required.
Figure B-21 Issues and levels

As shown in figure B-21, different issues arise at strategic, the agenda. There is no single model for formulating the agenda,
development and operational stages. When deciding on roles but the matters referred to in Chapters 1 (Part B) and Chapter 4
and responsibilities, it needs to be clear whether the problem is: (Part D) should be taken into account.
strategic (e.g. purpose, function, indicative location, priority);
developmental (e.g. route selection and development); or Step 4 DEFINE THE SCOPE
operational (a clearly defined project).
There is a great variety of corridor problems and needs, and
The primary responsibility for the planning of Type I corridors has there will be widely different interpretations of the scope. Chapter
traditionally been with road authorities, but an integrated corridor 12 in the Resource Document identifies a wide range of possible
approach requires a broader basis. In some cases, the lead issues and matters to be taken into account. Assuming, for
agency for strategic planning is the Department of Transport example, that the desired outcome is an integrated approach
(until there is a project) or a State or regional planning authority towards corridors, the scope could be defined in a simple
(until there are road projects and land use policies). In some statement, such as:
States, the lead agency for development planning may be the
Department of Infrastructure (or equivalent) because of the need • Roads and their environments are planned as integrated
to co-ordinate programmed funding for utilities and transport. The corridors, in which the relationship between transport and
lead agency for operational planning (including corridor frontage functions and environmental protection are
management) is always the road authority. considered together;
Irrespective of the responsibilities assigned to each authority, a • Corridors are planned as potentially multi-modal transport
whole-of-government approach should always be used. This routes;
ensures that there is a commitment to agreed outcomes, and not
simply a reliance on separate organisational charters. • Roads and their environments are designed to (i) reflect
the nature and scale of the corridor, (ii) establish an
Step 3 DETERMINE DESIRED OUTCOMES appropriate urban design relationship, (iii) provide legibility
of the corridor to drivers and passengers in motion, and
The practice in the past (and still widespread) is to decide on the (iv) recognise the environmental impact of traffic on
transpor t outcome first, and then to examine how the adjoining development;
environment can be related to it. With an integrated approach the
two are considered together at all stages of planning. • Roads and their environments are developed in
association with each other and as integrated
As the tools show, there are numerous aspects and there will be developments; and
widely different values given to them. Alternatives will need to be
explored and trade-offs determined. The form and means of • Roads and their environments are managed as integrated
involving the stakeholders in this process will be a critical part of corridors.

In setting the scope, selection of the process (strategic planning, transport route and the safety of its users.
development planning or operation planning) is important. In the
case of a new Type I corridor, there is generally a need for an • Accessibility: to provide for multi-modal transport use of
integrated strategic and/or development planning process, before the road reservation, the efficient movement of through
an EIS is produced. It is often an advantage to use a strategic traffic, and controlled access from local communities.
planning process if it is proposed to significantly upgrade or
adapt an existing Type I corridor. • Safety: to reduce conflict between pedestrians, cyclists
and vehicles; and increase safety for all road users.
The reason for distinguishing between these processes is that
there are different kinds of decisions to be made and there is a • Environmental quality: to improve the quality of the road
different focus for the stakeholders at each stage. Problems often environment for all users; minimise the impact on local
arise in corridor planning because local concerns tend to communities; ensure that adjoining land uses are
dominate the agenda and project planning raises issues of a protected from the impact of traffic; and encourage
strategic kind (e.g. why do we need it?). It is preferable to use a adjoining development with urban design qualities
sequential approach of strategic, development and project appropriate for the transport function and traffic
planning to resolve or reduce such conflicts. characteristics.
Step 5 SET SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES • Equity: to ensure that community groups are not
disadvantaged by the establishment or upgrading of a
The preparation of a statement setting out what is to be achieved corridor; that compensation is fair where properties are
is a fundamental par t of the planning process because affected and that processes for awarding compensation
everything else flows from it. The statement should lead to a set recognise the needs of the recipients as well as public
of specific objectives for each outcome area, and these accountability.
objectives lead to the relevant tools.
• Efficiency: to ensure that the corridor facilitates efficient
The objectives will vary for Type I and Type II corridors and for transport performance.
the different stages of planning. The following outcome areas and
needs statements indicate the range of aspects for which specific • Cost-effectiveness: to make best use of the existing
objectives need to be developed at the corridor level (for Type I regional corridors and take account of the costs and
corridors): benefits of integrating the road and the environment; and
• Activity location: for example, to provide opportunities • Flexibility: being able to respond to changes in the use of
for the efficient location and functioning of regional land- the corridor for different transport modes, and in the
use activities and to constrain activities within the corridor management of transport and traffic.
which impair the performance of the corridor, as a major

Step 6 SELECT TOOLS • Road safety: number of fatalities, accidents involving
injury, property damage;
An initial selection of the tools will be made by the body or bodies
responsible for the development of integrated strategies, but • Transport conflict: reduction in conflict between
other relevant stakeholders should be invited as participants in pedestrians, cyclists and vehicles
the process. in Type I and Type II corridors; and
The process criteria to be used in selecting tools was explained • Frontage conflict: the number of properties with direct
in the Regional Planning section, and is not repeated here. access to Type I corridors.
The result is a package of tools for each of the desired outcomes Step 8 MONITORING AND FEEDBACK
(see Table B-10).
Integrated corridor approaches are relatively undeveloped and
Step 7 DETERMINE REQUIRED ACTIONS targets will initially need to be simple. They require a well-
developed database and a capability to monitor changes.
At this stage, alternative corridor strategies, plans or policies can Integrated databases do not yet exist and there is a need to
be explored and evaluated to determine the actions which are develop them. The number of indicators may have to be kept
needed to reach the desired outcomes. When the actions have small initially, but should be expanded over time.
been identified, targets should be set and performance indicators
specified. As outcomes are different for different processes, the next sub-
sections provide further information on them.
There are many examples of performance targets for the
transport and traffic function of roads (for example: capacity, STRATEGIC PLANNING FOR CORRIDORS
speed, level of service and safety). There are performance
targets for traffic noise and some for local air quality. However, Strategic planning processes are described in Part D, Chapter 1,
there are no performance targets for reducing frontage-induced but some key features should be highlighted here.
friction and visual blight.
Alternative futures and scenarios
Some provisional performance indicators and measures are:
An integrated approach towards Type I corridors starts with an
• Traffic noise: reduction in the number of properties investigation of alternative futures of land use, travel demand and
exposed to unacceptable levels; network development. This is important, as proposals for new or
upgraded major corridors may be controversial, and there is likely
• Air quality: exposure to unacceptable air quality for to be an expression of different values and visions. Land use,
specified land uses along corridors; demand management and network options could be examined.

DEVELOPING SPECIFIC
OBJECTIVES
Roads and their environments are planned as Activity location L-8 Corridors and precincts
integrated corridors, in which the relationship Accessibility C-1 Corridor categorisation
between transport and frontage functions and Efficiency C-6 Access to roads
environmental protection are considered together Cost-effectiveness C-2 Planning new Type I corridors
Environmental quality C-3 Planning new Type II corridors
C-4 Adapting Type I corridors
Equity C-12 Maintaining community cohesion Etc
Corridors are planned as potentially multi-modal Efficiency R-6 Public transport and land use
transport routes Cost-effectiveness R-7 Freight transport and land use
C-7 The right transport task on the right mode and route
C-1 Corridor categorisation
Flexibility R-16 Keeping option open Etc
Corridors are designed to (i) reflect the nature and Environmental quality C-1 Corridor categorisation
scale of the corridor (ii) establish an appropriate Safety C-14 Urban corridor management
urban design relationship, (iii) provide legibility of C-13 Visual enhancement
the corridor to drivers and passengers in motion, C-11 Reducing noise exposure
and (iv) recognise the environmental impact of C-16 Roadside services
traffic on adjoining development L-13 Visibility
C-15 Rural corridor management Etc
Roads and their environments are managed as Accessibility C-6 Access to roads
integrated corridors Activity C-14 Urban corridor management
Environmental quality R-10 Integrating investment
Efficiency C-8 Congestion management
C-10 Intelligent Transport systems Etc
Table B-10: Transport corridors - an example of the link between desired outcomes, outcome areas, and tools

Looking for robust strategies expectation of a consensus.
It is not necessary at the start to have a consensus about a A transparent process

preferred vision, because the long time frame and the limited
resources available for implementation will inevitably lead to new The main aim should be that the process is transparent and is
insights and new priorities being established at a later stage. The seen as credible. The outcomes and trade-offs should then be
aim should be to discover those elements of a land-use, made available to a wider audience, but the presentation should
transport and environmental strategy which can withstand the be in a form in which the regional nature of the study, the
fickleness of uncertainty. In other words the focus should be on strategic options, priorities and trade-offs are emphasised and
elements which are robust, irrespective of the vision selected and easy to understand.
differences in perceptions and priorities.
Assessment and evaluation
In cases where there are fundamentally different locations for a
road- and rail-based corridor, a decision must be made whether The difference between assessment and evaluation and the
to carry the two forward (with the costs involved and the risk that processes involved are explained in Part D, Chapter 1. It is
neither may be developed). Or whether it is preferable to trade off important for the community to understand the difference if the
the efficiencies of a single purpose corridor for the flexibility of a process and the findings are to gain credibility.
multi-purpose corridor.
Broad assessment of consequences
It is important to assess the regional flow-on effects of increased

accessibility by the provision of a new corridor. This requires an
investigation of the likely land-use changes, including any shifts
in activity concentrations and the resulting transport demand.
Similarly, there is a need to examine regional environmental
consequences and any regional and local constraints, which may
influence the corridor’s location.
Involvement of regional stakeholders
The regional stakeholders should be involved at this stage of the

process, and some key local stakeholders should be invited to
participate, as the consultation process should be seen as a Figure B-22 Type I corridors: Idealised processes and outputs
collective learning activity. Again, there should initially be no

DEVELOPMENT PLANNING FOR CORRIDORS should not be divorced (as is currently the case) from an
upgrading of the road and adjacent environment.
With an integrated land use and transport strategy, the proposed
function and indicative routes of the corridor will have been Explore possible implementation models
determined (e.g. Integrated Regional Transport Plan for SE
Queensland, 1997); Integrated Transport Strategy, Sydney, There are different implementation models (see for example, Tool
1995). Assuming that the action statement requires more R-9 Integrating public and private development) and C-14 Urban
detailed study of routes and the districts affected, a different Corridor Management. It is important to note that the time-frame
process will be needed. The following aspects of the integrated for adapting the road environment depends on opportunities as
development process are highlighted (for further information see they arise. However, an integrated development policy, which
Part D, Chapter 2). incorporates the many aspects involved, provides
a practical basis for development control and corr idor
Determining basic needs improvement.
At this stage, indicative cross-sections need to be determined It should also be noted that the development of such a policy
and detailed policies should be developed for the relationship requires collaboration between transpor t, land-use and
between the road and the environment. environmental agencies and a partnership with local authorities.
Examining alternatives and their consequences Corridor development plans
Alternative routes and land-use dispositions at district and local One of the possible outcomes are corridor development plans for
levels need to be explored. Much more attention should be given priority areas and for different sections of a corridor. They could
to the local environmental effects and how any adverse effects include performance criteria for adjacent development and
can be mitigated. illustrations of acceptable forms of development.
Different stakeholders OPERATIONAL PLANNING FOR CORRIDORS
Consultation is again essential, but the stakeholders are Operational planning is needed once there is a commitment to
different. For each major section of the corridor, separate groups construction or physical modification (see Part D, Chapter 3 for
should be formed and the options canvassed further information). An integrated approach towards operational
planning may address the following aspects:
Development options
• Creating a new environment
Corridor establishment or upgrading may well be driven by the
need for improvement in regional and local accessibility, but The central issue is how to create a new environment in which

land use and the built form are compatible with the transport
function and thus provide an acceptable environment for people. EXAMPLE Type I Corridor Management Plan
• Comprehensive management of land use, traffic A corridor management plan was prepared for the Great
management and design Western Highway through the Blue Mountains by the NSW
Roads and Traffic Authority and Blue Mountains City
This includes consideration of a wide range of matters, set out in Council in 1992.
Tools C-1 to C-14.
The plan addresses:
• Corridor management plans
• the need for a management plan;
The outcome of this process is a set of corridor management
plans for each section of the project area, which include the road • the relevant authorities and structures;
design, traffic management and development control.
• physical setting;
WHAT IS DIFFERENT?
• social setting;
The aim of integrated corridor planning is to achieve better
outcomes in the planning and development of transport routes. • issues and conflicts: highway operation and safety,
Stating it simply, integrated corridor approaches involve a shift environmental protection, social and commercial
from single agency output planning (usually road authority) to issues; and
multi-agency outcome planning.
• representative highway situations including
This shift is not without precedent. In the US, the Intermodal highway types.
Surface Transportation Efficiency Act (ISTEA requires integrated
approaches for all transport planning; see Resource Document Seven different road environment situations were identified.
7.4.2 Goals, objectives and strategies were developed for each
of the road environment situations.
Truly integrated approaches towards the planning of transport
corridors, as suggested here, goes further than ISTEA. It These were then worked through in detail, which led to
recognises the interactions, not only between land use, transport corridor management plans for each highway type. The
and the environment, but also between agencies and their management plans formed the basis for local development
responsibilities; between the public and private sectors; and control plans and highway reconstruction plans and are
between those agencies and enterprises which change the face now being implemented. Note: there is further information
and structure of cities (the ‘doers’) and the community (both as in Part C: C-4 Adapting Type I Corridors.

users and those affected).
There are three major differences with general practice:
1 A move from road planning to transport planning;
2 A move from transport routes to corridors, in which the

relationship between transport, land use and the
environment is considered together at all levels and all
stages of planning; and
3 Processes, which assist in reducing the conflicts between

different interests.
It is impossible for any single agency to achieve such outcomes

and the degree of integration will vary greatly: but there are
indications of progress. New approaches such as ‘Sharing the
Main Street’ are becoming more common and demonstrate what
can be achieved with Type II corridors. Examples, such as the Figure B-23 Corridor constraints
Great Western Highway through the Blue Mountains and the (Great Western Highway Corridor Management Plan, 1992)
Canterbury Council’s (Sydney) development plan for a major
arterial road (Canterbury Road), show that greater integration
can be achieved with Type I corridors.
The greatest challenge is the development and application of

processes, especially in relation to Type I corridors, which bring
together the diverse interests in a constructive dialogue. PLANNING FOR OUTCOMES
AT SEVERAL LEVELS
The sequential application of these processes may not be
appropriate in all circumstances. Clearly, there are differences WHAT ARE THEY?
between developing a new corridor in outer areas and the
upgrading of existing transport routes. However, the determining Planning for multiple areas of applications is planning in
factor will be what outcome is to be achieved and which tools can situations, where there is no clear regional, local or corridor
be used. ‘playing field’, but a combination of some or all of them.

Examples are: networks, transport modes/ space utilisation; and
transport/ environmental quality. The basis for these
• A greenhouse or air quality strategy, which involves all interactions is explained in the Resource Document.
levels of planning;
• A network strategy; this may include regional and corridor

levels, or local and corridor levels;
• The development of regional centres, where there are

regional and local dimensions;
• Country centres; there will be local and corridor

dimensions;
• Inner suburbs; see the example in this Chapter 2 under

Local Planning;
• A housing strategy with policy aspects at regional level,

and action planning at local levels;
• An employment location policy; and
• Urban villages: regional location issues and local planning

and design issues.
In the following diagrams, the relationship between some of

these applications and the tools listed in Part C is illustrated.
The tools in the diagrams have been located according to two

criteria:
1 primary area of application (i.e. regional, local and

corridor); and
2 principal interaction. They are: activity/accessibility;

Figure B-24 Tools for a greenhouse strategy Figure B-25 Tools for a country centres

Figure B-26 Tools for a transport network strategy Figure B-25 Tools for an employment location strategy

EXAMPLE of multiple areas of application - Sustainable combined with traffic calming measures in the areas
development bypassed.
(OECD, 1995)
• Investing in lanes for high-occupancy vehicles.
The OECD approach involves determining outcomes for different
levels of achievement or ‘strands’. There are three strands, with • Using reserved lanes and telematics to give widespread
Strand 3 representing the most advanced form of intervention. priorities over other traffic to trams and buses.
Strand 1 The adoption of best practice policies • Extending pedestrian precincts and creating traffic cells.
LAND-USE MANAGEMENT • Providing improved facilities for cyclists and pedestrians.
• Limiting the spread of cities, keeping up residential • Enforcing 30 km/h speed limits (or lower) in residential
densities and protecting urban land. streets and other areas.
• Steering offices and shopping to city centres or other • Using telematics (responsive urban traffic control
locations which are well served by public transport. systems) to minimise congestion, improve air quality and
facilitate pedestrian movement.
• Limiting the amount of car commuting to new office
development by imposing low maxima on the number of • Providing drivers with real-time information about park and
car parking spaces which can be provided. ride and off-street parking availability.
• Increasing the supply of city centre and inner-city homes • Providing bus and tram riders with real-time information
(as in Portland, Oregon). about services at all stops.
• Shifting the supply of parking from central and inner ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
districts to suburban and ex-urban park and ride
interchanges. • Tightening regulations to reduce emissions of gas and
noise from new vehicles.
• Reserving locations for freight distribution close to existing
transport networks (whether rail, water or road). • Introducing progressively lower fuel consumption targets
for new vehicles.
ROAD TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT
• Introducing more frequent and stringent tests for
• Limiting road investment to bypasses of sensitive areas, emissions from vehicles already in use.

• Promoting the use of low-polluting buses. transit routes and stations by the offer of higher permitted
densities to developers.
• Banning/restricting road freight movement in sensitive
areas and/or at night. • Provision of networks of foot and cycle ways with priority
over vehicle roads.
PRICING MECHANISMS
• Establishment of car-free areas.
• Using fuel taxes, vehicle purchase taxes and annual
licence fees to promote the purchase and use of vehicles ROAD TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT
with low fuel consumption.
• Limiting urban road construction to serve new
• Using on- and off-street parking charges to balance development areas, and provide opportunities to improve
demand and supply for road use. the quality of public transport through the provision of
extra space for bus lanes, and segregated tram and
• Using tolls to pay for new infrastructure. busways.
• Making businesses which benefit from improvements to • Using telematics to integrate all aspects of urban transport
public transport contribute towards the cost of those management to keep demand for road space in balance
improvements. with supply (through advanced signal controls techniques)
and to provide a wide array of real-time information
Strand 2 Innovation in policies services for travellers.
Innovations include: • Using area and city-wide traffic calming measures.
LAND-USE MANAGEMENT • Enforcing speed limits using video analysis and

recognition techniques and ultimately through the use of
• Land-use policies designed to promote mixed uses or speed governors or sensors on vehicles, in order to
‘urban villages’ and improved facilities in local centres (e.g. reduce the risk posed to walkers and cyclists.
UK PPG 13).
• Obliging employers to introduce commuter plans (as in
• New tramways threaded through existing suburban many US cities).
districts, with residential densities raised in the vicinity of
stations and new travel attractors located near them. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
• Measures to encourage development around existing Using an array of regulatory and pricing mechanisms to promote

the use of low-polluting fuels and low-polluting, city-friendly cars, • Implementing steep year-by-year increases in the price of
buses and goods vehicles: fuel to conserve fuel and reduce CO2 emissions to
recommended target levels. These would be set by
• Setting deadlines for cities, tied to the receipt of national national governments, but influenced by international
grants, to reach defined noise and air quality goals. bodies such as the EU and UN.
• Using telematics, regulations and engineering techniques • Implementing additional taxes on the purchase, licensing
to keep traffic levels within defined environmental limits in and use of vehicles to ensure that the road users pay the
residential streets and urban roads. full external costs of their journeys.
PRICING MECHANISMS • Ensuring that the use of specialised, high-efficiency, low

weight, low polluting urban cars, vans, lorries and buses
• Electronic congestion pricing for city centres and inner become the norm in cities.
cities and other areas, where congestion, safety or air
quality requires a reduction in traffic; pricing mechanisms Table B-11 summarises the policies and levels of application.
could practically eliminate congestion and improve the
quality of tram and bus services at the same time.
• Replacement of operating subsidies for transit, where

appropriate, by user subsidies; this could be facilitated by
smart card technology.
Strand 3 Sustainable urban development
Strand 3 goes further than the other two strands in order to

reduce the risk of global climate change. It is designed to
influence lifestyles, locational decisions, driver behaviour, choice
of travel mode and the length of car journeys. Its aim is to
reduce car use, fuel consumption and emissions. The OECD
report proposes that Strand 3 be designed to ‘reduce vehicle-
kilometrage significantly over a period of two or three decades,
by combining strands 1 and 2 with a substantial and steadily
increasing fuel tax’. Sustainable urban development measures
involve:

Level of government responsible for implementation
LOCAL NATIONAL INTERNATIONAL
Land-use Management
Urban containment + +
Mixing land uses +
Density standards, +
Parking standards in commercial and residential areas +
Car-free zones +
Location of park and ride sites +
Promoting city-centre development +
Road Traffic Management

Bypassing sensitive areas + +
Priorities for bus, train and HOVsb + +
Segregated rights of way for transit + +
Commuter planning + +
Telematics standards and application + + +
Traffic calming +
Cycle lanes and paths +
Pedestrian facilities +
Casualty reduction targets +
Lower speed limits and enforcement + +
Environmental Protection
Vehicle noise and emission standards/targets + +
Lowered fuel consumption goals for cars and trucks +
In-use vehicle inspection standards + +
Noise screening + +
Noise minimising road surfaces +
Maximum allowable traffic levels for residential and shopping streets +
Pricing Mechanisms
Carbon taxes + +
Vehicle purchase tax/annual licence fee +
Fuel duty +
Parking charges +
Transit pricing (subsidy policy) + +
Urban road tolls +
Congestion pricing + +
Table B-11 Policy Instruments for sustainable development (OECD, 1995)

Part C
CONTENT
Predominantly REGIONAL
Tools TOOLS
Predominantly LOCAL
Predominantly CORRIDOR

therefore, are core issues in integrated planning.
Urban structure R-1
It is impossible to change urban structure and form in the short
and form term, except in limited areas of cities. Integrated approaches
towards urban structure and form can have long-term effects,
and
• increase the potential for sustainable urban growth and

INTENT change;
The purpose of this tool is to encourage urban structures and • increase opportunities for choice in transport mode and
forms, which have the potential for sustainable and economic reduce car-dependence;
development. A key element is accessibility.
• contribute to the economic development of the region, city
Urban structure is defined by the distribution and relationships of or town and the movement of freight;
the dominant land uses, and the networks that serve them.
Regional land-use elements of urban structure are: major • contribute to the preservation of rural and environmental
centres; other nodes with high levels of activity (such as ports, resources in surrounding areas; and allow different styles
airports, major industrial areas, universities, hospitals, spectator of living and working.
sport and entertainment centres); regional open spaces; and the
location and density of residential areas. The two basic networks
which influence urban structure are the road and rail systems.
Both land use and transport systems are influenced by the
dominant land form. Together, they represent the enduring
structure of cities.
Urban form refers to the configuration and spatial characteristics

of cities. They may be linear, radial or spread in a grid or other
pattern. Densities may be concentrated in
specific locations or universally even.
Many of the concerns about living and working in urban areas

centre around the way they function and the impact they have on
individuals, communities, businesses and the environment. The Figure C-R1-1 Christchurch, NZ - like Adelaide, a good example
development and adaptation of urban structure and form, of the relationship between urban and natural land form

RELEVANT FACTORS like? There are many predictions and views. Some of these are
summarised in the Resource Document (Chapters 5 and 6).
WHAT DETERMINES URBAN STRUCTURE AND FORM? Whatever happens, the fact remains that cities are extremely
complex organisms and that targeting areas for influencing
Urban structure and form are always influenced by land forms, structure and form need to be considered with caution and care.
the suitability and availability of land for urban development,
public infrastructure investments and the operation of the urban INFLUENCING URBAN STRUCTURE AND FORM
land market. The major form-giving physical elements are
regional centres, transport corridors, density nodes and major Although there is a dynamic relationship between the elements
open spaces. Cities may be mono-nuclear or poly-nuclear, of urban structure and form, changes generally occur slowly and
networks may be radial, a super grid or a combination of them. incrementally. The fundamental changes towards poly-centric
Most railway systems are radial, whereas most road systems are suburbanisation have occurred over a period of about 50 years.
a combination of radial and grid. Planning has attempted to give form to the forces which led to
this restructuring, such as the imposition of green belts, growth
CHANGES IN AUSTRALIAN CITIES corridors and wedges of open areas, and urban consolidation.
Regional centres have been on the planning agenda for a long
The structure and form of most Australian cities have undergone time and many have been - and still are being - established.
significant change. Railway systems in the past created radial There is much current interest in establishing ‘transit-oriented
corridors of relatively dense activity at various distances from the developments’.
central area. However, the developing road system (amongst
other factors) ‘enabled low density infill activity, which watered Road network planning was largely based on predictions of
down the relevance of railway corridors’ (Austroads, 1997). transport demand, until it was realised there were consequences
Australian cities have increasingly become car dependent and which threatened resources and the quality of life in urban
this factor, together with a tradition of home ownership and communities. Optimistic predictions about the resources
outdoor lifestyle, has led to the spread of low-density suburbs available to implement ambitious strategic transport plans have,
on the fringes. to a degree, been replaced by more sober assessments of
affordable transport projects. This has led to in an interest in
The suburbanisation of cities has been accompanied by the alternatives for moving people and goods. Hence the relationship
emergence of new regional centres. and many mono-nucleated between travel demand and transport supply has undergone
cities have become poly-nucleated cities. Both housing and significant change.
employment have dispersed, and this has had major
consequences for the development and use of the transport As a result, there is much greater awareness today of the need
networks. to take account of a wide range of economic, social and
environmental factors in the management of urban structure and
With such dynamic changes, what will future city structures be form. Influencing urban form and structure has not only become

more complex, but also more compelling as new issues, such as Document, Chapter 6). Goals are related to economic growth
sustainable cities, the impact of telecommunications and and efficiency, environmental quality, social justice and livability.
affordability, have emerged. How these goals are expressed in specific objectives and
strategies depends on the context.
In order to manage urban structure and form there is a need to
understand the processes that influence them. Urban structure The growing concern about sustainable development and the
and form are greatly influenced by ‘threshold’ decisions (e.g. the need to reduce greenhouse emissions raise issues of
development of new regional centres and growth corridors or fundamental importance in the planning of urban structure and
major investments in public infrastructure (e.g. a port, freeway or form. Various strategies and policies have been proposed (eg
railway), which change regional accessibility. Threshold decisions Brindle, 1997b; see also Part B, Chapter 2 for OECD, 1995).
are infrequent; most developments are incremental and shape Many aspects are explored in the Resource Document (Chapters
urban structure gradually. In order to influence urban structure 5, 6 and 14). A summary of the conclusions is given below.
and form there is a need to focus on (i) key elements, especially
those where threshold decisions are involved, and on (ii) policies HOW MUCH DO WE KNOW TO FEEL CONFIDENT?
for those elements which cumulatively and progressively modify
regional structure and form (such as zoning and regional parking Influence of form and structure on the amount of travel,
policies). choice of transport, and car dependency
KEY ISSUES FOR INTEGRATED PLANNING In every city studied, car use is on the increase. This trend makes
it all the more important to develop urban forms and structures
Integrated planning and management centre around key issues which are efficient in reducing the amount of travel, creating
such as: more choice in transport mode and reducing car dependency.
• which objectives, strategies and actions can In theoretical terms it can be shown that urban structures with
be pursued to influence urban structure and form, and high concentrations of employment in a single large centre (or
how confident are we about their application? several large and interconnected centres, and selective
concentration of population in areas of high public transport
• is intervention needed and what form should it take? accessibility) are more efficient for travel than the dispersed city.
Structures with a relatively high degree of self-containment tend
• how feasible is it to apply intervention in practice? to reduce the length of travel and produce flows which require
less transport space than dispersed structures (see figure C-R1-
OBJECTIVES, STRATEGIES AND ACTIONS 2). Structures with multi-purpose centres tend to reduce the
amount of travel compared with single-use centres.
There is a high level of agreement on the goals and objectives for
the development of urban structure and form (see Resource There are many other factors to be taken into account: air quality,

energy consumption, cost-effectiveness in the development and Of course, current interactions may not be valid for predicting
operation of different transport modes, user costs and social future consequences because they will change in response to
sustainability. As the Resource Document shows (Chapter 5), the changes in technology, travel behaviour and many other factors.
answers are less clear-cut when these factors also have to be Assumptions have to be made, and some of these assumptions
taken into account. may be very sensitive: i.e. different assumptions can lead to
significant changes in the predicted outcomes. Sensitivity
The studies also show a problem of transferability of findings in analysis and risk management become necessary, and this will
one urban area to another. Models can be (and often are) used have consequences for the kind of strategies to be pursued (see
to compare alternative forms and structures. If they are based on R-16 Keeping options open).
an accurate calibration of current interactions an insight can be
gained on the possible consequences of alternative forms and Increased densities and urban containment
structures.
Issues related to density, consolidation and urban containment
are discussed in R-2 Urban density. It is not surprising that there
is a strongly held view that densities should be increased and
cities should become poly-nucleated with the nuclei along public
transport spines, as they grow (Newman and Kenworthy, 1996;
National Housing Strategy, 1992). And yet, there is a risk of over-
emphasising density as a panacea. ‘A major flaw in [those
focussing on density] is that they fail to understand the nature of
urban form and density. They confuse density with form and
ignore the critical factor of urban structure as a key determinant
in the journeys which people wish to make.’ (Hall, 1990).
Decentralisation and sub-centralisation
There has been intense discussion about the relative costs and
benefits of decentralisation and sub-centralisation (see Resource
Document, Chapter 5). Newman and Kenworthy (1989, 1992)
claim that a dispersed city form, as well as exacerbating traffic
congestion, energy consumption and air pollution, is associated
Figure C-R1-2 Self-containment and travel demand with longer travel times. However, Gordon, Kumar and
Richardson (1989) claim that decentralisation of economic
activity, in association with high levels of car ownership, has
contributed to all levels of workers having access to employment

opportunities. allow for some development in the form of environmentally-
conscious new settlements.’
There is a critical difference between dispersion and sub-
centralisation. Sub-centralisation creates opportunities for a ESD and urban form and structure
higher level of public transport accessibility than can be achieved
with a dispersal of jobs and housing. Canberra was planned on The interactions between land use, transpor t and the
the basis of sub-centralisation. It was found that: (i) an increase environment on the one hand and urban structure, form and
in local job opportunities gives an advantage to members of a density on the other are complex (Hayashi et al., 1994; Steiner,
working household; and that (ii) concentration of employment at 1994) and it may be too easy to assume that there are single
sub-centralised transport nodes leads to higher public transport models of urban structure and form which provide solutions for
use than is achieved in decentralised structures (Maunsell Pty ESD. Furthermore, if it was clear which structures and forms are
Ltd, 1998). the most sustainable, they may not necessarily be equitable.
They may conflict with powerful economic interests or with
Sub-centralisation does not guarantee self-containment. In established lifestyle and mobility patterns of a larger part of the
Belconnen, ACT, for example, only one third of jobs available in population (Wegener and Spiekermann, 1995; Richmond, 1996).
the district are taken by the local workforce. Robert Cervero in
a study of San Francisco found that there was little association The effect of urban form on travel may be smaller than is often
between a jobs-housing balance and self-containment: suggested. The widely acclaimed UK planning policy PPG 13
‘qualitative mismatches, such as between worker earnings and (see Resource Document) aims to re-urbanise cities and reduce
housing prices, are more of a barrier to balanced growth than are the need for travel, but may achieve only a 10–15 percent
quantitative mismatches’ (Cervero, 1996). Clearly, there are reduction in car travel under the most favourable conditions.
many other factors which will determine mode choice. Brindle (1996) argues that there is no simple ‘transport-urban
form link’: ‘The urban form policies, based on the presumption of
Selective concentration a deterministic link between transport and land use, which are so
enthusiastically embraced by politicians and non-expert advisers
Breheney believes that, ‘given the merits and demerits of the alike . . . fail the three tests of veracity, feasibility and
centrist and decentrist cases, a compromise position has many acceptability’.
attractions’ (Breheney, 1996). Such a position can adopt
continued containment and selective urban regeneration It may be an oversimplification to rely on models for the planning
strategies, but not at the expense of quality of life. Selective of urban structure, but there is enough evidence to show that the
concentration can control the direction of inevitable land-use transport link is one of the most significant in planning
decentralisation - to suburbs and towns capable of supporting a urban structure (see Chapters 5 and 6, Resource Document).
full range of facilities and public transport, and to sites which
cause the least environmental damage. ‘It takes account of the There are several robust principles, which increase opportunities
grain of the market, without being subservient to it [and] might towards more sustainable urban forms and structures and these

should be pursued. The final report of the Transport Working
Group on ESD principles, released in 1991 (Commonwealth of
Australia, 1991), made a number of recommendations: (i) urban
consolidation with a range of housing types and densities; (ii)
suburban employment at public transport nodes; (iii) locations for
reduced car dependency and traffic calming measures; and (iv)
urban public transport investment. These principles represent a
starting point and are developed in other tools.
Perhaps more critical is the ability to achieve such outcomes.

Brindle(1996) quotes Dutch research by Nijkamp et al.: ‘The final
conclusion may be that in the expected situation in the year
2030, environmental goals may not be attainable at all, while in
the desired situation much more government intervention and
subsequent changes in individual behaviour and the transport
technology are necessary. In conclusion, . . . it appears that many
roads to an environmentally more benign transport system are
possible, but that irrespective of the road chosen, it will be a hard
one to follow’.
AREAS FOR INTERVENTION
There are no clear prescriptions for the route towards sustainable Figure C-R1-3 Growth corridor - SE Queensland
urban structures and forms, but there are several areas of
potential intervention (Verroen and Hilbers, 1995). These are set
out below. crucial.
Growth corridors as a means of influencing travel behaviour This can better be achieved if new urban development is
concentrated in growth corridors (where there is no conflict with
Choices in transport mode are not just a matter of providing a rural land use or a need for protecting the environment), instead
range of networks. They are linked with the convenience and of being scattered in dispersed fringe locations. This approach is
operational efficiency of public transport, and these, in turn, not only confined to residential development, but also to
require a development pattern and population catchment, which employment generating activities, activity centres, social and
support their early provision and operation. This means that land- other service provisions.
use location and densities from the beginning of settlement are Integrated urban development along growth corridors of high-

quality public transport (railway, light rail) can have a beneficial potential for bicycle use and walking is increased. Mixing land
effect on public transport use, and increase choice in transport use in combination with high densities in residential development
mode. This can influence housing choice and behavioural amplifies the positive effect of land-use mix.
patterns before the dye is cast. However, much more than zoning
is required for these benefits to be obtained. Economic activity zones
Selective concentration of activities and housing Zones which contribute to the urban and regional economy
require accessibility for freight. The location of these zones will
Concentrating housing and jobs along growth corridors, built depend on local conditions, but designation and development
around public transport spines and with higher residential and job clearly are threshold decisions, in which activity and accessibility
densities near stations or stops, leads to a higher share of public are intricately linked (see R-3 The right activity in the right
transport compared with dispersal. The development of key location). Industry makes its own logistic decisions, including
regional centres, in this context, is of strategic importance, and location, and the selection of zones and the accessibility
they should be planned and developed as multi-purpose centres, provided require consultation.
accessible and interconnected by all transport modes, and offer
choice in employment, facilities, services and transport. They can Regional public transport
also lead to a better utilisation of transport networks because
of counter flows in peak periods. Land-use planning is particularly important if the role of public
transport is to be increased. Research shows that the use of
Such a poly-centric community structure, developed along public transport is more sensitive to land-use planning than any
railways (including light rail) and large enough to be self-sufficient other form of transport (Ploeger, 1996). Not only is the volume of
for most urban activities, is an appropriate strategy for large public transport passengers influenced by land-use dimensions,
urban areas. In less densely populated regions, a monocentric but also the quality, level and economic operation of transport
orientation in combination with the proximity principle (see below) services is highly dependent upon good land-use planning.
would be the best combination to limit growth in mobility.
IMPLEMENTATION
Proximity between origins and destinations
Integration in these key policy areas requires:
Proximity between origins and destinations will lead to more
short-distance trips. Mixing of land use produces significantly • processes which establish mechanisms for integrating
lower transport volumes than segregation of types of land use. public agencies and the private sector (see for example,
The number of trips generated is higher than in the case of R-10 Integrating investment);
segregated land use, because trips are shorter; however, the
share of car drivers is lower and that of car passengers higher. • the setting, implementing and monitoring of targets for
Public transport also has a lower share in that case, but the urban expansion, selective urban consolidation (both

housing and employment), development of key regional 4 Develop integrated policies for each of these actions.
centres, and infrastructure investment in accessibility in
specific areas; and 5 Develop and implement processes with agencies which
play a major role in the development and management of
• regional accessibility and activity management. the critical actions.
APPLICATION 6 Set targets and establish mechanisms for monitoring

performance.
HOW CAN IT BE DONE?
7 Review performance and adapt policies and targets as
This ‘tool’ is a little different from those that follow because the required.
definition of goals, objectives and strategies for urban structure
and form is a core activity and many actions will flow from it. It APPROPRIATENESS
requires a strategic planning process (see Part D, Chapter 1. The
steps outlined in Part B (Chapters 1 and 2) are highly relevant for Integrated approaches towards the planning and management of
an integrated approach, and a scanning of the other regional urban structure and form are appropriate for all communities. The
tools is recommended. form in which policy areas are implemented depends on the
degree of intervention which is considered necessary and
Assuming that the desired outcomes have been determined, acceptable. Generally, there will be a greater need for plan-led
some of the important elements in a strategic process are: approaches in large urban areas or rapidly growing areas than in
smaller and more stable communities. But even where threshold
1 Identify the key elements of urban structure. developments are rare and oppor tunities for economic
development arise, an integrated approach towards activity and
2 Explore alternatives, in which these elements and the accessibility is essential and the impacts of such opportunities on
relationship between them can evolve. In developing such urban structure and form should be carefully assessed.
alternatives, different assumptions can be made about the
role of government and the private sector. The relationship EFFECTIVENESS
between activity and accessibility (with a need to
distinguish people and vehicle accessibility) is of special Effectiveness of integrated approaches can only be established
importance, and infrastructure requirements need to be where desired outcomes have been determined, targets have
identified. been set and performance is being monitored.
3 Determine the preferred structure and form, identify the EXAMPLES

key actions necessary to influence them and the time
frame within which such actions are to be implemented. A notable example of an integrated approach to urban structure

and form is Canberra, where alternatives were analysed at a
critical time in its development (1967). The result was the ‘Y-plan’,
which established the principle of a series of new towns, each
with their own employment, services and facilities, and arranged
in a form which prevented through traffic through the Central
Area (Parliamentary zone). It also increased the potential for the
development of cost-effective public transport. The Y-plan has
been largely implemented and reviewed.
There are many examples overseas: e.g. Stockholm, Paris,
Frankfurt, Rotterdam.
A current Australian example is the southern corridor from
Brisbane towards the Gold Coast along the new railway line
(figure C-R1-3).
RELATED TOOLS
R-2 Urban density

R-7 Freight movement and land use
Figure C-R1-4 Canberra’s Y-Plan -

an example of planned urban structure and form

access by those with resources and cars, and penalises those
Urban density R-2 without (Minnery 1992), because of a lack of choice in access to
employment, facilities and services.
Integrated approaches towards urban density can be useful in:
• reducing the costs of providing and funding new physical

INTENT and social infrastructure;
The purpose of this tool is to encourage the development and • conserving limited resources in land and preserving
application of policies for urban densities. These policies are productive agricultural land;
designed to limit the spread of cities, protect agricultural land and
support principles designed to make cities more sustainable. • reducing dependence on car-based travel associated with
low-density suburbs; and
Population and employment densities greatly influence:
• influencing the location of activities to support desired
• transport demand; urban land-use and transport structures.
• the provision of transport infrastructure;
• the utilisation of the infrastructure; and
• the consumption of rural land.
In urban areas with low densities, transport demand is more

dispersed than in urban areas with higher densities. The cost of
infrastructure provision is higher, the level of public transport
service lower, the choice in transport mode more limited, the cost
of travel greater, and energy consumption is increased.
Low densities and car use are linked. Kenworthy et al. (1997), in
a recent study for the World Bank, claim that, after a certain
point, the diseconomies associated with growing car use and
low-density suburban sprawl are draining cities of wealth. There Figure C-R2-1 Increasing densities can
is also an equity argument: low-density urban expansion favours make better use of urban land

RELEVANT FACTORS fundamental changes in the intensity of land use. Employment
densities have dropped with increasing suburbanisation of jobs.
WHY DENSITY IS IMPORTANT
IS URBAN CONTAINMENT NECESSARY?
Low densities provide more space between buildings, greater
flexibility in lifestyle as households grow and change, room for Urban containment (or urban consolidation) often refers to the
permaculture and pets, and more space for on-site treatment of process of making more intensive use of urban land for
household wastes and drainage. However, these benefits are residential purposes. The basic thrust of urban consolidation
obtained at a high public and social cost. policies is to encourage higher densities, par ticularly in
established areas. Urban containment may also be interpreted
Australian and New Zealand cities have relatively low overall more broadly as the process of making more intensive use of all
urban densities of between 10 and 15 persons per HA. Gross urban land.
dwelling densities - which includes housing, streets, local open
spaces and centres, educational and other community uses - of Initially, urban consolidation was to accommodate more residents
typical suburban areas are about 10 dwellings per ha. Low gross in urban areas where the existing infrastructure had become
densities constrain opportunities to create choices in transport under-utilised as household size and population had declined.
mode, especially during the early stages of development. There are many established areas, which experience declining
Suburban areas with such densities consume large land, water populations (e.g. Marrickville, inner Sydney, lost 20,000 people
and energy resources and are hardly self-sustaining. between 1970 and 1990) and urban consolidation policies
introduced in the early ’90s helped to offset this decline. With
Urban expansion consumes rural land, and may threaten land in urban consolidation, existing infrastructure systems can be
use for intensive agricultural production or of ecological value. utilised more efficiently and the replacement of ageing
Conservation of such areas is one of the primary objectives of infrastructure will be more cost-effective.
the National Resources Act in New Zealand.
It is now realised that the principle of urban consolidation can
It is often overlooked that sites for housing represent no more also be applied to new urbanising areas. With higher gross
than about 40–45% of an urban area. About 30–35% is used for densities than are current practice, productive rural land can be
all forms of transport (including roads, streets and airports), and protected from urban encroachment, urban land can be
16–20% for public institutions (schools, hospitals) and open conserved, the cost of infrastructure per dwelling may be
space. The remainder is used for industrial and commercial reduced, and better public transport may be provided.
purposes.
Low urban densities have (i) led to high costs in providing
The density of non-residential uses (other than open space) transport infrastructure and (ii) made it impossible to provide
decreased with increased motorisation of society. Changes in services at a level where they offer a real choice.
retailing, warehousing and manufacturing have all contributed to

Continued preference for low-density suburbs is becoming Many sites and buildings can be used more intensively (e.g.
increasingly difficult to finance. If full-cost pricing (including schools for after-hours community use), and open space and
headworks) on the fringe of urban areas were included in the space for drainage can be more closely linked.
house-and-land package, prices could increase to such an extent
that typically suburban housing may no longer be affordable for URBAN CONSOLIDATION AND THE MARKET
some sections of the housing market. By increasing gross
residential densities in new areas and accommodating a Fundamental changes are also taking place in population and
component of metropolitan population growth in established traditional household structure. The suburban city is predicated
areas, the pressure on providing new infrastructure can be on the ideal of the family home on the so-called quarter acre lot.
reduced. It is estimated that by 2006 almost half of all income units will
consist of single persons or childless couples aged over 35,
The gross residential density of new urban development is, compared with only 40% at present (National Housing Strategy,
therefore, an important element in a policy of containment. In 1992a).
general, urban expansion should aim for minimum
neighbourhood densities of 12 dwellings per HA for medium- There is a mismatch between the continued provision of
sized cities and towns (i.e. larger than 50,000 population) and 15 suburban dwellings and the changing structure of the population.
dwellings per HA for large urban areas. It should be noted that Older people keep on living in dwellings beyond their needs,
these are neighbourhood densities; there is scope for significant because they do not want to move from the area, and there is no
variations in net residential densities. suitable alternative accommodation nearby. People whose
housing needs have changed and who seek a different, but
Higher densities in established areas are also appropriate. If they affordable, type of dwelling, find it difficult to obtain such
are served by the existing public transport infrastructure, the dual accommodation in the same locality.
purpose of increasing patronage and making better use of urban
land can be achieved. Net residential densities, which includes There are also changes in lifestyle and an increasing acceptance
housing, internal streets and open space, of at least 40 dwellings of higher-density forms of housing. This is reflected in the
per HA within walking distance from stations and stops are housing market. The housing market shows that people are
desirable targets. There is often scope for reducing street width becoming aware of the advantages of access to public transport
and creating safer and more attractive environments at the same facilities, services, shops, pavement cafes, entertainment and
time (see AMCORD, 1995). employment. There are many examples of good design and the
perception that higher-density housing is unattractive is
Although the current focus is on residential areas, in the changing. Increasing congestion and parking restrictions is
consolidated city all areas and uses should come under scrutiny. making commuting more difficult and encourages city living.
Standards for the provision of parking space as part of a travel
demand strategy should also be considered. (see R-12 Regional Thus, there are signs that the market is responding to the
parking policy and L-7 Parking standards and management). changes in population structure. People are prepared to trade-off

traditional housing forms for new forms, provided the price is However, market demand for higher-density housing is important.
right and basic needs are satisfied. It also appears that a section Rezoning of urban land for higher densities increases the value
of the population is starting to enjoy the ancillaries of higher of land. In the absence of a prior market demand for higher-
density housing - a wider choice of amenities, attractive locations density housing, the likelihood of redevelopment at such
and access to regional centres. densities may actually decrease.
OBSTACLES AND HOW TO OVERCOME THEM
There are still three major obstacles to overcome:
1 the disparity between continued car-dependent, low-

density suburban growth and higher-density development
in inner areas;
2 the detached house mentality, which is so entrenched that

many people will do anything to keep living this way; and
3 the controversy about the application
of urban consolidation policies in established areas, because

people are concerned about the change of character, traffic,
social problems, loss of privacy and lowering of property values.
Selective nodes of higher density
The development of suburban low-density housing and low-

density dispersed employment creates a significant shift towards
car-based cross town movements, which cannot be diverted to
regular public transport without incurring the penalty of increased
travel time (see R-6 Public transport and land use). People are
attracted to higher-density housing in inner areas because of the
Figure C-R2-2 Controlled growth convenience and choices these areas offer. To offer viable
by release areas should establish gross minimum densities alternatives in outer areas, efforts should be made to create
high- quality nodes in such areas and to link them with other
nodes by convenient public transport. This is a policy of sub-

centralisation of activity, density and accessibility, of which the environment and life-style, and are troubled by a loss of property
creation of an attractive, high-quality environment is an essential value and privacy. Additional traffic is usually cited, and many
part. proposals finish up before appeal bodies.
Smaller lots There are four ways in which progress can be made:
The attachment to a detached house is intrinsic to the values and 1 Regional policies and guidance for the big picture. Some
life style of our society; but detached houses do need quarter State governments have recognised the need for compact
acre lots. Excellent results can be achieved with small lot design, cities and for policy guidance to local authorities. There
provided there is attention to details such as overlooking and have been initiatives to permit dual occupancy and
privacy. Densities can be increased significantly, but the key to regional policy statements on compact cities (e.g. NSW
such designs is that they are planned and developed as Government, 1997).
integrated developments. There will be some areas where the
practice of subdivision, sale and subsequent development will 2 Local residential development strategies. In NSW local
continue, but they may become the exception instead of the rule. authorities are now required to prepare them as the basis
for local urban consolidation (see example).
It is possible that realistic pricing of infrastructure (including the
cost of mitigating environmental impact) may accelerate this 3 Streetscape plans and urban design, which provide the
process. The extent to which the infrastructure is funded by the parameters for compatible development proposals.
tax payer or through the user-pay principle are some of the
issues which have yet to be resolved. 4 Performance-based development control, which focuses
on desired outcomes instead of inflexible rules (see L-15).
Countering local opposition
There has been a focus on using ‘infill’ sites for consolidation in

established areas. These are usually sites which have been used
for other purposes, such as industrial land, where old plants have
closed or been relocated. Other sites have been under-used,
such as housing above shops, where zoning and plot ratios have
been restrictive. However, there is a limit to the availability of
such sites, and adaptation of established residential areas will
have to be considered.
Local residents often voice strong opposition to the new

development. They see it as an intrusion into their familiar Figure C-R2-3 Principles of urban containment

THE IMPORTANCE OF UP-FRONT PLANNING and implementation (including the provision of any additional
infrastructure and for managing any impact on the local
An integrated approach towards urban density reflects the more environment) must be resolved in collaboration between regional
fundamental shift from the suburban city to an urban and (or State) and local government agencies.
sustainable city, in which housing, employment, centres,
transport and infrastructure are more closely integrated. A policy towards urban containment may require more than a
focus on regional sites. In Sydney, local author ities are
Supply and demand management policies need to become part encouraged to change zoning to permit higher density forms of
of an integrated suite of policies, covering transpor t and development. Many councils have done this. State policies exist
infrastructure provision, employment and housing. This will have which involve setting targets for local author ities, and
considerable implications for the way in which cities are planned consolidation levels of about 30% are being achieved. In the UK,
and managed. not less than 50% of new housing must be located within
established urban areas.
In the seventies, the classical planning process consisted of a
projection of land use (employment and population), followed by In the process of urban change, a number of stakeholders are
the assignment of the trips generated to alternative transport involved. Commonwealth and State Governments are involved in
networks and a benefit/cost analysis to determine the ‘optimum’ the financial, social and environmental cost of urban expansion.
land-use and transport system. In the nineties, the need for In the age of sustainable development, the broader metropolitan
sustainable cities increasingly drives the process and, as a community is voicing its concern about urban sprawl. Housing
consequence, integrated demand and supply policies are being consumers are interested in choice in housing location and price,
developed to support the objectives of sustainable environments. but the development industry is impeded by bottlenecks in
obtaining approvals and development of sites. Local councils are
Up-front planning with local communities and the development the meat in the sandwich, trying to satisfy metropolitan policies
industry, a focus on housing environments instead of housing (where they exist) and taking account of the concerns of its
lots, joint ventures, and greater flexibility in development control ratepayers.
(such as performance-based approaches) can do much to
overcome obstacles towards urban containment. APPLICATION
The role of local government is an important one. It is not always HOW CAN IT BE DONE?
clear where regional (or State) interests in urban containment
should prevail over local interests. There will be areas where 1: Establishing desired outcomes for the urban area as a
higher density urban nodes and residential development are whole
necessary for specific regional or metropolitan purposes (e.g. the
redevelopment of areas near railway stations - see L-2 Transit- The first step involves setting overall objectives and directions. At
friendly land use). In such areas, the responsibility for planning this stage, a commitment in principle is made to a policy of

containment, including acceptance of the need for policies on Local strategies are needed to identify the consolidation potential
densities. at the local level. Accessibility to public transport deserves
special attention: areas within close proximity to railway stations
2: Developing integrated strategies and plans and tramway stops are prima facie areas with potential for
consolidation. Dual occupancy housing should be discouraged in
Strategies for containment could be predicated on at least five such areas, as small-lot fragmentation constrains the scope for
principles: higher densities.
(i) a proportion of all new dwellings to be located in 3: Identifying processes

established urban areas;
Step 2 will require a strategic process, but there may also be a
(ii) identification of areas for urban expansion, (i) which do not need for development planning and programming, and
impinge on rural productivity; (ii) which are of sufficient development control. Community involvement is essential as
size to provide the range of facilities and services the there must be understanding of, and suppor t for, these
community needs; and (iii) where fragmentation of land processes.
holdings does not inhibit integrated development within
a reasonable time; 4: Clarifying responsibilities
(iii) setting minimum gross residential densities in areas for Strategies are required for both metropolitan (or regional) areas
urban expansion, at levels to encourage compact, diverse and local areas, and they should be mutually supportive. A ‘whole
and sustainable communities; of government’ approach is needed to reach agreement on
responsibilities for planning and implementation, such as
(iv) built-in public transport accessibility from the start; and funding, regulations and their relationship with the private sector
(see Part A).
(v) selective increases in density around areas with high
public transport accessibility. 5: Establishing targets where performance is of critical
importance
Application of these principles requires regional strategies for the
provision of transport, employment, housing and infrastructure Targets can be set for: the proportion of new dwellings to be built
offering choice, accessibility and sustainable use of resources. in established areas; the upgrading and extension of public
transport; the number of dwellings within walking distance of
Inventories of the existing infrastructure are used in setting public transport stations, and stops; and other indicators. Targets
targets for selective consolidation. Regional sites or areas where should be capable of being suppor ted by means of
regional considerations should prevail over local interests are implementation. Before targets are set, there is a need to
also identified. understand the current performance, the probability of achieving

targets and the impact on other aspects of urban development. Integrating investment and L-14
Development incentives and contributions).
6: Developing transport demand and supply management
policies The ‘contained city’ will only be realised over a long time span. A
crucial element in this process of gradual adaptation is that of a
The strategies should be complemented by regional transport development control system which permits innovation. The
demand and supply management policies (see R-13 Travel objective is to set the stage for affordable and appropriate urban
demand management), and policies related to accessibility and consolidation.
activity (R-3 The right activity in the right location, and L-1
Activity/accessibility zoning]. 9: Monitoring of system performance
7: Preparing development area plans for selected action An important part of the process is the monitoring, analysis and
areas review of the measures used to implement urban containment.
Development plans should embrace land use, transport and APPROPRIATENESS

environmental issues. The range of considerations should also
include matters such as local infrastructure; design for safety and Policies for urban containment are appropriate
minimal impact of traffic; urban design; and heritage to ensure in all urban areas, but the rationale and interpretation may differ
maximum potential benefit. Sufficient planning needs to be in practice. In some cities and towns, conservation of productive
undertaken to establish the base case, against which the nature rural land may be a key issue; in others the central issue is the
and level of development contributions are determined. The conservation of urban land and protecting the investment in
implications of consolidation for other capital and recurrent infrastructure. In larger urban areas, widening choice in mode of
funding must also be assessed. In this way, development area travel, reducing congestion and pollution may be the most critical
plans become valuable tools for urban management. issues.
A key feature of a policy for residential density is the selective
8: Creating integrated implementation mechanisms increase in densities around stations and other major public
transport nodes (see L-2 Transit-friendly land use).
Conventional approaches, such as zoning and development
control, may need to be supplemented by other implementation
mechanisms in order to achieve targets. Specially created
development agencies or joint ventures can be established to
ensure integrated land assembly, and effective planning,
development and management. Joint ventures and land pooling
can be useful tools; they allow existing property owners to share
in the benefits of increased development potential (see R-10

EFFECTIVENESS
EXAMPLE Effectiveness of a policy of containment depends on the
NSW housing policy for greater Sydney.
objectives of such a policy. In cities where a policy of
In NSW local authorities are now required to prepare a
containment is in place (such as in Sydney), there is clear
residential development strategy as the basis for local urban evidence that the pressures on urban expansion have been
consolidation.. reduced. However, there are no longitudinal surveys as yet to
establish the effect on choice in transport mode and travel
‘Residential Development Strategies are to set out the steps, behaviour.
which council intends to undertake in order to plan for local
residential development, which addresses metropolitan planning RELATED TOOLS
issues’ (NSW Government, 1997).
The strategies generally cover three broad areas: R-6 Public transport and land use
• identification of housing opportunities (such as
development or redevelopment of identified
sites/areas); R-13 Travel demand management
L-1 Activity/accessibility zoning
• improvement to existing residential development L-2 Transit-friendly land use
controls; and L-14 Incentives and contributions
L-15 Performance-based approaches
• reform of local development approval processes.
These strategies are assessed by the relevant State agency in

respect of:
• the degree to which the Council is supporting urban

consolidation by providing for development of multi-unit
housing, especially in areas which are well located to
public transport, jobs and centres; and
• whether the Council has provided for housing choice,

both at the local and regional level, through planning
controls which encourage a diversity of housing types,
sizes and costs.

should be as much as possible in locations which can be
The right activity R-3 reached easily by public transport, and not just by car. Activities
which depend on vehicle access are encouraged in locations
in the right location accessible by vehicle.
A policy to guide the right activity to the right location exists in the
Netherlands and aims to:
INTENT • reduce the need for travel by car by encouraging

activities with high employment levels to locations, where
The increasing growth in the use of the car is a worldwide there is a high level of public transport accessibility (‘A-
problem and many countries are endeavouring to cut down on and B-locations’);
avoidable use and to stimulate public and other forms of
transport. Cervero (1997) advocates that the key to this problem • increase the efficiency of businesses depending on
is to plan for accessibility, not for cars, and that it starts with vehicle access by locating them where there is a high level
getting land-use activities in locations which match the of vehicle accessibility (‘C-locations’; and
accessibility they need.
• provide a planning basis for prioritising and targeting
There are different transport needs for every land-use activity: a investment in transport infrastructure.
university needs to be accessible by public transport, whilst a
distribution centre needs to be accessible to freight vehicles.
Land uses with particular trip characteristics (i.e. ‘mobility needs’)
should be located where the accessibility provided by the
transport system can satisfy these needs effectively.
The intent of a land-use location policy, based on this principle, is

to (i) encourage the location of activities according to their
mobility needs and the accessibility provided by the transport
infrastructure; and (ii) link private investment in the development
of activities to the public investment in transport infrastructure.
Locations can be classified according to their accessibility

profiles. A location policy encourages regional and local
authorities, in co-operation with the private sector, to locate new
activities with mobility needs related to public transport. This Figure C-R3-1 Example of an ‘A’ location

RELEVANT FACTORS WHAT ARE ‘ACCESSIBILITY PROFILES’?
BACKGROUND An accessibility profile indicates the quality of accessibility of a

location by public transport and by car (for a discussion on
The location of land-use activities are a key factor. An office accessibility, see Resource Document, Chapter 5). It is an
situated next to a railway station is more likely to attract account of a location’s proximity to railway stations and other
commuters by train, while an office located near a motorway major public transport interchanges, its relation to major arterial
encourages car usage. Good planning can influence the location routes and its parking facilities (or limitations). In short, the
of land-use activities and be used to influence traffic generation accessibility profile of a location is deter mined both by its
and mobility. infrastructure and by policies regarding the use of the
The Dutch Government pioneered an innovative approach based
on Cervero’s views and adopted a land-use location policy in Accessibility profiles can be developed for each major location,
1991, called the ‘A, B and C policy’ (see Resource Document, such as city centres, regional centres, industrial areas,
Chapter 6). It is the only known policy which tackles trip residential estates and for regional services.
generation and transpor t mode up-front. Transit-oriented
development (see L-2) is aimed at a similar principle. THREE TYPES OF LOCATIONS
LOCATION AND MARKET DEMAND • A-locations - by public transport.
The location of activities is generally determined by market • B-locations - by public transport and by car.
demand, land economics and zoning provisions. Accessibility is
an important element, but not the only one. Where the cumulative • C-locations - primarily by car.
impact of individual market decisions leads to structural and
environmental problems - a situation now being reached in many A-locations
large cities - a policy used to influence location decisions
becomes increasingly attractive. A-locations are accessible by public transpor t from a
considerable distance. They are situated near rail,
Such a policy which matches activity location with transport underground/metro, tram, and bus interchanges. Their location
infrastructure has the potential to reduce the use of a car for guarantees a rapid connection to regional public transport
travel and to make more efficient use of urban land and the networks. Good accessibility for motorised traffic is of secondary
transport infrastructure. A key element of the policy is to create importance.
different types and levels of accessibility in different locations,
and to guide appropriate land uses to such locations. Parking is regulated in order to restrict car-use by commuters (no
more than say 15–25% in large urban areas). However, this

means that there must be an availability of good public transport
connections with adequate park-and-ride facilities in outer urban Accessibility profiles can change
areas.
Once an accessibility profile has been established for a
particular location, it can reveal that the accessibility of a
site is inadequate. Then it is a matter of applying measures
designed to improve accessibility.
This can be done by means of investments (road and rail),

but also by adapting bus service networks and public
transport timetables. It can also be done by introducing or
changing parking arrangements and regulations, until such
time as the accessibility profile of a particular location
conforms to existing requirements. In this way locations can
be made suitable for businesses and services whose
‘mobility profile’ qualifies for a site within that location.
The accessibility profile comes into its own when it is not

regarded solely as a random indicator. It should lead to an
insight into a situation and subsequently to a better quality
of location and local environment in the future. However,
improvements can take time and interim measures may be
Figure C-R3-2 Accessibility Profiles necessary.
(based on van Huut, 1991)
B-locations
A-locations are attractive for pedestrians, for users of public
B-locations are situated at the junction of public transport
transport and for cyclists. Their attraction is, in part, accessibility
networks, and are also accessible from a main road. These
to fast and frequent public transport connections to other parts of
junctions can include suburban stations, major metro stations
the urban region. This applies equally to the business and social
and (high-speed) tram stops, as well as bus interchanges in
environment: a range of shops and other amenities; the
smaller urban areas.
atmosphere of a large town or city; and a pedestrian-friendly
working and living environment.
B-locations offer relatively few facilities for long-term parking.
Parking is mainly geared towards businesses and services,
which are moderately dependent on motorised transport.

The use of public transport and the bicycle is encouraged by the
layout and design of the area. The attractions of this type of
location are accessibility by public transport and the moderate
accessibility by car. A maximum percentage of car-users among
commuters of 40–50% could create an acceptable balance
C-locations
C-locations have no specific public transport requirements. The

use of commuting alternatives (see R-14 Commuter planning)
deserves to be encouraged here. C-locations are situated in the
close vicinity of a motorway, freeway or regional highway. Parking
is geared towards businesses with a relatively limited number of
employees, in particular businesses involved in the supply and
carriage of goods by road.
There is no excessive provision of parking space, but customer Figure C-R3-3 Indicative mobility profiles by land-use type
parking would need to be provided.
WHAT ARE ‘MOBILITY PROFILES’? MATCHING ACCESSIBILITY WITH MOBILITY
The ‘mobility profile’ expresses the characteristics of businesses The aim is to fit land-use activities with a certain mobility profile
and services in their transport needs. In drawing up a mobility into a location with a matching accessibility profile. If accessibility
profile, attention is paid to: the number of employees in a profiles of locations and mobility profiles of businesses and
business in relation to the area, where they live; its dependency services are co-ordinated with one another, each activity can be
on motorised transport in conducting its business; the number sited at a location which is best suited to its own particular
and type of visitors; and its reliance on road haulage. Thus, the transport requirements. In such a way, the use of public transport
factors, which determine its transport needs, establish its mobility can be stimulated and accessibility can be guaranteed.
profile. In general, the more ‘people intensive’ (i.e. relatively large
number of employees and visitors) a business is, the greater its However, it is a lengthy process - one in which all parties must
need for public transport. ‘Goods intensive’ businesses on the co-operate to achieve a desirable outcome. It requires measures
other hand, should primarily be accessible to road transport. and initiatives for the short term, and plans and investments for
the long term. Ideally, participation should be a voluntary matter,
done out of enlightened self-interest, but, if necessary, it may
need to be regulated. Accessibility and the environment must be

given priority attention. This calls for a common policy, not only 3 Incentives: public investment in infrastructure, improvements
on the part of governments at different levels, but also on the part in traffic management, and land availability. This involves the
of business, industry and social institutions. development of an action program for infrastructure
improvements, based on the strategic plan prepared under 1
It is also a process which requires a review of the current above. It may also require a supportive land assembly and
approach to land-use location. The inadequacies of the statutory disposal management system, thereby making sites available
system, and the policy and management framework which relies appropriate for a particular land-use activity in its desired
on this system show up in the frequent occurrence of rezoning. location.
Private economic gains made by getting approval to locate an
activity on land which was not intended (and priced) for that 4 Regulatory measures: regional and local planning
activity (e.g. regional shopping centres) may be at the cost of instruments, development and building approvals, parking limits,
effective utilisation of investment in transport infrastructure and location conditions. Conditions for considering rezoning
Cumulative events of this kind can undermine any policy to within the context of a regional location strategy should be
create more sustainable patterns of travel behaviour. included. Existing land tenure and development rights must be
considered.
APPLICATION
OPTIONS FOR ACTION
There are options. The development and application of a strategy

to encourage the right activity in the right location could be
directed towards four actions:
1 Within government, the integration of policies of individual

agencies related to economic development, land use, transport
and the environment into an overall strategy for the urban region.
Strategic plans are formulated which establish the accessibility
criteria for different locations, and identify A, B and C locations,
which satisfy, or will be made to satisfy, these criteria.
2 Information exchange between government and the private

sector, such as forecasts of space requirements, information
sharing about businesses seeking a location and transport
management. Figure C-R3-4 Indicative accessibility and activity policy,
Chatswood Sydney

A PACKAGE OF ACTIONS 4: Prepare development plans for new locations
It is possible to combine some, or all, of these actions into New locations have the advantage that planning is not hindered
different packages. The content of a package will depend on by earlier legacies. Any development plan for an A-, B- or C-
recognition and acceptance of the need for action. For example, location awaiting development should set out the corresponding
integration in the location and timing of investment in public accessibility profiles, both actual and projected. It should also
transport, road infrastructure and information exchange could be indicate the parking requirements and intentions for the
the basis of an initial package. A regional parking policy and the development of the transport infrastructure.
possibility of offering incentives and disincentives could be
considered later (see, for example, the preferred locations The plan should present a division of business and services
approach in R-4, and partnership models in R-10). according to the mobility profiles: numbers of employees and
visitors; and dependency on motor ised transpor t for the
HOW CAN IT BE DONE? movement of people and goods. It should also provide
assistance to locate the right activity on the right sites.
1: Establish accessibility criteria for the three different types
of locations. Whenever a development is proposed for an A, B or C location
and its mobility profile fits the activity profile, the agreed transport
Accessibility criteria should be established not only for existing facilities and other amenities must also be present. Otherwise the
locations, but also for potential locations. This cannot be done strategy loses its credibility. Infrastructure planning should always
without an understanding of how the urban economy operates, be part of a package.
and how it is likely to change or grow in the future.
5: Prepare development plans for existing locations
2: Establish mobility profiles for each accessibility profile.
In existing locations where businesses are already fully
Determine the type of businesses and other activities which operational, a number of additional elements could be added.
should occupy the different types of location. The development plan for these locations is similar to those for
new locations. However, it recognises what is already there and
3: Set targets for public transport use identifies bottlenecks which need to be removed.
Targets could be: Existing accessibility and mobility profiles may not match. For
example, there may be much commuting by car to a labour-
• A-locations: 20 to 40% commuting to work by car; and intensive business, or too little parking space in a primarily car-
dependent business. The development plan formulates the
• B-locations: 40 to 60 % commuting to work by car. desired accessibility profile; and presents a package of measures
designed to grow towards the desired situation in the longer

term. • traffic and transport policies, which support the location
policy in terms of accessibility profiles; and
6: Prepare implementation plans
• a regional parking policy, which is linked to existing and
Many existing planning instruments already influence the choices projected accessibility profiles. It should indicate whether,
of location of the private sector. Governments also create and and in what way, the question of long-term parking can be
develop new locations and businesses. They make decisions addressed without damaging the location climate for
about infrastructure, and have an important say in the way public businesses.
transport operates.
8: Local strategies
New sets of instruments are not always necessary. Much can be
achieved by a greater integration of existing instruments and Local strategies could include information gathering and sharing
deliberate co-ordination of public and private investment. with the private sector, regulations governing type of activity and
accessibility parking, local traffic and transport policies, and the
The provision of information is vital. A systematic and integrated provision of areas and sites, with or without bonus provisions. For
approach, in accordance with accessibility and mobility profiles, further information see L-1 Activity/accessibility zoning.
will be a new element for both the public and private sector in
Australia. The possibility of misunderstandings or problems is 9: Regional and local programs
reduced by providing timely and clear information, and creating
early familiarity with new oppor tunities. For this reason, Regional programs could be prepared, indicating how funds are
development plans should provide as much information as to be allocated to public transport, road infrastructure and
possible. regional cycleways on an area basis over a period of, say, five
years. Regional programs could also include proposals for the
If it is decided to provide some form of statutory backing to an accommodation of Government services, which conform to the
integrated land-use location policy, regional and/or local planning accessibility profiles of various locations. Guidelines on the
instruments could be prepared. location of hospitals, government offices and major educational
institutions should be part of such a plan.
7: Regional planning instruments
10: Data and monitoring
Regional planning instr uments should be developed in
consultation with local government and the private sector, and A database of A, B and C locations should be set up and indicate
could make provision for: how they are used. Monitoring and review should ensure that
there is a continuing balance between demand and supply.
• the location policy;

APPROPRIATENESS EFFECTIVENESS
A general strategy aimed at reducing avoidable use of motorised An ABC policy addresses one of the main causes of congestion:
transport and safeguarding accessibility is appropriate in any inappropriate location and ineffective use of the existing
urban area, but most relevant in large urban areas. How such infrastructure. It has the potential for reducing congestion and
a policy is applied in practice will depend on real and perceived greenhouse emissions, and for ensur ing cost-effective
need, existing land tenure and development rights, and infrastructure investment.
acceptance of the use of incentives and regulatory measures.
Consultation is needed to find the right approach in each context. EXAMPLES
It is possible to apply the concept in selected locations and with An example of a location policy for an entire urban region is that
different levels of incentives and regulatory measures. For of Rotterdam (ABC Policy, Rotterdam, 1996).
example, at the local level, categorisation of employment
locations according to accessibility profiles of a location (A, B A locations:
and C) can be used as a basis for improving public transport Accessibility criteria
facilities and land-use zoning. This has the advantage of gaining
some, but not all, of the benefits and of being more attuned to • All destinations are accessible within 45 minutes travel
current Australian planning practice. This option is explored in L- time by public transport from the urban region
1: Accessibility/activity zoning.
• All destinations within the A location area are within 15
However, if the full benefits are to be realised, the regional scale minutes walking time from the central public transport
has the greatest potential. Additional measures may be needed, station or interchange
such as the setting of maximum parking levels and pricing
policies (see R-12 Regional parking policies) and facilitating • Maximum on-site: one parking space per 250 m2 of
development in preferred locations (see R-5 Key regional and floorspace (office)
transit centres).
Mobility criteria of activity
It has been argued that a high level of intervention is unattractive
to the private sector and may lead to a preference for locations in • Businesses and services with many employees in
other cities, where there are no such constraints. There is no firm comparison with available surface area, and/or a large
evidence that this actually happens, but it is clear that the number of visitors, little business-related car usage, and
preferred approach is to achieve results through a close little goods transportation
partnership between the public and private sectors

B locations (inner areas): C locations:
Accessibility criteria Accessibility criteria
• All destinations are accessible within 45 minutes travel • A direct and (where possible) crossing-free link to regional
time by public transport from 90% of the urban region transport routes
• All destinations are within 15 minutes walking time from • Alternative access for employees and visitors from
the nearest public transport station or interchange adjoining areas and the nearest station, tram or bus stop
(e.g. cycling for employees, train or bus taxi for visitors and
• The area is adjacent to a regional arterial road employees)
• Maximum on-site: one parking space per 125 m2 of • No special requirements for public transport
floorspace (office) Mobility criteria of activity
B locations (other areas): • Businesses with a relatively low number of employees and
Accessibility criteria visitors
• All destinations are accessible within 45 minutes travel • Less than 50% of office space with a maximum of 2500
time by public transport from 75% of the urban region m2 or less than 30% above 2500 m2
• All destinations are within 10 minutes walking time from • strongly dependent on motorised transport for goods
the nearest public transport station or interchange. and/or persons
• The area is adjacent to a regional arterial road and/or Services which attract large numbers of the public (hospitals, for
within 1 km from a freeway/motorway ramp example) are regarded as qualifying pre-eminence for A- and B-
locations.
• Maximum parking space per 125 m2 of floorspace (office).
Provision is made for exceptions with the onus of proof resting
Mobility criteria of activity with the agencies/businesses seeking an exemption.
An example of planning for accessibility is Hunter Integrated
• Businesses and services with moderate labour and/or Local Area Planning Project: Managing Accessibility (PPM
visitor intensity, moderate car- dependency, and moderate Consultants, 1996), and Northern Rivers Regional Strategy:
dependency on road haulage of goods land-use transport integration principles (PPM Consultants,
1997).

An example of planning for accessibility is Hunter Integrated
Local Area Planning Project: Managing Accessibility (PPM
Consultants, 1996), and Northern Rivers Regional Strategy:
land-use transport integration principles (PPM Consultants,
1997).
RELATED TOOLS
R-6 Public Transport and Land Use

R-7 Freight Movement and Land Use
R-5 Key Regional and Transit Centres
L-2 Transit-friendly land use
L-1 Accessibility/Activity Zoning
R-10 Integrating Investment

to other routes at clearly recognised points in the urban
A hierarchy of centres R-4 structure.
INTENT
The purpose of this tool is to encourage the development of new

centres and adaptation of existing centres as multi-activity and
interconnected centres, accessible by a wide range of transport
modes.
Multi-function centres, especially regional, town and district

centres, enable people to visit centres for different purposes and
combine these purposes with a single trip (i.e. ‘linked trips’, such
as post office, bank, shops). By providing a range of facilities and
ser vices, trip making can be reduced and convenience
increased.
Multi-function centres also provide a synergy which increases

their vitality and viability. By concentrating shopping, personal
services, employment, offices of public agencies, leisure and
entertainment, health and educational institutions, centres can
come to life during the day as well as at night. Mixed-use C-R4-1 Attractive multi-purpose centres are an important
developments, including housing above shops, add to activity element in travel demand management
and amenity in a centre and provide residents with walking
access to services and facilities.
As nodes of activity in urban areas, centres should be

‘accessibility nodes’. They should be accessible by a wide range
of transport modes and also be connected to each other. This
makes it possible for people to travel to work by public transport,
even if they do not live in the primary catchment area, or transfer

Integrated approaches to activity centres can ensure that: WHY ACCESSIBILITY BY A RANGE
OF TRANSPORT MODES?
• centres are developed with multi-purpose functions;
Centres need to be accessible to as many people and
• all centres are accessible from the areas they serve by a businesses as possible. Centres which provide for car access
range of transport modes; only do not provide choices in transport mode and create greater
demands on the road and parking systems. In large centres,
• a hierarchy of centres is developed, which are always there are constraints in the physical and environmental capacity
connected with other centres by different transport modes; of the road system and priority must be given to transport modes,
which maximise public transport, such as A and B locations (see
• public agencies responsible for different functions work R-3) and transit-oriented development (see L-2). Access by all
with common objectives and co-ordinated programs; and transport modes and the amount of parking provided need to be
managed as part of an overall strategy of centres. The essential
• there is an effective partnership between the public and need for centres is to be attractive and convenient for all people.
private sectors.
WHY INTERCONNECTIVITY?
RELEVANT FACTORS
From a transpor t management point of view, there is an
WHY A HIERARCHY? advantage in linking centres of activity to facilitate transfers and
channel trips along clearly defined routes. Some of the public
There is a need for facilities and services, which can be met at transport links may be express routes. The added benefit is that
the local level, while more specialised facilities and services and people know there is a transport node at a centre and a link to
large-scale establishments (such as department stores) require a other centres, providing choice and convenience.
larger catchment area. A hierarchy of multi-pupose centres
corresponds with a hierarchy of trips, offers choice and provides Some centres may be developed as (or may become)
a basis for giving structure to the public transport system. specialised centres and serve a catchment, which cuts across a
conventional hierarchy. Trip lengths would be longer, but there
There are continuing shifts in the economic and location should at least be a choice in transport mode. Interconnectivity
characteristics of commercial activities, and the provision of increases choice and flexibility in trip-making.
community services. This means that there should be flexibility in
the size and composition of centres, but the principle of a multi- CENTRES WHICH DO NOT FIT IN THE HIERARCHY
pur pose hierarchy remains valid and contr ibutes to the
containment of urban travel. Some developments do not fit into a hierarchy of centres. An
integrated approach does not imply that such developments
should not occur, but there should be policies in place to deal

with them. Centres policy (see example).
If there is a policy to establish new multi-purpose accessible Strip centres along busy roads and activity streets raise other
centres or to reinforce existing ones by further investment in issues, which are considered in C-3 Planning new Type II
infrastructure, two issues arise: (i) the impact of non-hierarchical corridors), C-5 Adapting Type II corridors and C-14 Urban
centres on accessibility and choice in transport mode, and (ii) the corridor management.
impact on the vitality and viability of existing centres.
HOW TO DEAL WITH BUSINESS AND TECHNOLOGY
Proposals for outlying centres often are single purpose centres PARKS?
and usually do not comply with regional and local centre
strategies. While proponents understandably aim to satisfy There are other and different kinds of developments, such as
commercial objectives, there are important spill-over effects, business and technology parks. They come in a variety of forms,
which must be taken into account. These include: dependence on but generally are not integrated with traditional centres, have low-
car access, reliance on access from the existing road system, density forms of development and rely on car access. It is often
changes in traffic distribution, impact on established centres in impossible to provide good public transport access. However,
the hierarchy, and longer-term changes in the balance between employment and visitor densities are generally low. They could
activity and accessibility. be considered in off-centre locations under two conditions: (i) a
C-type location (see R-3 The right activity in the right location,
Related key factors in integrated planning are activity and and L-1 Accessibility/activity zoning), and (ii) the submission of a
accessibility, not only of individual centres, but also in the urban commuter plan (see R-14).
area as a whole. The weight given to this relationship will
influence the response to proposals. In cities and towns where The provision of alternative means of access for employees in
there is strong support for policies towards more sustainable the technology park or other outlying employment sites is
development, a greater degree of intervention may be needed important because high- quality public transport cannot (or will
and accepted than in cities where market-led approaches are not) be provided (see R-6 Public transport and land use).
given greater weight. Submission of commuter plans alone may not be sufficient.
Employers with more than 50 employees could be required to
In the UK, Planning Policy Guidance (PPG6 and PPG13) lodge a guarantee to maintain alternative means of access as an
discourages this form of development by requiring developers to on-going cost to them.
demonstrate why they cannot be located within the hierarchy,
and to impose increasingly demanding conditions the further
they depart from the planning intentions (see the description of
the ‘sequential approach’ at the end of this tool).
The sequential approach is also proposed in the Adelaide

Terminology building societies and restaurants. They usually rely on a range
(Adapted from PPG 6, 1997) of transport modes for access, but provision for local parking is
seen as central to their success.
The core business of most centres is retail development, which
takes different forms, each with its own operating characteristics Transit centres (or ‘station communities’) are centres in which
and consequences in relation to transport. Retailing is a dynamic development is integrated with a railway station (commuter or
industry, and new forms of retailing are likely to evolve, which are light rail). The development includes higher-density and medium-
inadequately described by current conventional terminology. density housing, offices, retailing, and a range of commercial and
community uses.
The term ‘City and town centres’ generally cover city and town
centres, which provide a broad range of employment, facilities Strip shopping centres are centres along major traffic routes.
and services. They are a focus for the community and a node for They may be Main Streets in town centres and district or local
public transport. centres in urban areas. They are often developed to capture both
the passing and local trade and rely for their accessibility on all
Regional shopping centres generally are centres over 50,000 transport modes, but parking provision is usually critical. A
square metres gross retail area, typically enclosing a wide range distinction can be made between primary and secondary
of comparison goods and often free-standing. They usually rely frontages, depending on whether the centres are located along
on car access as the dominant mode of transport. Some regional Type I or Type II corridors.
shopping centres have developed (or are developing) as regional
centres with employment and a wide range of services and Local centres are centres with a superette, a few shops,
facilities, similar to those of city or town centres. newsagent, pharmacy, hairdresser serving neighbourboods or
employment centres.
Key regional centres are centres with significant regional
employment, a wide range of commercial, community, Supra or warehouse centres are centres specialising in the
entertainment facilities and services, and high-quality regional sale of household goods (such as carpets, furniture, computers
and local transport access by road and public transport. and electrical goods) and bulky items, catering mainly for car-
borne customers and often in out-of centre locations.
Transit centres are similar to key regional centres, but may be
smaller in scale and provide a mix of land uses, including higher- Edge-of centres are centres within easy walking distance (i.e.
density forms of housing. 200–300 metres) of a primary shopping area, often providing
parking facilities which serve the centre as well as the store, thus
District centres, secondary or sub-regional centres are enabling one trip to serve several purposes. For other uses, such
traditional suburban centres or new intermediate centres as offices or leisure, edge-of centres may be more extensive,
containing groups of shops, with at least one major supermarket based on how far people would be prepared to walk. For offices,
or superstore, and non-retail services such as banks, post office, this is likely to be in the region of 500 metres of the station or

other public transport interchange. review.
Out-of town centres are developments on a greenfield site, or APPLICATION

on land not clearly within the current urban boundary.
HOW CAN IT BE DONE?
Business and Technology Parks are developments which
provide sites and/or buildings and facilities for business and 1: Regional strategy for centres
technology enterprises in a landscaped environment, which is
developed and maintained by the developer or a management The regional strategy for centres identifies the location, indicative
body. size and composition of higher- order centres in the hierarchy
and how they are related to the transport networks. It may also
INTEGRATION BETWEEN AGENCIES identify the location and character of other centres of regional
significance, which do not conform to the hierarchy of centres or
Key factors are: require special consideration (see figure C-R4-2).
• agreement on the relationship between the type and 2: Local strategy for centres
amount of activity in the centre and the provision of
transport access and parking; Local strategic plans should incorporate the regional centres
strategy, and provide an integrated approach towards their
• an agreed program for the progressive provision of accessibility within the local area and the transport networks
transport accessibility; and which link them (public transport, roads and cycleways). Such an
approach can help to ensure consistency in matters such as
• on-going management co-ordination. parking standards, and provide a basis for infrastructure
development programs. Different types of centres should be
These issues are further considered in L-1 Activity/Accessibility clearly defined in the plan, indicating the policy approach to be
Zoning and R-5 Key Regional and Transit Centres. followed in each case and the potential in each centre for growth
and change.
INTEGRATION BETWEEN PUBLIC AND PRIVATE SECTOR
Local strategic plans should also indicate whether there is a
Integration will be more difficult to achieve without a partnership continuing role for strip activity centres; and which performance
between the public and private sectors. The implications of standards should apply with regard to accessibility for
technological and market changes require on-going consultation developments outside the hierarchy.
with the business community. Changes in demand and the
relationships between centres, as well as the scope for
development and change in each centre, need to be kept under

3: Planning instruments and program plans growth, accessibility, vitality and viability. In making such
assessments the views of property owners and businesses
Planning instruments such as zoning, development plans and should be sought. Important considerations will include:
contribution plans should then be prepared which reflect the
strategic planning intentions. Program plans should also be • opportunities for expansion, improvement or
prepared to ensure that the progressive development of centres redevelopment, and the need to encourage the best use
and infrastructure are co-ordinated. Provision for public transport of existing land and facilities;
and cycle routes should be included from the start and not be left
until demand is built up. • scope for diversification of uses to broaden the range of
centre functions and activities;
Planning instruments should also include performance criteria to
provide certainty to developers, who may propose developments • opportunities for housing and offices, particularly in mixed-
outside the hierarchy of centres. Such instruments should make use developments; and
clear how the local authority will assess the impact of proposals
on the vitality and viability of existing or proposed centres; their • accessibility by different modes of transport, the impact of
accessibility by a choice of means of transport; the overall impact traffic and traffic management (see L-9 Centres as
on travel demand; and what kind of development contributions Precincts).
may be required.
A range of suitable sites should be identified for developments,
4: Area plans for centres with particular attention to their accessibility and choices of
means of transport (see R-3 The right activity in the right
For larger centres, strategic plans will be necessary. These plans location).
should be prepared after a careful analysis of the likely demand
for different activities, and the space required during each stage 6: Implementation plans
of the development of the centre. In urban regions where travel
demand management is considered important the strategic plan Implementation plans identify responsibilities, set priorities,
should set accessibility targets (e.g. mode split) for the different allocate resources and co-ordinate the actions by different public
transport modes (including parking). Such targets determine the agencies, and address the relationship to the private sector (see
priority and timing of infrastructure development programs. R-10 Integrating investment).
5: Development plans for centres APPROPRIATENESS
Development plans should be prepared for each centre. Where The principle of a hierarchical, interconnected and multi-
centres already exist, the effectiveness of previous development functional system of centres, which is fully integrated with the
plans should be assessed regarding capacity to accommodate development and management of a multi-modal transpor t

infrastructure, is relevant in all situations. The location of • 7 day a week trading patterns are common.
activities in relation to accessibility has significant potential in
travel demand management and the effective utilisation of The Advisory Committee adds that these retail outlets have the
transport infrastructure. This aspect is further pursued in R-5 Key capacity to weaken major centres if they become unplanned
regional centres and transit centres. centres through the addition of conventional shops. Owners of
shops in centres argue that freestanding shops on cheaper land
EFFECTIVENESS are no different from shops located in centres. By allowing
freestanding shops, the conditions under which the owners of
Effectiveness of a centres policy can be established by shops in centres exist would change unreasonably.
monitoring the achievement of targets.
The current policy (in Adelaide) requires that large ‘bulky goods’
EXAMPLE shops locate in or on the edge of major centres, but few large
sites exist in those areas. The Adelaide Draft Policy proposes,
‘Bulky goods’ developments that ‘bulky goods’ outlets be based on:
Trading of large shops located outside centres is behaviourally • retail showrooms;

different to traditional shops. The SA Development Policy
Advisory Committee (1997) comments that: • the types of goods which are sold;
• it is weekend and car based and has a different pattern; • the large area needed for handling storage and display;
• purchases are generally infrequent and unrelated to other • direct vehicular access.
shopping trips;
The proposed minimum size is 500m2 (because smaller
• large areas are needed for display purposes and bulky developments can locate in centres). There is no maximum, but it
goods; is proposed to maintain limits on out-of-centre development to
ensure that facilities are located in centres . The Draft Policy
• there is a deliberate warehouse presentation; proposes that bulky goods with more than 500m2 be
accommodated in zones which exclude normal shops and be
• access and circulation requirements are different and located in the following order of preference:
trailers are catered for;
(i) in centres or on the edge of centres,
• arterial road exposure is essential;
(ii) in one of a limited number of areas zoned specifically for
• parking needs are half that of conventional shops; and ‘bulky goods’, or

(iii) outside centres only if proposals cannot locate in sites (i) or This approach should also apply to all key town centre uses,
(ii), and only if the criteria of other policies (described in the which attract a lot of people, including commercial and public
Centres Policy) are met. offices, entertainment, leisure, and other uses. These should be
encouraged to locate in city, town and district centres. Smaller-
Preferred locations: the sequential approach scale facilities, such as health centres, branch libraries, local
(Adapted from PPG6, 1996) offices of the local authority, primar y schools, pubs and
restaurants, should be encouraged in local centres.
Adopting a sequential approach means that first preference
should be for town centre sites, where suitable sites or buildings Where out-of centre developments are proposed, the following
suitable for conversion are available, followed by edge-of centre key considerations should be applied:
sites, district and local centres and only then out-of centre sites
in locations which are accessible by a choice of means of • the likely harm to the development plan strategy;
transport.
• the likely impact of the development on the vitality and
The (UK) Government recognises that the approach requires viability of existing town centres, including the evening
flexibility and realism from local planning authorities, developers economy, and the rural economy;
and retailers. Developers and retailers will need to be more
flexible about the format, design and scale of the development, • their accessibility by a choice of means of transport; and
and the amount of car parking, tailoring them to fit the local
circumstances. Local planning authorities should be sensitive to • their likely effect on overall travel patterns and car use.
the needs of retailers and other town centre businesses and
identify, in consultation with the private sector, sites that are Wherever there is a clearly defined need for major travel-
suitable, viable for the proposed use and likely to become generating uses, which cannot be accommodated in or on the
available within a reasonable period of time. edge of existing centres, it may be appropriate to: (i) combine
them with existing out-of centre developments; and negotiate for
Not all centres, particularly small and historic towns, will have improvements to public transport accessibility to (ii) maximise
sites, which are suitable in terms of size, parking, traffic access by means other than by car and to (iii) increase the ability
generation or ser vicing arrangements for large-scale for single trips to serve several purposes.
developr nents in the town centre itself. In such centres,
developments should be of a scale appropriate to the size of the
centre. There may also be sites in town centres which are
currently subject to constraints, such as multiple ownership.
Where they are identified as potential sites, local planning
authorities should indicate how these constraints can be
resolved.

RELATED TOOLS
R-3 The right business in the right location

R-5 Key regional and transit centres.
L-9 Centres as precincts
C-3: Planning of new Type II Corridors
C-5 Adapting Type II Corridors
Figure C-R4-2 Metropolitan Centres strategy, Adelaide (1997)

Key regional R-5
& transit centres
INTENT
The intent of this tool is to focus on the development of selected

centres as key regional centres and transit centres within a
regional context. The planning, design and development of transit
centres are addressed in another tool ( L-2 Transit-friendly land
use).
The common element of key regional centres and transit centres

is a strong orientation towards regional public transport. The
differences between them are those of scale and range of
functions. While key regional centres are large and have major
employment and commercial functions, transit centres can vary
in composition and size. Residential development is always a
significant component of a transit centre (e.g. ‘station
communities’), but this may not be the case with regional
centres.
Figure C-R5-1 Key regional centres have a high level of people

access. Hurstville, Sydney, has a railway line with a bus
interchange.

Integrated approaches to key regional centres can ensure that: RELEVANT FACTORS
• they are planned, developed (or redeveloped) and WHAT ARE KEY REGIONAL CENTRES?
managed as major activity centres and regional public
transport nodes; Key regional centres in urban regions service catchments of over
150,000 persons. The concept is used in SE Queensland, and
• they provide a range of core functions and are served by there is no reason why it could not be used elsewhere. Key
regional and local transport systems; regional centres typically comprise a wide range of activities
(SEQ, 1995):
• they have a wide range of supporting and mixed land uses
including higher density residential development, which • retail centre of greater than 50,000 sq m with at least one
are integrated both with the core functions and the full-line department store;
transport modes;
• large number of higher-order specialty stores;
• public agencies responsible for different functions work
with common objectives and co-ordinated programs; and • full representation of financial, insurance and professional
services;
• there is an effective partnership between the public and
private sectors. • government representation, including local government,
essential services and, in some cases, Commonwealth
Integrated approaches to transit centres can ensure that: and State government offices;
• they are planned, developed/redeveloped and managed • regional scale community facilities, including hospital,
as activity centres and higher density housing locations medical services, higher education, library, cultural centre;
around major public transport nodes;
• wide range of entertainment and recreation facilities, such
• public agencies responsible for different functions work as cinemas, restaurants, hotels;
with common objectives and co-ordinated programs; and
• accommodation facilities to house tourists, visitors,
• there is an effective partnership between the public and seminars and conferences; and
private sectors.
• service trades and other less intensive commercial
activities, such as car sales and service, retail showrooms
and business services.

Key regional centres are significant employment centres. They greater emphasis on travel demand management. The location of
also attract a large number of visitors, not only during the major people-generating activities is more closely linked with
weekday, but also at night and at weekends. Higher-density regional and local public transport infrastructure (see R-3 The
housing above or adjacent to commercial development may also right activity in the right location).
occur.
Travel demand is concentrated, when centres have a high order
Key regional centres have a multi-modal access infrastructure, and a wide range of activities. The opportunities for managing
comprising: good access to the CBD; regional public transport; this demand are increased by associating such centres with a
local public transport; a well-developed arterial road system; car wide range of transpor t modes. Regional public transpor t
parking facilities for visitors and some employees, and pedestrian investment can be focused, choice in mode of transport is
and cycle paths from adjoining areas. increased, a greater number of linked trips can be made and
management of the transport networks is facilitated. There are
Country regional centres comprise similar functions, but usually other benefits, such as the synergy of the association of a wide
serve smaller population catchments and are of smaller scale. range of land uses, increased vitality and interaction, after hours
They differ from urban regional centres in that their office function use of facilities and improved amenity.
is smaller, there is a greater proportion of service activities, and
accessibility by car is paramount. Key regional centres provide local employment for a large
workforce in customer services and maintenance, but they are
WHAT ARE TRANSIT CENTRES? also appropriate locations for regional offices and regional
employment. The high level of public transport accessibility
Transit centres (or ‘station communities’) are centres in which enables employees to travel to work, without having to rely on the
development is integrated with a railway station (commuter or car as the principal mode of travel. Transit centres can provide for
light rail). The development includes higher density and medium a concentration of residential development with support services
density housing, offices, retailing, and a range of commercial and and facilities, and greatly enhance opportunities for alternative
community uses. The development is within walking distance modes of travel.
from the station or stop. Pedestrian and cyclist access is given a
dominant role. A transit centre is often a node for local public BALANCING TRANSPORT DEMAND AND SUPPLY
services and can serve as an interchange between local and
regional public transport services. Private vehicle access is In large urban areas or urbanising regions, where it is desired
provided, but in a subordinate role. that dependence on the motor vehicle should be reduced, the
planning, development and management of regional centres
WHY ARE THEY IMPORTANT? plays a vital role. It may be sound economics from a commercial
point of view to locate them where accessibility is almost wholly
The concept of key regional centres and transit centres is based dependent on the car and to provide unrestrained parking.
on the recognition that sustainable development requires a However, it is questionable whether such a policy serves the

long-term interests of the community as a whole. Apart from the An integrated approach recognises the need to reconcile market
environmental and social cost associated with such development preferences and development economics with the public interest
patterns, the demand for travel will exert pressure on public in moving towards sustainable development patterns. Regional
authorities to increase transport supply - and most of it in centres are the trump card. Sustainable development patterns
increased road capacity - at a disproportionate cost (Figure C- will not come by market decisions based on shor t to
R5-2 top diagram). intermediate-term judgements, nor by strategies for public
investment in transport infrastructure alone. With an integrated
approach, the location, development and management of
regional centres is the outcome of a joint and interactive process
(Figure C- R5-2 bottom diagram).
Figure C-R5-3 Roles in demand and supply in key centres

Figure C-R5-2 Difference between market-led
and integrated approaches

Such a process should be based on setting targets for the kind • partnership between the public and private sectors, and
and level of activity and the kind and level of accessibility (see R- across different levels of government in the provision and
3 The right activity with the right accessibility). These targets will management of accessibility, synchronous with land-use
need to be flexible, as there are inevitable uncertainties about development;
market conditions and public investment funding. However, the
targets present a commitment based on a regional activity and • integration of the centre with the surrounding local
accessibility strategy, and are a basis for development and community, and reducing the impact of a centre on
infrastructure investment decisions. adjoining areas, including all-day parking and traffic, and
the preservation of amenity;
POLICY ISSUES
• the creation of a pedestrian-friendly and attractive
Important issues are: environment;
• attracting regional employment and encouraging a wide • integration in implementation processes, land and site
range of facilities and services; availability, development control and other means of
implementation (see R-10 Integrating investment),
• a whole of government approach towards the location of infrastructure funding, operational costs (e.g.
employment- and visitor-generating activities under its parking charges) and cost recovery; and
control;
• clarity about the roles in planning, development and
• creating the right kind and level of accessibility: the management. As figure C-R5-3 shows, they are complex.
balance between public transport and road accessibility,
the balance between commuter and visitor parking, public The issues centre around the integration of activity, accessibility
transport interchanges and the effect of priority buses on and the environment. It is useful to address them at three
circulation; planning levels: regional (‘macro’), local (‘meso’) and core/frame
(‘micro’) levels (see L-9 Centres as precincts for an explanation
• the spatial relationship between activity and accessibility of the core/frame concept). The distinction between regional,
(there are different kinds of activity with different local and core/frame levels not only reflects the different impacts
accessibility criteria) (see L-9 Centres as precincts); on the community, but also different relationships in responsibility
for planning and implementation (Table C-R5-1).
• the relationship between activity and accessibility over
time; the integration of land-use developments and
infrastructure augmentation; and the impact of road
capacity limitations on future development;

LEVEL REGIONAL LOCAL CORE
LAND USE Chatswood as a Second Level Centre in Mix land uses and use vertical zoning to Focus highest pedestrian intensity uses in
Metro Strategy. avoid extensive single purpose zones. the core, with supplementary high activity
corridors.
While maintaining equity, there should be Limit traffic generating land uses in walking Night-time uses should relate to the core
density controls within pedestrian distance catchment of station, except along the and the station.
from rail station regional traffic corridor (the Pacific
Highway).
A cap should be set for car generating
uses, which will be reset when there is Any replacement of off-street parking for
expansion in the access to Chatswood. on-street parking should be in the frame
and not in the core.
ACCESS Increase regional public transport coverage Highest priority to lower congestion on main First priority to pedestrians and those with
and accessibility. bus routes. disabilities.
Increase local public transport accessibility. Use traffic planning and management to Second priority to public transport and
limit through traffic and conflicts. cyclists.
Control car access and parking:
(a) no provision for commuter parking at Reduce private vehicle turning movements Consider the access barriers to the
railway station: at intersections on trunk bus routes to disabled from the transport terminals to the
(b) low priority for local employee parking reduce bus delay. destinations.
within 400m of station.
While keeping Archer Street as a sub- Ensure buses address the main trip
Ensure that regional traffic routes have arterial and important access route, expand destinations to give passengers a sense of
capacity to carry through traffic outside its pedestrian capacity near Victoria place
frame of centre, but introduce bus priority Avenue. and direction.
measures.
ENVIRON- MENT Reduce car dependency regionally. Protect the adjoining residential community Urban design guidelines to maximise
from town centre traffic and parking. amenity.
Focus activity near public transport nodes.
Overcome the divisive impact of the public Urban design guidelines to address
transport infrastructure on the town centre. personal security at the pedestrian scale.
Create an obvious travellers’ path from

station and interchange to major attractions.
Table C-R5-1 An example of an integrated strategy for a key centre (Chatswood) Source: Willoughby Council, 1996

CREATING REGIONAL AND TRANSIT CENTRES • how public transport infrastructure can be improved; and
Some centres should be developed or transformed into key • which changes can be made to make them more
centres in the regional structure, and encouraged to attract major accessible on foot and bicycle.
employment generating activities. Existing centres with the
potential to become key centres may require further investment HOW TO DEAL WITH PROPOSALS FOR NEW REGIONAL
to improve regional public transport access. New key centres SHOPPING CENTRES
should be located on railway lines, where they exist or are
proposed (e.g. Robina, South-East Queensland) and become Proposals for free-standing regional shopping centres should be
interchange nodes in the regional and local bus network. discouraged unless (i) there are clear intentions to develop them
into integrated and multi-purpose centres over time; (ii) they are
The development of transit communities should be encouraged consistent with an accessibility strategy for the region, (iii) there
around stations or stops. New communities should be integrated are agreements on the provision/augmentation of transport
with stations and stops; densities should be linked with walking infrastructure; and (iv) the centre is integrated with adjoining
distance; and parking standards should reflect the accessibility development and not separated by large surface car parks.
provided by the public transport system. While there will be a
significant housing component, other people-generating activities The criteria and procedures of the ‘sequential approach’ set out
and mixtures of land uses should be encouraged (see L-2 in the example in R-4 (A hierarchy of multi-purpose centres)
Transit-friendly land use). provide a useful basis for assessment.
HOW TO ADAPT EXISTING REGIONAL SHOPPING CENTRES APPLICATION
From the viewpoint of land use and transport integration and HOW CAN IT BE DONE?
travel demand management, priority should be given to existing
regional shopping centres. Issues to be considered are: 1: Consider the regional context
• whether it is possible to convert them into multi-purpose At the regional level, there is a need to resolve the role of key
centres; and transit centres in the regional and demand management
context. This involves consideration of the following matters:
• how they can be developed or redeveloped as
employment centres; Activity: the type and amount of development in the centre,
development intensity, mobility profiles of each of the different
• whether higher-density housing can be developed within land-use types (see R-3 The right activity in the right place),
or adjacent to them; land-use composition, and the cumulative effect of activity on
transport demand.

Accessibility: regional networks including transport nodes, the Activity: pedestrian frontage activity; day and night activity;
desired mode split and balance in the provision of accessibility internally-oriented developments and external activity; pedestrian
by transport mode, parking provision, and the cumulative effect spaces, townscape and detailed design.
of accessibility on mobility patterns.
Accessibility: pedestrian access; vehicle access; on-street
Environment: broad issues of transport and the environment, parking and site access; circulation routes; time and space-
such as air quality. based traffic restrictions; malls or shared space; management of
the road space.
Land management: need and responsibility for land and site
management. Environment: pedestrian-friendliness, amenity and identity.
2: Consider the local context 4: Implementation
At the local level there is a need to resolve (i) the location of There are different models of implementation with different
centres and access in relation to adjoining areas and local outcomes. For example, conventional development control plans
transport networks, and (ii) the form and structure of the centre. can provide a useful tool for guiding the type and density of
private sector investment, a more proactive approach will require
Activity: the impact of regional traffic on local communities; the other intervention measures.
concept of core and frame; structure of the centre; the location,
density and disposition of activities in relation to each other. The review of transit-oriented development in Portland, Oregon,
showed a need to promote transit-oriented development as part
Accessibility: interchanges and bus ways; location and provision of a broader investment strategy and to have a greater focus on
for off-street and on-street parking; ser vice access and implementation (including incentives, such as the waiving of
circulation. property taxes for high density development for a decade (Tri-
Met, 1993). See also (1996) UK Planning Policy Guidance 6:
Environment: the impact on adjoining areas (both traffic and Town Centres and Retail Developments, Depar tment of
parking intrusion). Environment, London.
3: Design 5: Integrated management structures
At the design level there is a need to resolve the detailed Management structures need to be set up to oversee the
arrangements of land use, transport and environment. The process of establishment or conversion of centres. They should
distinction between a core and frame (explained in L-9 Centres play a proactive role in attracting employment and a range of
as precincts) may be useful. facilities and services. They should also ensure that activity and
infrastructure development are synchronised at each stage.

Although these steps are shown as sequential, in practice there RELATED TOOLS
will be an interactive and iterative process. For example, the
means of implementation will have a great influence on the R-3 The right activity in the right place
structure, form and design of the centre. R-4 A hierarchy of multi-purpose activity centres
L-2 Transit friendly land use
APPROPRIATENESS R-12 Regional parking policies
Application of this approach towards key centres and transit L-9 Centres as precincts
centres is appropriate in large urban areas, especially where R-10 Integrating investment
there is need for travel demand management.
EFFECTIVENESS
A review of the policy in Por tland, Oregon towards the

establishment of transit centres showed that the policy had
produced significant new development near stations and that
proper ty values had increased faster near stations than
elsewhere (Tri-Met, 1993).
EXAMPLES
The Blacktown centre is being redeveloped as a key regional

centre. The Council undertook site assembly on both sides of the
station, developed a bus interchange, acquired air rights above
the station and invited proposals from investors and developers Figure C-R5-4 Melbourne City Centre -
for development of the 3 ha site. an example of a variety of transport modes and land use.
The Willoughby Council developed an integrated transport

strategy for the Chatswood regional centre (see Table C-R5-1).

which can best serve such patterns; and developing land-
Public transport systems R-6 use strategies and policies to improve the effectiveness
and convenience of public transport.
& land use
In this way, integrated approaches towards public transport and
land use can:
• lead to development patterns, land uses and densities

INTENT which support the investment in public transport
infrastructure, make public transport more attractive for
The purpose of this tool is to examine more closely which type of people to use, and make it possible to provide public
public transpor t systems suit different types of land-use transport at a higher level of service than might otherwise
environments. The focus is on regional relationships. Local be the case;
relationships are addressed in L-2 Transit-friendly land use and
L-3 Increasing choice in transport. • lead to public transport systems which support existing
development patterns, but provide a better level of service;
It has been said that governments do not manage outcomes for and
areas, but manage functions and processes. If the aim is to
create greater choice in transport mode, more is required than • indicate how existing development patterns can be
planning public transport routes and increasing expenditure on modified over time to provide a closer association
infrastructure. An area-based approach is necessary in which all between land use and public transport.
the elements that make up the transport demand and supply are
considered and planned together.
An area-based approach as distinct from a functional approach

can be approached from two directions:
• understanding of (i) the development and operational

costs and performance characteristics of public transport,
and (ii) the patterns of land use and density which support
different modes; and (iii) developing strategies and
policies to fit them together; and
• understanding of (i) the land use and density patterns of

different urban areas, and (ii) the public transport systems Figure C-R6-1 Trolley bus, Wellington, NZ

RELEVANT FACTORS community centres, hospitals, universities, convention and
recreation centres, and airports near major public transport
WHY LAND USE IS A KEY FACTOR routes can provide an off-peak level of service, which presents a
choice.
There are often simplistic expectations that improving public
transport will lead to major shifts from car to public transport WHY A CLOSER FIT IS DIFFICULT
travel. Such shifts will not occur unless such improvement suits
the particular travel needs of people, is attractive, efficient, and TO ACHIEVE IN PRACTICE
part of a package of measures.
There are several factors in achieving a closer fit between land
A journey starts with a point of origin and finishes with a point of use and public transport at the regional level, including:
destination. If there is a need for long walking distances at either
end, lengthy waiting in exposed places, unpredictability of a seat,
changing routes with the prospect of losing one’s seat, then even • existing networks and land use
the most appealing form of public transport cannot compete with • employment dispersal
the car, unless passengers are captive (i.e. no access to a car). • interchanging
The provision of public transport is costly and cannot be efficient Existing networks and land use
unless there is guaranteed patronage. In low-density suburban
areas, a public transport-friendly service cannot be guaranteed, Existing public transport systems have evolved over many years
certainly not at off peak periods. In order to create a real choice, and the land use system has, to some extent, adapted to it. Both
trip origins and destinations should be located near public public transport and land use are difficult to change; most
transport routes and trip densities should be sufficient to changes will be incremental and greater integration will take a
establish an efficient service (see R-3 The right activity in the long time to achieve.
right location). Conversely, new or improved public transport
services should be linked with existing or planned concentrations With elements of competition policy in most systems, the
of trip origins and destinations. institutional arrangements for public transport provision will affect
what can be done and how it can be done. Experience in the UK,
Thus there is an important land-use variable in the provision of where privatisation of public transport (including rail) has been
improved public transport. Public transport-friendly land-use implemented, integration has become much more difficult to
structures require careful management of land-use activities. A achieve.
public transport friendly structure is not only necessary to serve
peak hour commuter travel needs. There will be different levels of However, opportunities to influence decisions do occur. The
service depending on patronage, but selective concentration of purpose of this tool is to increase understanding of objectives
other people-generating activities, such as commercial and which are worth pursuing when such opportunities arise.

Employment dispersal businesses. When key access roads get busy, too, employees will
engage in ‘peak spreading’ behaviour by trying to get into work
The proportion of trips made by public transport (i.e. ‘mode split’) before the rush, or before the best parking spaces are gone
for both origin of and destination of trips declines with distance (PPK, 1997).
from the CBD for most urban areas. In most cases, the mode
split to public transport at the point of origin is higher than at the Interchanging
destination. This difference suggests that - at least at a regional
level - it is the location where people work which influences The dispersed nature of trip origins and destinations means that
whether they use public transport, more so than where they live. it is difficult to use public transport without transferring from one
Those regions with dispersed employment (mostly outer areas) route or mode to another. Public transport works most efficiently
generally have lower mode splits to public transport (NSW at high speeds with high loads on dedicated routes. Such
Department of Urban Affairs and Planning, 1995). regional systems need to be linked with local services operating
Jobs have followed residential dispersal from the central city. The through interchanges. There are techniques to reduce
rapid growth of many urban areas has been focused on the inconvenience (see L-2 Transit-friendly land use and L-3
fringe. Driven by the development of residential areas, the jobs Increasing choices in transpor t). However, interchanging
have followed. Commercial and retail jobs have generally been significantly adds to travel time and uncer tainty about
clustered in developing centres, but manufacturing and connections or getting a seat. All this adds up to a disincentive to
warehousing jobs have avoided centres (PPK, 1997). Planning use public transport.
practices have encouraged the isolation of industrial employment
areas through zoning and, because they were isolated, they are APPROACH
not easy to serve by public transport or within walking distance.
In addressing these issues, a five-step approach will be
While dispersion of jobs has brought employment closer to discussed briefly:
residents, those shorter trips are almost all car-dependent. This
is partly because there is no convenient public transport link for 1 Categorisation of public transport by type of service;
cross movement, but also because of the changing nature of
employment. In order to get the most out of their plant and 2 Examination of land-use structures most suited for each
equipment, industries are working outside traditional peak hours. category;
With workplace agreements and incentives for productivity 3 A hierarchy of services by land use;
increases, working hours are getting more flexible, and frequently
longer. Often workers are unable to predict their expected 4 Categorisation of urban development areas; and
departure times, making use of scheduled transport services
unattractive. Further, with such variation it is very difficult to co- 5 Bringing public transport and land use closer together.
ordinate work start and departure times with surrounding

CATEGORISATION OF PUBLIC TRANSPORT
Public transport services can be categorised by the type of

service:
• Line haul: commuter rail, light rail, guided bus, regional

express bus. Depending on right of way and operating
characteristics, the number of persons per hour carried
(one way) ranges from approximately 35,000 for
commuter rail to 15,000 for light rail and guided bus
(double); and to 8,000 to 10,000 for express bus (bus
lane).
• Fixed route collection/distribution systems: frequent bus,
primary bus, secondary bus, trolley bus and mono rail. The
distinction between buses is related to the level of service.
Hourly capacity of a bus route is up to 5000 persons per
hour.
Figure C-R6-2 Public transport types and land use
• Flexible route system: personal public transport,
minibuses, taxis. Depending on occupancy rates (e.g.
multiple hire taxis) hourly capacities range from spacing of stations and stops at intervals of 1 km in high- density
1500–3000 persons. inner areas and at least 2 km in outer areas. Population and
employment should be centred around the stations.
• Hybrid systems, such as collector/distributor buses using
express routes at peak periods, high occupancy vehicle Where there are more frequent stops, such as a light rail route,
lanes for taxis and vehicles carrying three persons or the route should be developed as a continuous land use-
more. intensive corridor. Such a ‘people route’ is different from a high-
capacity express route and should not be placed in the median of
ASSOCIATED LAND-USE STRUCTURE a major ‘vehicle route’. Roadside friction impedes the express
function and the line haul system becomes an ‘activity street’ or
Line haul systems need substantial catchments and high-density corridor with lower speeds and capacities.
nodes to support them. They serve the CBD, regional centres,
high-density employment areas, intermodal facilities (such as Fixed route collection/distribution systems need to be reasonably
airports) and high-activity centres (universities, regional sport direct (with a deviation of not more than about 25 per cent). They
centres). They work best on limited access routes, a minimum ser ve secondar y centres, main streets and line-haul

interchanges. Higher densities (population, employment and
visitors) are desirable along them. Monorails can be point-to-
point connections between major people generators or people
movers within high-density areas.
Flexible systems have no specific land use association and are

demand activated. With moderate densities, travel distances and
costs are reduced.
Figure C-R6-2 indicates associations between transport mode

and land-use areas.
Development patterns greatly influences the scope for a high

capacity line haul system (see figure C-R6-3). Fixed rail involves
a costly infrastructure and requires high passenger volumes,
associated with a linear high-density pattern (C) A policy of
higher density centres enhances the prospects for regional
express bus network (B). With conventional suburban
development the scope is likely to be limited to a fixed route
collection/distribution system, with connections to more remote
high-capacity line haul systems.
A HIERARCHY OF SERVICES BY LAND USE
The hierarchy of public transport service by land use is indicated

in Figure C-R6-4. Core transport modes are transport modes
which are essential for the particular land-use category in
regional, sub-regional and local contexts.
The purpose of the figure (which is adapted from a Portland

transport study) is not to present a model, but an illustration of
the principle that integrated planning requires a hierarchy of
Figure C-R6-3 Growth patterns determine the range of options
public transport services for different land-use areas, with a
for public transport
specific combination of core services for a particular type of area.
Each type of service requires careful definition (see example).

The level of service and guidelines for accessibility need to be INTERCHANGES
established for each area.
Interchanges are important elements in linking different transport
When such a categorisation has been adapted to a specific modes. A significant element in an attractive public transport
situation it can be used to develop goals and objectives for the system where many people have to change routes is that of
provision of particular forms of public transport to different types timed transfer. This means that the schedules are arranged so
of areas. These then become the guidelines for integrated that there is a connection between arriving and departing
regional and local planning. vehicles, and people do not have to wait. Predictability is an
important element in attracting passengers to public transport.
CATEGORISATION OF URBAN DEVELOPMENT AREAS Timed transfer is facilitated at interchange points where a
number of routes converge on a transport node.
There are fundamental differences in transport demand and
supply between inner and outer areas, and between established Association of such nodes with activity centres serves the triple
and new areas. Established outer areas, in particular, present a purpose of serving passengers with destinations in such centres,
challenge because development patterns have evolved which are those transferring, and those transferring, but wanting to pick up
generally not public-transport friendly. something or someone en route.
It is useful to examine the origin and destination of trips to work, INFLUENCING PUBLIC TRANSPORT
services and facilities and the travel behaviour patterns, which AND DEVELOPMENT PATTERNS
have developed (see, for example, R-15 Travel Blending).
There is a need to work on several fronts to change travel
Analysis of the data and thematic mapping of accessibility by patterns towards greater choice in transport. Some of the options
transport mode to different land-use locations will enable urban are:
areas to be categorised by (i) being car-dependent and difficult to
change (e.g. most outer suburbs); (ii) car-dependent, but with • Strategic and development planning for integrating
potential for change; (iii) public transport dependent (e.g. CBD of accessibility and activity (see R-3 The right activity in the
large cities); (iv) areas in transition (e.g. inner suburbs); and (v) right location and L-1 Accessibility/activity zoning);
areas with choice. • Where possible, develop growth corridors with sufficient
population and employment to warrant fixed line hauls
The critical areas are outer suburban areas. Land- use changes systems in the longer term;
are needed if a higher-order public transport service is to be
provided. • Development patterns with graded residential and
employment densities based on accessibility to public
transport line haul systems;

Figure C-R6-4 Hierarchy of public transport services
by land use (adapted from Metro, 1996)
• Transit centres or station communities, which are

examples of integration between land use, density and
public transport (see R-5 Key regional and transit centres
and L-2 Transit-friendly land uses);
• Creating central places which serve as potential public

transport nodes and activity streets where demand is
concentrated;
• Regional and secondary centres located along line haul

routes;
• Interchanges and points of transfer associated with Figure C-R6-5 Interchange bus-rail, Chatswood
activity centres (with the possible exception of park and
ride facilities, because of parking conflicts);

• Timed transfer; APPLICATION
• Direct routes for peak services. Where demand justifies it, HOW CAN IT BE DONE?
‘hybrid’ routes may be provided, which serve as
collectors/distributors and then as express routes to avoid 1: Establishing a hierarchy of public transport services
the need for transfer (e.g. NE Adelaide);
A range and hierarchy of public transport services (see figure C-
• Personal public transport to activity centres and transport R6-4) could be determined with performance criteria for each
nodes extending the range of public transport coverage service in the hierarchy.
and providing a more direct service (at an additional cost);
2: Establishing goals and objectives for public transport
• Development control policies, which test proposals against services to particular land use types
mobility characteristics (see, for example, Table C-R6-1);
Goals and objectives should be established for the type and level
• Submission of commuter plans for major establishments of public transport service in the hierarchy and the type of land
(see R-14 Commuter planning); use served.
• Encouraging and facilitating the development of personal 3: Identifying land-use locations and the needs for core
public transport systems; public transport services
• Facilitating dual mode systems, such as rail and bicycle Land-use locations and the needs for core and other public
and bus and bicycle; transport services will need to be considered in the context of
existing regional and local strategic plans.
• Area design and traffic calming, which favour public
transport; and 4: Developing regional and local plans, which incorporate
land-use and public transport requirements
• Facilitating access to public transport (see L-3 Increasing
choices in transport). There will be a need for strategic, development and
implementation plans, which apply the goals and objectives and
integrate public transport and land use. Development plans
should incorporate the principles of accessibility and linked land
uses.

LAND-USE CLASSIFICATION LEVEL OF TRANSIT ORIENTATION EXAMPLE 2: Regional Transit Components
HIGH MEDIUM LOW
(High if well Primary Transit Network
designed)
The Primary Transit Network (PTN) supports intensification of
Apartment buildings/attached H specific land uses, identified in the growth concept, by providing
houses/town houses
Detached houses on small blocks (less
convenient transit access and improved transit ser vice
H
than 700 m2) connectivity. It consists of four major transit modes (e.g., Light
Detached houses on greater than 700 M Rail Transit, Regional Rapid Bus, Frequent Bus and primary bus
m2 blocks service), which operate at frequencies of 15 minutes or less all
Retirement villages H
day. Specific modes of the network will target service to primary
Airport M
Automatic teller machines H land use components of the 2040 Growth Concept including
Banks H central city, regional centres, industrial areas and intermodal
Cinemas H facilities (includes the Portland International Airport). Some
Child-care centres H secondary land-use components will also be served by PTN. Any
Community centres, public halls, etc. H
transit trip between these land uses can be completed on the
Department and discount department M
stores, supermarkets, free-standing PTN.
shopping centres
Function rooms M Light Rail Transit
Funeral parlours L
Fun parlours, amusement halls etc. H
General Store, 7/11, Night Owl, etc.
Light rail transit (LRT) is a high-speed and high- capacity service,
M
Government offices H
which operates on a fixed guideway within an exclusive right-of-
Light industries M way (to the extent possible) connecting the central city with
Medical centres H regional centres. LRT also serves existing regional public
Post office (shopfront) H attractions, such as civic stadium, the convention centre, and
Schools/TAFE colleges/Universities H station communities. LRT service runs at least every 10 minutes
Showgrounds M
Sporting arena, stadium, etc.
during the weekday and weekend midday base periods, operates
M
Service stations L at higher speed outside the CBD and makes very few stops.
Video rental outlets M High-level passenger amenities are provided at transit stations
Warehousing L and station communities, including schedule information, ticket
machines, lighting, benches, shelters, bicycle parking and
commercial services. The speed and schedule reliability of LRT
can be maintained by the provision of signal preemption at grade
EXAMPLE 1 Table C-R6-1 Land uses and transit orientation crossings and/or intersections.
Source: ‘Shaping up’ (1998), Queensland Government (Extract)

Regional Rapid Bus along the route and coverage of a wide range of land use
options, rather than on speed between two points.
Regional Rapid Bus provides high-frequency, high- speed
service along major transit routes with limited stops. This service Secondary transit is designed as an alternative to the single-
is a high-quality bus which emulates LRT service in speed, occupant vehicle by providing frequent, reliable service.
frequency and comfort. A high level of transit amenities are Secondary bus service, generally, is designed to serve travel with
provided at major transit stops and at station communities. one trip end occurring within a secondary land use component.
Regional Rapid Bus passenger amenities include schedule
information, ticket machines, lighting, benches, covered bus Secondary Bus
shelters and bicycle parking.
Secondary bus lines provide coverage and access to primary
Frequent Bus and secondary land use components. Secondary bus service
runs as often as every 30 minutes on weekdays. Weekend
Frequent Bus provides high-frequency local service along major service is provided as demand warrants.
transit routes with frequent stops. This service includes a high
level of transit preferential treatments, and passenger amenities Minibus
along the route such as covered bus shelters, curb extensions,
reserved bus lanes, lighting, median stations and/or signal These services provide coverage in lower-density areas by
preemption. providing transit connections to primary, and secondary land-use
components. Minibus services, which may range from fixed route
Primary Bus to purely demand responsive including dial-a-ride, employer
shuttles and bus pools, provide at least a 60-minute response
Primary bus service is provided on most major urban streets. time on weekdays. Weekend service is provided as demand
This type of bus service operates with maximum frequencies of warrants.
15 minutes with conventional stop spacing along the route.
Paratransit
Transit preferential treatments and passenger amenities such as
covered bus shelters, lighting, signal preemption and curb Paratransit service is defined as non-fixed route service, which
extensions are appropriate at high ridership locations. ser ves special transit mar kets, including ser vice to
disadvantaged people throughout the greater metro region.
Secondary Transit Network (STN)
Park-and-Ride
The secondary transit network comprises of secondary bus,
minibus, paratransit and park-and-ride services. Secondary Park-and-ride facilities provide convenient auto access to
service is focused more on accessibility, frequency of service regional trunk route service for areas not directly served by

transit. Bicycle and pedestrian access, as well as parking and Passenger Intermodal Facilities
storage accommodation for cyclists, are considered in the siting
process of new park-and-ride facilities. Passenger intermodal facilities serve as the hub for various
passenger modes and the transfer · point between modes. These
In addition, the need for a complementary relationship between facilities are closely interconnected with urban public
park-and-ride facilities and regional and local land-use goals transportation service and are highly accessible by all modes.
exists, and requires periodic evaluation over time for continued They include Portland International Airport, Union Station and
appropriateness. inter-city bus stations.
Interurban Public Transportation Source: Metro (1996) Regional Transportation Policy, Metro,
Portland, Oregon
The federal ISTEA has identified interurban travel and passenger
‘intermodal’ facilities (e.g. bus and train stations) as a new
element of regional transportation planning. The following APPROPRIATENESS
interurban components are impor tant to the regional
transportation system: Integrated planning of public transport and land use is essential
and appropriate in all urban situations.
Passenger Rail Integrated approaches can lead to public transport systems and
development patterns which give priority to public transport,
Inter-city high-speed rail is part of the state transportation system provide opportunities for efficient bus routing and operation, and
and will eventually extend from the Willamette Valley north to make it convenient for people to use public transport for linked
British Columbia. Amtrak already provides services south to trip-making.
California and east to the rest of the continental United States.
These systems should be integrated with other public EFFECTIVENESS
transportation services within the metropolitan region with
connections to passenger intermodal facilities. High-speed rail There will be different interpretations about the effectiveness of
needs to be complemented by urban transit systems within the integrated measures (see Chapters 5 and 6, Resource
region. Document). However, there is sufficient evidence that the
integration of public transpor t and land use contributes
Inter-city Bus significantly to the potential effectiveness of public transport and
enhances convenience of travel.
Inter-city bus connects points within the region to nearby
destinations, including neighbouring cities, recreational activities It should be reiterated that existing urban areas never present a
and tourist destinations. Several private inter-city bus services ‘clean slate’. Sustained effort will be required to adapt and extend
are currently provided in the region. public transpor t and land-use systems to achieve greater

integration in the long term.
RELATED TOOLS

R-4 A hierarchy of activity centres
L-1 Accessibility/activity zoning

Freight movement R-7
& land use
INTENT
The movement of goods within cities is a very significant part of

the total freight task and is of considerable economic importance.
Freight traffic in large urban areas accounts for more than 15 per
cent of regional traffic and is expected to increase (an average
annual growth rate of 1.7% for the Greater Metropolitan Region
of Sydney, NSW Roads and Traffic Authority, 1996). Figure C-R7-1 Most freight moved within cities
is carried on roads
Freight within cities is mostly carried on roads because patterns
of origins and destinations are dispersed, distances are relatively
short, and many of the movements are time-sensitive. The There are several important aspects:
commodities carried are mostly bulk products and manufactured
goods. In Sydney (1993), 32% of tonnes moved was crude • primary routes for trucks and hazardous materials;
materials, 25% was manufactured goods, 13% was food and live
animals, and 10% was machinery and equipment (NSW, RTA, • development of a freight movement network;
1996).
• minimum levels of performance;
Freight movement is often competing for limited road space with
other transport users, and heavy vehicles have a significant • location of freight generating land uses;
impact on the urban environment. The purpose of this tool is to
encourage greater integration of the location of freight handling • location of freight handling centres; and
areas and freight movement routes and, thereby, to increase
transport efficiency and reduce impact. • the potential to increase the role of rail.

Integrated approaches towards the location of freight handling Land uses with high day and night populations and sensitive land
areas and truck movement can: uses, such as hospitals and schools, should not be located
alongside those corridors.
• facilitate the efficient, safe and cost-effective movement of
freight; Although dangerous goods movement should be confined to
regional routes, there may be circumstances where road
• ensure that freight handling areas are located where there transport of hazardous materials is better suited to lower order
is access to freight routes; and roads, because they are associated with lower traffic volumes,
better levels of service, lower land use densities or lesser overall
• ensure that the impact on the local environment of freight risk/exposure than available on arterial and sub arterial routes
movement, storage and distribution are properly (NSW Depar tment of Planning, 1994). The provision of
considered in the planning and management of urban alternative emergency routes is also desirable.
areas.
RELEVANT FACTORS Much goods movement is associated with the picking up and
delivery of goods, and this requires the use of local roads and
PRIMARY ROUTES FOR TRUCKS AND HAZARDOUS streets. Goods distribution within precincts should be subservient
MATERIALS to the needs for safety and environmental protection. Special
attention must be given to goods delivery, pick-up and storage in
The objective should be to maintain a reasonable and reliable centres. This should be done at the concept or development
travel (transit) time for moving freight through the urban region in planning stage, as it is fundamental and should never be an
transport corridors. Regional freight and hazardous goods afterthought.
movement should be facilitated along designated corridors. One
of the major causes for heavy vehicles infiltrating residential Safety in the operation of the freight system is paramount.
streets are delays encountered along the major road system Deficiencies should be identified and addressed. They may relate
(NSW Department of Planning, 1994). These problems can be to:
partly eliminated by the provision of alternative routes and
restrictions based on weight. However, more action may be • roadway geometry and traffic controls;
needed on congested routes. Freight movement can be
enhanced by signal timing and, where appropriate, by routes • bridges and overpasses;
which are dedicated to freight travel.
• at-grade railroad crossings;
Land uses along freight routes should be compatible with such
movements. This is rarely the case because land uses were • truck infiltration in neighbourhoods;
developed before transport routes became heavy freight carriers.

• congestion on interchanges and hill climbs; and (based on accident rates), and quantified risk analysis are
necessary. Emergency response capability is another important
• hazardous materials movement. factor to be assessed.
DEVELOPING A FREIGHT MOVEMENT NETWORK (iii) Economic factors

Transport operational costs are influenced by travel distance and
‘A "business as usual" scenario in the freight context will lead to time and must be compared with alternative routes. In the case
bottlenecks and a decline in the level of economic growth and of hazardous materials there are other costs such as potential
deterioration in the competitiveness of industry’ (RTA, 1996). It is costs linked to the material’s potential for fire, explosions or toxic
impor tant, therefore, to maintain and enhance a freight releases. They can be described as incidence costs, risk
distribution system through efficient use of a flexible, continuous, exposure costs and costs of safety measures.
multi-modal transport network, which offers competitive choices
for freight movement. There is a need to provide high-quality, 24 The development of a freight movement network should be
hour, regional access between freight transport corridors and the considered when conducting multi-modal transpor t and
region’s intermodal facilities, such as ports, airports, and corridor/precinct studies (see C-7: The right transport task on the
industrial areas. right mode, and L-8 Corridors and precincts).
There are three main considerations with a fourth dependent on (iv) Levels of service for regional freight movement
these three: Because of the economic importance of efficiency in freight
movement, high levels of service should be established for
(i) Road and traffic factors regional routes. One of these is
Road and traffic factors are capacity, level of service, physical 24 hour use of the routes for freight movement.
and management characteristics (e.g. roadway geometry,
bridges, overpasses, critical intersections and traffic controls), LOCATION OF FREIGHT GENERATING LAND USES
volume and composition of traffic, travel time and congestion
levels of existing and potential routes. Major intermodal hub facilities serve as transfer points (rail, port,
airport). Their locations are usually fixed and require freight
(ii) Environmental and land use safety factors connections. Ports require both rail and road freight access.
The routes which appear to be satisfactory on road and traffic
grounds should be subjected to a friction and impact analysis The categorisation of land use according to freight generating
(see C-2 Planning of new Type I Corridors). In the case of routes characteristics is complex, partly because there are many factors
for hazardous materials, information is needed to establish risk which influence them. It is useful to examine freight handling in
levels and safety management. Hazard identification, terms of supply chain dynamics (Cooper et al., 1996). In addition
consequence analysis (including population and sensitive land to waste collection and building mater ials storage and
uses exposed to the effects of an accident), probability estimates distribution, six significant sectors can be distinguished:

automotive, business equipment, fast moving consumer goods, land-use policies, to reduce or eliminate conflicts between
chemicals, food and agricultural products, and retailers. current and future land uses. They should also be integrated with
transpor t policies and network development because
The transport demand in each of these sectors is highly variable. accessibility to freight handling centres may conflict with
For example, automotive manufacturing requires around 3000 accessibility needs of other land uses.
components for the production of a single car, most of them
being sourced from a variety of suppliers. Business equipment Local authorities should encourage the location or relocation of
companies are operating in a highly competitive market and distribution and operating centres, and other developments with
production is very footloose, changing from location to location. frequent freight movements in relation to regional freight routes.
Customer service can influence the frequency of deliveries to Local strategies should also provide adequate freight loading and
retailers, and small vehicles may replace a large one. parking strategies in the central city, regional centres, town
centres, industrial and service areas.
LOCATION OF FREIGHT CENTRES
Distribution centres, retail and warehouse parks should be
Land-use planning is a critical factor in moderating the freight designed to accommodate the freight services, which they will
demand (NSW, RTA, 1996). The location of freight reception and require. Local authorities may seek to reach agreement on the
distribution centres has undergone major changes in the past provision of ancillary freight services, including new freight
10 years, with consequential shifts in the movement of goods operating centres and rest areas, as part of major new industrial
through the network. However, there are clear links between the or warehousing development (PPG 13, 1995).
location of freight handling centres and the location of intermodal
freight facilities. Provision should be made for them. Freight INCREASING THE POTENTIAL ROLE
handling centres require large areas of land and are low in OF OTHER MODES OF GOODS TRANSPORT
development intensity. This may create competition for land use
and requires resolution on the basis of a strategic plan (see Although roads are the preferred mode of transport for freight,
example). accounting for over 50% of mass carried (in Sydney), the
feasibility of shifting some freight to other modes (such as
Regional distribution centres are favoured in locations with a high pipelines and rail) is important. Rail is not attractive to freight
level of regional accessibility, especially by road. These, typically, operators within urban areas, because of the need for reliability,
should be designated and zoned as C type locations (see R-3 flexibility and convenience. Nevertheless, shifting container
The right activity in the right location and L-1 Accessibility/activity freight from road to rail should be given serious consideration.
zoning). The development of freight handling centres may be
appropriate near orbital routes.
Policies for the location and development of freight handling

centres in established areas should be co-ordinated with other

APPLICATION location of potential routes for hazardous materials.
HOW CAN IT BE DONE? 6: Assessment of existing and potential routes
1: Identifying the location of major freight handling centres The assessment of existing and potential routes should include
road and traffic factors, environmental and land use safety
The location of existing major freight handling centres must be factors, economic factors, and level of performance. In the case
identified and categorised by type (e.g. cargo/freight containers, of routes for hazardous materials, a comparative risk assessment
heavy goods carriers, building materials, warehouses), and in should be made.
relation to the existing regional transport infrastructure.
7: Identifying potential sites with a C classification
2: Identifying the freight task by mode and commodities
involved Sites with good access to regional transport routes are identified
and classified as C locations.
The freight task by mode and the commodities involved should
be identified and an overview of origin and destination should be 8: Developing a regional goods movement and freight
prepared. The origin, destination and movement of hazardous handling strategy
materials is an essential part of such an overview.
With this information it is now possible to develop an integrated
3: Identifying movements to and from freight handling freight movement and handling strategy. It should be integrated
centres with the overall transport and land-use strategy for the region.
The transport mode, number of vehicles, type of vehicles and 9: Zoning and development control to protect C locations
times of the day should be established. and truck routes
4: Identifying routes in the network that are currently used Zoning should ensure the protection of areas for goods handling
and corridors for freight movement.
The routes currently used for goods movement are identified,
especially those used for the transport of hazardous materials. 10: Network and traffic management
Problems in the use of these routes are also identified.
The freight strategy will have identified the actions necessary to
5: Identifying potential truck routes improve the performance of the network for freight movement.
These should be carried through into network development and
There may be other routes with the potential management.
for freight movement. Special attention should be given to the

Figure C-R7-2 Existing freight routes and centres Figure C-R7-3 Possible freight routes and centres

APPROPRIATENESS RELATED TOOLS
Integrated planning for the movement and handling of freight is R-3 The right business in the right location
appropriate in all urban areas. R-8 Road systems and land use
C-7 The right transport task, right mode
EFFECTIVENESS
Integrated approaches can reduce conflict and increase the

efficiency of freight movement.
EXAMPLE
A recent project reviewed the strategic consequences of the

expansion of Sydney Airport, Port Botany, the New Southern
Railway (underground from the CBD to the airport), the extension
of the M5 (from the Hume Highway) into the area, and its
connection with the Eastern Distributor to form an orbital
transport route.
The growth in intermodal transport uses and the changes in

accessibility are important factors. There are many freight
handling centres in the area, but they are in the path of the new
railway, which requires higher-density forms of development to
maximise its utilisation and impact. There is some scope for
relocating the freight centres, perhaps under the flight path.
However, this raises sensitive issues, as some sections of the
area are currently residential, but they may be better relocated
near the new railway line. Relocation and further expansion of
freight centres would require improvement of freight access
routes to the Airport, Port and the new orbital route.
Figures R7-2 and R7-3 illustrate the value

of integrated planning, but have no status.

Road systems R-8
& land use
INTENT
The purpose of this ‘tool’ is to ensure that at all stages and levels
of planning, the planning of road systems takes account of the
relationship between land use and the environment.
Road networks have a significant impact on urban structure and Figure C-R8-1 Greater integration between the function, design
for m, while land use has a considerable impact on the and management of roads and adjoining land uses is needed
development and use of road networks. These relationships are
generally well understood, yet there is a need for an integrated
framework to ensure that they are being addressed across the
board. • Networks in relation to the types of urban development
they serve; and
Accessibility is a key link between road networks and land use. In
practice, integration between the location of activities and the • Roads and the relationship with adjoining development.
development of roads is difficult because responsibilities are
divided. In addition, accessibility needs to be set in the context of Other aspects of the relationship between road systems and land
sustainable development and environmental protection. There use are considered in other tools.
are other, equally important, considerations, such as the efficient
performance of roads and the development of roads, which are Integrated approaches to the planning of road systems and land
appropriate for different types of urban development. This is use can ensure that:
indeed a formidable agenda. Some aspects are examined here:
• the link between land use and the provision of roads is
• The development of road networks within a framework for always accounted for in both land-use planning and road
integrated transport and land-use planning; planning;

• road networks are developed for the range of transport 2 Networks in relation to the type of urban development
modes and transport functions needed for the preferred (‘development areas’) they serve; and
land-use structure;
3 Roads and the relationship with adjoining development.
• regional network planning is linked to local network
planning; AN INTEGRATED FRAMEWORK
• there is a link between the type of urban development and The UK Institution of Civil Engineers (1996) has addressed the
categories of roads, and what can be expected of them; integration of transpor t and land-use planning in order to
and establish a consolidated system, in which a sustainable
development policy forms the basis. It has four elements:
• The link between roads and their associated environments
is recognised in the planning and development of roads. 1 a classification system for roads;
RELEVANT FACTORS 2 a planning framework;
Road networks have a significant impact on urban structure and 3 a management framework; and
for m, while land use has a considerable impact on the
development and use of road networks. These aspects are 4 a system for monitoring performance.
addressed in other tools (e.g. R-1 Urban structure and form, R-
13 Travel Demand Management). A classification system for roads
Road authorities have a charter for planning, developing and Roads should be classified according to their function:
managing roads to meet the transport task as efficiently as
possible. Land-use authorities develop plans for the location of • National (and international) roads (motorways and non-
activities. The private sector makes investment decisions based motorways)
on market needs, accessibility and planning requirements.
These actions do not necessarily align and produce desired • Regional roads
overall outcomes. The issue is how greater integration can be
achieved between the public and private sector. Three aspects • Local roads
are relevant here:
• Access roads
1 Road networks within a framework for integrated transport
and land-use planning;

A planning framework • Walking and cycling
The function of each individual road should be embedded in the • Accessibility by people with constrained mobility
planning system; and the road classification system and the
planning system should be integrated (see figure C-R8-2). The • Security (personal safety)
Institution recommends that new regional transport / land-use
planning authorities should be established to prepare and Environment indicators
develop statutory transport/land-use plans, and oversee the
operation of regional roads. • Greenhouse gas emissions
Management framework • Air pollution - local air quality maps
The Institution states that ownership and management of roads • Habitat

should be reviewed. Day-to day operation of roads could be
undertaken on behalf of the transport/land-use planning authority • Landscape quality/amenity
by private or public sector operators. This requires a set of
indicators of those organisations contracted to undertake the • Run-off volume and quality
operation of roads, to monitor their effectiveness.
Indicators for road operators
System for monitoring performance
• Protection of the asset value of the road system
Indicators could include:
• Protection of the public
Travel indicators:
• Minimum service levels
• Journey time and reliability
It is significant that the Depar tments of Transpor t and
• Travel safety - injuries and causes of crashes Environment in the United Kingdom have been amalgamated
since the report was produced.
Non-vehicle indicators
While statutory provisions and institutional arrangements in the
• Measures of sustainable transport UK are not the same as those in Australia and New Zealand, the
recommendations are relevant in our own search for more
• Public transport accessibility maps integrated approaches.

A framework for integrated transport and land-use planning
National Sustainable development policy
National transport and land-use strategy
Strategy for achieving objectives in the sustainable development policy, including
• overall framework for future land use and development including regional economic development
• vehicle design and emission standards
Planning
• transport taxation policy, investment policy and appraisal of transport investments
• public transport policy including regulation, competition and support policy
guidance
National roads framework
Regional Regional transport/land-use plan
• regional social and economic policy

• regional environmental objectives
• prioritisation of funding for regional roads
• standards for regional transport and access, including service standards for regional roads
Local Local transport/land-use plan
Strategy for achieving objectives in the sustainable development policy, including
• overall framework for future land use and development including regional economic development
• vehicle design and emission standards
• transport taxation policy, investment policy and appraisal of transport investments
• public transport policy including regulation, competition and support
Figure C-R8-2 A hierarchical framework (UK Institution of Civil Engineers, 1996)

Modal use of road system NETWORKS IN RELATION TO THE DEVELOPMENT AREAS
THEY SERVE
The UK report does not address the modal use of the proposed
road system. The priority given to (or exclusion of) trucks, buses, There is also a need to link roads to the different types of urban
cars, bicycles, pedestrians and other forms of transport may be development (‘development areas’). The concept of a road
seen as a management, or a more fundamental and conceptual, hierarchy is in widespread use, but generally does not relate to
issue. the type of urban development. As a result, it represents only a
road-based view of the urban environment.
The provision of road space is usually based on an assessment
of transport growth. Assumptions are made of future economic Types of development area
activity, population growth and composition, car ownership, travel
behaviour and other variables. The outcome of such a process is There are two important criteria in the road requirements for
a series of road reservations, designed to accommodate future different types of urban development:
growth.
• the kind and level of transport demand produced or
There have been arguments that such an approach is a road- attracted; and
based view and not a people movement view, and that it runs
counter to the need to create more sustainable cities. These • its sensitivity to the impact of traffic.
criticisms may be valid if the road space is seen only as a space
for moving and parking cars. They are not necessarily valid if the The first criterion can be used to distinguish development areas
road space is seen as potential transport space, in which the which are pedestrian-oriented or vehicle-oriented (or perhaps
road reservation may be used for public transport, goods both), with the level of transport demand determined by land-use
movement, high occupancy vehicles or a combination of those type and amount of floorspace (or some other indicator of
(see C-7 The right transport task on the right mode and route). intensity). In all cases, the relationship between the kind of
activity and accessibility is significant. For example, accessibility
There is a need for flexibility to respond to different transport for regional freight transport is a dominant consideration for
demands (e.g. redevelopment) or different supply policies (e.g. ports, rail heads and airports, while accessibility by road-based
increased provision for express public transport). There are public transport may be a dominant consideration in residential
inevitable constraints associated with the provision of roads and areas and regional centres.
land-use decisions made in the past. The emphasis will almost
always be based on adaptation and very limited reconstruction. The second criterion can be used to separate areas where
environmental protection is a dominant consideration, and those
areas where it is important, but not a dominant, concern.
Protection from traffic noise, air pollution and pedestrian safety
are major factors in residential areas; in the core of centres; and

on the objectives and perfor mance cr iteria for such
developments. A performance-based approach towards land-use
zoning is, therefore, an advance (see L-15 Performance-based
development control).
When development areas and road/street networks, are

considered together, a broad categorisation emerges (figure C-
R8-3). This will be useful because it provides a basis for: (i)
giving structure to urban areas at different levels (or for
adaptation or restructuring over time); (ii) for increasing
awareness of the consequences of modifying or extending
existing links in the road/street network; (iii) making better land
use decisions; and (iv) developing guidelines and performance
targets for different roads in different development areas.
There are many possible applications with this approach. For

example, speed and volume targets can be specified for roads in
a particular type of development area. Metro (1997) produced a
Figure C-R8-3 Hierarchy of road/street types
set of innovatory guidelines for street design, which take account
by development areas (adapted from Metro, 1996)
of road/street function, frontage conditions and the allocation of
the road space to different users (see diagrams in C-1 Corridor
NOTE: Metro (Portland) uses a different roads/street
classification). Another possible application could be an
categorisation than the one shown here, which is closer to
extension of the guidelines for traffic generating development
Australian practice. For details on the Metro categorisation, see
along main roads (NSW, RTA, 1983-) to other types of roads.
C-1 Corridor categorisation.
Balance and spacing of roads
in special precincts, such as hospitals and universities. Generally,
The balance between regional, sub-regional/ district and local
environmental protection is important in all areas where there are
roads is important, not only from a transport perspective, but also
people-generating activities, including areas which adjoin, or
in relation to the type of development. With fewer regional roads
straddle, major traffic routes. The notion of environmental traffic
and more district roads, travel times, costs and congestion may
capacity is relevant here and considered in L-8 Corridor and
increase. However, with more regional roads, vehicle travel may
precincts, L-10 Residential precincts and L-11 Traffic calming.
be encouraged, unless other measures, such as road pricing and
demand management are considered. Cost implications will also
The conventional categorisation of land use by zones places the
be significant.
emphasis on land-use type, and not on forms of development or

In simple terms, a ‘course grain’ regional or sub-regional/district Friction may be caused by adjoining development (see R-3
network (i.e. fewer and more widely spaced roads), compared Planning of Type II corridors) and by impedance along the road
with a ‘fine grain’ network of roads, puts more pressure on lower- (e.g. intersections, turning movements, parking). It may vary
order roads and streets, traffic calming becomes more difficult, during the day, week or season. For each type of road or street
and environmental capacities in precincts may be exceeded. the level of performance to be achieved can be defined.
Conversely a fine grain of sub-regional/district roads increases Performance may be expressed in target vehicle speed for
the total road space, may attract more traffic and create more different times of the day, intersection spacing, traffic
points of potential conflict with pedestrians and cyclists. management requirements, as well as land use frontage
conditions and other indicators.
It is clear that the spacing of roads will need to be closer near
land-use areas with high levels of vehicle activity (such as ‘B’ and Friction is also dependent on traffic volumes and capacity
‘C’ locations (see R-3 The right activity in the right place) and in constraints. As the costs of upgrading may be prohibitive, a
precincts with high development densities. Beyond these higher degree of friction may have to be accepted or become a
generalised statements, it is difficult to be more definitive, as deliberate policy in congested areas. Road pricing and travel
much depends on the specific context and there are different demand management may be needed to prevent congestion
approaches (see, for example, the differences in the new towns from becoming gridlock.
of Canberra, ACT; see also L-8 Corridors and precincts).
The concept of impact on the adjoining land use and
ROADS AND THE RELATIONSHIP environment is also explained in C-1 Corridor categorisation).
WITH ADJOINING DEVELOPMENT Here, too, there are links with land use: for example, land uses
sensitive to traffic noise and air pollution are inappropriate along
In the link between road systems and the type of development regional routes.
area, roads are serving a primary function for movement. The
performance of this function is influenced by the kind and level of WHAT DOES IT ADD UP TO?
friction along them. In addition, there is the impact of traffic on
the adjoining environment. Both need to be considered. The development of road systems depends on specific needs
The concept of fr iction is explained in C-1 Corr idor and conditions. Indeed, in the context of integration, there is a
categorisation. The degree of acceptable friction is important in need to take account of the role of roads in the regional and local
any functional classification. For example, the categorisation structure (not discussed here), their function, the type of
could range from no friction (such as freeways or motorways) to development areas served, and the relationship with the road
high levels of friction (such as activity streets or local streets). environment.
Access management is a critical issue for regional roads (see C-
6 Access to roads). Thus, a clear distinction can be made For this reason, two sets of categories are used in the Guide: (i)
between roads with different levels of friction performance. This a categorisation related to road function and type of development
can be a basis to determine priorities for friction management. area; and (ii) a typology of roads and their environments. The

latter is used in the section on corridor tools. Environmental protection, pedestrian safety and amenity
will be the main considerations.
An example of the first type of classification on functional
grounds could be as follows: For each of these categories, integration can be achieved if there
are policies, guidelines and targets for performance on land use,
• National - National roads link the main regional centres adjoining frontage, road space utilisation, and speed and
across State boundaries and have the highest level of volumes for different types of urban area.
performance.
• Regional - A network of regional roads serves urban and APPLICATION

rural regions. Regional roads have a high level of transport
service and may be used for regional public transport HOW COULD IT BE DONE?
routes. Generally, regional roads do not directly serve any
land uses other than regional road-based activities such The process depends on the level of planning (i.e. regional or
as freight and distribution centres, ports and airports. local), the kind of planning (e.g. strategic, policy, structure,
There could be sub-categories of regional roads. development) and the context (e.g. new, established or both).
There are different approaches for each of them, but, in greatly
• Sub-arterial/District - Sub-arterial/district roads serve simplified form, the process could consist of the actions outlined
land uses where there is a concentration of transport below.
demand, such as regional and district centres, hospitals,
major entertainment and recreation centres. Express 1: Documentation of existing land use and the transport
buses or light rail can be incorporated in such roads. Sub- situation and how they may change
regional/ district roads also have a high level of service.
Some friction along them is acceptable. Documentation, analysis and interpretation of existing land-use
patterns, transport networks and how they are used. Analysis
• Local - Local roads serve the needs of the local and forecasts of changes in population, employment, land use
community and provide for local circulation within and and other factors which determine the transport demand.
between precincts. Many will serve as local bus routes in
residential areas or as internal truck routes in industrial 2: Exploration of alternative land-use/transport structures
areas. Local roads will also provide access to off-street Different visions lead to different transport demand and supply
parking areas and serve as distribution routes in large strategies. They need to be expressed in terms of alternative
centres. land-use and transport structures, assessed and evaluated. This
should establish the overall role of the road network in relation to
• Access streets - Typically these are streets with the other networks.
primary purpose of providing access to properties.

3 Exploration of road networks and land use planning is fundamental and appropriate in all situations.
However, there will always be different interpretations relating to
At this stage there should be some identification of the balance the political context. It is a complex process and needs
between national (if required), regional and sub-arterial/district commitment and time to develop.
transport routes. Their function and relationships with the major
land uses served are analysed, and the implications for both land EFFECTIVENESS
use and road network development are explored (this is a major
activity on its own). Integrated approaches provide the opportunity for the joint
consideration of transport demand and supply. Most of the
4: Strategies for roads and development areas benefits of integrated approaches occur in the long term, and
effectiveness can best be demonstrated in a long-term context. In
Strategies and policies are developed for roads in relation to order to achieve these benefits, integrated approaches should be
development areas. This includes performance criteria and applied at all stages, because most land-use and network
indicators for different road categories and types of urban development is incremental.
development.
EXAMPLES
5 Strategies and policies for roads and the relationship with
adjoining development. There are many examples of integrated approaches towards
road systems and land-use development (e.g. Cities for the 21st
This activity is fur ther developed in the Corridor tools. In Century, Sydney, 1995; Transporting Melbourne, 1996; SE
essence, it concerns the approach to the preservation and Queensland Integrated Regional Transport Plan, 1997).
enhancement of transport routes, and the protection of road
environments and precincts. It includes developing policies for
access control, and establishing performance criteria and
indicators.
6: Implementation
Implementation is an ongoing activity and requires appropriate

structures for integrated management, and arrangements for
monitoring and performance review.
APPROPRIATENESS
Application of the principles of integrated roads and land-use

RELATED TOOLS

R-2 Urban density
R-6 Public transport systems and land use
L-8 Corridors and precincts
C-2 Planning new Type I corridors
C-3 Planning Type II corridors
Figure C-R8-4 This is a section of Princes Highway (a ‘National

and Regional’ road) through the town of Berry (NSW). How much
friction and impact are acceptable for a State highway? (See
further C-1 Corridor categorisation)

• implement the principles of ecologically sustainable
Integrated R-9 development, especially relating to appropriate pricing of
available resources;
development areas
• create opportunities for influencing travel patterns from the
start of development;
• ensure that infrastructure requirements and investment

INTENT proposals are co-ordinated;
The purpose of this tool is to achieve integrated outcomes for • obtain the greatest value from the use of existing
defined development areas. infrastructure assets;
Development areas are defined as: • co-ordinate development and infrastructure provision; and
provide a framework and context for integrated
• areas for urban expansion, such as growth corridors; programming and budgeting.
• established areas, where major developments are

proposed, with implications for adjoining areas; and
• established areas, where there is a need for significant

upgrading.
With integrated urban management there is an opportunity to

focus on ‘whole-of-government’ outcomes for such areas. The
overall utilisation of urban infrastructure and the provision of
urban services can be considered together, so that maximum
benefit can be achieved at the lowest cost. Interrelationships
between projects will be recognised and priorities set on an area
basis, and not on a project basis alone.
Integrated approaches towards planning, development and Figure C-R9-1 Development area planning involves linking
management can: physical outcomes to financial resources and requires years of
sustained effort - The Birmingham City centre adaptation took 20
years.

RELEVANT FACTORS WHAT INSTITUTIONAL FORM DOES INTEGRATED URBAN
MANAGEMENT TAKE?
WHAT ARE THE GOALS OF INTEGRATED URBAN
DEVELOPMENT? Integrated urban management can take a variety of forms. The
model is really defined by its outputs and achievements rather
There are many benefits to be gained from an integrated than by the form it takes.
planning and development approach in areas where significant
change is required or likely to occur. ‘Significant change’ is The intent of integrated urban management can be achieved by:
interpreted here as: (i) areas of urban expansion; (ii) areas where
new development is of a scale and character which is different • bringing related functions together into a single
from what already exists; and (iii) established areas which are department, or under unified political control;
deficient in infrastructure and in need of upgrading.
• designating one agency to perform an overarching, co-
By concentrating urban growth into a few areas of urban ordinating role;
expansion the benefits of an integrated approach extend to
efficiency in infrastructure provision (both physical and social), • establishing a permanent joint body (committee, task
protection of productive rural land and preservation of other force, etc.) with membership from all the relevant
resources. Where the scale of new development justifies it, and agencies; and
urban growth can be concentrated into growth corridors, there
are additional benefits. More sustainable forms of development • establishing common rules and procedures for separate
patterns can then be created by linking the location and density agencies to follow.
of land uses to the transport infrastructure right from the
beginning (see L-3 Increasing choice in transport). WHAT ARE THE REQUIREMENTS FOR INTEGRATED URBAN
MANAGEMENT?
In established urban areas where major changes are pending,
there are benefits of attuning infrastructure needs to the The requirements for a successful program to achieve the goals
proposed development. In the case of new infrastructure (such of integrated urban management include:
as a railway station or port), integrated approaches can lead to
development patterns nearby, which take maximum advantage of • a complete inventory of urban public assets with up-to-
the investment. date valuations based on replacement with the best and
most suitable modern technology available;
In areas where there are deficiencies in existing development
and/or infrastructure, an integrated approach can ensure that • full information about current and prospective demands on
improvement in infrastructure and redevelopment support each urban infrastructure, including evidence of likely demand
other. following changes in price or cost;

• appropriate fiscal arrangements - i.e. the power to levy charges designed to service.
and contributions for infrastructure, and to impose additional
charges or fees for ‘eternality’ effects, in a wide range of forms, Co-ordination is achieved through planning and appraisal
including user charges, impact levies, development contributions, mechanisms, which:
beneficiary taxes etc.; and
• on the one hand, ensure that each project is assessed on
• clearly articulated and politically supported decision rules for a common basis and, where necessary, jointly with related
infrastructure and related projects, based on common projects; and
approaches and uniform rates of trade-off between the external
variables - e.g. agreed values for environmental impacts, agreed • on the other hand, take into account the impact which the
procedures for asset valuation, co-ordinated assessment arrangements for funding infrastructure and services - e.g.
processes and procedures. through user charges or beneficiary taxation - will have on
the demand for, and use of, the infrastructure in question.
CO-ORDINATION
WHAT ARE THE OUTPUTS OF INTEGRATED URBAN
Achieving the goals of integrated urban management requires MANAGEMENT?
co-ordination between:
The output of an integrated management process may take more
• service provision, asset management, asset maintenance than one form.
and infrastructure investment, to ensure that the life-cycle
costs of infrastructure services are minimised; Plans are one obvious output; integrated plans need to cover
both economic and land-use changes on the one hand, and
• investment: in different categories of infrastructure; ensure changes in the demand for, and provision of, infrastructure
that the full range of services is available, and that the services on the other hand.
best use is made of investment in each category;
Co-ordinated investment decisions are another. This includes co-
• investments and service provision in different areas; and ordination between different categories of infrastructure service,
and between the investment programs for different locations.
• pricing (or funding) and investment decisions.
The pricing and funding arrangements which underpin the
The ideal situation is one in which each addition to (or provision of infrastructure and services should ensure that the
replacement of) existing urban infrastructure can proceed provision of infrastructure is linked directly to the function and
independently at the appropriate time. With a well-established area which it serves.
mechanism in place for funding this would be directly tied to the
urban functions, areas or communities which the infrastructure is

INTEGRATED BUDGETING • government departments and authorities, who are really
providers, like being purchasers and have strong policy
A focus on development areas offers scope for integrated arms (and influence); and
budgeting It prescribes a geographical outcome to meet
planned transport and land-use ends, rather than a narrowly • government policy co-ordinators in planning or transport
focused and unco-ordinated functional outcome for single might be good on policy, but have no actual ‘purchasing’
departments. power. Often, the inevitable result is that sorting through
competitive allocations is left to the annual government
The functional alignment of government and semi-government budget process, with each agency negotiating with
departments and authorities can be an impediment to achieving Cabinet and Treasury for more or the same as last year.
a balance in expenditure in geographic areas.. Often road and
public transport expenditures have been driven independently. So
too are the outcomes. At the State level, departments and
authorities responsible for roads and public transport have
planned and bid for expenditure in the budget process on a
competitive and historical basis. Further, they have generally bid
as both ‘purchasers’ and ‘providers’.
‘Purchasers’ of goods and services exercise discretion as to how

money is to be spent. This discretion is derived from policy and,
in a government sense, from policy derived from a mandate. A
State Cabinet or Council acts as a purchaser. It decides on the
balance of goods and services required to accord with its policy,
and exercises discretionary decisions on this basis. A ‘provider’
on the other hand provides those goods and services for the
price given.
This fundamental separation between purchaser/policy maker

and provider/operator is often thoroughly confused in Figure C-R9-2 Integration of bus station, street closures
government - much less so in private enterprise. and urban design - Cairns City Centre
In government, the confusion is three-fold, because:
• policy may not be well defined;

Two essentials fragmented development; they pose considerable difficulties in
achieving integrated outcomes. Land pooling, joint ventures or
Two essentials would seem to be required at the regional level. large-scale development projects are by far the preferred
approaches, compared with conventional subdivision, sell and
1 The development of city transport plans which are directly build approach, especially in areas near public transport stations
related to the achievement of defined urban form and stops (see R-10 Integrating investment).
outcomes. These must be based on hard-edged,
comparative cost benefit analysis of modal alternatives - Indivisibilities
road, bus, train, pedestrian/cycle. Government ownership
and delegation for implementation to a purchaser Many categories of infrastructure require investment in large and
government department is essential. This is the purchaser essentially indivisible projects. The lumpiness, and consequential
side. infrequency, of investments makes it very difficult to achieve
integration between investment in different types of infrastructure,
2 On the provider side, the department authorities employed servicing the same area.
to provide the infrastructure or service in accordance with
the plan or service level agreement, must do so to the Number of agencies
satisfaction of the purchaser.
The number of agencies involved in major urban infrastructure
These principles are impor tant in creating integrated and related policies, and the intrinsic rivalry between them, often
development areas and underscore the need to establish ‘whole cause obstacles to greater integration.
of government’ outcomes up-front. This was done for the Western
Suburbs of Sydney (see R-6 Public transport and land use). Methods of funding
Integrated budgeting is used by organisations and institutions There is often widespread resistance to user-pay charging
with responsibilities for the development of defined areas, such policies and to beneficiary taxation. This makes it difficult to
as development corporations and local authorities (see example). create links between the provision of services and the method of
funding them.
OBSTACLES FOR INTEGRATED URBAN MANAGEMENT
Lack of knowledge
The objective of integrated urban management faces a number
of obstacles. These need to be recognised and addressed. In many cases the knowledge about significant relationships, and
the ability to predict impacts
Fragmented property ownership or demands is inadequate. For example, the long- ter m
environmental implications of many urban infrastructure projects
Fragmented proper ty holdings almost inevitably lead to are unknown; and even such well established processes as the

forecasting of future urban traffic volumes are subject to wide
margins of error. 2: Analysing opportunities and constraints
Clash between initiation and control of projects Apart from the usual investigation and analysis, the location of
existing infrastructure, such as a railway, and property ownership
Co-ordination of urban infrastructure projects is hard to achieve. is of major importance.
Many agencies reserve the right to criticise and control proposals
after the event, rather than to become involved in the search for, 3: Addressing measures needed to overcome constraints
and initiation of, new proposals right from the outset.
The purpose of this step is to explore alternative management
Political interference mechanisms, because they will deter mine the potential
effectiveness of any efforts towards integration and the type of
Political interference in urban management on a case-by-case plan and program, which can be developed (see R-10 Integrating
basis, and special pleading by single interest groups, makes it investment).
difficult to achieve consistent outcomes.
4: Establishing management structures
Lack of guidance
The integration of urban management in relation to the provision
The lack of guidelines about priorities and rates of trade-off of infrastructure and services rests on three requirements:
militates against co-ordinated and consistent decision-making.
This process has rewarded traditional transport solutions and • co-ordinated division of responsibility between agencies,
failed to deliver on balanced and forward looking strategies. The with a clear articulation where the ultimate responsibility
quote before the introduction to part B of this Guide, relating to for co-ordination lies;
the failure to deliver a cycleway around Sydney Harbour, is a
good example. • uniform funding and pricing arrangements, tying the
source of funds to the function, which the infrastructure or
APPLICATION service performs; and
HOW CAN IT BE DONE? • clear guidelines for the development and appraisal of
projects, including rates of trade-off between key
1: Identifying development areas outcomes.
This step should be made as part of a regional strategy (see R-1 Where major developers are involved, clear relationships should
Urban structure and form, R-2 Urban density , R-3 The right be established, including agreement on objectives and
activity in the right location). outcomes, development performance criteria and measures,

funding, programming and how to resolve differences. represented.
5: Preparing development plans
Once the parameters for implementation have been determined

and agreed upon, development plans are prepared. These
should be based on complementary transport networks and their
associated land-use structure (see, for example, R-6 Public
transport and land use, R-7 Freight movement and land use, R-8
Road systems and land use and L-2 Transit-friendly land use).
Minimum densities in areas close to public transport and activity
centres, and parking policies should be included, where
appropriate.
6: Preparing phasing plans
At this stage, plans are prepared, which show the way in which
the development and transport infrastructure can be staged to Figure C-R9-3 Integrating transport and land use requires long-
provide choice and influence travel patterns from the beginning. term urban management - Woden Town Centre bus interchange
(ACT)
7: Preparing funding plans
A critical part of the process is the preparing of funding plans Application of these principles depends on the structure of
and programs which support the objective of synchronising government in States and local government. It was used
infrastructure provision with development. extensively by the for mer National Capital Development
Commission for the integrated development of Canberra during
8: Developing integrated budgets the ’70s and ’80s. Recent examples, which point towards
improvement in co-ordination, are:
Another critical activity is the establishment of a management
structure to oversee the process of conversion from undeveloped • the creation of the Victorian Department of Infrastructure;
land to settlement; and to play a proactive role in attracting
employment, services to establish a viable, self-sustaining • the establishment in New South Wales of a Ministry of
community. There are options (see R-10 Integrating Urban Infrastructure management;
investment), but there are strong arguments for a
structure in which the main infrastructure providers are well

• The Brisbane City Council’s approach towards area NOTE: much of the material for this tool was provided by Richard
budgeting; and Kirwan (Kinhill) and Alan Cummings (Brisbane City Council).
• the outcome-based management approach for release

areas (new urban development areas) in Sydney by the Benchmark sequence of development, Western Gateway,
NSW State Government. Brisbane
APPROPRIATENESS PURPOSE OF DEVELOPMENT SEQUENCING
The need for integrated urban management increases as the The pur pose of identifying a benchmar k sequence of
task becomes more difficult. The greatest gains are to be found development in the project area is to form a logical basis for the
in the largest and most complex urban areas; but the need is co-ordinated planning and provision of infrastructure, both in
there in even quite small communities, where the scope for terms of ‘hard’ engineering services (such as roads, water
success is much greater. supply, sewerage and drainage) and social infrastructure or
community services (including schools, health facilities, police
Co-ordinating development and funding with the private sector, and emergency services).
and developing partnerships with the private sector are important
to the achievement of integrated outcomes. These aspects are The development sequence is intended to reflect the most cost
considered further in R-10 Integrating investment. effective or logical way in which development should proceed.
This assessment has largely been based on the estimation of
EFFECTIVENESS costs to provide engineering services . . . In some instances cost
effectiveness has been traded off against the achievement of
In the short term, the effectiveness of integration is hard to some other planning objectives (such as the deferral of
measure. In the longer term, it will be judged by the way in which environmental impacts) or to reflect market factors, which may
change has been managed and by the extent to which affect the availability of land in a particular location.
infrastructure is provided. It will also be judged as to how it is
funded in response to emerging development needs (and old The timing identified for particular areas is not intended to be a
infrastructure renewed and improved), without undue fiscal binding system of land release and will need to be reviewed from
strain. time to time. However, it will be used for planning and budgeting
pur poses by both the Bnsbane City Council and State
EXAMPLE Government agencies, and as the ‘benchmark’ against which
cost implications of out of sequence development can be
An example of an integrated approach towards development is assessed.
the Sequence of Development study of the Western Gateway
area in Brisbane.

APPLICATION
Inputs: Strategic Plan for the City of Brisbane and the SEQ
Regional Framework for Growth Management, indicative
Development Plan, infrastructure needs, development costing.
Outputs:
• Estimated Infrastructure Development Costs for

Residential Areas and Industrial Areas
• Benchmark sequence by four-year period from

1997–2011 and after 2011
The Benchmark program was placed on public exhibition for

comment.
RELATED TOOLS


Integrating investment R-10
INTENT
Much current planning practice is based on a prescription:

conditions are specified which private developers have to meet in
order to gain approval. To achieve a higher degree of integration
in cities requires innovative and new approaches. There is a
need for greater integration of public and private investment, and
this involves a partnership between the public and private Figure C-R10-1 An example of integrated investment through
sectors. The purpose of this tool is to develop and apply a Development Corporation. Light rail and mono rail are funded
mechanisms for effective implementation of policies, plans and and operated by the private sector - Darling Harbour Sydney
projects, based on such a partnership.
There are many areas where closer integration is desirable and

feasible: • Conversion of major activity centres from vehicle-places to
people-places; and
• Regional centres with a mix of employment and
accessible by a range of transport modes; • Preservation of precincts with a special character.
• Integrated development of transit centres; Integrated approaches to public and private development
ensure that:
• Urban growth corridors;
• key aspects of a strategy, plan or project are identified,
• The right activity in the right location; where effective implementation depends on a close
partnership;
• Adaptation of Type I corridors, where adjoining property is
affected; • there is an awareness of the range of implementation
tools available and their potential application for specific
• Areas of accelerated redevelopment or change; purposes;

• respective roles (between, and within, the public and (iv) values created by public investment may be captured by
private sectors) are understood and accepted; and the private sector, without any return on the public
investment
• principles are established for the funding and
management of integrated approaches. Important issues in all these cases are that they require tools for
implementation which assist in: converting land for the right kind
RELEVANT FACTORS of development at the right time and location; harnessing
resources for land and infrastructure development; and taking
WHY IS THERE A NEED FOR SPECIAL IMPLEMENTATION account of overspill costs and benefits.
MECHANISMS?
The purpose of this tool is to explore options: whether, and how,
There are always aspects in the implementation of a particular they are carried through will depend on the particular situation
strategy, policy or project which are pivotal to the success of the (see Part B, Chapter 1).
strategy, policy or project as a whole. Many of these aspects
depend on effective partnership between the public and private WHAT MECHANISMS ARE AVAILABLE
sector. AND WHAT DO THEY ACHIEVE?
Special mechanisms are required when one or some of the A range of mechanisms are available, such as:
following situations occurs:
1 Development control
(i) the operation of the private sector is governed by market
demand, at a particular time and in a particular location, 2 Development contributions
which may not coincide with the investment in public
infrastructure and its effective utilisation; 3 Development agreements
(ii) market forces do not align with public policy intentions. For 4 Development bonuses and incentives
example, development intentions may be identified in a
strategy, policy or project. However, sites may not be 5 Transferable development rights
available with the required location, dimensions, or at the
time or price needed for the development to occur; 6 Land pooling, resubdivision and site allocation
(iii) there are impacts associated with land or transport 7 Property purchase, followed by development and resale,
infrastructure development, which are a private cost, but or by site disposal with development conditions
not the responsibility of the agency involved in such
development; and

8 Property resumption, followed by (re)development and Land pooling is relevant when sites are too fragmented to
sale, or by site disposal with development conditions achieve cost-effective and appropriate development. It involves
the assembly and re-allocation of land to existing owners. This
9 Development corporations can occur in rural areas when a new transport corridor is created
and properties are severed. It can also be used in growth
10 Joint ventures and developments corridors, when there is a need to convert small holdings into
parcels for development.
11 Betterment charges and improvement rates
Property purchase and resumption can be used to secure
12 Special rates on properties. land needed for centres, transport corridors and other public
pur pose. The land assembled can then be developed or
Development control is widely used and exercised on the basis redeveloped. The portions not required for public purposes can
of an approved planning instrument. It may include provisions for be resold. An alternative is to treat the land as a land bank,
contributions (see next mechanism). provide the necessary infrastructure and dispose of sites with
development conditions (either as freehold or leasehold).
Development contributions are made by the private sector to
pay, or provide, for physical and social infrastructure needs, Development corporations are established by statute and have
arising from development. power to resume land, determine the use of land, develop the
infrastructure, and manage and dispose of land. They are used
Development agreements are usually outlined in conditions of for a specific public purpose, such as the new towns in the UK
consent. They involve the developer entering into an agreement and France; the integrated development of the Olympic site at
to finance infrastructure and community facilities, in return for Homebush, where there are cr itical deadlines; or the
contractual assurances of specified development rights. development of under-used sites, such as Darling Harbour,
Sydney.
Bonuses and incentives are mechanisms used to influence
market-based decisions. They make it more financially attractive Joint ventures are collaborative undertakings between two or
for the private sector to invest in preferred locations and certain more parties for mutual benefit, in which both contribute and
development forms (see L-15 Performance-based approaches). share rewards on an agreed basis. They combine stakeholders
with different interests, resources and skills in a legally binding
The mechanisms of transferable development rights can be form of partnership, established for a common and specific
used for a variety of purposes, but primarily to preserve a site, purpose (see next page). The purpose can range widely: transit
building or area, and per mitting the owner to use the centre development, housing areas, technology parks and major
development rights elsewhere. transport routes.

Joint developments are collaborative agreements between the The suitability and effectiveness of particular mechanisms
public and private sector, but without the sharing of risks and depend on what is to be achieved. For example, land pooling and
benefits. As with joint ventures, the purpose can range widely. joint ventures may be appropr iate mechanisms for the
implementation of integrated development of growth corridors.
Betterment and improvement charges can be used to recover Development corporations are appropriate for rapid integrated
values or costs associated with rezoning or public infrastructure development of areas where major changes are needed. For the
investment.An example of the latter is a town centre implementation of a strategy for the right activity in the right
improvement rate to pay for environmental adaptation of the Main location (see R-3) and the development of transit centres (see R-
Street or the provision of public parking facilities. 5 and L-2), mechanisms which do not rely on zoning alone may
be required. The upgrading of sections of Type I corridors, where
Special rates on properties are levies by local government, there is a major impact on adjoining property, may involve
usually with their agreement, in order to undertake expenditure of implementation options ranging from selective redevelopment,
direct benefit to them. joint ventures with adjoining owners, land pooling or, as a last
resort, resumption.
WHICH IMPLEMENTATION MODELS
FOR WHAT KEY ELEMENTS? Feasibility will depend on the importance attached to achieving
particular outcomes; market conditions; funding sources and
There are three factors which determine which model should be taxation conditions; availability of suitable partners; community
used: perceptions of costs and benefits; and political acceptability.
• the outcomes to be achieved
• the appropriateness and effectiveness of a particular

mechanism to achieve these outcomes
• the feasibility and acceptability in financial, legal and

political terms
The outcomes, which the public authority seeks to achieve, may

differ from those of private sector stakeholders (including
proper ty owners, investors and developers). Hence it is
necessary to identify the private stakeholders, anticipate their
objectives and/or discuss these with them.

Figure C-R10-2 Implementation models and appropriateness

APPLICATION outcome.
HOW CAN IT BE DONE? 4: Assess the feasibility of using them
1: Determine key elements Each implementation model identified in Step 3 is examined in

relation to the stakeholders involved or affected, the resources
The first step determines which aspects of a strategy, policy, and powers required, and the costs and benefits of using it.
plan, or project are essential for the implementation of the There will always be constraints, but there will also be
strategy, policy or project as a whole. opportunities. All these should be identified.
2: Relate the desired outcome for each key element to the

means for achieving it
Can the desired outcome for a key element be achieved by using

conventional tools (such as zoning, development control, and
development agreements) and through existing organisational
structures? For example, adaptation of major transport routes
through established areas is not a matter of transport capacity
alone, but also of adapting the environment of properties nearby.
In some sections, the road environment can be adapted by using
conventional tools, but there could be other sections where this is
not the case and different forms of implementation will be
needed. Another example is the integration of activity and
accessibility in regional centres (see R-5).
3: Explore which tools may be appropriate
There is a wide range of implementation models representing

different combinations of incentives and disincentives, different
forms of partnership between the public and private sectors, and
different institutional approaches. An exploration of these
implementation models can assist with identifying which
mechanisms are likely to be the most effective. The output of
such an exploration is a description of implementation options Figure C-R10-3 Selecting the appropriate mechanism
and their expected effectiveness in achieving the desired for a preferred strategy

5: Determine acceptability
Acceptability of a particular implementation model involves a

value judgment of the assessment, and trade-offs identified in
the previous steps. This judgment should be made
by decision-makers.
APPROPRIATENESS
The technique is appropriate in all situations where conventional

forms of implementation are inadequate in achieving desired
outcomes.
EFFECTIVENESS
Effectiveness can be established only in specific cases.
EXAMPLES
Development Cor porations are used for the integrated

development around the stations along the new Southern railway
in Sydney, linking the city centre with Kingsford Smith Airport.
RELATED TOOLS


• Setting conditions related to air pollution and traffic noise,
Air quality R-11 which determine how the road space should be shared
between vehicles, pedestrians and cyclists; and
and traffic noise
• establishing guidelines for the location and design of
buildings near transport routes.
Strategies for reducing air and noise pollution should be

INTENT developed:
Air and noise pollution have become significant factors in the • at the regional level;
development of cities and carry considerable social and economic
costs. It has been estimated that air pollution was responsible for • at the local level; and
more deaths in the Sydney Greater Metropolitan Area in 1996 than
were killed in traffic accidents (Refshauge, 1996). Recent • for areas adjacent to transport routes (corridors).
Australian surveys show that air pollution and traffic noise are of
great concern to the community. The intent of this tool is on These strategies can be incorporated into:
incorporating standards, targets and strategies related to air quality
and noise protection into land-use and transport planning. • air quality and noise management plans; and
Integrated approaches towards air and noise standards and • integrated plans for regions, local areas and corridors.
targets can establish a basis for many aspects, including:
RELEVANT FACTORS
• developing regional land-use strategies, which may
prevent further deterioration of the environment; The relationship between land use, transpor t and the
environment is complex, and knowledge and understanding are
• developing local strategies for protecting communities continually evolving (see Resource Document, Chapter 5).
from the impact of air pollution and traffic noise; Some of these environmental factors are generic and of
considerable importance in integrated land-use and transport
• developing and implementing land-use location strategies planning. Air quality, energy consumption and traffic noise fall
along major transport corridors; into this category. Others are important in specific contexts.
• identifying areas and corridor sections where

improvement in air quality and noise exposure should be
given priority;

The focus here is on air quality and traffic noise. Land use and Of these three, the regional and adjacent levels are the most
transport planning in relation to energy consumption is not critical in respect of air quality; the local and adjacent levels are
highlighted here, but features in tools, which address reducing the most important for traffic noise. At the regional level, issues
dependence on the car (e.g. R1-6; R12-15). arise in relation to overall air quality; the movement of air mass
and regional consequences for the development of particular
ISSUES areas; regional targets; and how to achieve them in particular
areas and/or at particular times. The impact of air pollution and
The major air quality issues affecting cities are: traffic noise at the adjacent level is
especially relevant for Type I and Type II corridors. At all levels,
• Global issues. upper atmosphere ozone depletion; climate standards are needed (and some exist) which can be used in
change due to Greenhouse Effect; setting targets and priorities.
• Regional issues, photochemical smog; brown haze (fine Standards may vary, depending on whether we are dealing with
particles), nitrogen dioxide; and new development (where ‘higher’ standards may apply),
compared with existing development. Noise standards in some
• Local issues: carbon monoxide; lead; air toxics; sulphur overseas countries are based on this premise. Standards can
dioxide; odours. also be set in relation to specific areas (e.g. quiet zones).
Traffic noise is pervasive. The final report by the Road Traffic ACCEPTABLE LEVELS OF EXPOSURE
Noise Task Force (NSW EPA, 1993) quoted estimates that over
11% of the population in the Sydney areas were exposed to Standards are based on ‘acceptable levels of exposure’. They are
traffic noise over 65 dB(A) Leq, and a further 38% to traffic noise generally determined by overseas or national bodies, but are
between 55 and 65 dB(A) Leq. also determined by environmental agencies in the States and
Territories. Work is in progress to develop national standards for
THREE LEVELS OF CONSIDERATION air quality and traffic noise exposure.
There are three levels in considering the incidence and impact of An important measure is the frequency whereby acceptable
air pollution and traffic noise, and the development of strategies levels of exposure are exceeded and whether or not, or how
to reduce both incidence and impact: often, safe levels are exceeding actual levels. This varies from
city to city, and from corridor to corridor.
• Regional;
Investigations in Sydney suggest that pollution levels generally
• Local; and drop with increasing distance from the road, but the decay
patterns vary for different pollutants. Acceptable levels are
• Areas adjacent to transport routes (corridors). generally not exceeded beyond 10 metres from the road (Jones,

ISSUE IMPACT MAJOR SOURCE
Climate change Potentially major impact on ecosystem, people Burning of fossil fuels, principally in motor
and infrastructure due to global arming. vehicles, power generation, industry, and
cleaning and domestic heating.
Photochemical smog (1) Various suspected health effects, possibly Transport is the main source of NOx (e.g. 82% in
triggering asthma, allergies and respiratory Sydney). Transport and domestic/commercial
problems. May also increase susceptibility to sources predominate for PCCs with a smaller
infection. impact by industry.
Brown haze (2) Reduces visibility. Long-term exposure leads to Domestic wood heaters, motor vehicles
increased risk of death from heart and lung (especially diesel).
disease.
Nitrogen dioxide A respiratory irritant that exacerbates asthma Motor vehicles (about 75%).
and increases susceptibility to infection.
Carbon monoxide Reduces oxygen in blood, leading to brain and Vehicle exhaust emissions (86%) local exposure
heart damage. only.
Lead May retard mental development innchildren. Motor vehicles using leaded petrol, industry.
Air toxics Can be carcinogenic. industry, motor vehicles, solid fuel heaters, bush
fires, etc.
Source EPA(b), 1996

(1) Photochemical smog describes the mixture of chemical produced in the atmosphere from the reaction of oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and photochemical reactive
organic compounds (ROCs) in the presence of sunlight.
(2) Brown haze: used in conjunction with fine particle pollution. The major determinant of the ‘brown’ colour is the level of nitrogen dioxide (NOx).
Table C-R11-1 Air quality - Issues, impacts and causes

1996). These preliminary findings suggest that, on major traffic major cause of air pollution.
routes, development within 10 metres from the road should not
be promoted, unless special measures are taken (e.g. air WHAT INTEGRATED STRATEGIES
conditioning). CAN LEAD TO ACHIEVING TARGETS?
The notion of ‘acceptable level of exposure’ is subject to change The answer to this question depends on knowledge of (i) cause
as the results of further research become available (e.g. airborne and effect, (ii) adequate data and (iii) the availability of models to
particles measuring 2.5 micrometres). predict the consequences of a particular strategy. There are
models for predicting regional air quality and they have been
SETTING TARGETS used as a management tool (see example). Models are being
developed for predicting the dispersal of air pollutants in
Setting targets without information about existing conditions is transport corridors, but there is a dearth of data on existing
not useful. This is a problem as, generally, information about the conditions.
incidence of air and noise pollution is very limited, especially with
regard to transport corridors. Hence, a systematic approach Models to predict traffic noise have been available for many
towards obtaining information is an essential first step. years and are used extensively in the planning and management
of transpor t corridors. However, even here there are no
Once an inventory of existing conditions is available, it is possible systematic inventories of existing conditions.
to establish areas and sections, where standards are not met Many strategies can contribute to the achievement of practical
and identify the seriousness of the problem. Setting targets then targets, although the precise link between cause and effect is not
becomes an issue of trade-offs: the planning and implementation always clear. These strategies are identified in other tools; the
actions required to achieve compliance and the resources ‘mind maps’ in Par t B Section 1 (selecting tools) give an
available or to be made available over a given period. indication of their range. Similar strategies are proposed in the
land use/transport section of the Draft Strategy for Greenhouse
It will be perceived as window dressing if targets are set without Emissions and in Green Papers (NSW-EPA(b), 1996 & EPA(c),
identifying the means and applying the resources to influence 1996). Most strategies will only be effective in the long term,
them. For example, targets for reducing noise exposure in especially those related to a reduction in motor vehicle use.
transpor t corridors must be accompanied by appropriate
planning controls for new development and urban change (see Integrated land use/transport planning is often cited, and, it is
C-11 Reducing noise exposure through design). argued, that cities built around public transport should be less
prone to air pollution.
Community perception is also relevant in setting targets. A survey
undertaken by the NRMA (1995) in the greater Sydney Region
showed that air pollution is perceived as the most important
environmental issue, and that vehicle emissions are seen as the

MANAGEMENT PLANS areas causing least regional impact on air quality and
improved emission standards);
Air quality and noise management plans should be prepared for
areas where improvement in air quality or noise exposure is • consider explicit and hidden costs and subsidies, and use
necessary. Preparation involves: (i) making an emissions demand management and pricing policies (such as
inventory, to discover causes and significant areas or groups parking) to make less polluting transport more attractive;
affected); (ii) forecasting, developing options; and (iii) working
with the community on a feasible management plan, including • Strategies at the local level should include those referred
priority actions and programs. to above, which can be influenced at the local level. There
will be others, especially those related to the incidence
STANDARDS AND TARGETS and distribution of traffic noise. Application of standards
and targets for noise protection could have significant
In developing land-use and transport policies and patterns it is consequences for local land use and transport planning
useful to explore the implications of achieving desired air quality (see C-11 Reducing noise exposure through design); and
targets. This option could then be compared with other options in
order to clearly understand the trade-offs. • Strategies at the corridor level could influence the
selection of land uses, the siting and design of buildings,
Strategies for reducing the incidence and impact of air and noise and discouragement of exposing pedestrians and cyclists
pollution at the regional level should include measures designed in corridors with air and noise pollution. These issues are
to: pursued in other tools (C-11 .9 Reducing noise exposure
through design; C-2 to C-5 Planning and adapting Type I
• increase rail transport of freight and reduce dependence and II corridors).
on diesel trucks;
APPLICATION
• locate trip-generating activities close to public transport or
rail freight facilities, as appropriate; HOW CAN IT BE DONE?
• increase use of public transport for passenger movement, 1: Identify the incidence of regional air and noise pollution
in lieu of cars;
2: Identify the causes of air and noise pollution
• improved vehicle emission standards;
There is a need to distinguish transport and non-transport-
• improved vehicle emission testing; related sources.
• strategic location of potentially polluting industries (i.e. 3: Develop and use models for prediction purposes

4: Investigate the means of influencing the causes
contributing to pollution and their possible effect EXAMPLE
5: Explore alternative targets The Metropolitan Air Quality Study (MAQS) and Model
(EPA(a), 1996)
A package of measures is likely to be required
and the costs and benefits (including any redistribution effects) The MAQS was conducted by EPA and NSW Health from
need to be assessed. 1992 to 1995. It provided
This is a significant task, because most packages will involve a comprehensive understanding of quality in the Sydney,
integrated and co-ordinated intervention. Targets should be Illawarra and Lower Hunter regions, based on an expanded
achievable. network of air quality monitoring stations, a detailed
emissions inventory and an airshed model. It demonstrated
6: Test the preferred target and package strong links between emissions and air quality across the
whole region, and has provided suppor t for the
The community and business groups will be affected and there development of an air quality management plan.
should be widespread acceptance of the need for, and
consequences of, intervention The MAQS indicated that, while controls on vehicle and
other emissions have contributed to some improvements in
7: Monitor and review air quality, increases in road traffic are expected to lead to
worsening air quality over the next 25 years, unless
APPROPRIATENESS emission reduction strategies are implemented.
Environmental standards are appropriate in all areas. Targets are

desirable in all situations, where there is a problem or a
probability that a problem could occur.
RELATED TOOLS
EFFECTIVENESS
Most tools are related.
Effectiveness of targets depends on the means available to See Part B Chapter 1 Step 6 for the range of related topics.
influence the outcome and commitment to achieve them.

of regional parking policies can:
Regional R-12
• help to reduce the environmental impact of transport;
parking policies
• contribute towards a reduction in traffic congestion;
• facilitate better use of public transport infrastructure; and
INTENT • shift the supply of parking from areas under pressure.
The decision to make a trip by car is influenced by the ability to The provision and management of parking is a crucial element in
park the car at, or near, the point of destination. the regional land-use and transport system. As congestion
increases, there is a growing need for travel demand
The purpose of this tool is to reduce traffic congestion, make management. Parking policies are a powerful tool in the demand
better use of the public transport infrastructure, ease pressure on management tool box. It must be stressed, however, that
parking, and reduce the environmental impact of transport by the enforcement has to be accompanied by the provision of
application of regional parking policies. alternative modes of transport.
Regional parking policies are needed in all areas where parking

supply has a major impact on regional accessibility and the
quality of the environment. For example, regional parking policies
may be needed in central areas and inner residential suburbs
because of their influence on congestion and impairment of the
local environment. They are also needed at locations or times
where there is a high demand for parking (such as special
events).
Regional parking policies can be used to direct vehicles to

preferred locations such as public transport stations. In this way,
an alternative is provided for travellers to city centres, inner areas
or special events by intercepting their cars before they reach
congested areas. Park and ride interchanges at outer stations
and bus interchanges can achieve this.
Figure C-R12-1 Parking policies are a powerful tool
Integrated approaches towards the development and application in demand management

RELEVANT FACTORS 4 In large cities, there is a need to shift the supply of parking
from areas under pressure, such as city centres and inner
WHY IS THERE A NEED suburbs, to suburban and ex-urban park and ride
FOR REGIONAL PARKING POLICIES? interchanges. This requires a regional approach to
parking, and local parking policies integrated with such
Parking provides accessibility by car. Regional parking policies regional policies.
are intended to manage this accessibility at the regional level,
because it is at this level that issues of travel demand and For fur ther information on local parking, see L-7 Parking
transport supply can best be addressed. There are at least four standards and management.
reasons for regional parking policies:
HOW ARE THEY APPLIED?
1 The current concerns with ecological sustainability and
the clear connections between excessive car use and Regional parking policies are applied to locations of regional
declining air quality, may require regional parking policies activity. They can take the form of a limitation on the number of
to influence the level of support for mobility by car and spaces, pricing controls, time controls or a combination of space,
help reduce the vehicle kilometres travelled. The corollary pricing, and time controls.
is that alternative forms of access are available, attractive
and convenient. The consideration of levels of parking, the duration of parking
and the kind of charges to be made are often based on local
2 The provision of parking in response to market demand judgements. As congestion sets in or regional environmental
may cause travel patterns and congestion which issues become important, such locally based judgments are no
contribute to social costs. The parking supply at the longer practicable. There is a need to consider them as part of a
regional level needs to be matched with accessibility regional accessibility and mobility policy, which should include
provided by regional transport networks. Where regional the provision of alternatives (such as investment in public
accessibility for car travel is constrained and the costs of transport) and priorities for other modes of transport in the
increasing it are prohibitive, regional parking management network. Regional parking policies should, therefore, be
is one of the tools for influencing travel demand and car developed as part of an integrated land-use and transport
mobility. strategy. At this strategic planning stage, accessibility objectives
are defined, and linked to mobility characteristics (see R-3 The
3 Regional parking policies can be applied to make more right activity in the right location).
effective use of the existing public transport infrastructure.
There is also a possibility that a shift in transport demand Regional parking policies for major centres should include the
will produce a greater return on public transport existing and proposed levels of activity, as well as the current and
investment, or lead to a lower fare structure, or make it planned accessibility by all transport modes. Regional parking
possible to improve the level of service. policies are also necessary for developments and sites events,

attracting large numbers of people, such as airports, sporting parking near stations to local authorities). However, there are
and entertainment events. significant issues concer ning resources, priorities and
enforcement which may lead to a different approach. Funds
Regional par king policies can also be applied to the generated or provided should clearly be targeted to achieve the
management of commuter parking. In some cities in the US (e.g. objectives of a regional parking policy. Application of these funds
Portland), proposals for employment generating development may or may not take the form of increased parking provision. It is
with more than 50 employees must now be accompanied by a possible that they be used to improve accessibility in public
commuter plan (see R-14 Commuter planning). In the transport in some locations, and the development of park-and-
Netherlands, proactive arrangements are in place to encourage ride facilities in others.
firms and government agencies to develop commuter plans and
discourage the provision of financial assistance to commuters, Regional locations, where the policy applies, will need to be
who travel to work by car. Tax concessions are given to defined and decisions made where the revenue from parking
employees who use public transport for the journey to work. charges should be directed.
WHO IS RESPONSIBLE FOR THEM? The role of the private sector in relation to such a plan-led
approach raises important (and difficult) issues of integrated
The responsibility for parking in Australia and New Zealand rests management. For example, in those States where there are
with local government and there is considerable divergence in levies or contr ibution systems associated with new
parking standards. There are no regionally determined parking developments, there may be a need to review the allocation of
policies or standards. funds for regional purposes and regional priorities. One of the
critical issues is the demonstration of the nexus between
This presents an institutional challenge. It could be expected that contributions and the location, form and timing of expenditure.
the responsibility for developing regional parking policies would
come under the jurisdiction of the agencies responsible for
preparing and implementing regional land-use and transport
strategies. If regional parking, for example, were to be part of a
travel demand management package, a regional perspective
would be necessary. Again, a ‘whole-of-government’ approach is
required for the development and implementation of regional
parking policies. This would involve the participation of land-use
and transpor t agencies at regional and local levels and
involvement of the private sector.
The responsibility for implementation could be vested in local Figure C-R12-2 Regional parking policies
authorities or other agencies (such as the provision for commuter for line-haul public transport stations

APPLICATION 6: Developing an implementation framework
HOW CAN IT BE DONE? Issues of generating and allocating funds, development

standards and controls, and enforcement should be addressed.
1: Identifying desired regional accessibility and mobility
outcomes in relation to the integrated land-use and 7: Developing an implementation program
transport strategy
A program will need to be phased in. Priorities will need to be
2: Investigating the transport consequences of proposed set. Careful thought should be given to parking levels, timing,
changes in regional accessibility and activity charges and funding.
8: Submission of commuter plans

3: Assessing where and when regional parking policies are
needed Where required, there may be a need for the submission of
commuter plans in the case of major employment generating
This should include identification of current commuter and visitor
development proposals.
parking demand at regional levels (including time/frequency) and
the role of any policies in travel demand management.
9: Discouraging the provision of commuter parking
4: Exploring options for institutional arrangements
Where required, there may be a need to discourage the provision
This is a key activity because local government, at present, is of commuter parking in certain locations, if alternative transport
responsible for parking policy and implementation, yet regional modes are available.
parking (and travel demand management) transcends local
government jurisdictions. How this issue is resolved will depend APPROPRIATENESS
on specific situations. It should be linked with responsibilities for
funding and cost recovery. An integrated approach towards regional parking provision is
appropriate in large urban areas. A regional parking policy can
5: Developing policies contribute to reducing congestion and be an important tool in a
package of travel demand management measures. It can also be
Developing regional parking objectives and policies for areas, used to control parking intrusion in inner suburbs. However,
where they are necessary. parking policies can only be considered if public transport
alternatives are available.
Policies will probably be targeted at regional activity centres,
special events and commuter parking. Consultation with the
business community and other stakeholders is essential.

EXAMPLE 1 Principles (performance criteria)
Parking for a new transit centre • On-street short-stay restricted parking will be available on
at Arncliffe - Rockdale, Sydney selected roads near the new Railway Station and other
(short-stay) restrictions will be enforced on other on-street
The New Southern Railway line creates a new station at parking in North Amcliffe.
Arncliffe. A Draft Development Control Plan has been prepared. • On-street parking (short-stay) should also be facilitated in
Parking objectives and principles are: some locations to provide a barrier between pedestrians
and passing traffic.
Objectives • On site parking facilities are encouraged to be located in

the basement of building structures, rather than by
• To minimise the provision of parking facilities on road to expanses of open hard-stand car parks.
encourage the use of public transport.
• Free parking with time restrictions should be available for
• To be flexible in the provision of parking areas, having the public near the Cooks River open space and Tempe
regard to the site context and suitability of related streets; House.
to be adapted to provide angle parking and tree planting.
• Parking for all development will be restricted by a
• To facilitate the provision of an appropriate level of car- maximum requirement, with lower levels encouraged.
parking, having. regard to the availability of alternative Applicants wishing to provide more parking will need to
public transport facilities in the area. In order to encourage justify this by way of a traffic/parking study.
the use of such facilities, a degree of flexibility is afforded
by the need to comply with maximum, rather than • Parking for specialised vehicles should be provided (e.g.
minimum requirements. courtesy buses for hotels).
• To provide specialised parking for those land uses, which • Parking for people with a disability should be provided as
have specialised needs. required (subject to traffic study for the appropriate rates).
• In the provision of parking, applicants should refer to

Section 6.2.2 (in Councils document) regarding the design
of parking, access and servicing areas.

EXAMPLE 2 EFFECTIVENESS
Regional parking policy in Portland, Oregon Policies and applications can be effective in the management of
centres where accessibility by vehicles is constrained; and in
• (i) the designation of preferential parking stalls for carpool, inner suburbs, where residential streets are swamped with
vanpool, motorcycle, bicycle and moped parking at major commuter cars from outer suburbs.
retail centres, institutions and employment centres;
• (ii) the redesignation of existing parking as park-and-ride RELATED TOOLS

spaces;
R-3 The right business in the right location
• (iii) the use of timed parking zones; R-5 Key regional and transit centres
• (iv) promotion of the use and development of shared R-13 Travel demand management
parking spaces for commercial and retail land uses; R-14 Commuter planning
requiring no more parking in designated land uses than L-7 Parking standards and management
the minimum set out in the regional management plan; C-8 Congestion management
• (v) establishing parking maximums at ratios no greater

than those listed in the regional management plan for
specified areas (e.g. within 400 metres of bus stops with
20 minute or less headways in the AM and PM peak
hours; within 800 metres of light rail stations);
• (vi) allowing property owners who elect to use the

minimum parking ratios to be exempted from the
employee commuting options program.

Travel demand management is useful because it can:
Travel demand R-13 • lead to more effective use of the existing transport
management infrastructure and conserve resources in the provision of
new transport infrastructure;
• encourage or facilitate the location of land uses generating

a demand for travel in areas where there is capacity in the
INTENT transport infrastructure system (or where there are plans
and programs to increase it); conversely, travel demand
Travel demand management comprises a series of actions to management can discourage land-use location where
achieve a particular purpose, such as better use of the existing there is inadequate capacity;
transport system, reducing or preventing congestion, reducing air
pollution or creating a more sustainable city. It encompasses the • influence the need for travel and the choices people make
strategies, techniques and supporting actions which aim to about the mode, length, time and route of travel;
achieve such outcomes. The purpose of this tool is to reduce the
total amount of travel, minimise the need to expand road • contribute to a reduction in air pollution and an
systems, prevent further congestion, reduce air pollution, improvement in the environmental quality of urban areas;
conserve scarce resources and increase the share of non-car and
based transport modes.
• support goals for more sustainable urban development.
The purpose of travel demand management is often stated as
the promotion of shared use of cars and the use of other Congestion management and road pricing are major aspects of
transport modes, but a broader interpretation involves addressing travel demand management. They can be used to influence the
the causes of travel. use of the transport system and are considered in other tools
(e.g. C-8 Congestion management and C-9 Transport pricing and
The difference is significant: the first approach relies more on tolls).
transport-related actions to influence travel behaviour, whereas
the second interpretation also includes land-use actions, which
produce a demand for travel. The broader interpretation is used
here.

RELEVANT FACTORS encouraging high-occupancy vehicles (HOV), car pools,
transit lanes, facilitation and priority for buses, parking
WHY IS TRAVEL DEMAND MANAGEMENT IMPORTANT? restrictions, walking, and cycling.
Travel demand management is becoming important because: As cities become larger, market-led approaches to travel demand
lead to unacceptable economic, social, environmental and
(i) the demand for access to land-use activities exceeds the funding problems. Plan-led approaches, involving some forms of
available capacity; intervention, are then needed. For example, the focus may need
to be on moving people rather than cars, and public transport
(ii) there is a need for economy in the use of available road systems are more effective in moving people than cars. Demand
space; and management techniques can be used to influence the choices
people make in the mode of transport and the time of travel.
(iii) unconstrained growth of car use has undesirable
environmental and economic consequences. While travel demand management is one of the key tools for the
implementation of a greenhouse strategy, there are many
The demand for travel can, in par t, be replaced by components; which of these are used depends on local needs,
telecommunications and the scope for this is expanding. practicality and acceptability.
However, there are many interactions where this cannot be done.
In these situations, the location of trip-generating activities in WHAT ARE THE COMPONENTS
relation to each other and their accessibility by different transport OF DEMAND MANAGEMENT?
modes has a significant influence on the demand for vehicular
travel. Hence, one of the key instr uments in demand LAND-USE MEASURES
management is the location of activities (see R-3: The right
activity in the right location). • Locating trip-generating activities together, where there is
a close association between them (e.g. R-4: A hierarchy of
Road and public transport systems represent a significant public centres, and L-3 Increasing choice in land use, such as
infrastructure investment, and it is important to use them mixed development).
effectively before any further expansion is considered. Intended
benefits of managing travel demand are to: • Locating trip-generating activities, and setting appropriate
densities for them, near public transport (e.g. R-3 The right
• minimise the need to expand the capacity of the region’s activity in the right location), R-6 Public transport and
transport system (building new highways or adding lanes land use).
to existing highways); and
• Encouraging urban forms which favour the economic and
• make more efficient use of the available road space by advantageous provision of public transport (R-1 Urban

structure and form). stop, waiting, on-board travel, transfer, waiting, on-board travel,
travelling to the destination). All links in this chain are important
• Encouraging trip substitution by communication for improving accessibility to public transport (see R-6 Public
technology, such as tele-working, banking, shopping and transport and land use, and L-3 Increasing choice in transport).
education.
Improving accessibility for cycling
• Encouraging flexible opening hours at destinations where
people congregate. Here, too, the journey should be seen as a chain. Improvement
could provide safe routes, increasing safety on routes with
• Making households aware of the options available to them potential conflict, transfer facilities, storage facilities and wash
and extending their range of options (see R-15 Travel rooms (see L-5 Cycling and land use).
blending).
Encouraging high occupancy vehicle travel
• Requiring the submission of commuter plans (see R-14
Commuter planning) to assist employers and employees Encouraging the development and use of car and van pools,
in developing and implementing alternative means of community buses, and train and bus-taxis.
travel to work demand.
Parking standards
TRANSPORT MEASURES
Setting and implementing parking standards which will reduce
Improving the relative attraction of alternative modes parking demand or lead to more efficient parking design and
utilisation.
Standards can be developed. The standard in the Netherlands,
for example, is that the journey to work by alternative modes MEASURES IN THE FORM
should not exceed 1.5 times the journey by car and less for long OF INCENTIVES AND DISINCENTIVES
distances. In order to achieve such a standard, there is a need
for transit supportive design and infrastructure, especially in the Travel demand management can also involve the use of ‘push’
city centre, regional centres, town centres, station communities measures (e.g. disincentives or restrictions) or ‘pull’ measures
(or transit centres), main streets and along designated transit (e.g. Incentives), or a combination of both. Some of the measures
corridors. referred to above come in this category, but there are others,
such as:
Improving accessibility to public transport.
• introducing parking pricing, congestion pricing, fuel
The public transport journey should be seen as a chain of pricing, fixed cost charges (e.g. registration), taxation
‘events’ in the travel from door to door (e.g. walking to nearest measures and other user charges, as disincentives to the

use of the car (C-9 Transport pricing and tolls); The targets should be derived from planning processes at the
regional or local level and after the desired outcomes are defined
• introducing tax concessions for travel to work by public (see Part A). In other words, there should be a link between
transport and other non-car based modes; planning intentions and the selection of targets.
• providing density bonuses for employers and developers Setting targets without the means of achieving them is not a
who locate or build in locations where there is a high level credible policy. Targets should be achievable and achievement
of public transport accessibility; and should be measurable.
• providing lower than average development contributions 2: Determining which measures are relevant for achieving
for development in locations served by high levels of the targets
public transport and higher than average charges in
locations with a low level of public transport accessibility. In order to develop a package of measures it is necessary to
determine which measures are relevant to achieve a particular
Many of these measures are controversial and complex. Some target. This may be obvious in a broad sense, but not so easy in
measures are being used overseas (such as tax concessions for practice, because quantitative information on the effectiveness of
travel to work by public transport in the Netherlands; fuel pricing an individual measure or strategy is difficult to obtain (see Table
in many European countries; and high duties on cars in C-R13-2 for information of the potential for car trip reduction of a
Singapore). Some of these measures can be considered only particular strategy).
within a national context and after a careful examination of trade-
offs and distributional effects. 3: Determining which measures are feasible for achieving
targets
APPLICATION
The preliminary list is then examined in more detail:
HOW CAN IT BE DONE?
• which stakeholders will be affected;
1: Setting targets for the urban region
• what are the anticipated costs and benefits of each
Targets can be set for a wide range of indicators. For example, measure;
targets may be set for a reduction in air pollution or in the amount
of vehicle kilometre travel by a given date. Portland has set • which measures need to be linked so that people and
targets for a reduction of 10 per cent in the vehicle miles travelled businesses have alternatives, if restraints are introduced;
per person by the year 2040 (see example). Other cities have set
targets for a reduction in greenhouse emissions and in the • when would a particular measure be introduced;
proportion of trips made by public transport

• which agency is responsible for implementation; and 6: Establish an integrated monitoring system
• what degree of community and political support is there A monitoring system should be established to measure the
for the measures? effectiveness of the package. Monitoring should be done
carefully to ascertain the effect of individual measures. This will
The relationship between regional and local responsibilities assist in reviewing the program and in developing a database,
should be clearly defined and the subject of intensive discussion. which can be used for improved forecasting.
4: Develop an integrated transport demand management APPROPRIATENESS

package
Demand management is good housekeeping in all urban
The measures can now be combined into packages and the situations, where public assets are being developed and used,
combined effect assessed. The package may be a combination but the degree of intervention and the measures actually used
of strategies, policies and actions. The actions can include items will depend on local circumstances. Generally,
involving development or construction, such as the conversion of a wider range of measures will be necessary as urban areas
a lane to high-occupancy vehicles (HOV). Actions could also
become larger and pressures on the existing infrastructure and
include a commitment to investigate, such as road pricing, for
urban environment increase.
possible implementation later.
5: Develop an implementation program
The demand management package needs to be detailed and the

responsibilities for implementation should be clearly defined.
There should be agreement on funding and the timing of
implementation. This step in the process is important for its
success because of (i) the close linkages between many
measures and (ii) the need to integrate programs at the regional
and local level. A promotion and communication program are
also important, as travel demand management measures need
public understanding and support.
Local authorities should consider demand management

measures when preparing local planning instruments. Policies
should be incorporated to implement those aspects of travel
demand management which support regional goals and meet
local needs for both work and non-work travel. Figure C-R13-1 Express bus with a message

GOAL TO BE ACHIEVED BY
1 Enhance mobility and support * Providing transit supportive design and infrastructure in the central city, regional centres,
the use of alternative transport town centres, station communities, main streets and along designated transit corridors.
modes.
* Developing and encouraging local access to the regional carpool matching database.
* Co-ordinating with the regional authorities on the provision of regional vanpool service to
major employment centres.
2 Promote policies and * Implementing appropriate parking ratios and investigating other measures throughout the
strategies, which reduce travel region, which will reduce parking demand or lead to more efficient parking design options.
by single occupant vehicles
(SOV). * Supporting efforts to provide maximum allowable tax benefits and subsidies to users of
alternative modes of transport.
* Conducting further studies of market-based strategies, such as parking pricing,

congestion pricing and parking cash-out, as measures to promote more compact land-use
development. Increase alternative mode shares and encourage more efficient use of
resources.
* Investigating the use of high-occupancy vehicle (HOV) lanes to reduce roadway

congestion.
3 Provide incentives for * Providing density bonus for employers and developers who locate or build in the central
employers and developers to city, regional centres, town centres, station communities and along transit corridors.
build/locate in the central
city, regional centres, town * Providing, as conditions permit, lower than average local traffic development
centres, station communities contributions for development in the central city, regional centres, town centres, station
and transit corridors, and to communities and transit corridors.
promote more compact
land use. * Including transit oriented design guidelines in local development approval process.
Table C-R13-1 Example of a Travel Demand Package (Portland, Oregon, 1996) continued on next page

4 Co-ordinate efforts to promote * Using a TDM Subcommittee as a forum to discuss TDM issues and implementation
TDM at the regional and local procedure.
level.
* Providing TDM materials which outline available regional programs and services to the
public, and to local authorities in the region.
5 Implement TDM support * Encouraging development of public/private TDM partnerships with service providers.
programs to reduce the need to
travel, and to make it more * Promoting the establishment of Transport Management Associations (TMAs) in areas
convenient for people to use identified as major employment, retail and/or regional centres.
alternative modes for all trips
throughout the region. * Working with local authorities and neighbourhood organisations to develop citizen
outreach efforts, and to provide options and marketing material to residential areas.
* Promoting flexible work hours and/or compressed work weeks for employees with public
and private sector employer.
* Working with local employers to promote tele-commuting as a viable option for

commuting .
* Allowing use of HOV lanes by motorcycles with single riders in order to further reduce
congestion.
6 Increase public knowledge and * Maintaining information on TDM services available for local employers.
understanding about TDM as
a tool to reduce congestion, * Promoting public sector involvement in employer-based TDM programs and provide
reduce air pollution, implement examples of successful programs.
the Growth Concept and to
help the region meet the VT
per capita and parking per
capita reduction targets.
Table C-R13-1 Example of a Travel Demand Package (Portland, Oregon, 1996) starts on previous page

STRATEGY POTENTIAL NOTE: These figures are indicative and are not intended to be
for car trip reduction
added. Actual trip reduction will depend on the type of business,
Public transport subsidies High: 10–32 %; Medium 2–6%; location and accessibility of the work site.
Low 0–8%
On-site carpool matching 1–2% Source: JHK & Associates, Inc (1995) Report
prepared for Department of Environmental
Carpooling rewards 0–8% Quality, Oregon.
Carpooling and vanpooling - with parking 1–3%
subsidies
Vanpooling 15–40%
Bus pooling 3–11%
Employer shuttles 3–11%
Cycling 0–10%
Walking 0–3%
Telecommuting Full time 82–91%

1–2 days 14–35%
Compressed workweek 9days/80hrs: 7–9%

4 days/40 hrs: 16–18%
3 days/36 hrs: 32–36%
Parking cash-out 2–20%
Parking fees 2–34%
Transport co-ordinator 0.5–1%
Information, promotion and recognition 0.5–1%
Using fleet vehicles 0–1%
Guaranteed ride home 1–3%
On-site amenities 1–2%
Table C-R13-2 Relationship between strategy and potential

impact for travel to work

EFFECTIVENESS RELATED TOOLS
The effectiveness of demand management can be determined R-1 Urban structure and form
only through monitoring of performance (see Step 6). There is a R-3 The right activity in the right location
need for improved techniques to make reasonably reliable R-6 Public transport and land use
predictions of the consequences of individual measures. R-11 Air quality and traffic noise
EXAMPLES R-14 Commuter planning
Regional transport demand management (TDM) goals and C-8 Congestion management
actions, Portland, Oregon C-9 Transport pricing and tolls
Portland has set a target of 10 percent reduction in vehicle miles

travelled (VT) per capita and 10 percent reduction in parking
spaces per capita over the planning period (by 2040). The
demand management plan is based on six goals, which are to be
achieved by a series of actions (see Table C-R13-1).
Travel demand management initiatives in Melbourne
The focus is on three areas:
(i) promote more efficient use of motor vehicles;
(ii) encourage the use of energy efficient modes of transport; and
(iii) encourage the community, government agencies, local

government and business to jointly implement TDM actions.
For each initiative there are actions similar to those in the
previous example.

In some US cities, concerns about air quality have led to making
Commuter planning R-14 the submission and implementation of commuter plans a
statutory requirement.
A commuter policy may also be important to the employer by

saving costs in providing parking facilities, using site space for a
INTENT higher financial return and in assisting employees with limited
transport options. The money spent to provide free employee
The intent of commuter planning is to encourage changes in parking is usually substantial.
travel to work. This is done by the preparation and
implementation of commuter plans at work sites where a There are benefits for employees. Employees often do not
significant number of people are employed. recognise the cost of driving alone, particularly if they have ‘free’
parking. Leaving their car at home can help them save money on
Commuter planning can: fuel, maintenance, and insurance costs.
• contribute to a reduction in traffic congestion; RELEVANT FACTORS
• contribute to improvement in regional air quality; There are no requirements for the preparation and
implementation of commuter plans in Australia. However, in some
• assist businesses, where there is limited or expensive US cities such as Portland, Oregon, they are compulsory.
employee parking and/or inadequate visitor parking; and Employers are expected to provide commuting options, which
have the potential to achieve and maintain a reduced car trip
• assist employees with limited transport options and rate. In other cities there may be a high level of congestion and a
increase options for all employees. need to rationalise the use of the existing transport system.
A policy of commuter planning is appropriate for work places with NOTE What follows is a summary, and adapted from Commuter
a substantial number of employees (e.g. more than 50 Planning (1996) Tri-County District of Oregon, Portland.
employees), in all kinds of communities. The goals and the range
of strategies used depend on circumstances. Some strategies APPLICATION
are useful even in smaller communities as a means of making
the workplace accessible for a wide range of employees. HOW CAN IT BE DONE?
In highly urbanised regions, the policy may be good practice for Employers above a certain number of employees at a single work
additional reasons, such as congestion management, air quality site (for example, above 50 employees) are encouraged, or
management, and better utilisation of urban land and work sites. required by law, to prepare a commuter transport program for

their work site. • shift times and number of employees working during each
shift ;
Guidelines need to be provided to employers on how to develop,
submit, implement and monitor their commuter transpor t • availability of any pedestrian or bicycle amenities, such as
program. They consist of setting goals, establishing a baseline footpaths, bike racks, lockers, or showers;
data set, developing strategies, identifying costs and benefits,
and assessing performance, once the program is under way. • proximity of services, such as dry cleaning, day care,
dining, shopping or repair services;
1: Getting started
• any existing transport-related benefits or incentives; and
Identify an individual or committee to develop and implement the
transport program for the work site. • financial resources available for the transport program.
2: Define the goals 4: Conducting a survey of employee commuting options
A transport program will be unique to each employer’s situation An employee survey is needed to obtain information on how
and needs. Employers will need to identify their goals up front to employees currently travel to work, and what incentives would
help define the scope of the program, and ensure its success in encourage them to try other methods, such as carpooling or
the long run. riding a bus.
3: Making a resource inventory The survey not only provides the basis for developing a transport
program employees are able and willing to use, but also as a
This involves collecting information on: baseline for measuring the success of the program.
• number of employees at each work site; 5: Selecting strategies
• proximity of work sites to one another (if applicable), size The survey results and resource inventory are reviewed to
and proximity of neighbouring workplaces with similar determine which strategies suit the employer’s situation and are
transport needs; of most interest to the employees. A program is developed
comprising:
• level of public transit service to the work site;
• a commuting alternative;
• amount and location of parking for your employees and
visitors; cost of parking if employees or the company pay • a work alternative;
for it;

• a parking management alternative; and/or 11: Reviewing success
• a support service for employees, who use commuting Evaluate the effectiveness of the program after one year, and
alternatives. make adjustments if necessary.
Information on the range of strategies is provided in the following A - COMMUTING ALTERNATIVES

section.
PUBLIC TRANSPORT
6: Evaluating costs and benefits
Each geographic area has a different range of public transport
Determine the costs and savings associated with each strategy services, depending on population and employment density, and
in the transport program. the number of passengers on a route. If the work site does not
have a public transport service within 800 metres of the site,
7: Bringing others on board there may be a need to focus on other commuting alternatives,
such as carpooling, van pooling, or employer shuttles.
Solicit approval from management for each strategy and
determine how the transport program would affect any workplace In the US, subsidies are one of the most common methods
agreements (if applicable). employers use to encourage their employees to travel to work by
public transport. Typically, a company provides a fixed monthly
8: Finalising the transport program amount for employees who agree to regularly commute on public
transport. The subsidy is usually applied to the cost of a monthly
Determine who will prepare any necessary policies related to the transit pass. Employees can be reimbursed at the end of the
transport program at the work site and establish a deadline for month for the public transport pass, or paid in advance, if they
completion. agree to use public transport for travel to work. Alternatively, the
employer can purchase passes directly from the public transport
9: Marketing the program operator and provide them free or at a discount to employees
who commute by public transport.
Determine who will be responsible for promoting the transport
program, particularly if there is no transport co-ordinator, and CARPOOLING
how the program will be presented.
A carpool is simply two or more people driving together for all or
10: Implementing the transport program most of their journey to work. A typical employer carpooling
program helps employees set up carpools, and encourages them
Determine who will be responsible for each task, and establish a to continue carpooling or to consider trying it.
deadline for completion.

Carpooling programs can work when there is limited or no public potential van/minibus route, and limited access to other
transport service to the work site, consistent employee shift times commuting alternatives.
and days, and limited or no public transport service near
employees’ homes. Because van pools are somewhat complicated to establish,
incentives can make a big difference in their use. Incentives
Incentives to encourage car pooling are: car pool par tner typically include assistance recruiting van pool participants, van
matching, carpooling rewards and preferential parking. Often pooling rewards similar to those for carpooling, preferential
employees are interested in carpooling, but do not know anyone parking for van pools, and vans or minibuses provided by the
who lives and works nearby. Assistance in finding a carpool employer.
partner is often all the incentive needed to start carpooling. The
employer may offer financial incentives to cover the cost of BUSPOOLING
carpool parking, fuel or maintenance. These can include gift
certificates for oil changes or petrol, parking subsidies, or prize Buspooling is a private bus service designed to meet the needs
drawings for employees, who regularly use a carpool. Parking of an employer or group of employers at a specific work site.
spaces designated just for car poolers can be a valuable Buspooling routes serve the work site directly, picking-up and
incentive, especially if there are limited employee parking spaces dropping-off employees along the route. These routes may serve
available. Preferential carpool parking is typically located near employees’ homes directly or serve distant parking facilities.
the employee entrance, increasing the appeal of carpooling.
Buspooling programs are large-scale operations. They work best
VAN POOLING for an employer or a group of employers when there are very
limited or no regional public transport services to the work site;
A van pool is a group of seven to fifteen commuters sharing the when there are 3000 or more employees and consistent
ride in one vehicle, often a station wagon or minibus. One person employee shift times and days. In addition, there should be a
usually drives, and is responsible for maintaining the vehicle, large concentration of employees living in the same area or along
while the riders split the expenses. The co-ordination of a van or a specific commuting route, and buspool routes with stops at
minibus can be organised by the employer, the employees using sufficient distance from each other, so that pick-up and drop-off
the van or minibus, or by a third-party provider, depending on the time does not significantly add to the total commuting time.
needs of the employer. When the employer or employees operate
the van or minibus, the employer often provides the vehicles. EMPLOYER SHUTTLES
Van pooling works best, if the employer has a large reserve of Employer shuttles connect employees with a regional public
employees (or joins forces with neighbouring businesses), when transport service which is located within the vicinity, but not
there are consistent shift times and days, long-distance within walking distance. The shuttles bridge the distance between
commuters (15 km or more one way), a concentration of 12 or public transport service and the work site, allowing employees to
more interested employees living in a specific area or along each use public transport for most of their journey to work. Employer

shuttles cover shorter distances and run more frequently than The most powerful incentives for cycling and walking is the
buspools, allowing greater flexibility for employees with varied availability of shower and locker facilities at the work site. Reward
work shifts. The employer may operate his/her own shuttles, work programs similar to those described in the ‘Carpooling’ section
together with neighbouring employers or contract a third-party are also well suited to encourage bicycling and walking.
shuttle provider. Additional incentives which are specifically suited to bicycle
commuting include: secure bicycle parking or storage areas;
Employer shuttles work best for an employer or group of information about trip planning; safety, and equipment which can
employers when there are: nearby access to the regional public help employees feel more comfortable with bicycle commuting;
transpor t system, 1000 or more employees, and a large and providing assistance in finding other employees who travel to
concentration of employees, who could use public transport from work by bicycle.
their homes, if a connection to the work site were provided.
B - WORK ALTERNATIVES
Incentives may provide the shuttle service at no additional
charge to the employees. Alternatively, an employer may choose Work alternatives allow an employer to change employees’ work
to charge for the shuttle service, but offer employees a subsidy environments, rather than their commuting methods.
for their public transport passes.
TELECOMMUTING
CYCLING AND WALKING
Telecommuting allows an employee to perform work duties from
Cycling and walking allows employees to commute to work, while home—or at a location near home—by maintaining contact with
also enjoying the added health benefit of cardiovascular exercise. the office through telephone, and fax or computer. Work is
Cyclists may combine their journey with public transport (when accomplished by moving information instead
there is provision for it). This may be helpful if the weather turns of people.
bad or the commuter has a significant distance to travel, but still
wishes to cycle some part of it. Telecommuting will work best if there are employees who
perform the following tasks: reading, writing, editing, planning,
Bicycle commuting works best if employees reside within 8 km of scheduling, data entr y, word processing, record-keeping,
the work site. This distance can be extended, if employees’ budgeting, analysis and review, and telephone work.
homes or the work site are served by public transport. Walking
works best for employees, who live within two to three km of the COMPRESSED WORK WEEK
work site. The presence of safe and direct pedestrian access,
such as footpaths, lighting and designated crossings are also In a compressed work week, employees work their total number
important (see 2.7 Increasing access to public transport). of regularly scheduled hours in fewer days. As a consequence,
employees make fewer trips to their work site each week.

Examples of a compressed work week include: Employers will need to consider who is eligible to receive the
monthly parking cash-out amount (all employees, only full-time,
• 4 days in a 40-hour work week, only permanent) and the amount which employees should be
typically 10 hours each day; charged for parking. This could be the cost of providing and
maintaining parking spaces or the current market rate for parking
• 3 days in a 36-hour work week, near the work site. There are different ways in which employee’s
typically 12 hours each day; monthly cash-out choice is accounted for. For example,
employees who use commuting alternatives may receive the
• 9 days in an 80-hour/two-week period, cash-out amount in their paychecks or public transport passes.
typically eight 9-hour days and one 8-hour day.
There may be tax implications for the employer or employee, if
Compressed work weeks suit companies with employees whose parking cash-out is adopted. In some countries (e.g. the
job duties allow flexibility in their work schedules. A compressed Netherlands), public transport passes provided by employers are
work week is not the same as flexitime, which allows employees tax deductible.
to adjust the start and end of their work day to accommodate public
transport or a carpool partner’s schedule. Employees may attempt to park on-street in adjacent areas in
order to receive the cash-out payment. This on-street parking can
C - PARKING MANAGEMENT ALTERNATIVES create problems with neighbouring businesses and residents. It is
best to address this issue with employees, affected community
When employees have plentiful free parking it can be difficult to and business associations, and with the local authority, before
provide enough incentives for employees to leave their cars at implementing a parking cash-out. A monitoring system to
home. If the work site has free parking, and an employer finds it discourage this type of activity may be considered.
difficult to encourage the use of commuting alternatives, parking
management alternatives may be appropriate. PARKING FEES
PARKING CASH-OUT An employer can also implement a parking fee without the cash-
out described in the previous section. A straight parking fee can
Parking cash-out involves the discontinuation of free employee create positive results, if combined with incentives for commuting
parking, charging employees a monthly fee for the cost of their alternatives, such as preferential carpool and van/minibus
parking, and allotting every employee a monthly parking cash-out parking, plus a discount in the parking fee.
amount equal to the parking fee for not using the parking facility.
Employees who use public transport, carpool, or use other Charging a parking fee requires careful planning and evaluation:
commuting alternatives have the parking cash-out amount added to It is important to create a bonus, not a penalty. By offering other
their wages as a bonus. Employees who continue to drive alone do transport benefits, such as carpooling and public transport
not receive the parking cash-out amount but are still able to park. incentives, plus support programs, the perceived loss of free

parking can be offset. As with the Parking Cash-out strategy, information centres, located in a prominent place; information for
there is the potential for on-street spill-over parking. public transport planning, carpool or minibus partner matching,
subsidy sign-up, tips for bicycling or walking commuters;
D - SUPPORT PROGRAMS computer software for public transport trip planning; and bus-to-
lunch or carpool-to-lunch activities, particularly for employees
Suppor t programs make it easier for employees to use who have never tried these commuting alternatives.
commuting alternatives by alleviating some of the concerns and
inconvenience of leaving their cars at home. The success of infor mation, promotion, and recognition
strategies will depend on how they are presented. Employees
TRANSPORT CO-ORDINATOR will be most receptive to the transport program strategies if
they are presented as benefits and choices. It is important to
A transport co-ordinator is an employee or contractor who can stress that no one is asking them to give up their cars. They are
help implement the transport program effectively. Transport co- provided with informed choices and the possible accruing
ordinators can prepare the transport program and be responsible benefits.
for organising and conducting an employee commuting options
survey. They can also provide personalised assistance to USING FLEET VEHICLES
employees in forming carpools or van pools, and assist public
transport users with trip planning, fare and ride information Other Many companies already have fleet vehicles available for
roles include co-ordinating the installation of amenities for business use. Employers can use this resource to address a
commuting alternatives, establishing and administering subsidy, common objection to commuting alternatives: the need to use a
reward, or parking fee strategies, and producing promotional car for work during the day, or the fear of being stranded at work,
materials. when an employee has an unexpected late meeting or must work
overtime. Making company vehicles available in these situations
It is important to discover whether the transport program is a can overcome such objections.
success. Transport co-ordinators should be given the task to
monitor costs and usage of the program. They can also be called Preference can be given to employees who use commuting
upon to introduce new employees to the program benefits and be alternatives or a portion of the fleet can be reserved exclusively
expected to keep informed of local and regional transport issues for their use. Matters to be resolved are: who is eligible to use
and contacts. fleet vehicles and in what circumstances. For example, eligible
employees could be permitted to check out fleet vehicles
INFORMATION, PROMOTION AND RECOGNITION overnight, if they must work late unexpectedly. There is also a
need for a system of reserving or checking out fleet vehicles.
Marketing a transport program is the key to producing results. Insurance issues should also be addressed.
Suggestions for providing information and promoting the
employer’s strategies include: transport bulletin boards and

GUARANTEED RIDE HOME additional reasons such as congestion management, air quality
management, and better utilisation of urban land and work sites.
Employees often cite emergency situations as a primary In some US cities, concerns about air quality have led to making
objection to leaving their own cars at home. They do not want to the submission and implementation of commuter plans a
risk being stranded at work, if a personal or family emergency statutory requirement.
occurs. Establishing a free guaranteed ride home program
provides peace of mind for your employees who use commuting EFFECTIVENESS
alternatives, at relatively small expense to the employer.
How effective are the strategies in achieving the goals? Some
A guaranteed ride home program can take the form of using fleet overseas information exists about the effectiveness of strategies
vehicles or free taxi rides. A successful program requires a clear in reducing
policy on eligibility for emergency taxi rides, at least two a reduction in car trips (see R-13 Travel demand management),
individuals who are designated to call a taxi for employees, and but there does not appear to be any data as yet about commuter
an established method to pay for the taxi fares. satisfaction or the costs and benefits to employers.
ON-SITE AMENITIES
On-site amenities refer to services which employers provide at

their work sites. Examples of on-site amenities include cafes or
restaurants, dry cleaners, day care centres and ATMs. Their
presence can eliminate employees’ need for their cars to run
these kinds of errands before or after work, or during their lunch
break. There may be opportunities to provide joint facilities with
neighbouring companies within walking distance of the work site.
APPROPRIATENESS
A policy of commuter planning is appropriate for work places with

a substantial number of employees (e.g. more than 50
employees) and in all kinds of communities. The goals and the
range of strategies used depend on circumstances. Some
strategies are useful even in smaller communities as a means of
making the workplace accessible for a wide range of employees. Figure C-R14-1 Pay parking for employees is one of the options,
but not popular, especially in outer areas (Deakin service area,
In highly urbanised regions the policy may be good practice for Canberra)

EXAMPLES
Portland, Oregon under ‘Specific Air Quality Pollution Control

Rules for Areas with Unique Air Quality Needs’ of the State of
Oregon.
RELATED TOOLS

L-4 Increasing choices in land use

• blending activities (i.e. doing as many things as possible in
Travel blending R-15 the same place, or on the same journey); and/or
• blending over time (i.e. making small sustainable changes

over time on a weekly or fortnightly basis).
INTENT
RELEVANT FACTORS
Travel blending is a technique designed to encourage
behavioural change in the way individuals use their cars. The HOW DOES IT WORK?
intent of this tool is to encourage and facilitate a shift in travel
behaviour. Travel blending needs an action plan consisting of the following
elements (Rose and Ampt, 1997):
Travel blending has a focus on achievable change. It does not
rely on an ‘overnight’ change in lifestyle, but on practical ways to • presenting people with the information of their existing
gradually reduce the use of the car. It is useful because it: patterns of travel, and the impact it has on congestion
and/or the quality of the environment;
• enables households and businesses to become aware of
the consequences of current travel behaviour; • presenting this knowledge in the context of the household
or family;
• assists households and businesses to consider and test
alternatives; and • giving them ‘customised’ feedback related to their actual
travel for one week;
• provides feedback on the consequences of changed travel
behaviour. • allowing them to experiment with reducing car travel by
‘blending’;
Travel blending involves (Rose and Ampt, 1997):
• letting them check or measure their reductions in vehicle
• thinking about activities and travel in advance (i.e. in what use; and
order can activities be done, who should do them and
where); • giving them a simple way of maintaining their new travel
patterns, once travel changes have occurred.
• blending modes (i.e. choosing the transport mode to use -
sometimes car, sometimes walk, sometimes public To make the action plan work, information should be given on the
transport etc.); and/or need for change, which is easy to understand; and a set of ‘kits’

provided, in which each of the steps in the travel blending DIARIES
process are described. The benefits of this new approach should
also be included. Tools to carry out these steps are provided. There are two types of diary:
A fundamental premise underlying the development of the travel Diaries to measure vehicle use
blending program is that people’s travel must be made tangible if
they are to comprehend the need for change. Unlike recycling or The first type of diary is a vehicle log book, in which respondents
adopting a ‘green’ approach to consumer purchases, individuals record their use of the car. Each trip and the number of
have no tangible evidence at the end of a week that their actions kilometres travelled are recorded.
to modify their travel behaviour have produced results.
Diaries to measure travel activity
Therefore, a fundamental component of the travel blending
program is a series of diaries which are completed by members It is essential that people’s use of the car be viewed within the
of the household. context of their total travel activity. Changes in vehicle use may
have implications for other household members, and even out-of-
home activities, which do not presently rely on the car. Travel
diaries are used to record all travel outside the home, and are
completed by all individuals within the household. In this way the
household can begin to consider the interactions between
household members which produce their collective household
travel activity.
The diaries provide:
• a means of making travel activity ‘tangible’ for the

participants in the program;
• a basis for giving quantitative ‘feedback’ to participants

about their travel activity and changes in their travel
activity; and
• information for measuring the effectiveness of the travel

blending package and the basis for evaluation of the
program as a whole.
Figure C-R15-1 Example of a travel diary

INTERACTION BETWEEN 2: Kit 1 - Getting started
THE CONSULTANT AND HOUSEHOLD
This kit is sent to the household in a presentation box which can
An awareness program will be effective when people are be used to store material from subsequent kits. Included in the
assisted during the process by a team of consultants. A package first kit is a letter of introduction from a prominent personality and
of four ‘kits’ is used, which takes people through the process: the information booklets on the why and how.
consultant analyses responses, provides information and
feedback on the diaries, suggests options and offers ideas how The ‘Why’ booklet explains the link between a problem (such as
to overcome barriers. The consultant also monitors progress, and air pollution and congestion) and vehicle use, and describes why
informs participants of the results. A program without such there is a need for action.
facilitation is of limited value.
The ‘How’ booklet outlines the range of potential solutions and
WHAT ARE THE BENEFITS AND COSTS? how individual action can contribute to reduce problems caused
by extensive car use. It introduces the concept of travel blending,
Evidence from completed programs shows that there is more and indicates that the first step for an individual in changing their
flexibility than people thought. There are concrete examples of travel patterns is to gain an understanding of their own travel
behavioural change. Reduction in car use can range from 10–25 behaviour.
per cent per household in selected cases (Ampt -personal
communication). Whether this reduction can be translated across The kit also includes a one week travel diary and vehicle log
an entire urban region and whether such changes are enduring, book. The purpose of these diaries is explained, and instructions
are issues requiring further research. The costs of undertaking a are given on how to complete their log books.
program depend on the number of participating households. The
main costs are related to the personal contact and time spent by 3: Completion of diaries
the consultant with the participants.
Respondent households complete the travel diaries and vehicle
APPLICATION log books over a seven day period, and return them in a pre-paid
envelope for processing.
HOW CAN IT BE DONE?
4: Coding and analysis
1: Establishing a program
Once the travel diaries and vehicle log books are received at the
The first step is to develop a program, decide on the number of study office, the data are coded, entered into a database and
households participating, commit resources to the project, summarised to facilitate interpretation and preparation of
prepare forms for the diaries and produce kits. feedback sheets to participating households.

5: Kit 2: Help Make a Difference
The kit contains customised feedback from the travel diaries and
vehicle log books. This feedback is presented on a sheet headed
‘Did you know these things about your household?’. The
feedback sheet summarises travel patterns for each individual
(by name) and the household as a whole. This includes details of
the total number of trips, trips by mode and total time spent
travelling. For each vehicle the total kilometres travelled is
summarised along with details, such as the number of engine
cold starts and an indication of the emissions produced (in terms
of kilograms of carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons and oxides of
nitrogen).
The feedback sheet also includes a number of ideas about how

household members can attempt to reduce their vehicle use. In
many cases these tend to be fairly general, but in other cases Figure C-R16-2 Three methods to approach
detailed suggestions are given, including details of specific public the reduction of car use (Source Ampt & Gleave, 1997)
transport services with relevant timetables. In all cases the
suggestions are tailored to the travel patterns reported by
members of the household.
travel blending, which is then followed by the next kit.
Also included in Kit 2 is a booklet titled ‘Thinking about your
travel’. This brochure encourages households to think about their 7: Kit 3: Are you on track?
travel, using the details on the travel feedback sheets. It also
includes ‘tips’ to help people practice travel blending, to reduce The purpose of this kit is to measure the impact of travel blending
motor vehicle emissions or congestion. At the bottom of the on the household’s travel activity. The kit includes another set of
tailored feedback sheets participants are encouraged to read the travel diaries and vehicle log books.
‘Thinking about your travel’ booklet. They are presented with a
number of suggestions which they could follow to reduce motor 8: Completion of second set of diaries
vehicle emissions or congestion.
The household completes these over a seven day period and
6: Changing behaviour returns them for analysis. To encourage a higher response rate, a
booklet titled, ‘Track your travel 2’ explains the importance of
Participating households are given about four weeks to practice completing this second set of diaries and vehicle log.

9: Analysis EFFECTIVENESS
The results are analysed and the household is then sent the final Travel blending is an effective way of increasing awareness at the
kit. grass roots and giving people a sense of involvement. Instead of
feeling disempowered, travel blending gives people and
10: Kit 4: Keeping the Air Clean (or Reducing Congestion) businesses an opportunity to make a real contribution in a
practical way.
This final kit includes the summary of travel activity from the second
set of diaries/vehicle log books and an analysis of the changes in EXAMPLES
travel between the first and second sets of travel diaries/vehicle log
books. This comparative summary identifies changes in the total The process has been used in a number of cities, including a
time spent travelling and number of trips by mode for the household pilot project in Adelaide and Sydney. In Adelaide a representative
as a whole, and for each individual within the household. Changes sample of 94 households was conducted in 1997. The overall
in motor vehicle use are reported in terms of the changes in total reduction in car use, measured in the total time spent in a car,
kilometres travelled and changes in the number of cold starts. was 19% when those who refused to participate were included,
and 26% for those who fully participated. After 5 months, the
The kit also includes information of the impact of the changes on indication was that a further 8% reduction had occurred (Rooney,
individual travel behaviour, such as the changes in emissions 1998 in forthcoming paper). These figures are higher than those
(kilograms of carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons and oxides of found in Sydney.
nitrogen) and the contribution made in reducing congestion.
There are possible additions, such as Trial-a-Mode for Bus/Train,
11: Detailed interviews Trial-a-Mode for Bicycle, Trial-a Mode for Car Sharing,
Supermarket Delivery trial, Alternative Car-Ownership Schemes
At the conclusion of the project, detailed interviews are conducted and Teleworking.
with the participants or a representative sample is taken. The
purpose is to obtain further information about effectiveness, and
identify issues for further action.
APPROPRIATENESS
RELATED TOOLS
Travel blending can be used wherever there are issues of
community concern about the impact of the car on the environment. R-6 Public transport and land use
The approach is not limited to households; it can also be used by R-13 Travel demand management
large organisations, such as local authorities and private R-14 Commuter planning
companies. L-5 Cycle networks and land use

• decisions on land use and transport made now can either
Keeping options open R-16 restrict or keep choices open for the future.
In dealing with the future, a common planning approach is to

project current trends and develop long-term plans, which can be
adapted and are reviewed from time to time. The disadvantage of
INTENT this approach is that it assumes continuation of current values
and behaviour. Approaches are needed, which take account of
This tool is conceptually different from the others because it uncertainty, yet enable decisions to be made.
focuses on technique. It addresses the ever-present factor of
uncertainty in a planned environment, and the need to protect
the interests of future generations. Its purpose is to ensure that
the land-use and transport infrastructure evolves in a manner
which does not foreclose options for future generations.
Integrating transport, land-use and environmental planning is not

only about ways of improving the efficient functioning and
environmental quality of regions, cities and towns in the present,
but also about creating such conditions for future generations.
This goes to the heart of what sustainable development should
aim to achieve.
Keeping options open is not only an argument for environmental

probity, it is also a matter of ‘inter-generational equity’, efficiency
and cost-effectiveness.
Integrated approaches towards the planning of land use,

transport and the environment should aim to create options
because:
• needs, values and perceptions will change;
• they are difficult to predict; and
Figure C-R16-1 Exploring boundaries

RELEVANT FACTORS created an option, which land subdivision would have foreclosed.
A NEED FOR NEW APPROACHES Such an approach also has implications for approaches to
determine the economics of a project. Protecting the long-term
An alternative approach to projecting trends is to accept that future requires other tests than conventional benefit-cost analysis
there will always be shifts in values (alternative ‘visions’) and alone. Dr Bradfield built in options in Sydney’s railway system in
different levels of intervention. An assessment will have to be the 1920s which have proved invaluable to succeeding
made as to what the consequences are of present assumptions, generations, and would not have passed the test of economic
and compare them with doing nothing. Risk analyses can be viability today.
made to discover which assumptions would lead to significant
changes in the land-use and transport system, and which MAKING SELECTIVE COMMITMENT
elements are not affected by different assumptions.
Commitments can be made when they are robust (i.e. a high
Such risk analyses often show that there are robust elements of probability of being valid for a wide range of alternative futures). If
urban structure which can safely be pursued, irrespective of possible, such commitments should be made for the time being,
shifts in values. There are many elements in the urban structure with a re-scanning of the future, when conditions or perceptions
which provide opportunities for creating options and making have changed. Hence, there is a progressive ‘jerking’ to the future
selective decisions: e.g. the location and approximate size of with regular adaptation of strategies and selection of
regional centres, and regional open space. commitments (see figure C-R16-2).
Many of the regional principles identified in this Guide fall within APPLICATION
this category. Creating, rather than foreclosing, options and
making robust commitments within an overall aim of sustainable HOW CAN IT BE DONE?
development may lead to realistic outcomes.
1: Exploring the boundaries of probability
For example, sites for regional centres could be zoned early and
fragmentation of properties discouraged. This policy leaves The search for robust commitments can be approached in
oppor tunities for integrated development at a later date. different ways. The fundamental difference in the application of
Provisions for a high level of public transport access could also forecasting approaches in planning is that it is a technical, or
be built in from the start. Another example is the reservation of rational activity for some applications, and a creative exploration
land as corridors for movement, without specifying how they will of alternatives or an intuitive process for other activities. The
be used An illustration of this approach is the reservation of the difference is between what may happen (such as population
Modbury corridor in NE Adelaide, planned in the 1960s for cars, growth, so that we can be prepared for it); and what we may want
yet becoming a guided busway in the 1980s. The original to see happen or avoid from happening, so that we can
decision to create a transport corridor was significant because it intervene.

For both forms of forecasting, there is a need to explore the indicative land-use and transport concept which shows how the
boundaries of probabilities, and separate the possible from the relationship between the principal elements can be expressed. A
impossible. We can represent the probability area as a ‘cone’, broad assessment can be made to understand the probable
extending from its apex of no probability in the present to a consequences of such concepts.
widening of probabilities as we move towards the future. The
boundaries of the cone represent the ‘no-go’ area and are clearer
than the inside, where uncertainty prevails. Exploring the
boundaries of probabilities is important (for example, high
population growth rates with high demands for infrastructure, and
low population growth rates with a smaller population to pay for
it). Care should be taken not to make value judgements; it must
be an objective exploration of the probable limits of change. And,
it should be noted, that the boundaries of probabilities can
change over time.
2: Exploring alternative futures
At a given point in future, there are all kinds of possible ‘end

states’ representing different visions. These are called
‘paradigms’ or ‘alternative futures’. They may be rational
projections or they may be conceivable or desirable situations.
Futures are imagined ‘end states’ and should comprise the whole
land-use/transport and environment system (see example). Figure C-R16-2 Risk planning: creating options
and making selective, robust commitments
Each ‘future’ should have a different set of starting assumptions.
For example:
• ‘do nothing’ (business as usual) 4: Exploring alternative scenarios

• a sustainable development future
• a greenhouse sensitive future We can move towards any one of these futures in different ways;
• accessibility-at-a-price future these are called ‘scenarios’ or sequences of actions over time.
The further we move towards the future, the greater the number
3: Developing alternative land-use and transport structures of scenarios there are. There are also options for decision-
making. In this case, there is a cone in reverse: the greatest
Each future should be developed to a point where there is an opportunities for influencing change exist at the present and

these opportunities are reduced as time progresses (although 5: Focussing on essentials
new opportunities may arise). Scenarios are incremental steps
towards a ‘future’ and can follow different paths. For instance: The process of exploring alternative futures and scenarios is a
powerful collective learning device and overcomes many
• demand-oriented policies criticisms of conventional forecasting techniques. A common
• supply-oriented policies problem is that the issues and relationships between them can
• a combination of carrots and sticks. become quite complex. A helpful technique to deal with this
problem is the Delphi technique, which can assist in focusing on
The process should allow input from the major stakeholders, and essentials in workshops.
the accumulated ideas of the concerned participants captured.
Experience shows that stakeholder ideas are often central to the The Delphi technique (after the Oracle at Delphi) obtains the
accepted final strategy. Regardless of the ultimate ‘survival’ of views from a group of individuals on questions concerning
options generated by stakeholders, the process of exploration of possible events (such as the introduction of a new technology or
ideas will build understanding and acceptance of alternative a change in social behaviour) or their preferences for a range of
solutions. Care should be taken not to prematurely exclude strategies.
options which have few but enthusiastic supporters.
The responses are analysed and the spread of estimated dates,
arguments or preferences placed before the same respondents,
who are then given the oppor tunity to modify their initial
response. After several rounds, the spread of views crystallises
and a composite picture emerges. Areas where there is
agreement are robust and areas where there is disagreement
can be further explored. Clusters of alternative preferences can
be identified and a wide range of strategies can be consolidated
into fewer strategies, but with greater lucidity.
The advantages of this technique are that it:
• minimises time required from busy people;
• encourages innovation and creative thinking;
• facilitates change of the organisation’s or participant’s

Figure C-R16-3 Developing robust strategies values;
for the time being

• assists in making choices from many perceived
alternatives;
• facilitates participants to learn about themselves, others

and their environment;
• integrates different viewpoints from generalists, specialists

and outsiders;
• permits qualitative considerations and normative thinking,

and blends the non-rational with the rational;
• has flexibility in method and pace; and
• is inexpensive to administer.
The creation of strategies from a long list of ideas is a

challenging task, because the ‘long list’ should contain ideas or
principles for the integration of land use, infrastructure and
system management (such as funding, regulation and pricing).
The concept of thematic bundling of these ideas is a robust
method of grouping them into a practical number of strategies for
assessment and evaluation. Each bundle can be directed
towards a particular vision and can include the range of tools
Figure C-R16-4 Using the Delphi technique necessary to achieve them.
to explore the spread of values
The regular ‘reporting back’ and discussion with the participants
of the long list of ideas creates an understanding of essential
elements and naturally results in a reduction of proposed
• reduces power conflicts; strategies. Finally, out of this process, a consolidation emerges of
a few, but quite different ‘bundles’ of strategies. They address the
• promotes focused thinking about the future; fundamental objectives of the study and can then be used for
assessment and evaluation.
• contributes towards an understanding of boundary limits
and establishing goals and feasible outcomes;

6: Identifying robust elements
The short-listed futures and scenarios should now be examined.

The aim is not necessarily to reach a consensus, but to identify
which elements are insensitive to different assumptions - and
therefore are robust - and where options should be retained for
future review and decision.
7: Making selective commitments
The final stage involves the making of selective commitments on

matters, which are sufficiently robust, and on options for future
investigation and decision. It is possible that there are only a few
matters which are robust, but they are of considerable
impor tance. Commitments can be wide-ranging; e.g. to
investigate priority areas or establish mechanisms for integrated
planning.
8: Repeating the process
The process should be repeated whenever critical decisions are

to be made or new major factors have emerged.
APPROPRIATENESS
The approach is appropriate for all major long- term land-use and
transport proposals. It can create certainty and direction for
selected elements, while deliberately leaving opportunities for
responding to changes, which may occur later.
EFFECTIVENESS
The technique is an effective strategic tool.

EXAMPLE
Transport policy Land-use future
An application is the Future Directions study by the NSW Roads
Current Planned Intervention and Traffic Authority in 1991. The purpose of the study was to
trends guide transpor t policy formation. Alternative futures and
scenarios were developed and tested .
Current Road Road Road
pricing demand demand demand
management satisfaction management
RELATED TOOLS
Road pricing Road Road R-1 Urban structure and form

demand demand R-2 Urban density
management managment
True pricing Road Road R-8 Road systems and land use
demand demand
satisfaction satisfaction
Explanation
• Current pricing - current mix of general, and user fee revenues

(e.g. fares, licence fees, fuel taxes).
• Road pricing (increase in user charges) - used to influence travel

choice (demand management). Revenue could be used for
transport and transport-related programs across the state
(including cross-subsidy of public transport).
• True pricing - an increase in charges and fares set to recover full

social and economic costs, including environmental costs, for all
transport modes
Source: RTA, 1992
Table C-R16-1 Land Use/transport Scenarios Tested

Activity/accessibility zoning depends on:
Accessibility/ L-1 • identifying locations with different combinations of public
activity zoning transport and vehicle accessibility; and
• classifying and zoning land-use activities according to

their mobility characteristics and their needs for particular
kinds of accessibility.
INTENT Accessibility/activity zoning can:
Activities generate trips and are at the core of travel demand. The • make better use of existing transport infrastructure;
networks, which accommodate trips and the way in which they
perform represents the transport supply. If the travel demand • target the provision of new infrastructure and ensure that it
exceeds transport supply, congestion sets in. To increase will be used efficiently;
transport supply is an option, but becomes more difficult as cities
continue to grow. To influence the transport demand by the • reduce the need for travel by car, by encouraging
location of activities is another option and the intent of this tool. businesses and services with high employment levels to
locate near locations with a high level of public transport
The purpose of activity/accessibility zoning is to (i) identify and pedestrian accessibility;
locations which are, or are intended to be, accessible by a
particular mix of transport modes; (ii) channel activities with • increase efficiency by encouraging businesses, which
mobility characteristics, which suit such locations; and (iii) depend on vehicle access to settle in locations with a high
provide the basis for improvements in transport infrastructure. level of road transport accessibility; and
As explained in R-3: The right activity in the right location, the • provide the basis for determining the kind and level of
mobility needs of land-use activities vary, and there are different development contributions required to provide
types and levels of accessibility. Activity/accessibility zoning, accessibility, appropriate for a particular location.
coupled with policies and programs for selective improvement in
transport facilities, can increase efficiency in the land-use RELEVANT FACTORS
structure and cost-effectiveness in infrastructure.
The rationale behind the approach of linking location of activities
to accessibility provided (or to be provided) is explained in R-3
(The right business in the right location).

The principal differences between R-3 and L-1 are that (i) dependence for businesses and road haulage dependency can
accessibility activity zoning is more applicable at the local level; be used (see insert). However, in both cases, there may be
and (ii) ‘the right activity in the right location’ strategy requires a opportunities for changes in some of these characteristics, if
degree of integration between public and private investment, alternative means of access are provided.
which can be better achieved at the regional level.
2 Use performance-based development criteria
Activity/accessibility zoning is an extension of established zoning
practice, without the more demanding requirements of the With this approach, the intended mobility characteristics of land
regional strategy. It can be a relatively simple tool to achieve uses for a specific A, B or C location are determined and
better use of the transport infrastructure. proposals for new activities are permitted, which demonstrate
that such performance criteria can be met. The objectives need
CLASSIFICATION OF LOCATIONS to be clearly set out together with the criteria which apply (see L-
15 Performance-based development control).
Locations can be classified according to (A) high accessibility by
public transport, (B) relatively high accessibility by public 3 A combination of (1) and (2).
transport and moderate accessibility by cars, and (C) low
accessibility by public transport, but a high accessibility by trucks APPLICATION
and other vehicles. These locations need not be served by high
levels of public transport or roads at present, but can be In the preparation of zoning schemes these factors are often
identified as locations where public transport or road accessibility taken into account, but not explicitly. In addition, proposals for
will be provided or upgraded in future. rezoning are not subjected to the test of matching mobility with
accessibility. This lack of testing may undermine any integrated
DETERMINING MOBILITY NEEDS land-use/transport strategy in the longer term.
Mobility characteristics can be determined in three ways: Acitivy/accessibility zoning can provide a rational basis for local
land-use and infrastructure management.
1 A zoning table for different locations.
It can also be used to deter mine the kind and level of
The table indicates land uses with mobility characteristics which development contributions which may be required to achieve a
suit the particular type of location. An example is shown in the predetermined level of accessibility. Development proposals
insert. The mobility characteristics can be based on local which do not comply may be required to contribute additional
experience and observation [see for example, the appendix in funds to pay for possible changes in accessibility. The levels of
‘Shaping up’ Queensland Government, 1998) on land use and such contr ibutions can be designed to discourage the
transit orientation], or based on investigation. In case of the latter, submission of non-conforming proposals. For example, ‘out-of-
measures such as labour intensity, visitor intensity, car centre’ shopping developments may be required to provide and

operate public transpor t ser vices; and isolated office 2: Categorisation of locations according to accessibility
developments may be required to introduce and implement
commuter plans (see R-14: Commuter plans). A similar approach Existing locations which meet the accessibility criteria are
is used in the UK Planning Policy Guidance PPG13 (see identified. This could be done by using sieve maps. The outcome
example in R-4 A hierarchy of multi-purpose centres). would be a preliminary categorisation of A, B and C locations.
Parking standards can be linked with the purpose of the zone 3: Classification of activities
and the existing or proposed level of accessibility. In high-density
areas with a high level of public transport access, less parking is Land uses are classified according to their anticipated mobility
needed than in low-density areas which are not well served by characteristics and need for different types of accessibility .
public transport.
To gain the maximum benefit of accessibility/activity zoning, it

should be accompanied by a development plan, a program for
infrastructure investment and management, and a development
contribution plan.
HOW CAN IT BE DONE?
The process of formulating an activity/accessibility zoning plan

could consist of the following steps.
1: Determining accessibility criteria
Establish the criteria for determining accessibility. For example,

areas within 400/800 metres of a bus transport node (i.e. a
convergence of several routes, such as an interchange) have a
high level of public transport accessibility; areas with rapid
access to a regional road have a high truck accessibility. In
smaller communities, where public transport plays a minor role
only, the accessibility criteria may simply make a distinction
between people-oriented and vehicle-oriented locations. The
outcome could be a definition of A, B and C accessibility criteria.
Figure C-L1-1 Land-use activity location by accessibility type

4: Analysis and assessment of existing activities 6: Adequacy of preliminary locations
A survey is made of the location of existing land-use activities on The preliminary locations, identified during Step 2, are now
the basis of the mobility classification and the categorisation of examined in more detail, with the aim of determining site
locations from Step 2. Issues and problems are identified. availability, the effect on existing land uses and the scope for
accommodating future land uses with the required mobility
5: Assessment of future needs characteristics for the location. At this point, consultation with the
stakeholders is essential to identify and address emerging
The possible expansion of existing activities, the prospect of problems.
relocation of existing activities and the likelihood of new land-use
activities are explored, using the mobility classification. The 7: Zoning of A, B and C locations
outcome will be a diagram and table indicating possible changes.
The need for changes in infrastructure and the scope for funding The outputs from the previous steps are now used to firm up the
will also be identified. preliminary locations with different accessibility characteristics,
define the objectives of such zones, identify the type of land uses
appropriate to these locations and the performance standards
which apply.
8: Development control plans
Development (control) plans are prepared for each of the

locations. They provide the basis for land-use management,
development control, local traffic and transport management,
parking standards, and infrastructure programs.
9: Development contribution plans
Development contribution plans can be prepared to determine

the kind and level of contributions developers should pay towards
services and facilities, and how to deal with applications which
do not satisfy the performance standards for the zone.
Figure C-L1-2 Activity/accessibility zoning

10: Monitoring and review INDICATIVE LAND USES BY LOCATION
Operation of the zoning system is monitored and application A-locations: Labour intensive and/or visitor intensive
of the principles, on which it is based, are reviewed. business and services
I t s h o u l d b e r e i t e ra t e d t h a t t h e r e i s a n e e d fo r c l o s e
consultation with the stakeholders throughout this process. Public-or ientated office activities, administrative office
The development and application of activity/accessibility activities (not or only moderately, car-dependent), retail trade
zoning must be seen as a collaborative effort with benefits to (urban region), catering industry (hotels etc.), entertainment
the business community as well as the general community. establishments, socio-cultural institutions, education (serving
a regional function), medical and veterinary services, social
APPROPRIATENESS services (administrative office activities).
T h e p r i n c i p l e s a r e o f g e n e ra l a p p l i c a b i l i t y i n u r b a n B-locations: Businesses and services with a moderate

communities. The strategy could apply to employment- labour and/or visitor intensity and a moderate car-
generating activities, activities attracting a large number of dependency
visitors and establishments generating significant freight
movements. It does not apply to dwellings, except possibly in Public-orientated and administrative office activities (only
areas where high densities are proposed. moderately car-dependent), retail trade (urban district level or
higher), cater ing industr y (hotels etc.), enter tainment
EFFECTIVENESS establishments, socio-cultural institutions, education (serving
a wider than local function), medical and veterinary services,
Progressive adaptation of existing urban areas according to sport and recreational facilities, social services.
activity and accessibility criteria has the potential of reducing
expenditure on infrastructure and making better use of it. It C-locations: Businesses and services with a low labour
may also contribute to reducing car dependency. and/or visitor intensity and a high rate of car dependency
and/or a high dependency on road haulage of goods
EXAMPLES
Petroleum industry, wood and furniture industry, chemical
Accessibility zoning does not yet exist in Australia, but the industry, base metals industry, paper industry, textile industry,
performance approach to zoning is already being applied in metal products industr y, leather industr y, etc., electro-
some areas in South Australia and Queensland. There is a technical industry, machine industry, rubber and synthetics
well-developed system of contributions in NSW, and the processing industry, food and luxury items industry, transport
inclusion of objectives and criteria related to accessibility and industry, wholesale trade (bulk goods), building materials etc.,
infrastructure is consistent with such approaches. transpor t companies (workshop/depot/garage), building

(workshop/ storage depot), service companies (production varied. A shopping public has different requirements to a theatre-
activities), public utility companies (production). going public, and still other requirements are sought regarding
the accessibility of recreational amenities visited by families with
MOBILITY MEASURES children.
Labour intensity Car dependence
Offices and department stores are examples of businesses with This represents the percentage of staff employed by a business
a high labour intensity. Oil refineries have a small number of who need to use a car in order to carry out company business.
employees in relation to their size; for this reason, they would be They need parking facilities and good accessibility to major
classified as extensive operations. roads. The larger the percentage of car-dependent employees is,
the higher are the ‘motorised transport requirements’ made of a
The higher the labour intensity, the more opportunities there are location.
for public transport use. The policy is therefore geared towards
allowing labour intensive businesses to be served in the first Road haulage
place by public transport facilities, and towards encouraging such
businesses to select locations, where good access by public This information in the mobility profile usually takes the form of
transport already exists or is about to be realised. ‘hard data‘: neither companies nor the authorities can easily
influence them. In a few cases, perhaps, goods can instead be
However, businesses can also take their own initiatives, singly or transported by rail or by ship, but this would involve yet more,
jointly, to restrict car use. Examples of the measures employed and highly radical, location requirements.
are the use of company buses, encouraging car-pooling and (Source: VROM, 1995)
collective contracts with public transport companies (see R-14
Commuter planning).
Visitor intensity
A low (‘extensive’) visitor intensity would be constituted by a RELATED TOOLS

surface area availability of more than 300 m2 per visitor; such a
business is only rarely likely to be visited by people not actually R-3 The right activity in the right location
working there. For businesses with a large number of visitors, the R-14 Commuter planning
opportunities for public transport use are considerable. L-6 Pedestrians and land use
It should be remembered that such a situation is more complex L-15 Performance-based approaches
than that presented by commuters since this public is far more

• facilitate inter-modal transfer;
Transit-friendly L-2 • identify key development opportunities related to existing
land use and future transit;
• establish a working relationship between the public and

private sector to promote integrated development and
redevelopment.
INTENT The advantages of a transit system which is land use-friendly are

optimised by the application of a combination of these measures.
Cities with transit systems have a considerable advantage over
cities without them as they offer opportunities for: The central feature of this tool is to encourage the planning and
development of public transport routes as ‘people’ routes and not
• integrating land use, public transport and the environment; just another mode of transport. Public transport corridors, except
for sections of the route, where transit operates as a line haul
• creating greater choice in transport mode; and express service, should focus on attracting passengers. Land-
use location and pedestrian-friendly design are critical factors.
• influencing the proportion of trips made by public
transport.
RELEVANT FACTORS
The intent of this tool is to use this advantage to maximum effect
at the local level. Principles, which establish the context at the WHAT DOES TRANSIT-FRIENDLY MEAN?
regional level are addressed in R-5 Regional and transit centres
and R-6 Public transport and land use. It means creating an attractive environment around transit stops
or stations which supports pedestrians and transit use. It involves
The keys to an integrated approach are to: re-examining land-use and development patterns in such areas,
with the aim of moving from a largely car-dominant local
• influence the location, type and intensity of land uses, structure to a structure with focal points, built around public
particularly around stations; transport nodes.
• develop and implement design standards to improve the

quality of the public environment; Transit does not necessarily mean heavy or commuter rail. It can
include major bus routes or light rail corridors. Making the local
• facilitate access by pedestrians and cyclists; area transit-friendly means making land-use decisions, which

encourage people to use public transport for at least some of the more easily serviced by transit. It allows people the opportunity
trips they now make by car. to access and travel within the station area as pedestrians, and
provides a focus for the surrounding region. Conversely, creating
(Note: much of what follows is an adaptation of Planing for centres around transit stops and stations reinforces the value of
Transit-friendly Land Use - a Handbook for New Jersey public transport as high-intensity ‘people’ corridors.
Communities (1994) an excellent guide, produced by New Jersey
Transit.) The material should be interpreted as principles and not The way land uses are laid out in relation to a transit facility or
prescriptions. route is a key to the success of efficient transit services.
Orientation to the transit services and facilities with physical and
ELEMENTS OF A PEDESTRIAN-FRIENDLY APPROACH visual connections, will encourage transit usage. Physical
conditions, which encourage pedestrian activity and create a
There are five key elements: ‘sense of place’, benefit both the community and transit.
1 Land use and development patterns; Create a pattern of development with frequent streets and
pedestrian rights-of-way
2 Pedestrian and bicycle access and circulation;
Frequent opportunities for access encourage ease of movement
3 Vehicular access, circulation and parking. This includes to and from the station area. The creation of small development
intermodal transfers; a hierarchical circulation pattern, blocks, punctuated by pedestrian/vehicular routes or pedestrian
parking location and design; transport management plan; easements, will result in a system of circulation which facilitates
access to and within the station area. This fine-grain pattern of
4 Quality of the station area environment. Aspects are: (but not necessarily wide) streets allows for ease of access to
sense of arrival, order and orientation; safe and secure and through the varying land uses, while limiting ‘left over space’
environment; attractive and well-maintained environment; between uses within a street block.
information; encouraging community stewardship; and
Improve pedestrian connections
5 Implementation tools.
Enhance footpaths and other paths with frequent points of
We focus here on the first of these elements: land use and connection and multiple routes of approach.
development patterns
The creation of multiple pathways lined with uses, which create
TRANSIT SUPPORTIVE DEVELOPMENT PATTERNS visual interest and activity, offers pedestrians a choice of
movement patterns to and through the station area to their
The creation of a pattern of multi-purpose centres is important destination. These choices also expand the potential number of
(see R-4: A hierarchy of centres). Centred communities can be pedestrians who can use the system to access specific points in

an efficient and timely manner. Utilise open space
Create visual focal points Use appropriately sized and designed public open space to help
define the station area or activity centre as a focal point for the
Identify the station or key landmarks within the station area as community. Well planned and programmed open spaces often
focal points for pedestrian paths and roadways leading to the take on a civic role within a community, becoming locations for
station area. public events, a place to eat lunch, or a ‘forecourt’ or waiting area
for the transit facility. These spaces should be well defined by
These elements will help create an identity for the station area buildings and other structures, and be integrally related to
and provide the pedestrian and driver with a sense of orientation. pedestrian paths.
Visual corridors into the station area and to important structures
should be clearly defined as part of a station area plan or the Open space location and design should reinforce the activities
master plan. When redevelopment effor ts occur within a which are generated by surrounding land uses. Design and plan
community, these structures or icons should receive special for maintenance in order to create high-quality areas.
attention.
Make the transit facility a focal point of activity
This action will encourage ‘trip linking,’ which is the ability to visit
several destinations during one journey. To help enhance the
area as an activity centre, the possibility of locating public
facilities such as libraries, post offices, police stations, municipal
centres, daycare centres, or educational facilities directly
adjacent to the station, should be investigated.
Public uses which generate pedestrian activity throughout the

day (e.g. libraries and post offices), should be given preference
along with those which are open 24-hours a day, such as taxi
stands, all-night delis, and police stations. This should create a
sense of security and surveillance around the station.
LAND USES THAT WILL GENERATE PATRONAGE
Figure C-L2-1 Transit centres The more uses near a station or along a bus route that attract
people, the more potential transit users there will be. The
appropriate mix of uses

is as important as the uses themselves. augmented with daycare, restaurants, retail, and theatres; in
residential areas, and perhaps at par k-n-ride facilities,
Adding residential uses to a station area can assist the land-use consideration might be given to such uses as daycare,
mix, since it provides a potential base for the retail, amenities pharmacies, convenience stores, dry cleaners, and car-service
and community services during evening and weekend hours. shops.
Residential uses situated in the station area vicinity can produce
passengers for the public transport system. The mix of land uses selected should reflect the type of transit
serving the community. For instance, medium-density housing
In outlying suburban areas, employment centres near transit would be a more appropriate use in a smaller community, with
stations or corridors may still generate relatively high car use. In less frequent local transit service than a large commercial use.
these cases, efforts should be made to emphasise connections
to the station, such as employer-supplied shuttle services as part Limit land uses elsewhere
of a commuter plan (see R-14 Commuter planning).
When making plans for a station area, review land use and
Consider peak v.s. off-peak patronage development plans for the area beyond it. This review is to
ensure that land uses in the station area are not undermined by
Identify land uses, which generate passengers in both peak and similar development nearby, and that the stability of the station
off-peak periods. A mix of uses, which generate passengers area remains intact.
throughout the day, will ensure a level of constant activity within
the station area. This brings vitality as well as a sense of Centres depend on retail uses for creating activity and a sense of
personal safety to the area, and helps support local retail place. A realistic assessment needs to be undertaken to
establishments. For example: determine what a community’s market area might support.
Controls should be established, through zoning and site plan
• higher density residential uses, which would serve as all approval, to limit competing centres within a community (see R-4
day trip generators; Hierarchy of centres - a sequential approach).
• uses that may provide patronage in off-peak hours (i.e., A MIX OF USES WITHIN THE STATION AREA
midday, evening hours, and weekends) such as retail, AND ALONG MAJOR TRANSIT ROUTES
services, entertainment, recreation, education, and health
care. A mix of land uses on sites surrounding transit and bus facilities
can stimulate pedestrian activity. For example, land uses, such
Encourage complementary land uses as offices with retail and services, allows employees to take care
of day-to-day errands within walking distance of their jobs. This
Identify land uses, which complement each other and the could potentially limit car trips outside working hours.
adjacent area. In employment centres, offices might be

Concentrate a mix of land uses pedestrian at least to an equal level with the car in terms of
planning priorities.
Concentrate a mix of land uses, at a scale and density
appropriate for the community, to produce a high level of Develop a pedestrian circulation plan
pedestrian activity.
Establishing design standards begins with the identification of a
Rather than spreading out activity-generating uses over a large pedestrian circulation plan for the station area. It provides a co-
area and diluting their impact, these uses should be ordinated system of pedestrian and bicycle paths, connecting the
concentrated within defined areas for maximum impact. outlying districts to the station area. It should be used to
encourage private sector changes which support pedestrian
Create continuous activity activity.
Identify land uses which generate continuous pedestrian activity Encourage pedestrian activity
over the course of the day and night. Examples of such uses
include convenience retail, services, clothing stores, a variety of Encourage pedestrian-generating uses at the ground floor levels
restaurant types from take-aways to more for mal dining of both single- and multi-storey buildings, to activate the area
establishments, institutional uses such as colleges or hospitals, surrounding a transit facility or along a route. These uses should
or entertainment uses such as movie theatres. Locate such uses serve both transit users and the surrounding community, to help
on the ground floor of a building accommodating other ensure their economic viability and success. On-street parking in
pedestrian-generating uses, which will benefit the surrounding appropriate locations should be available during off-peak hours
streets from the activity of people coming and going. to give individuals from the whole community an opportunity to
use this resource during the day.
IMPROVE THE PUBLIC ENVIRONMENT
Restrict ground floor uses
The physical character of the station area and its surroundings
has a direct relationship to the quality of the experience of Restrict office space at the ground floor level along key
pedestrians passing through. This would equally be the case for pedestrian ways. Long expanses of street-level office space
transit users who may, as a result, choose to walk to transit without multiple entries or visual interaction with the street create
rather than use an alternative mode of transportation. dead zones along pedestrian paths and should be discouraged
for safety and security reasons. Encourage, instead, pedestrian-
Focusing on the improvement of the pedestrian level, amenities oriented uses, which activate the street with customer traffic,
and connections will require a reconsideration of current thinking especially those uses which are open beyond normal 9 am to 5
about the configuration, relationship, and connections of land pm business hours.
uses in suburban environments. Where appropr iate,
opportunities must be investigated, which would elevate the

Regulate design of parking structures
Control the location and limit the size of parking lots and
structures along key pedestrian ways. Parking structures are a
poor generator of off-peak pedestrian activity; because of
functional requirements, the architectural treatment of their lower
levels often consist of blank walls. Parking structures should be
limited to not more than one-third of the street frontage of a lot
and, when possible, should be located completely behind
buildings. When parking structures are unavoidable along key
pedestrian ways within a major commercial area, shallow retail
shops and services should be incorporated at ground level to
Figure C-L2-2 Ground floor treatment of parking garages activate the street. If this cannot be accomplished, the parking
structure should be designed with a handsome, pedestrian-
friendly facade, masking the parking within.
When it is unavoidable to locate office space at the ground floor Control ground floor building treatments
level, it should be designed with a maximum of visual variety.
Individual building bays should be articulated, windows with Require a high percentage of glazing and multiple entries along
views to more active uses within the building should be provided, street level uses on key pedestrian routes. Pedestrians prefer
and devices such as awnings should be used to create an active pathways with a variety of visual amenities. These paths
attractive streetscape. Coffee shop bays and open space can also tend to be perceived as safe and secure due to the volume
also be useful. of pedestrian activity and ‘eyes on the street’ surveillance
provided by the occupants of the ground floor space.
Balance architectural variety with continuity
The New Jersey guidelines, for example, suggest that a minimum
Encourage architectural variety within an overall framework of of 50% of the ground floor level of buildings along major
design continuity. The visual variety created by building elements, pedestrian streets should be composed of clear transparent
such as store front entrances, canopies, and signage, helps to glass. Building entries should occur at least once for each 20m or
shorten the sense of walking distances, reduce the monotony of less of lot frontage.
pedestrian trips and create an enjoyable environment.
Regulate building height and setback
The profile of buildings and structures fronting along key

pedestrian paths helps to define these routes while reinforcing a

human-scale environment. Within the station area, buildings Develop a plan
should be located at the property boundary, and their heights
should relate to the context of the area. Taller buildings and Develop a station area plan or transit corridor plan which
towers should be set back above a street wall base. anticipates greater land use intensity in the station area. Density
changes should be co-ordinated with other issues crucial to the
As distance from the station area increases, buildings can be set existence of the station area. These issues include transit
back, and other features, such as landscaping, can define and service, traffic capacity, parking, and pedestrian amenities.
give scale to pedestrian paths.
Create a density gradation
In the case of very tall buildings, a setback could be permitted
(New Jersey guidelines suggest not more than 6m from the Decrease land use density with distance from the station. A
street line). For some uses, which attract a high percentage of gradation of density creates a physical hierarchy and integrating
car trips, such as large retail establishments or supermarkets, the station area into the larger community. Higher density uses,
deeper setbacks may be in order. In these instances, however, such as commercial offices and multiple dwellings, are good
parking should be restricted or limited within the setback. candidates for a location close to the station. With distance from
the station, less dense uses, located at the margin of walking
Upgrade streetscape treatments distance, should predominate.
Improve the streetscape along key pedestrian paths with A useful technique for creating a density gradation is to establish
planting, special ground treatments, lighting, and clear signage. a growth boundary within the local area. Within this boundary
The more interesting and aesthetically pleasing the walk to and increased densities and more intense land uses should be
from the station area is, the more pedestrians are likely to encouraged. Outside the boundary, land-use density should be
consider walking to transit as a viable alternative to driving. gradually diminished. The growth boundary may be established
based on a reasonable walking distance from the community
APPROPRIATE INTENSITY OF USES centre.
In general, the intensity of use should be greatest close to the Encourage a physical transition
transit facility. As the distance from the transit facility increases,
density can be gradually decreased. The primary objective is to Delineate the physical transition from station area densities to
move away from the practice of encouraging large lot, car- less dense uses on the periphery.
dependent, dispersed development, and towards a more
concentrated, pedestrian-friendly pattern of development. Physical cues should create a smooth transition from the station
area to surrounding areas. Local roadway widths should diminish
upon leaving the station area and entering lower density
residential neighbourhoods.

Streetscape treatments should reflect the changing character of advantages will create added incentive to develop these sites
the neighbourhoods. Heavily travelled streets in the station area before others.
should maintain a high percentage of hard surfaces, while streets
in residential areas should be more in tune with their landscaped Review joint development options
residences.
Identify opportunities to undertake joint development at/or near
Distribute activity transit facilities. Joint development opportunities could include a
range of land uses, including joint-use parking facilities.
Distribute continuous activity along linear transit routes. To
encourage bus patronage, higher density land uses such as Consider redevelopment
multiple dwellings and commercial offices, and uses which
generate continuous activity, should be located along major bus Consider redevelopment of existing buildings, as well as new infill
corridors. Perpendicular to these routes, densities should development.
decrease as distance increases.
Utilise structured parking
Active uses such as institutions (e.g., universities, hospitals or
retail developments, etc.) should be located within walking Consider the option of replacing surface parking lots with
distance of these routes to encourage patronage during off-peak structured parking.
hours.
In densely developed areas, where land is scarce and land costs
IDENTIFY KEY DEVELOPMENT OPPORTUNITIES are high, it may be desirable to reduce or replace surface lots
with structured parking. Structured parking might also be
Opportunity for change and the creation of ‘transit-friendly’ appropriate in a joint development scenario, in conjunction with a
municipal design is greatest in ‘centres’ and other areas where commercial or institutional development. In this case, the
development occurs near existing transit facilities. structured par king can be jointly utilised both by the
development’s employees and transit users.
Identify opportunities to focus development at and around
transit stations During the initial phases of redevelopment, surface parking lots
may be used as an interim use. The lots and adjacent uses
Designate and prioritise specific sites at or adjacent to a station should be planned and designed for an eventual change-over to
as transit development sites, rather than encourage development structured parking as densities and land costs increase.
in peripheral areas.
Encourage communication
By virtue of their proximity to transit, these sites should have
reduced parking requirements and/or increased densities. These Identify potential rail and bus passengers who could be affected

by station area improvements and proposed development protection and security, signs and information, traffic signals and
phases. other design and management elements.
Identify bus routes which may assist in linking uses and might 5: Develop an implementation plan
provide important modal links.
The implementation plan will be in the form of a zoning plan,
APPLICATION circulation plan and development control plan. There may be
additional elements such as development agreements, joint
HOW CAN IT BE DONE? ventures or other means of integrating public and private
development (see R-10 Integrating investment).
1: Analyse existing conditions A development program should also be part of the
implementation plan.
Public transport services and facilities; existing land use near
public transport routes, stops and stations; traffic volumes; EXAMPLE
pedestrian desire lines; circulation patterns; pedestrian/vehicle
conflicts; parking; etc. An example of pedestrian-friendly transit planning is Green
Square, South Sydney.
2: Establish goals and strategy
APPROPRIATENESS
Ascertain regional goals and strategies and establish goals and a
strategy for station areas, bus stops and transit routes. Transit-friendly land use planning is appropriate and should be
an aim in all cities. Approaches will vary greatly, with the greatest
3: Prepare a development plan potential benefits in communities with major transit facilities.
The development plan addresses land use and transport, core TRANSIT-FRIENDLY CHECKLIST
and frame areas, development mix and intensity in relation to
pedestr ian routes, proximity to the station and stops, The following checklist is provided to assist local authorities in
development and redevelopment opportunities, circulation, deciding how transit-fr iendly their current zoning and
access and parking. development plans are. It is a summary of New Jersey Transit
(1994) Planning for Transit-friendly Land Use - a Handbook for
4: Prepare a design plan New Jersey Communities. The completed checklist can be used
as a guide when a community is undertaking revisions to these
The design plan focuses on creating a pedestrian-friendly plans, or is reviewing a major new development project.
environment. It addresses pedestrian routes, bicycle facilities,
open space, landscaping and building treatment, weather The checklist can help to deter mine whether these

implementation mechanisms encourage physical conditions Land use
which are compatible with transit use. The checklist is not
intended to be scientific, but rather aims to provide a sense of a 4. Are active pedestrian-generating land uses encouraged to
community’s commitment to transit. Rather than offering a concentrate in activity centres or within walking distance of
passing or failing grade, the checklist helps to identify community transit facilities?
elements in need of attention, if a community wishes to become
more transit-friendly. 5. Are a mix of land uses, especially residential, commercial, and
retail, encouraged within walking distance of activity centres or
EXAMPLE - CHECKLIST transit facilities?
Questions answered with a ‘no’ indicate that the plans being 6. Are large areas of single use zones
reviewed may be deficient in these specific areas, and thought discouraged?
should be given to incor porating a more ‘transit-friendly’
approach. 7. Are multiple compatible land uses permitted within buildings
near transit operations?
Existing institutional mechanisms
8. Are convenience retail and service uses encouraged on the
1. Are goals and policy statements which encourage transit use lower levels of buildings in activity centres or adjacent to transit
or transit-compatible development incorporated in your strategic facilities?
plan and zoning plans?
Density
2. Are incentive mechanisms (i.e. bonuses, parking reduction,
etc.) offered to encourage transit-compatible development? 9. Are relatively higher densities encouraged in activity centres or
near transit facilities, with a gradual decrease in density away
3. Are any of the following mechanisms, which might encourage from these centres?
transit-compatible development or redevelopment, included in
your local land-use or zoning planning scheme? 10. Do the densities mandated near transit facilities by the
various local schemes or plans support transit use? (Use the
• Special Districts chart as a guide).
• Activity/accessibility zones Site planning/design
• Overlay Zones 11. Are continuous footpaths which radiate from your
comununity’s centre to outlying districts
encouraged?

Indicative densities and transport mode 16. Are subdivisions encouraged to create patterns, which
provide for continuity for pedestrian movement and connectivity
Residential use Commercial use Transportation with local bus stops?
compatibility
Parking
40–60+ 450+ Supports rail or
DU/HA Employees/HA other high- 17. Are parking requirements reduced or shared parking
capacity service provided for uses in close proximity to transit?
20+ DU/HA 100+ Supports local bus 18. Is structured parking encouraged over surface lots in higher
Employees/HA service density centres?
3–15 DU/HA 5+ Employees/HA Supports personal 19. Are surface parking lots encouraged to be located off main
public transpor t, streets and away from front property boundaries?
car pools
20. If high-capacity transit systems exist, are large commercial
uses encouraged to provide a shuttle service, when located
beyond walking distance from the facility?
NOTE: These are US figures and not necessarily valid in
Australia and New Zealand Joint development
21. Are key development sites adjacent to

12. Are site designs encouraged with buildings clustered near a planned or existing transit facility designated for transit
transit facilities? compatible uses, densities and designs?
13. Outside centres, do site designs encourage buildings to be New Jersey Transit (1994) Planning for Transit-friendly Land Use
clustered in centralised groupings? - a Handbook for New Jersey Communities.
14. In centres, are buildings encouraged to be located at the

street property boundary, thus defining and enclosing the
primary pedestrian paths?
15. Are larger developments or redevelopments encouraged to

conform to existing block patterns and to provide multiple access
points for pedestrians?

Figure C-L2-4 Creating a forecourt helps to give a transit centre
a sense of place (Source, New Jersey Transit, 1994)
Figure C-L2-3 Public transport interchange

(Source: Shaping Up, 1998)
An integrated approach can make public transport more effective, R-6 Public transport and land use
increase choice in mode of travel and reduce dependence on the R-10 Integrating investment
car. It can also enhance the lifestyle of people by offering them L-3 Increasing choice in transport
amenities instead of a drab experience. L-4 Increasing choice in land use

• increase accessibility for households and businesses,
Increasing choice L-3 especially for those groups without effective choice;
in transport • take account of changes in population structure, such as

an aging population;
• extend the range of access to public transport by

pedestrians and increase potential patronage;
INTENT • facilitate the use of bicycles for part of a trip from origin
to destination;
People and businesses are often constrained by limitations
imposed by the transport system. Many people do not have • provide for park and ride facilities, and kiss and ride;
adequate choices in transport modes, routes and times of travel.
Removal of these constraints is not simply a matter of building • encourage the provision of train- and bus-taxis;
new public transport systems or providing cycle paths. They
equally centre around land-use str uctures, which make • encourage the provision of personal public transport; and
improvements in accessibility feasible and practicable.
• facilitate changing transport mode and transport route
The purpose of this tool is to adapt transport and land-use during a trip.
structures to increase access to, and choices in, modes of
transport. There are other tools with similar objectives, but with a RELEVANT FACTORS
different focus: R-6 Public transport and land use (a regional
focus); and L-2 Transit-friendly land use (a focus on creating A FOCUS ON ACCESS TO PUBLIC TRANSPORT
‘people’ corridors around major public transport routes). This tool
addresses the issue of increasing choice in an existing and Increasing access to alternative forms of transport is important
established land-use and transport context. for all sections of the community. There are several arguments in
support of this approach:
Integrated approaches towards increasing choice in transport
mode can: • Equity: people without access to a car are disadvantaged;
• assist in implementing policies for sustainable • Sustainability: making cities more sustainable requires a
development and demand management; shift from car dominance to alternative means of
transport;

• Cost-effectiveness: measures introduced to make better Targets are to be set. For example, in Portland, the target is that
use of the road system may involve some intervention travel time by public transport is no more than 1.5 times the off-
(such as congestion management, travel demand peak travel time by car; in the Netherlands, the policy is that 80
management and parking restrictions), which cannot work percent of passengers can reach their destination within their
unless there are alternatives; and urban area within 45 minutes. In the example (p270), targets are
given for the SE Queensland urban region.
• Safety: the ratio of deaths and injuries in traffic accidents
compared with public transport is of the order of 300: 1. Achieving such targets requires a wide range of actions. Some
actions may increase public transport accessibility; other actions
Increasing choices in access to public transport intends to may make car travel less attractive (such as, perhaps in future,
redress the imbalance caused by a preoccupation with car travel. a need to book a parking space in advance). In other words, a
A shift is needed, especially in larger cities, from (i) uniform package of both ‘push’ and ‘pull’ actions may be necessary.
accessibility to selective accessibility by car; and (ii) from limited
accessibility to a more general accessibility by public transport ASPECTS OF INCREASING CHOICE
and other modes.
Equity in access
A SYSTEMS APPROACH
Public transport can play an important social role for all people,
In order to achieve this, a systems approach is required, in which but especially for those, who for physical or financial reasons,
all the chains in trip making are considered together. There are depend on it These include students, aged people, people
chains in trip making by car: including availability, duration and without or with low incomes and handicapped people. Offering
pricing of parking at the destination (see R-12 Regional parking conventional public transport to these groups at times and
policies, and L-7 Parking standards and management). Likewise, locations of restricted services is relatively expensive: demand-
there are chains in making a trip by public transport: access time, responsive public transport may offer opportunities here. These
waiting time, travel time on board, interchanging, waiting time for will be explained below. However, actions to increase equity need
a connection, on board travel time, and time to walk to the marketing; without sufficient demand, no service can survive.
destination. There are many associated aspects with a public
transport trip: for example, schedules, reliability, information Access to public transport by handicapped people is important
about delays, security, comfort, price, convenience. on equity grounds and is mentioned later (see Reducing friction).
In making public transport a more attractive alternative to travel Reducing travel time
by car, trip chains for both forms of travel need to be examined.
Opportunities for improvements in the chains for public transport Travel time by public transport is determined not only by on-
need to be identified and possible constraints to trip chains for board travel, but also by access time, waiting time and transfer
car travel should be explored. time. Important aspects in access time are the route to and from

the station or bus stop. Walking distances of 400 metres to a bus Aspects related to cost-effectiveness in the development and
stop, and 800–1000 metres to a station are generally regarded utilisation of public transport infrastructure are considered in
as acceptable, but direct routes may not be available. Detailed other tools (e.g. R-6 Public transport and land use); and L-2
study is required to determine how increased access can be Transit-friendly land use. From the travelling public viewpoint,
achieved. integrated fare systems and discounting for longer travel
distances are important factors in making public transport more
Waiting time is a function of frequency and scheduling; on board accessible.
travel time is influenced by priority given to public transport,
where the road space is shared with other vehicles. Priority bus Reducing ‘friction’
lanes and bus activated signals at intersection are tools
commonly used. Friction occurs in both car and public transport travel, but the
type of friction is very different. The concept of friction for car
Transfer time is a significant aspect in an attractive public travel is explained in other sub-sections (see .C-2 - C-5 Planning
transport system. Timed transfer can reduce it. It means that and adapting corridors). For public transport travel, ‘friction’ can
schedules are arranged in such a way that there is a connection occur in many forms:
between arriving and departing vehicles, without people having
to wait. Predictability is an important element in attracting • unfriendly forms of interchanging: no lifts or escalators for
passengers to public transport. people with prams, heavy parcels or physical disabilities;
Timed transfer is facilitated at interchange points where a • difficulties in negotiating steps on buses for people in
number of routes converge on a transport node. Association of wheelchairs;
such nodes with activity centres serves the triple purpose of
serving passengers (i) with destinations in such centres; (ii) • inadequate seating or shelter;
those who transfer; and (iii) those who transfer, but want to pick
up something or someone en route. It can also give a greater • inability to carry bicycles on public transport; and
sense of security, because of increased people densities.
• lack of provision for secure bicycle storage at stations.
Reducing travel costs
Improving access to public transport is also essential for disabled
Reducing travel costs is a complex issue, as it greatly depends people. In Portland, the light rail system has been designed with
on transport pricing policies (see C-9 Transport pricing and tolls). special ramps for people in wheelchairs. The new light rail line
In many countries, public transport is seen as an essential from Central Station to Pyrmont in Sydney also allows for
element in the total transport task. Public efficiency and cost- wheelchair access.
effectiveness are always important, but they are not the only
criteria. In Manhattan, the entire bus system is accessible to wheelchairs.

In Australia, the introduction of low platform buses is being about $5 extra and is shared with other passengers. The distance
considered. Lifts have been installed at some railway stations in of the service from the station is prescribed. Booklets of five
NSW. A Manual of Best Practice on access for people with tickets can be purchased and people can be picked up to take
mobility disabilities has been prepared in NSW (WSROC, 1998). them to the station. At the end of 1995, the service was available
Experiments are being carried out in Canberra with buses to at 111 stations and had been used for 15 million trips. In the
carry bicycles (Note: this is already the case in Portland). Tactile Hague, the concept has been extended to include bus/tram-taxis.
pavement has become common practice to guide the visually
impaired. While there is progress in many fields, much more is Personal public transport
yet to be done.
Personal public transport is sometimes described as ‘on-demand’
Increasing security services or ‘para transport’. It fills the gap between regular public
transport and individual car transport. It is of considerable
Security is a central issue and must also be addressed in system importance for the many cross-city/town trips people make,
terms: from access to station and stop, waiting, transfer and on- which are not well catered for by regular public transport
board travel. Illumination of routes and stops, visibility of
pedestrian routes and bus stops, association of bus stops with There are different types of personal public transport with
active frontage, policing and electronic supervision are some of different characteristics:
the techniques to be used.
• Taxi: multiple hire used for special routes or to and from
Increasing predictability transport centres;
Uncertainty about arrival and departure times, and delays en • Dial-a-bus: generally small vehicles, without fixed
route are other important factors. There is a need for significant schedule and routes. One form of this type are community
improvement in this area. In Perth, a pilot system was introduced buses;
under the Better Cities program, which advises waiting
passengers when the next bus is due to arrive. • Demand activated bus: fixed route, short headways, hailed
(e.g. the ‘Explorer’ in Sydney, serving tourists visiting
MEANS OF INCREASING CHOICE tourist sites); and
Bus and train taxis • Jitney: fixed route, short headways, hailed and linking
major centres with outlying areas (not used in Australia,
In the Netherlands train taxis have been introduced which take but in extensive use in some Asian countries).
the passenger home from the station for a fixed fare. The train
taxi must be booked in advance, but is guaranteed to be Personal public transport can closely match the flexibility and
available at the time of arrival. The train taxi has a flat fare of convenience of car travel, and give service providers a means to

provide a realistic alternative, at a rate in between a regular Security, visibility, good lighting, and provision for kiss and ride
public transport and taxi fare. On-demand public transport is able and waiting spaces for pick up are all important. Combined park
to pick up and set down passengers close to the door, obviating and ride tickets exist in some countries.
important personal security concerns, especially for night-time
travel. The Queensland Department of Transport envisages the Improved information on services and routes
installation of widespread electronic call points across the public
transport network in South East Queensland. It would allow the Information about timetables and routes is often poor. Overseas
passenger to get information on the desired service, and studies show that a large proportion of the population do not
summon a ride. know the options which are available. Information about routes
and schedules alone is not enough: people need to know how to
Supporting these services with high occupancy vehicle lanes and get from one destination to another: which routes to take, where
integration with timetables for scheduled services increases their to transfer and how long to wait.
ability to compete with the car.
Telephone services are available and some transport companies
Off peak routes and services overseas provide information about their services through the
Internet. However, there is a need for a multi-modal information
Choice in access is greatly influenced by the availability of off system, providing information of all transport companies and
peak routes and services. If the operation of smaller buses is not modes operating in a geographic area. Access to this pool of
cost-effective, conventional buses could be used, but with information should be easy to extract(for example, through the
a coarser pattern of routes. The trade-off is that access distances Internet). It should also be possible to obtain a hard copy, which
are increased and there may be a need for supporting services, can be taken with the journey. This information should be
such as bus taxis. Such service already exists in some cities (e.g. dynamic, taking account of actual traffic conditions at the time of
night or ‘owl’ service). enquiry.
Park and ride There is also a need for better information en route. The Perth
example, referred to above, is an exception. In some cases,
Park and ride facilities should, generally, not be provided at schedules with approximate times are provided, but there is no
stations serving major centres, because there is often a conflict information at bus stops as to when buses will arrive. This leaves
with visitor parking. A categorisation of stations and stops is passengers wondering whether they will make the connection to
needed to identify those stations and stops most suitable for park other links or will be late arriving at their destination. There is also
and ride facilities. Commuter parking intrusion can be a problem a need for better information within the buses on connections to
in residential areas near stations, especially in inner suburbs. other bus routes and stations.
Parking structures can be provided for secure and under-cover
parking at some stations.

The former approach is useful for an overall appraisal of relative
accessibility; whereas the latter has the advantage of gaining
insight into the components of trip making and aspects, which
constrain choices at present.
2: Developing overall objectives and achievable targets
Objectives should be set for regional and local areas and for
special groups. Setting objectives and targets is a critical activity
and requires consideration of both public transport and car travel.
Preferably, it should be part of an integrated land-use transport
strategy, because there are important broader issues, such as
a land-use policy (see, for example, R-3 The right activity in the
right location, and L-1 Activity/accessibility zoning).
Figure C-L3-1 Integration of transport modes Targets should be set with an understanding of and agreement
increases choice how they are to be achieved. For example, there may be a focus
on improving choice by providing better public transport services
and better access to such services (e.g. L-14 Incentives and
contributions). Another, or additional, approach is to improve
APPLICATION choice compared with private transport travel by a combination of
incentives to public transport travel and disincentives to private
HOW CAN IT BE DONE? travel (e.g. R-12 Regional parking policies, and C-9 Transport
pricing and tolls).
1: Identifying strengths and weaknesses
3: Setting levels of access
There are different approaches. One approach is to examine and
compare accessibility by public transpor t and car on a Depending on the objectives, targets can be set for (i) the region
geographical and functional basis for (i) centres of activity; (ii) as a whole, for (ii) specific locations, and for (ii) districts (see
regional public transport stations and interchanges; and (ii) local example below).
areas (see Resource Document, Chapter 8 and also the notion
of accessibility contours in Wegener, 1995). Another approach is • The highest levels of access, and the greatest degree of
to look at target groups and come to grips with their travel needs choice, should be provided to and between centres of
and behaviour (see R-15 Travel blending). regional land-use activities. These are the central city,
regional centres, interchanges between different transport

modes, major employment areas and special uses necessary actions, priorities and funding. There will be many
attracting a large number of people, such as universities, actions in the application of this tool. Some will be relatively
hospitals, spectator sport and recreation events. simple, but others will require sustained effort over a long time or
involve major expenditure (such as providing wheelchair access
• At the next level, a high degree of access by different to all forms of public transport).
transport modes should be provided to, between, and
within communities near stations, district centres, main 7: Monitoring, auditing, reporting, communicating, revision
streets and higher density residential areas.
Since a program to increase choice in transport is all-embracing,
• In low-density suburban situations choices can be programs should be monitored, progress towards the targets
increased by providing public transport services with measured and reviewed. This requires performance indicators,
different routes and levels of service at peak and off-peak which need to be determined up-front.
periods. Access by multiple modes should be provided in
all other areas, but the level and type of public transport APPROPRIATENESS
may need to be more flexible (e.g. community bus,
multiple hire taxis, train and bus taxis). Policies and programs to increase choice are appropriate in all
communities, but the approach to intervention will vary greatly
4: Developing policies and depend on local circumstances.
Policies are needed for each of the areas outlined under ‘aspects
of increasing choice’. Policies can be wide-ranging. EFFECTIVENESS
5: Exploring system options An integrated systems approach can be effective, especially if

linked with other initiatives, such as Travel blending (R-15).
Alternative packages to increase choice should be examined and
analysed. A preliminary financial analysis should be part of this
exploration, so that informed choices can be made. Consultation
with the stakeholders is essential.
6: Developing implementation programs
It has been assumed in the previous steps that the objectives

and policies have been developed in collaboration with the
agencies which are responsible for implementation. Developing
an implementation program involves obtaining agreement on the

EXAMPLE
Targets for public transport for South East Queensland (Qld

Department of Transport, 1997).
The public transport’s share of the total SEQ travel market has
been in decline over the past few decades, from 40% in 1960 to
7% in 1992. The IRTP seeks to increase the overall market share
of public transport to 10.5% of all trips by 2011, compared with a
decline to about 6.3%, if present trends continued. This target
was established in the Regional Framework for Growth
Management.
Analysis showed that achieving a 50% increase in public

Figure C-L3-2 Access to public transport for disabled transport’s share of all travel is an achievable, although difficult,
people - tactile pavement near the Hurstville Station (Sydney) target. It would reduce estimated vehicle travel demand in 2011
by 9%, from 93 million to 85 million vehicle kilometres each day.
The possibility of doubling the present share of trips by public
transport (from 7% to 14% of all trips) throughout South East
Queensland by the year 2011 was assessed and found not to be
achievable without a significant revision of current plans for urban
expansion; and the introduction of tough measures to restrain the
use of private cars in peak periods.
Neither of these appears to be feasible given current community

lifestyle and travel preferences. However, in subsequent revisions
of the IRTP, it may be possible to establish such a target for the
year 2021 or beyond.
Figure C-L3-3 Providing timetables alone is not enough; route

maps and information about connections are needed as well

Sub-regional targets for the mode split by 2011 are:
Sector Trend Target
Sunshine Coast 2.3% 6.5%
Gold Coast 2.4% 6.5%
Metropolitan Brisbane 8.4% 13.0%

(including Brisbane City) (8.5%) (17.0%)
Ipswich 8% 13%
Toowoomba 2% 6.5%
Balance 3.6% 4.3%
Total for region 6.3% 10.5%
RELATED TOOLS

L-5 Cycle networks and land use
L-6 Pedestrians and land use

• small offices over retailing.
Increasing choice L-4 Mixed use does not suggest an abandonment of the objective of
in land use amenity and environmental protection. To the contrary, amenity is
a dominant concern and a better yardstick than a singular
category of land use. The critical conditions for mixed use are
compatibility and satisfying environmental performance criteria.
Adapting land-use planning to permit mixed use can:

INTENT
• increase opportunities for linking trips and thus reduce the
Much current planning is based on separating land uses into number of trip movements;
single-purpose zones: residential zones, office and industrial
zones, and commercial zones. Single-purpose zoning stems from • create opportunities for making trips by non-motorised
a perceived need to protect the amenity of areas and the modes;
efficiency of land-use activities by categorising land uses. This
results in the separation of trip origins and destinations, and an • create opportunities for reducing trip lengths; and enhance
increase in travel distance and time. The purpose of this tool is to the quality of the local environment.
increase opportunities for multiple purpose trip-making and
reduce the need for car travel by mixed use planning. RELEVANT FACTORS
The notion of mixing land uses runs counter to exclusionary form WHY IS MIXING LAND USES WORTHWHILE?
of development: it permits and encourages different land-use
activities to be interspersed within other forms of development. When trip destinations are dispersed, the need for travel is
Examples of mixing land uses include: increased. Conversely, by combining different trip destinations in
one area, opportunities are created for making one trip for a
• shops and small businesses in residential areas; range of purposes. For example, employment centres should
contain personal services, such as banking, shopping and eating
• small home office with tele-working; facilities within walking distance. Likewise, shopping centres
should provide more than just outlets for buying groceries or
• electronic cottages and local tele-centres; other goods.
• housing above shops; The combination of residential development with local work areas
and shopping centres further increases opportunities for reduced
• shops and cafes in office development; and trip making. It can also lead to different vehicular travel patterns,

with a better utilisation of the transport infrastructure, as it control). If it can be shown that a proposed development satisfies
replaces uni-directional with multi-directional flows. Instead of a the performance criteria for an area the particular type of land
morning peak to work in one direction and an evening peak in use is of little consequence.
the opposite direction, there will be counterflows in opposite
directions during both peak periods. This is important, not only Increased traffic is often cited as a concern, but this can be
for public transport loadings, but also for the utilisation of limited managed with traffic calming schemes (see L-10 Residential
road capacity. precincts and L-11 Traffic calming).
The development of ‘urban villages’, station communities or Mixed use developments often require new design solutions and
transit centres provides a combination of housing, local special locations for mixed use developments (e.g. activity
employment, community facilities and services in an integrated streets), but the principle is of general validity and can contribute
way. Those developments should naturally be linked to public to a reduction in car-based travel.
transport (see L-2 Transit-friendly land use).
TOWN CENTRE MIXED-USE DEVELOPMENTS
Mixing land uses in residential areas creates opportunities for
local employment and activities within walking or cycling In town centres, strong continuity of retail and main street
distance. Furthermore, mixed uses add a vitality to residential frontages should be maintained. However, there are
areas, which often existed in older areas before zoning and opportunities for other uses adjacent to retail, usually behind or
planning regulations prescribed land uses. above the retail frontage. A clear sense of address and public
access for such uses are important. For example, shared access
Lastly, freeing up the zoning system allows for the establishment lanes lined with secondary retail or office development can lead
of home offices, which can operate without (or at least partly through to rear car parks or to courtyards with offices and
without) travel to work. restaurants. Corner sites are often sites with potential.
IMPEDIMENTS AND HOW THEY MIGHT BE OVERCOME Vertically mixed uses, such as residential or commercial above
ground-level retailing, work well throughout town centres, both at
The reason for restrictive zoning and regulatory practice corners and mid-block locations. Upstairs uses are most likely to
stemmed from community concerns about the environmental be residential, business/office or restaurants, but could also be
impacts of non-residential activities, such as intrusion of traffic community uses, meeting rooms and recreation halls.
and on-street parking into residential streets.
Key issues to address are (see Mixed Use Pr imer : Qld
Such concerns can be overcome. For example, performance- Department of Tourism, Small Business and Industry, 1996):
based planning controls focus on the outcomes to be achieved
(such as amenity and convenience) and not on a particular land- • entries from the street to upper levels should have
use category (see L-15 Performance-based development sufficient and clearly identifiable access, without breaking

up retail continuity; • venting from ground floor occupancies should be provided
to avoid cooling smells drifting up to upper storey
• access from rear parking areas to the upper levels should occupants;
be efficient and safe, particularly for residents at night;
• all uses, but especially upper level residential, should be
• the building facade should visually suggest the uses designed with the local climate in mind. Good window
within; shading, wide balconies and cross-ventilation are very
important, and winter north sun access is also valuable.
• retail should have appropriate delivery and garbage (Note that not all necessary window shading devices have
collection access, and related noise impacts on residents been shown in the diagrams, due to the small scale or
from early morning movements should be mitigated; complexity of the plans)
• possible late-night noise from restaurant activity should be • compliance with fire egress and separation requirements
contained in such a way as not to impact on nearby as provided in the Building Code of Australia and other fire
residents; safety regulations; and
• secure parking allocation, especially for residents. This is

often more important than for retail or commercial
operators, whose contributions to shared municipal car
parks or on-street parking may be appropriate.
NEIGHBOURHOOD CENTRE MIXED-USE BUILDINGS
The Mixed Use Primer suggest that a small-scale mixed use

building comprising a corner store/deli, one or two small
commercial units, and one to three dwellings above or besides
provides a diverse residential and commercial investment
building, suited to local neighbourhood centres. Customer
parking would be on-street with on-site car parking for occupants
sited behind the building. Typically, a site of around 900 to 1000
sq.m. could contain four to seven occupancies.
Figure C-L4-1 Examples of mixed use

Cor ner sites are most suitable because of their greater • workplace looking onto the street to void ‘cabin fever’ and
accessibility and exposure due to the extensive length of street to provide daytime surveillance of street;
frontage. Buildings should be generally constructed up to the
street frontage and designed as local landmarks for the • adequate parking for employees and clients (on-site
community. Opportunities exist to provide widened paved and/or on-street);
footpath areas under shady canopy trees as local meeting places
in front of shops. • adequate acoustic insulation from external and household
noise sources;
HOME-BASED BUSINESSES
• appropriate location for a clearly visible but not intrusive
Home-based business activities are extremely varied in their business sign, if required;
requirements for space, access and street exposure. Some are
located best within a house, some in a garage or workshop and • any special security requirements for business equipment
some outdoors or in a greenhouse. The nature of an appropriate or material;
space is also influenced by the living requirements of the
business operator and other household members. • design for comfortable daytime occupancy in the local
climate;
While acknowledging this diversity, the Mixed Use Primer
suggests the following principles: • separate business phone/fax;
• dearly identifiable separate area for home business, • adequate storage areas;
ideally designed to close off from the rest of a dwelling if
desired, to provide security and privacy for the rest of the • large mailbox suitable for business mail; and
dwelling from workplace, or to allow for future use as
separate occupancy; • any special utility services needed, including separate
power metering.
• ability of home business area to become part of the
residence;
• entrance from street to home business for clients and

outside employees;
• convenient access to dedicated toilet and coffee-making

area, when outside employees are involved in the
business;

APPLICATION
HOW CAN IT BE DONE?
1: Zoning and development controls are revised
Current zoning should be replaced by performance based zoning

and development controls.
2: Priority areas are selected
Priority areas are selected where mixed use will be encouraged.

These areas include all major centres and employment areas,
areas near stations and interchanges.
3: Develop design criteria for mixed use developments
Design criteria should be established for mixed use development,

especially in residential areas. The Qld Department of Tourism,
Small Business and Industry Primer is a useful source.
4: Provision for mixed uses within residential areas
Mixed uses should generally be permitted in residential areas,

subject to satisfying appropriate performance and design criteria
(as in AMCORD). However, some areas are more suited for
mixed use than others. Areas easily accessible by pedestrians,
cyclists and bus could be identified as preferred areas. Large
single-use developments should be modified, providing
upper floor opportunities for mixed uses within walking/cycling distance. Site
plans and site concept plans should be prepared to guide this
form of development.
Figure C-L4-2 Mixed-use neighbourhood centre

Source: Qld Department of Tourism (1996)

Figure C-L4-4 Housing above retailing in Civic,
Canberra’s City Centre
EFFECTIVENESS
The effectiveness of a mixed use policy in reducing travel

demand has yet to be documented, but there is some anecdotal
evidence suggesting that tele-working has the potential to
contribute to a reduction in travel demand.
Figure C-L4-3 Home-based business: EXAMPLE

south-facing lot work area in front
(Source: Qld Department of Tourism, Small Business (1996)) There are numerous examples of successful developments e.g.
Civic, Canberra; Crows Nest, Sydney.
RELATED TOOLS
APPROPRIATENESS
An integrated approach towards increasing choice in land use is L-11 Traffic calming
appropriate in all areas, provided safeguards are put in place, L-15 Performance-based approaches
which ensure that the amenity of an area is protected.

Cycling networks L-5
and land use
INTENT
Provision for cycling is general practice today in most planning

activities. There are engineering Guidelines (Austroads, 1995) Figure C-L5-1 Mixing cycling and traffic only
and many communities have developed plans for cycleways. In when vehicle speeds are low
the context of this Guide, provision for cycling is more than just
one of the many aspects planners need to consider. Along with
walking and public transport, cycling is an essential ingredient for
an approach which seeks to encourage more sustainable cities • change attitudes;
with more energy-efficient, less resource consuming means of
transport. The intent of this tool is to increase opportunities for • provide resources; and
using bicycles through integrated planning and management of
land use and transport. • direct and monitor action.
Cycle use can be increased by approaches which: The role of integrated planning in such approaches is to:
• make places accessible by cycling; • encourage development patterns and the location of
developments which ensure that short trips to work,
• improve safety; places of education and local facilities can be made by
bicycle;
• provide road space and priority;
• improve cycle access to regional land uses with potential
• provide cycle parking at destinations; to attract a significant number of cycling trips;
• increase security; • plan, develop and manage networks which link origins to
destinations, and are safe to use;

• link cycling to public transport; there are other activities which could also become attractive for
cycling if obstacles were overcome. Most trips by bicycle are
• establish levels of service for different situations as a basis short, but if they are made in combination with public transport,
for planning and management; the range can be extended considerably. Thus, there are local
land uses within cycling accessibility, and regional land uses with
• link strategies to cycle audits of all proposed road building accessibility, mostly dependent on an association with public
or widening, and traffic management schemes; identify transport.
and resolve conflict situations; and
Local land uses
• encourage the provision of facilities and services which
make cycling more attractive. Local land uses with potential for access by bicycle are schools,
local recreation and social facilities, local centres, and local
RELEVANT FACTORS employment.
Cycling is an important component in an urban strategy providing Regional land uses

a multi-modal transpor tation system. It is the most
environmentally friendly of all mechanical forms of transport, has Regional land uses with potential are educational
considerable flexibility, enhances personal health and is establishments, employment areas and centres. For longer
inexpensive. However, there are significant impediments, some of journeys, bicycles combine well with public transport, especially
which can be overcome or reduced by greater integration in the rail. With provision at both ends for a longer public transport
planning and management of land use and other forms of journey, the combination can offer competitive door to door
transport. transport choice. Combining cycling with public transport requires
improved provision and a strategic approach to its development.
LAND-USE ACTIVITIES AND CYCLING ACCESSIBILITY
Employment locations.
There are no guidelines on best practice relating to the location
of development and provision for cycling. Activities usually Cycling should be promoted as an integral part of a strategy by
associated with cycling are educational and recreational employers to reduce the land and maintenance costs of car
establishments, where the need for accessibility is well parking provision, to reduce car use and to secure health
understood. benefits for their employees. Commuter plans should be
promoted as effective ways of reducing the impact of demand for
Local and regional activities car travel and to encourage cycling (see R-14: Commuter
planning).
Most activities have a potential cycle use. While educational
establishments so far are the major generators of cycle trips,

Centres NETWORKS
There are many trips which could be made by bicycle to centres, Types of networks and priority
especially local and district centres - and town centres in smaller
communities - but priority is usually given to cars, both in access Both regional and local networks are needed. Goals and means
routes and in space. There is a need to reassess the allocation of a regional cycleway system are set out in the insert. Route
of space and amount of facilities provided for energy-efficient networks should achieve high standards of coherence,
means of transport, such as walking and cycling. To provide directness, safety, attractiveness and comfort, and design criteria
better access and facilities for them should be an integral part of should adopt a hierarchical approach
a centre strategy and management plan.
Safety is paramount in all networks, but different performance
To achieve this, retailers and other service providers should be standards can apply to reflect differences in function and volume.
involved, and improving facilities for cyclists should be Priority should be given as follows:
recognised in funding criteria for local transport strategies.
• High-quality routes, which serve utility cycling trips; in
Locate activities with cycle accessibility particular ‘safe routes to schools’, routes from residential
areas to significant journey attractions, such as retail
Land-use activities with a potential for cycle trips should be centres, major employers, public transport interchanges,
located at the same time as the cycle network is being planned. hospitals, other education facilities and leisure facilities
This was done in the early stages of the planning of Tuggeranong (see figure C-L5-2 Step C);
in Canberra. The educational and local facilities and the hierarchy
of centres were fully integrated with cycle and pedestrian routes. • Other connecting routes used for utility cycling; and
In established areas, activities generating significant cycle-
generating trips should be located in relation to existing safe • Recreational routes.
cycle routes.
To give focus to development patterns which ensure that short

trips to work, places of education and local facilities can be made
by bicycle, a land-use mix may be preferable than single-purpose
zoning. Higher densities also assist in bringing more destinations
within cycling distance.

Goals and means of a regional cycleway system (Portland, • (iii) ensuring integration of multi-use paths with on-street
1996) bikeways, using established design standards; and
The first goal is to provide a continuous regional network of safe • (iv) providing appropriate short and long-term bicycle
and convenient bikeways, integrated with other transport modes parking and other end-of trip facilities at regional activity
and local bikeway systems. This can be achieved by (i) centres through the use of established design standards.
integrating the efforts of the state, regional and local authorities
to develop a convenient, safe, accessible and appealing regional The fourth goal is to encourage cyclists and motorists to share
system of bikeways; (ii) ensuring that the regional bikeway the road safely. This can be achieved by (i) co-ordinating efforts
system functions as part of the overall transport to promote safe use of roadways by cyclists and motorists
system. through a public awareness program; (ii) expanding upon local
traffic education programs to provide wide coverage and actively
The second goal is to increase the modal share of bicycle trips. distribute safety information to local authorities, law enforcement
This can be achieved by (i) developing and updating a system of agencies, schools and community organisations; (iii) reducing the
urban bikeways, which connect activity centres as identified in rate of bicycle-related accidents in the area; (iv) identifying and
the strategic plan; (ii) promoting increased bicycle use for all improving high-frequency bicycle-related accident locations.
travel purposes: (iii) co-ordinating with transport authorities to
ensure improved bicycle access and parking facilities at existing
and future stations, transit centres and park-and-ride locations;
(iv) developing travel-demand forecasting for bicycle - use and
integrate with regional transport planning.
The third goal is to ensure that all transport projects include

bicycle facilities using established design standards appropriate
to urban land use and street classifications. This can be achieved
by
• (i) ensuring that bikeway projects, bicycle parking and
other end-of-trip facilities are designed using established
standards, and that bikeways are connected with those in
adjoining local government areas and the regional
bikeway network;
• (ii) ensuring that local authorities implement bikeways in

accordance with established design standards;

Figure C-L5-2 Local network planning and design
Cycle networks, corridors and precincts
A cycle-friendly approach towards cycling involves measures

which make the use of existing roads safe and convenient for
cyclists in preference to segregation. Route design should
consider measures such as traffic reduction, traffic calming,
junction treatment and traffic management, redistribution of the
carriageway and cycle lanes.
The notion of corridors for movement and precincts for amenity

and protection can also be linked to cycle networks. Precincts
which ensure cycle safety and areas where cycle traffic is
promoted, should be identified (see L-8 Corridors and precincts).

Corridors usually contain arterial and sub-arterial transport whether cyclists: (i) share the road space with other road users;
routes, which cyclists prefer because of directness and continuity. (ii) be given designated lanes adjacent to vehicle lanes; (iii) be
However, there are difficult trade-offs to consider. allocated separate lanes within the road reservation, or (iv) be
accommodated on off-road routes.
Bicycle Victoria, in association with VicRoads,
Given that cyclists prefer continuity, directness, acceptable
developed a plan for a bicycle network on existing arterial roads gradients and minimal friction, existing arterial and sub-arterial
in Melbourne (Bicycle Victoria, 1996). It seeks to obtain 100 % of roads are logical candidates. In new areas, opportunities exist
the network by using three approaches (percentages in which often do not occur in established areas, and issues of
brackets): priorities and trade-offs arise. Vehicle volumes and speed are
key factors from a safety point of view. Austroads guidelines
(i) shifting space (56%) - e.g. sealing shoulders, re-marking provide guidance, but there is also other relevant information
traffic or parking lanes, upgrading service roads; available.
(ii) trading space (34%) - re-allocation of space now used for For example, figure C-L5-3 provides useful information on the
another purpose (see sub-section below); and amount of separation between cyclists and motor vehicles with
various speed- volume combinations (Centre for Research,
(iii) alternative space (10%) - when all fails, alternative off- 1993).
road routes have to be found; sharing the footway is not a
good solution for cyclists (and pedestrians). Area 1
A mixed profile is generally to be recommended. Cycle-lanes or
ROUTES AND LEVELS OF SERVICE cycle-tracks can possibly still be constructed for the sake of
subjective safety or the continuity of the cycling-network. No
In considering the provision of cycle routes along existing roads it cycle-lanes should be constructed within a 30 km/h-zone (e.g.
is desirable to examine the level of service which may be ‘Sharing the Main Street’).
achieved, and determine priorities for improvement. Some of the
relevant information can be found in Austroads Guide to Traffic Area 2
Engineering Practice Part 14; other material is being developed Combinations of very low speeds and very high volumes are not
by Bikewest, WA Department of Transport. Table C-L5 is an common, but shared use is appropriate.
extract to give some idea what kind of factors should be included
in benchmarks for levels of service. Area 3
A road without cycle lanes is acceptable. However, they may still
ROAD SPACE ALLOCATION be desirable, depending on other road and traffic features.
In the development of cycle networks the important issues are

Area 4 The graph does not give a definitive answer on the desired
A cycle lane is desirable. measure of separation in all situations. The best solution also
depends on other factors. For example, air pollution may become
Area 5 a relevant factor, if cycling is to be encouraged as a transport
A cycle-track is desirable, but motorised traffic volumes are so mode for older people.
low that a road of mixed profile is also acceptable.
There are also trade-off decisions to be made, when retrofitting is
Area 6 necessary. This occurs, for example, with proposals to indent car
At these high speeds and motorised traffic volumes, cycle-tracks parking spaces or to widen a road and community space, in the
are always necessary. form of nature strips or medians may have to be used for bike
lanes. Removing a parking lane on one side may affect
businesses. Before trading space, there is a need to take into
account: current usage; the speed, type and volume of motor
vehicles; supply and demand for car parking; age and number of
pedestrians; available community space and medians.
Figure C-L5-3 Separation between cyclists and motor vehicles

with various speed-volume combinations
(Centre for Research, 1993)

SERVICE FACTOR SERVICE STANDARD
A - Excellent B - target level C - average D- poor

GENERAL
Traffic volume (vpd less than 4000 7999–4000 14,999–8000 more than 15,000
Traffic speed (85th less than 40 km/h 40–59 60–69 more than 70 km/h
percentile)
% HGVs less than 1% 1–2.9% 3–4.9% 5% plus
LINK DESIGN
Cycle lanes/sealed 2.1m+ 1.5–2.0m 1.1=1.4m none to 1.0m

shoulder
Or wider near-side lane 4.6m+ 4.1 to 4.5m 3.6 to 4.0m below 3.5m
Stop signs per km 0 0 to 1 1 to 2 more than 3
Driveways/side roads per 0–4 5 to 9 10 to 19 more than 20

km
Car parking no on street parking 2.5m bays and peak on street (more than on-street (less than
hour restrictions 2.5m wide) 2.5m wide)
Table C- L5 Examples of measures of level of service (Bikewest, 1997)

OVERCOMING CONSTRAINTS Examples of local targets (UK Department of Transport, 1996)
There are impediments such as terrain, gradients and weather • Target 1: to adopt local targets, which will contribute to a
conditions which may preclude cycling for many people. Other national, State or regional target (in the UK the national
impediments can be overcome by planning and management, target is a doubling of cycle usage by 2002 and a further
such as distance, routes, safety, convenience, end-of-trip doubling by 2012).
facilities and carrying goods. Provision should be made for
bicycles to be carried by public transport (see L-3). • Target 2: To increase the modal share of cycling to at
least Z% of all journeys to school, by pupils of 10 years or
There are also residual obstacles such as secur ity and older, over 15 years from the year of publication of the
perception of safety, which depend on attitudes and cultural local strategy.
conditions. Safety, both real and perceived, is of particular
concern to people in advancing years, and cycling will not • Target 3: To reduce the casualty rate for pedal cyclists per
become attractive to them until safety is assured. km cycled by X% within 5 years, and by Z% within 15
years compared to casualty rates at the year of
Achieving improvements in facilities and conditions for cycling publication.
and greater use of these facilities will depend on an extensive
communications program. Its purpose is to convince both those • Target 4: To reduce rates of cycle theft by X% within 5
responsible for providing our transport systems, and potential years and by Y% within 10 years, compared to the level of
cyclists, that more cycling is a practical transport option offering theft at the year of publication, and where possible to seek
desirable community benefits. further reductions thereafter.
SETTING TARGETS • Target 5: To provide on-road cycle training for X% of

10–12 years olds.
Targets should be set for the provision of facilities and their
utilisation. To achieve them will require local improvements in • Target 6: To ensure that funding bids include significant
facilities and conditions. Fur ther more, it requires public plans to benefit cycling in line with the local cycling
understanding of the need for a significant change in travel strategy.
behaviour and acceptance of cycling as a desirable mode, which
is personally beneficial.
A local cycling strategy should adopt targets which are

sufficiently challenging to maintain momentum, and are
realistically achievable within the specified time scales.

APPLICATION be part of an interconnected regional system; forecasting
expected demand and establishing routes for detailed
HOW CAN IT BE DONE? determination at local levels. The regional system also identifies
major points where interchanging with other transport modes will
1: Determine the regional context be encouraged and specifies the requirements for local routes in
these locations.
The first step is to determine regional desired outcomes. These
outcomes may be that: 4: Identify and analyse potential local use
• a continuous regional network of safe and convenient Local land uses, which attract and have the potential to attract
cycleways is provided and integrated with other transport cyclists, are identified, cycle use is analysed and user categories
modes and local cycleway systems; are established. Trip patterns are analysed and existing and
potential routes are determined.
• regional targets are set for an increase in the modal share
of bicycle trips; 5: Identify impediments and develop means of overcoming
them
• all transport projects include bicycle facilities using
established design standards appropriate to urban land- Impediments to increase the share of cycling in the transport
use and street classifications; task at the local level are identified and examined. Means of
overcoming impediments are developed and an action plan is
• cyclists and motorists share the roads safely where prepared.
sharing is necessary and practicable.
6: Identify and analyse existing and potential conflict
2: Develop regional policy framework locations and situations
A regional policy framework consists of a shared commitment to Existing and potential routes are analysed and conflict locations
achieve the regional outcome and a specification of the means of or situations are identified. Route locations are related to regional
achieving it. The output is a statement which provides the basis needs (see Step 3) and to corridors and precincts (see L-8). The
for regional and local cycleway planning (see insert on page output is a specification of the parameters for the planning and
281). design of the local cycle network.
3: Develop a regional cycleway system 7: Develop a local cycling strategy
The regional cycleway system is developed by identifying For a model, see Annex 2, UK Department of Transport (1996).
regional activity centres and other major land-uses which need to

8: Plan and design local network
The local network is now firmed up, routes are located and
shared situations are identified. Conflict points are eliminated
and/or measures are determined to ensure that safety standards
are achieved.
9: Develop guidelines for the provision of facilities and

services
Guidelines are produced for the provision of signs, lighting, end-

of-trip facilities and services to be incorporated in development
control plans, traffic management plans and other
implementation plans.
10: Develop an integrated facility and communication

Figure C-L5-4 Example of giving priority
program
to cyclists in a Dutch town
Funding is an important issue, but not discussed here (should
cyclists pay road taxes?). The communications program should
be clearly targeted and promote the benefits to potential cyclists.
APPROPRIATENESS
RELATED TOOLS
The technique is appropriate in all situations.
L-12 Safety
EFFECTIVENESS
C-4 Adapting Type I Corridors
The technique is effective in establishing
a framework for integrated cycleway planning.

needed for the location of pedestrian-generating activities.
Pedestrians L-6 Performance-based zoning could make a distinction between
pedestrian and vehicle-generating uses (instead of, or in addition
and land use to, the usual ‘commercial’ categorisation) in order to create
opportunities for pedestrian-friendly developments and areas.
Proposals for development, and attracting pedestrians, should be
assessed on appropriateness of location and pedestrian access.
Planning for pedestrians should be based on the following

INTENT criteria:
Walking is impor tant, not only for health and recreational • Connectivity
purposes, but also as a transport mode for the creation of more
sustainable cities. For this to happen, there is a need to make it • Convenience
more attractive and convenient than is presently the case. The
intent of this tool is to facilitate and encourage walking as a • Comfort
significant transport mode.
• Conviviality
Walking can make a contribution to travel choices by integrated
approaches which: • Awareness of the environment.
• increase accessibility for pedestrians to centres of

pedestrian activity;
• influence the location and design of pedestrian-generating

activities;
• make areas of pedestrian activity more pedestrian-

friendly; and
• change perceptions of walking as a transport mode.
There is a clear link between land use and walking. The location
of pedestrian-generating activities and pedestrian accessibility
are fundamental aspects of integrated planning. Strategies are Figure C-L6-1 Pedestrian way, Cairns, CBD

RELEVANT FACTORS • Recreation/Leisure - including long-distance walking and
local activities, such as children playing in the street.
WHY WALKING IS IMPORTANT
The term ‘walking’ should be interpreted to include people

travelling on foot, as well as those using mobility aids, such as
wheelchairs.
A large proportion of the journeys people make is already wholly

or partially on foot. Walking is a transport mode by choice or
necessity. Walking trips by choice occur when destinations are
close by, easy to reach and attractive. Walking by necessity
occurs when there is no choice, and in that event trips are
generally very short and part of a longer journey involving other
transport modes.
TYPES OF PEDESTRIAN MOVEMENTS
Irrespective of whether people drive, use public transport or ride

bicycles, at some stage they all become pedestrians. Pedestrian Figure C-L6-2 Increasing walking as a transport mode
movements can be grouped into four categories (LPAC, 1997). (Based on Bach, 1992)
• Access Mode - where walking is used for all or most of

the way between two places, for example home and the
workplace, shop or school (i.e. walking as the main mode PEDESTRIAN BEHAVIOUR
of transport).
How do pedestrians respond to an environment dominated by
• Access Sub-mode - walking to support a journey by vehicle movements? Children under the age of eight have not as
another mode of transport, for example getting to and yet acquired an awareness of moving vehicles, while older
from bus stops, stations or car parks. children tend to take risks. Some people over the age of 65 take
longer to cross and experience difficulties coping with traffic at
• Circulation/Exchange - carrying out a range of activities speeds greater than 25 km/h.
on foot in public spaces, including window shopping,
meeting people in the street, and using the interfaces These differences in behaviour and perceptions are reflected in
between shops and cafes, and the street. accident statistics (see RTA, 1994). Of all pedestrian accidents

involving death, 25% are children under the age of 15 and 40% Disadvantaged people need ramps for wheelchairs and blind
are aged people over the age of 65. Visibility is important: 30% people need special pavement strips for tactile orientation.
of crashes involving pedestrians were failures by the pedestrian Different pavement materials should be used at points of
to see a vehicle and 15% of drivers failing to see a pedestrian. decision (e.g. entrance to a public building and at the kerb, where
Pedestrians are also risk takers: nearly half of people surveyed in there is a pedestrian crossing).
Sydney (44%) wait on lines in the middle of the road on
occasions, over half (56%) cross against the ‘Don’t Walk’ on • Convivial - Pedestrian areas and routes should be
occasions, and over half (57%) will not walk an extra 30 metres spaces which encourage human interaction. Key elements
to cross at a crossing or light. It has also been found that people include diversity (of streetscape, landscape, buildings,
have difficulty judging vehicle speeds greater than 50 km/h, activities), landscaping and furnishing, frequent passers-
especially at night. by, space for relaxation and enjoyment, interesting ground
floor activities, views in and out of buildings.
NEEDS OF PEDESTRIANS
• Conspicuous - Legibility of routes, through design and
Pedestrian needs will vary, depending on the type of pedestrian through signs showing streets, destinations, public
movement. However, the following criteria are nearly always transport stops and building occupants.
relevant (LPAC, 1997):
PEDESTRIAN-GENERATING ACTIVITY
• Connected - A comprehensive network, an absence of
dead-ends, short street blocks. Avoiding, or ameliorating, Major pedestrian-generating activities are shops and stores,
the effect of crossing busy roads, which can be personal services, offices, educational establishments, and
a significant deterrent to walking. cultural and recreational facilities. In order to make walking more
attractive and convenient, the location of public transport stops
• Convenient - Direct paths and routes without detours or and stations at both ends of the journey is important, and this
diversions from desire lines, and without restrictions. underpins the ‘ABC’ policy (see R-3 The right activity in the right
Avoidance of underpasses and footbridges. location). Equally important is the convenience and safety of the
route from the public transport stop or station or the parking
• Comfortable - Smooth surfaces, more than adequate areas to the destination.
widths, absence of obstructions, avoidance of steep
gradients and steps, good micro climate (the alteration of The location of pedestrian-generating activities should never be
general climate by the local configuration of buildings, seen in isolation. At places of work people will want access on
which could act to encourage the gusting of wind or create foot to services and facilities during lunch time and after work. In
localised ‘sun traps’ etc.), good lighting, separation from v shopping centres, people will want to visit other services, such as
ehicle traffic, traffic calmed environment, feeling of safety the post office or bank. Land-use decisions should facilitate such
and security. linked activities.

Performance-based zoning should make a distinction between traffic and pedestrian activity space, such constraints may
pedestrian and vehicle-generating uses (instead of, or in addition not always apply.
to, the usual ‘commercial’ categorisation), in order to create
pedestrian-friendly areas. Land uses, which depend on direct PEDESTRIAN ROUTES
access by vehicles should be located elsewhere.
Pedestrian routes should generally not be segregated from the
ACTIVITY STREETS AND SPACES roadway or other activity. Routes which are isolated are generally
not attractive and experience shows they tend to attract crime.
In the past there has been a strong focus on vehicles first and
pedestrians next, yet there are often opportunities to reverse Pedestrian routes should have as few conflict points with vehicles
these priorities. In most regional shopping centres and all as possible. Where there are conflicts, measures should be
pedestrian malls and plazas, there is a clear separation of introduced for changed behaviour (by pedestrians, vehicles or
pedestrians and vehicles. Yet, there are opportunities to create both). These measures may take the form of regulation (such as
and adapt existing activity streets, with a variety of transport lower speeds), physical devices (such as signals, zebra
modes with priority given to pedestrians (see L-9 Centres as crossings, pedestrian barriers, medians), overpasses, or some
precincts and C- 5 Adapting Type II corridors). combination.
Footpath activity can make a major contr ibution to the Pedestrian underpasses are generally undesirable on security
pedestrian-friendly environment of streets. There are two grounds unless they are combined with active frontage, well lit
conditions for successful operation: and supervised. Pedestrian overpasses may be justified where
there are significant pedestrian movements across a regional
• there should be sufficient space for unobstructed transport route. They may also be justified in areas of high
pedestrian movement. A minimum width of 2.5 metres pedestrian activity, but work best if adjoining development is
should be available for movement, but this must be integrated with the levels of the overpass, and there are other
increased where pedestrian volumes are high. Selective means of lifting pedestrians than stairs.
footpath widening can often create activity space and can
be achieved with extension into parking bays (e.g. Crows Pedestrian routes need dedicated space, clear signposting
Nest, Sydney; Rundle Street, Adelaide). Building line set- (which is often overlooked), continuity, consistency in pavement
backs (at ground) can be useful, where there is limited design and materials, and pedestrian lighting.
space, but changes take time to implement; and
Special attention should be given to the needs of disadvantaged
• there should be few heavy vehicles; traffic volumes should people, including the use of kerb ramps and pavement strips for
not be high (preferably less than 13,000 vpd) because of the blind.
the need to protect people from traffic noise and air
pollution. Where there is adequate separation between

CHANGING PEOPLE’S ATTITUDES TO WALKING
Providing physical measures alone is unlikely to change travel

behaviour. It is also important to alter people’s perceptions of
walking as a viable and enjoyable mode of transport. This can be
provided by providing information and awareness campaigns. In
addition, it is important to (i) designate responsibility for walking
to a member of staff in local government, (ii) develop a strategy
in consultation with the community, and (iii) make finance
available for improving the pedestrian environment.
INTEGRATED PLANNING APPROACHES
Walking short distances is an attractive option for most people

when safe and convenient pedestrian facilities are available.
Figure C-L6-3 Robina Town Centre CBD, Combined with adequate footpaths and amenities, walking can
Creating a pedestrian-friendly and attractive environment be an attractive and convenient mode of travel. Integrated
approaches involve considering transport and land use together.
The goals for such an approach are (Metro, 1996):
MIXING CYCLISTS AND PEDESTRIANS Concentrate pedestrian-generating uses and provide

pedestrian accessibility
By providing dedicated space for those on foot or using mobility
devices, pedestrian facilities are recognised as an important The first goal is to concentrate major pedestrian-generating uses
incentive to promote walking as a mode of travel. Mixed use of and provide them with a high- quality system of pedestrian routes
footpaths by pedestrians and cyclists is generally prohibited, and spaces. This can be achieved by (i) changing zoning
unless such routes are declared as mixed use and specially systems to clearly establish a priority for pedestrian access (see
signposted. L-1 Activity/accessibility zoning); (ii) preparing and implementing
development plans, which give priority to pedestrian access; and
Mixed use should not be encouraged as the speed difference (iii) setting priorities for infrastructure improvements.
between the two modes is significant, and pedestrians have no
means of hearing cyclists coming from behind. Separate Improve access to public transport
cycleways should be established wherever this can be justified.
The second goal is to improve access to the public transport
system through pedestrian improvements and changes in land-

use patterns, densities and designs. This can be achieved by (i) Make walking safe
increasing opportunities for walking to public transport, near and
within the central city, regional centres, town centres, main The fifth goal is to encourage motorists, cyclists and pedestrians
streets, corridors and station communities; (ii) improving to share the road space safely. This may require measures to
pedestrian networks serving public transport interchanges, reduce traffic and vehicle speeds - for example, by the
stations and stops. introduction of vehicle restricted areas, in which the movement of
vehicles is restricted or prohibited. Such schemes can boost the
A safe, convenient, attractive and accessible pedestrian attractiveness of local centres for shopping, employment and
environment entertainment. This goal can be achieved by (i) developing
shared schemes for selected areas; (ii) developing and
The third goal is to make the pedestrian environment safe, implementing public awareness programs to promote safe use of
convenient, attractive and accessible for all users. This can be roadways by motorists, cyclists and pedestrians.
achieved by (i) categorising pedestrian routes and preparing
performance standards for each category (e.g. location within APPLICATION
road/street reservation, width, pavement type, pavement activity,
illumination, weather protection); (ii) developing the pedestrian HOW CAN IT BE DONE?
facilities needed to provide safe and convenient pedestrian
access in all areas; (iii) providing and improving street amenities; 1: Develop a pedestrian policy
and (iv) giving pedestrians more space and priority (see L-9
Centres as precincts and C-5 Adapting Type II corridors). The development of goals and objectives forms the basis for a
pedestrian strategy. Policies should be developed within an
Provide pedestrian access, wherever appropriate overall land-use and transport strategy. If such an overall strategy
does not exist, one should be developed to set the pedestrian
The fourth goal is to provide pedestrian access to existing and policy in a wider context. An example of a policy is to give
planned land uses, street classification and public transportation, pedestrians priority over vehicles except on arterial roads.
as a part of all land-use and transport developments. This can be
achieved by making pedestrian access a requirement for all land- 2: Data collection, analysis and interpretation
use developments and giving priority in funding to those projects
which are most likely to increase pedestrian travel and improve Information is needed on:
the quality of the pedestrian system. Pedestrian access needs
should be integrated into planning, programming, design and • the location of pedestrian-generating activities;
construction of all transport projects.
• pedestrian accessibility to public transport stops and
stations, and parking areas;

• pedestrian routes and volumes; land use, pedestrian movement, and the quality of the pedestrian
environment are examined together. Options may be developed
• footpath width, capacity and condition; frontage activities and worked through in consultation with local communities.
along routes;
5: Pedestrian strategy
• street furniture and space utilisation;
The outcome of these studies and explorations is a pedestrian
• points of conflict with vehicles and existing measures of strategy consisting of a statement of principles, proposals,
control; projects, programs, priorities, responsibilities and funding (see
Table C-L6). The principles and programs include land-use,
• pedestrian behaviour - jaywalking and jay running; vehicle transpor t and environmental components to achieve an
speed; integrated strategy.
• accidents and their causes; and 6: Auditing development proposals
• facilities for disadvantaged people; amenity and urban Development proposals should be examined to decide whether
design; attitudes and perceptions. the development is appropriate for the location, having regard to
pedestrian generation (see example).
3: Problems, opportunities and constraints
APPROPRIATENESS
Interpretation of the data should identify problems and key areas,
warranting more detailed attention. It should also provide a basis The development of an integrated pedestrians strategy and an
for exploring opportunities, such as concentrating pedestrian auditing of development proposals are appropriate in all areas.
activities, zoning changes, improving pedestrian accessibility,
categorising pedestrian routes, and creating pedestrian-friendly EFFECTIVENESS
environments. Constraints, such as a need to maintain vehicle
traffic routes, are investigated and options for reducing conflicts Integrated approaches can be very effective in improving
are identified. pedestrian accessibility and the quality of the pedestrian
environment.
4: Detailed exploration
At the next stage a more detailed exploration is made for key

areas. They may be residential precincts, routes to the station or
school, activity centres, areas used for special events or
shopping strings along transport routes. In any such exploration,

OBJECTIVE TARGET ‘HOW’ (MECHANISM) ‘WHO’ (AGENCIES) ‘WHEN’ (DATE)
Increase walking as a transport Increase kilometres walked by Regional and local strategies, Highway and transport agencies Over the next 10 years
mode 1% per annum reflected in plans and local authorities
Increase walking’s share of total Regional and local strategies, Highway and transport agencies Over the next 10 years
modal split by 5 % reflected in plans and local authorities
Raise awareness of the Improve the quality of data on Regional travel survey Department of transport Ongoing
importance of walking walking
Raise public awareness Promotion campaigns, changes Regional agencies, Pedestrian Ongoing
of policy, implementation of Action Groups and Associations
appropriate schemes
Improve the pedestrian Identify areas, where Pedestrian quality audits, walking Regional agencies and local By end-1998
environment improvement is required inventories, establishing priority authorities
areas
Improve the pedestrian Meeting the ‘five Cs’1 criteria Regional agencies and local Within the next five years
environment, where necessary authorities
Make new development Pedestrian-generating Accessibility/activity zoning Local authorities Ongoing

pedestrian-friendly developments are related to performance-based development
pedestrian areas and links control
New development in pedestrian Integrated policies in local plans, Local authorities Ongoing
areas and along pedestrian links development control
to encourage access by foot
Show what can be done Demonstration projects to be set Regional planning process Regional agencies, local Include in the next three-year
up supported, where appropriate, authorities, pedestrian Action programs
by funding programs Groups and Associations,
private sector interests
Devote more resources to Allocate more staff and ensure Review responsibilities and Regional agencies, local Ongoing
walking that all departments ‘think’ procedures authorities
of walking
A minimum of x% Review program provision Regional agencies, local Ongoing

of local authority expenditure of authorities
direct benefit to pedestrians
Table C-L6 Example of a strategy (based on LPAC, 1997)

Example of Auditing of Development Proposals servicing the development (loading and unloading goods,
for Pedestrian Impact for instance) be?
(Source: London Planning Advisory Committee, 1997) 12. What vehicle footway crossovers will be created? How will
the use of existing crossovers change?
1. What is the size and density of the development?
13. What is the visual connection between activities inside
2. Which activities will take place? and outside the building likely to be?
3. What person and goods movement will be attracted and 14. What time of the day/week will activities be taking place?
generated?
15. How will the development contribute to the ‘circulation
4. What mixture of uses and activities will there be? exchange’ use of the adjacent and nearby public realm?
5. How specialised are the activities likely to be (bearing in

mind that more specialised activities serve larger
catchment areas)?
6. As a result of 1 to 5 above, what will the catchment area RELATED TOOLS

be for both employees and visitors/customers?
7. What proportion of employees/visitors/ customers are L-9 Centres as precincts
likely to live within walking (and cycling) distance? L-10 Residential precincts
8. What proportion of employees/visitors/ customers are L-12 Safety
likely to live within a single public transport journey? L-13 Visibility
9. How does the design of the development cater for those C-5 Adapting Type II corridors
on foot? For instance, does the main entrance directly C-13 Visual enhancement
front onto the footway?
10. How many units of pedestrian interest (doorways, window

displays, etc.) per 100 metres of frontage will result?
11. What will the demand and provision for parking and

• parking provision has an impact on amenity; it requires
Parking standards L-7 design, which is more sensitive to the environment than
many parking facilities are at present.
& management
INTENT
Provision of adequate parking space is a major consideration in

the planning of cites and towns and it is now recognised that the
definition of what is adequate depends on the context. The
provision of space, based on parking demand, may conflict with
other objectives such as the development of sustainable cities
and the provision of pedestrian-friendly places.
The purpose of this tool is to encourage the development of

parking standards and management procedures which reflect not
only the needs for transport efficiency and convenience but also
the broader implications for accessibility, land-use efficiency and Figure C-L7-1 Parking in shopping streets should be designed
amenity. as part of an overall street design.
Integrated approaches are needed towards parking standards

and management, because:
• parking creates accessibility by car, which may or may not RELEVANT FACTORS
be desirable in certain locations;
PARKING PROVISION AND ACCESSIBILITY
• parking is a significant land use and occupies land, which
in certain locations, may be better used for, or in Parking can either be provided to satisfy demand or it can be
combination with, other purposes; and constrained to moderate car usage. The approach is dependent
on circumstances and local decisions.

Traditionally, parking codes have been developed to satisfy for New Jersey (US) and do not necessarily apply to conditions in
parking demand. This was done to avoid potential problems Australia and New Zealand.
relating to an under-supply of parking. These problems can
include: PARKING CONSTRAINT MANAGEMENT
• reductions in traffic efficiency and safety due to Parking constraint offers one of the most powerful tools available
inappropriate on-street parking; to moderate traffic generation. However, if applied in the wrong
circumstances, it can become counter productive to achieving
• priority of kerbside parking given to more appropriate uses greater use of more sustainable forms of transport.
e.g. buses, loading or resident parking;
Usually travellers make travel mode decisions on the basis of the
• amenity impacts due to parking blight in sensitive areas; relative cost, safety and convenience. If inexpensive, convenient
and parking is available at or near their destination, they will be
strongly inclined to use their car. If parking is not available or
• excessive traffic circulation in search of parking. expensive, then the cost or convenience of travel may swing
towards public transport.
Parking provision is most important where there is little or no
viable alternative to private car use for the types of trips Parking restraint can be successful if a number of conditions
generated by the particular land use. Adequate parking provision apply:
is particularly needed in developments such as shopping centres
or office development. There, customers or tenants have • there must be a viable alternative to car use;
competitive choices, and access to parking is needed to attract
them. • absence of parking should not become a deterrent for the
development of restaurants, shopping centres in business
Parking constraint is usually applied in urban centres with good centres, and residential apartments near major transport
public transport, and where it is desirable to suppress private nodes; and
vehicle travel for either amenity or road capacity reasons. The
rationing of parking means that only a certain proportion of trips • maximum allowable parking levels need to be set, in
to the centre can be made by car. In most circumstances pricing accordance with the needs of building tenants or owners.
mechanisms come into play, determining who will have access to
the limited stock of parking,
Table C-L7 gives an indication of how such standards could be

applied for parking provision within areas served by major public
transport routes. It should be noted that they are recommended

APPROXIMATE PERCENT REDUCTION * PARKING AS A LAND USE
Office use Non- Residential Parking is a land use. It takes up land or development space
residential use either within developments, in dedicated car parks, or along
(non-office) roads. As a land use, parking gives rise to many of the usual
land-use planning considerations including:
Transit 10% 5%–10% 5%–10%
corridor • safety and capacity impacts on roads serving the parking;
Station 5%–15% 5%–10% 15%–20% • visual impacts, including appearance of parking
influence area structures, streetscape, bulk, scale, compatibility with, and
overshadowing of, adjoining development; and
Transit node 5%–25% 10%–15% 25%–30%
• noise and pollution controls.
Multi- 60% 25% 60%
modaltransit Parking areas do not normally have any intrinsic aesthetic
hub appeal. Where possible, parking areas should be placed below
ground, at the rear of properties or made attractive through
Source: NJ Transit, 1994
landscaping. The location of parking areas needs to be clearly
* Variable ranges reflect density of land use, i.e. reductions may be at the sign-posted, especially at shopping centres.
lower range in less dense situations
It is most efficient to provide shared parking for different uses.
This allows the total supply to be reduced, as different land uses
Transit corridor: an area within 400m radius of a bus or light rail
route with headways of 15 minutes or less during peak periods
frequently exhibit peak demands at different times of the day or
week. It also allows rationalisation of access points, ramps and
Station influence area: an area approximately within a 1–3 km revenue controls.
radius of a railway station.
FRONT OR REAR-END ANGLE PARKING?
Transit node: an area within a 400m radius of a fixed track station
(light rail, commuter or rapid transit)
The issue is an important one, not only from the viewpoint of
Multi-modal transit hub: an area within 400m of a multi-modal CBD efficiency and safety, but also from a health and amenity
transit station. perspective.
Observations show that the rear angle parking manoeuvre takes

Table C- L7 Station area parking reduction schedule longer, and is more disruptive to traffic than the front angle

Exiting from a rear angle parking space is faster than from a
front-angle space, if traffic volumes are light and there are gaps
in the traffic stream.
There are additional factors such as the size and length of

vehicles, and visibility of moving vehicles.
Generally, where there are few moving vehicles and a low vehicle
speed environment, both rear and front end parking is an option.
In a higher speed environment, front-angle parking is preferred.
In all cases, there is a need for adequate separation between

parked cars and moving traffic to ensure there is sufficient
visibility and safety. A minimum distance of about 1.5 metres is
recommended.
There are other important considerations. Air pollution on the

footpath, associated with rear end parking, is a potential health
hazard for people on the footpath. Evidence of the serious impact
on health is accumulating and it would be prudent to avoid rear
angle parking in busy shopping centres.
PARKING AND AMENITY
The need to provide parking within a development influences its

design and thus potentially the amenity of the development. For
Figure C-L7-2 Impact of parking arrangement instance, double garage doors at the front of a dwelling have a
on air quality strong influence on the street’s appearance. Similarly, residential
subdivision roads with a carriageway width to allow on-street
parking have a distinctly different appearance to those where on-
unparking manoeuvre. Many more drivers need several tries in a street parking is not intended. Because of the effect of parking on
rear angle parking manoeuvre than those involved in front-end the design of buildings and subdivisions, requirements for
parking. Rear angle parking, therefore, causes more disruption to parking provision should not be considered.
the traffic stream and reduces vehicle speed more than front end
parking.

circulation. A large unrelieved surface car park is unsightly, and
par ticular attention should be paid to landscaping. The
landscaping plan should also have regard to personal security
considerations. Dark or concealed areas should be avoided. In
cases, where car theft is an issue, boomgate or attendant
controlled parking helps to reduce such problems.
APPLICATION
HOW CAN IT BE DONE?
l: Develop a parking strategy
Before specifying parking controls, a transport strategy should be

prepared. It should take account of local conditions such as road
capacities, traffic levels through sensitive areas or along sensitive
streets, existing parking conditions and local community
aspirations. The transport strategy should define whether parking
Figure C-L7-3 Rear angle parking pollutes the footpath demand should he satisfied on-site, partly on-site and partly
and is not recommended in areas with many pedestrians elsewhere, all off-site, or whether supply should be constrained.
on the footpath
The parking strategy is a subset of the transport strategy and
should set out:
Parking structures are usually designed to ensure minimum
requirements for manoeuvring, queuing and for entry, exit and • the area to which it applies;
ramp capacities are met. Safe and convenient pedestrian
provisions are also essential. Australian Standard AS2890.1 Part • the rationale on which parking supply minima or maxima
1 Off Street Car Parking is the recognised standard for off-street have been based;
parking design. However, local authorities may have different
geometric requirements which relate to conditions in their • where required parking should be provided (on site, off
particular areas. site); and
Surface parking areas are generally much simpler to design than • sites where public parking is to be provided, and methods
parking structures, but the same geometric and operational of funding such parking (e.g. local rate, developer
considerations apply to bay and aisle geometry, access and contribution, council funded, private sector venture).

In many cases the parking strategy will just state that all 3: Implementation and monitoring
parking generated by development should be accommodated on
site, there being no acceptable alternative. There are often developer or political pressures to vary the
parking code, and some special circumstances may warrant this.
2: Prepare a parking code or Development (Control) Plan Also, travel habits and characteristics of development are
constantly changing (e.g. extended retail hours, increasing part-
A parking code supplies the detail required by designers or time work). Local authorities will be able to respond to these
developers, when planning a development. It should provide influences with a well reasoned strategic basis for their parking
sufficient detail for the planning of routine developments, as well codes. This will allow the merits of individual developments to be
as procedures for dealing with special cases. assessed in the context of overall objectives. When a parking
code is based on unsupported numerical standards it will be
Parking codes should cover: difficult to stand firm against strong influences
to vary them.
• strategy background for the local area;
For this reason it is important that parking strategies be reviewed
• parking supply rates for different land uses; provision at regular intervals and updated, if necessary. Five-yearly
determinating rates for land uses, where generic rates are intervals for reviews are desirable.
not applicable. An important issue is whether parking rates
should be maxima or minima;
• locations, where parking should be provided or is

preferred (e.g. underground, at the rear of premises, at the
front of premises);
• geometric and operational design guidelines (reference to

relevant Australian standards may be sufficient);
• landscape or urban design guidelines; and
• contribution rates for required parking spaces not provided

on-site.
Figure C-L7-4 Bollards with aboriginal designs -

an innovation in Lismore, NSW

4: Parking regulation • preferential rates for visitors to particular developments (e.g.
vouchers supplied to customers of a store, which contributed to
Most parking strategies will differentiate between short and long- the provision of the parking); and
stay parking. It is important for local authorities to ensure that
visitor parking is kept available and not used by all-day parkers. • curfews on opening hours or peak hour surcharges to reduce
This is especially the case in centres on transport nodes, where travel to and from the car park in peak hours.
there is a tendency for commuters to park and ride, or where
constrained parking conditions apply to employees working in the 5: Funding and accountability
centre.
Parking is an expensive resource to provide and manage, but it
Even when employee parking is not constrained, it may be also has the capacity to generate significant income. When
necessar y to regulate par king, to ensure that the most parking is financed through special local rates or through
convenient parking is available to short-term visitors. Methods for developer contributions, funds collected for this purpose should
regulating parking include: be proper ly accounted for (see L-14 Incentives and
contributions).
• time restricted on- or off-street parking patrolled by local
authority parking inspectors; APPROPRIATENESS
• parking meters or ‘pay and display’ parking controls; and
Parking provision is essential to all forms of urban development.
• boomgate or attendant controlled pay car parks. The extent to which parking needs to be specified and regulated,
depends on the complexity of the local area under consideration
Specified visitor parking on small private sites are difficult for and on transport strategies applicable to the area. For major
local authorities to enforce. Best results are achieved when urban commercial centres, parking needs to be highly regulated
visitor parking is clearly designated in highly visible areas. In to ensure that prevailing accessibility and amenity objectives are
developments with a number of tenants or owners, self interest met. For smaller centres and for suburban areas, less regulation
often ensures that visitor parking is is needed, with the main objective that an adequate supply of
available for visitors. parking will be available.
In some circumstances it may be appropriate to regulate public EFFECTIVENESS

car park rates or operating times to achieve local objectives.
However, such regulation should be underpinned by well defined Parking controls are generally amongst the most important
transport and parking strategies. These forms of regulation could controls applied by local authorities. Effectiveness depends on
include: the adequacy of the broader transport strategies and the code
rates, on which they are based. Parking standards and
• sliding fee scales to encourage short-stay parking; management need

to be responsive to continually changing circumstances and and minimising the unreasonable overflow of parking onto
updated at regular intervals. surrounding streets.
Departure From Guideline Rates (Extract)

Example of a Parking Plan
South Sydney City Council Development Control Plan No. 11; The parking rates do not represent a code, which should be
Transport Guidelines for Development (1996) blindly adhered to; rather they are generalised rates, which meet
most circumstances. Applications are assessed under a system
Objectives of Transport Guidelines (Summary) of merit. There is scope for park ing provision to be flexible,
suiting particular circumstances and local conditions.
• reduce level of vehicular travel ; Any departure from the Guideline rates must be fully explained
and justified, if that departure is to be considered.
• ensure an acceptable level of parking on-site;
Guideline Rates (Examples)
• ensure satisfactory design of parking areas; LAND USE CAR PARKING
• ensure all modes of transport are adequate, consistent; Residential Units and Town Houses
One bedroom units and bedsitters 0.5 /Unit

• avoid, where possible, onerous car parking requirement
on small-scale supportive businesses; and Two bedroom units 0.8/unit
Three or more bedroom units 1.2/unit

• provide for transport needs of business and industry.
Separate visitor parking 1/6 total units near entrance
Use of Guideline Parking Rates (Extract)
Cafes 1/50 sq,m (1st 100 sq.m), then
1/18 sq.m
Previously. new development had been required to provide car Clubs
parking and servicing to satisfy all of the parking demand created Lounge and bar areas 1/20 sq.m GFA
by a development. Facilities for non-motor vehicular transport Dining and Auditorium Greater of 1/10 seats or 1/25 sq.
were riot specifically required. Council’s .Strategy for m GFA
a Sustainable City of South Sydney requires that the Guidelines
propose a new, less car focused approach. Office and commercial 1/125 sq/m GFA, 20% allocated
to visitors
The parking rates of these guidelines offer a balanced Shopping centres Survey based assessment
compromise by satisfying a large proportion of parking demand needed
on-site, addressing car reduction objectives of Council’s strategy, Small shops 1/50 sq.m GFA

Provision above the guideline rates will not generally be
favoured. If shown to be justified, ‘excess’ parking and access
aisles that are within the building will be penalised by that area
being added to floorspace, with the end result that the floorspace
ratio will increase.
Provision below the guideline rates will be genuinely considered

under criteria set out in this section in conjunction with
supporting factual information supplied by the applicant.
Design Guidelines (Extract)
The following section presents the key criteria which should be

adopted by designers (architects, developers, planners,
engineers) in designing functional and safe parking areas for the
accommodation of vehicles associated with new developments.
South Sydney Council has adopted the Australian Standard 2890

Parking Facilities series as the basis for its design criteria. This
section highlights the key areas from these and embellishes
certain issues in need of clarification, etc.
RELATED TOOLS


relationship. Adequate provision of interconnections is, therefore,
Corridors and precincts L-8 essential.
The planning of urban areas as precincts and corridors can:
• protect local environments from through traffic;
INTENT • provide a basis for traffic calming within precincts;
There are two fundamental requirements in the development of • create local environments with a high level of safety and
urban areas: to (i) provide for through movement, and (ii) protect amenity;
living areas and areas of activity from traffic and its associated
impacts. • facilitate the planning and development of transport routes
for through movement; and
It is not possible to have protection, such as traffic calming,
without providing alternative routes for the efficient movement of • provide a basis for integrated design and management
goods and people. The purpose of this tool is to protect local of transport routes and their environments.
environments from through traffic by creating precincts, and to
facilitate through movement by establishing transport corridors.
RELEVANT FACTORS
Precincts have mostly been understood to be neighbourhoods
and it is indeed one form of precinct, but the interpretation of PRECINCTS
precincts is broader. Precincts may constitute residential areas,
commercial centres, campuses, institutions and many other land- There are distinct reasons for the creation of precincts. A high
use associations. What they have in common is a cohesion and level of amenity can be created in which vehicle traffic is
quality which allow activities to function within an environment subservient, conflict between vehicles, pedestrians and cyclists
with an intrinsic amenity and unifying quality. can be resolved, and the impact of traffic on the local
environment can be reduced. Precincts can be developed with
It is not implied that precincts are self-contained communities their own identity and character. Precincts provide an effective
and activities. There will always be strong linkages with functions basis for the location of economic activities, which benefit from
and activities beyond a precinct. Experience shows that precincts association. Precincts also can facilitate social interaction.
based on a fixed formula, such as neighbourhoods based on a
primary school, create major difficulties when the composition However, a rigid application of the concept of precincts limits
and size of households change. Precincts may be organic opportunities for adaptation and change in the longer term.
entities, but are always part of a larger whole in an ever changing

The conventional approach to traffic management in precincts is The reasons for creating and developing major transport routes
to establish road hierarchies, and introduce traffic calming as Type I corridors is that restrictions on through traffic in
schemes to impede through traffic and improve local precincts requires an alternative. There should be clearly defined
environments. routes where the traffic can go and where their function as
through routes is protected. A focus on corridors ensures that
A simple classification for use in precincts is set out in AMCORD. this transpor t function is not separated from the route
It consists of local streets and access streets; for each category environment.
of street, the street environment and traffic performance are
related to each other. There are maximum traffic volumes for There are four important relationships here:
local street types which influence the amount and behaviour of
traffic acceptance in residential precincts. If infill and (i) the impact of adjoining development on the performance
redevelopment occur, the precinct still remains, but traffic of the route as a through traffic route (‘friction’);
calming, mixed use and alternative transport modes become
more important. (ii) the impact of traffic on adjoining development (‘impact’);
CORRIDORS (iii) the need for some land-use activities serving the transport
function; and
The term ‘corridor’ is used to describe the combination of
transport routes and adjoining land and development. The (iv) the design relationship between the road and the built
interaction between the transport function and adjoining land is environment.
always the determining factor.
These relationships differ with the type of corridor and should be
As explained in Par t B, Chapter 2 (and in C-1, Corridor considered during all processes (strategic, development and
categorisation), there are two types of corridors: implementation). Type I corridors will normally be boundaries of
precincts, but some Type II corridors can be developed and
• ‘Type I’ corridors: managed as ‘activity streets’ and integrated with a precinct. For
‘Type I’ corridors contain major transport routes; these example, they may serve as through routes during peak hours
may be regional railways or roads (with or without road- and as local routes at other times (see C-1 Corr idor
based public transport). categorisation and C-2 Planning new Type I corridors).
• ‘Type II’ corridors: RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CORRIDORS AND PRECINCTS

‘Type II’ corridors contain secondary transport routes,
such as tramways, sub-arterial roads and major collector New residential, commercial and other types of precincts can be
streets. planned and developed to be largely free of through traffic. They
may have arterial transport edges (with connections across to

other precincts), incorporate traffic calming schemes, provide for environmental system is interdependent:
public transpor t access and cycle routes. Key factors in
determining the size of the precinct are the number and type of 1 Regional (‘macro planning’);
trips generated, the mode split and the provision of access for
the different transport modes into the precinct (see L-9 Centres 2 Local or district (‘meso planning’); and
as precincts; and L-10 Residential precincts).
3 Precinct (‘micro planning’).
In established communities, especially in inner urban areas, the
aim should be to reduce the impact of transport on local areas The regional level sets constraints at the local level and for the
and facilitate the creation of viable communities. This will take adjoining road environment; the precinct level sets constraints for
time and effort. However, with appropriate strategies, there is a regional vehicle movement, because of priority given to
basis for actions supporting this aim. environmental protection in precincts. Resulting conflicts must be
resolved at the local level.
There are important trade-offs in defining precincts and corridors.
A larger residential precinct may have more diverse facilities and The spacing and role of Type II corridors and other local traffic
services (e.g. school, community centre, shops and service routes are a significant factor in finding a balance between
trades) than a smaller precinct, but dwellings in the large precinct regional and local needs. It is not common practice to plan the
will have less direct access to the external road network than regional level with a full appreciation of the local and precinct
those in the smaller precinct. In large precincts, local traffic levels, nor is it common practice, when introducing traffic calming
volumes and noise on local streets may also increase beyond in local precincts to consider the possible consequences at
acceptable levels. regional levels. Therefore, action taken at one level will have
repercussions at all other levels.
With a greater number of smaller precincts, on the other hand,
there will be more links between them and the external road While the planning approach must encompass all these levels, it
system. There will be an increase in the number of intersections can start at any level: at the top (regional), at the bottom
with regional and district roads, and this may affect the efficiency (precinct) or at the middle (see the example in Part B, Chapter 2
of these roads in carrying through traffic. Local conditions will Section 2).
determine the trade-off to be made.
1 Identify the study area and set the parameters
APPLICATION
This step involves examining regional and local strategies,
HOW CAN IT BE DONE? gaining an understanding of possible constraints, and seeking
the participation of other agencies and community groups. The
Defining precincts and corridors involves three levels of aim is to define the boundary conditions of the steps which
consideration because the entire transpor t, land-use and follow.

2 Assess the regional needs for transport and land use. 4 Examine local planning needs
The regional agenda usually determines the priorities for Local planning needs should be examined in relation to
accessibility and re-urbanisation. There will be an initial focus on transport, land use and the environment. Land-use issues could
Type I corridors which may include actions such as giving priority include how to improve the relationship between accessibility and
to regional movements (including express public transport), the mobility needs of people and local businesses in the area,
limiting the number of intersections and/or turning movements, and which tools should be used to achieve it (see for example, L-
limiting vehicle access to sites (including on-street parking) and 1 Activity/ Accessibility Zoning). Activities which require special
reducing pedestrian-generating activities along them. These investigation include industrial, wholesaling and distribution
measures will always have a major impact on the local activities.
community.
There will be a need for a focus on Type II corridors. They are the
The results are presented in preliminary diagrams, which show meat in the sandwich. There will be many roads in inner suburbs
where and what changes may be required, the actions with through traffic on them, including heavy vehicles. Narrow
necessary, who is responsible for them, the resources required road reservations, competition for use of the limited road space
and the anticipated time frame for the changes to be and unacceptable environmental impacts add to the problem.
implemented. One of the consequences is likely to be greater The redistribution of the use of the limited road space will affect
local use of Type II corridors and other local traffic routes. the stakeholders differently. Two critical aspects of local transport
planning are: (i) the identification of Type II corridors; and (ii) the
3 Examine the needs for environmental improvement at the links between the local street network and Type I and Type II
precinct level corridors.
At the precinct level, the objective of environmental protection The output will be a series of diagrams which show areas of
predominates. There is a need to examine the factors which potential change, a preliminary categorisation of Type II corridors
determine their environmental traffic capacity in order to achieve (see C-1 Corridor categorisation), an assessment of traffic
a balance between accessibility, activity and environmental redistribution and local public transport routes.
quality.
5 Integrating the three levels
Conceptual diagrams of possible precincts are prepared.
Preliminary ideas are developed, which address the scope for re- It should now be possible to assess the needs at regional,
urbanisation and environmental protection, traffic calming, precinct and local levels together and define precincts and
streetscape profiles and land-use mix criteria. corridors. There will be inevitable trade-offs and they should be
made explicit. With this synthesis, there is a strategic context for
the development of detailed plans for precincts and corridors.

Typ
eIr
ail cor
ridor
Figure C-L8-1 The regional agenda Figure C-L8-2 Precinct exploration

Typ
eIr
ail cor
ridor
Figure C-L8-3 Local transport and land-use relationships Figure C- L8-4 Corridors and precincts

The development of precincts and corridors as a basis for L-9 Centres as precincts
detailed planning and management is appropr iate in all L-10 Residential precincts
circumstances. C-1 Corridor categorisation
C-2 Planning new Type I Corridors
EFFECTIVENESS C-3 Planning new Type II Corridors
The development of precincts can be an effective method to
increase safety. In Canberra, where precinct planning and
implementation have been applied to all residential development
(except the older inner suburbs) safety is 30 percent above levels
in residential areas elsewhere.
EXAMPLES
Precincts were defined by the Willoughy Council (NSW) and

supported by measures and signs to change driver behaviour
within them and divert through traffic to corridors.
The ‘new town’ of Belconnen in the ACT was developed on the

basis of neighbourhoods and neighbourhood groups with a
hierarchical pattern of services and facilities (including transport).
In Tuggeranong (ACT), larger units were used with Type II
corridors within them.

• there is an effective partnership between the public and
Centres as precincts L-9 private sector.
Key factors in planning and developing centres are:
• a range of services and facilities, offering choice;
INTENT • a sense of place - a place where people want to come

because it is safe, convenient and attractive;
Integrated approaches towards the location, land-use mix and
access are explained in R-4 A hierarchy of multi-purpose activity • carefully managed accessibility with an emphasis on
centres and R-5 Key regional and transit centres. In this tool, the pedestrian-friendly environment and priority to public
focus is on the layout, and its purpose is to create and adapt transport modes in the core;
centres as precincts, where pedestrian safety and amenity are
paramount. Although some of the principles apply to all kinds • carefully arranged location of activities to ensure that
and sizes of centres, the emphasis is on centres which are larger people and vehicle-oriented activities are not in conflict;
than local in scale.
• close attention to streetscape, public spaces and the siting
Integrated approaches in the planning and management of these and design of buildings.
centres can ensure that:
• they are planned, designed, developed and managed as

pedestrian-friendly and people places;
• the needs for access and circulation are balanced with the
need to preserve or create a safe and attractive
environment;
• there is opportunity for growth and change without

invalidating the basic structure of the centre and the need
for costly adaptation;
• public agencies, responsible for different functions, work

with common objectives and co-ordinated programs; and Figure C-L9-1 Centres should create a sense of place
for people, not cars (Portland, Oregon)

RELEVANT FACTORS • Safety requires an environment where the conflict
between vehicles and pedestrians is minimised. Security
CORE AND FRAME AS AN ORGANISING CONCEPT concerns the personal safety of pedestrians and the
protection of property.
In large and intermediate centres, a distinction can be made
between the core and frame of a centre. The concept was • Amenity can mean many things: comfort and weather
developed originally in the ’50s, but for a different purpose. Its protection, noise protection, light and shade, sense of
relevance today is that the core represents the area of highest space, opportunity for social interaction, focus for
intensity and greatest pedestrian activity. This does not mean pavement activity, streetscape - including appearance,
pedestrian malls and an absence of vehicles; rather it means an landscaping, signs, lighting and other aspects of detailed
area where pedestrians come first. The frame can be defined as design.
the area surrounding the core, where there is a direct association
with the core, but a lower development intensity and greater • Convenience concerns the provision of clear and direct
vehicle orientation. For example, parking areas could be located routes from public transport stops, stations and parking
there. Pedestrians and cyclists are still important in the frame, areas. High-intensity land-uses should be located in the
but the relationship with vehicle traffic is different from that in the core to avoid the need for long walking distances, parcel
core. carrying and the climbing of stairways. Provision should be
made for vehicle access and parcel pick up.
The core/frame concept is a useful basis for deciding on the
location of activities and resolving potential conflicts between
different transport users. In very large centres there can be
several cores and frame-like areas, with different types and
association of land-uses.
A PEDESTRIAN-FRIENDLY ENVIRONMENT
Centres must be safe and enjoyable places of business,

entertainment and information, where people like to come. As
centres grow and competition for available road space intensifies,
priorities for the use of this space must be reassessed.
Pedestrians should be considered first.
Important aspects in creating a pedestrian-friendly environment

are safety and security, amenity, and convenience. Figure C-L9-2 Centres should be attractive places
where people want to come - young and old (North Sydney)

ACCESSIBILITY
Public transport accessibility to the core is essential in all urban

centres. Designated priority routes should be incorporated in
development plans. The manner in which public transport is
integrated with the centre depends on the local context. There
are advantages to link interchanges (bus-bus or bus-rail) with
core activities.
Other factors to be considered include the concentration of bus

priority routes in an area of pedestrian dominance, and the
undesirability of bus storage in prime locations. For these
reasons, bus or tram routes should have stops close to, but not
necessarily within, the core (unless there is grade separation),
and bus lay-over spaces should be provided elsewhere. In some
cases, there may be scope to develop pedestrian activity around Figure C-L9-3 A people friendly environment in Mandurah (WA)
a transit mall, provided pedestrians come first. An example is that
of Bourke Street, Melbourne, where there is a maximum speed
for trams.
Accessibility priorities should be set for different parts of the ARRANGEMENT OF FUNCTIONS
centre. For example, the order of priority in the planning of the
core may be: Centres should be planned and adapted around different types
and forms of accessibility. As the core area is intended for
1 Pedestrians pedestrian activity and the frame for a more vehicle-oriented land
2 Public transport uses, zoning and development plans should clearly reflect this
3 Delivery vehicles distinction.
4 Off-street visitor car parking
5 Roads for access and circulation The land-use component of a development plan should address
6 Limited on-street parking the location, density and association of different land-use
activities, including below, at ground, and above ground levels.
In the frame, these priorities will be different. Activities such as offices which do not require the carrying of
heavy merchandise, should be given greater preference in areas
of high public transport accessibility than supermarkets. Areas of
high car accessibility should be zoned for vehicle-oriented uses.

Likewise, development densities should be based on existing and also be identified. Pedestrian routes have a considerable
proposed pedestrian or vehicle accessibility. influence in the planning of the core and frame. Issues to be
considered include: when are they used; what conflicts with traffic
TRANSPORT MANAGEMENT will be encountered; and how can they be addressed. Can
weather protection be provided, can active frontage be provided,
Through traffic conflicts with the functioning and environmental is pedestrian lighting adequate and are there obstacles for
quality of the centre, and should not penetrate the core or the physically disadvantaged people?
frame. A bypass route (or underpass) is usually essential. In
larger centres, the bypass route should be planned as a ring Similar issues arise in the planning and design of routes and
route, providing opportunities to avoid the centre and to exit onto storage areas for bicycles. Clear signposting of the different
roads leading into the frame. Where this is not possible, areas of areas, services and facilities is important.
conflict need to be identified and special measures put in place.
The concentration of pedestrian activity in the core and the

location of vehicle-oriented uses in the frame has implications for
access network planning. Within the frame, a series of
interconnected, but indirect, traffic routes should be provided for
access to sites and parking areas, and for movement between
them. Such a circulation plan must be developed in parallel, and
integrated with, an environmental and land-use plan for the
centre.
Off-street parking areas in large centres should be provided in

the frame and preferably not in the core. Congestion on
circulation routes and within parking areas often occurs because
of searching for space. Integrated provision and management,
combined with electronic information systems in large centres
and clear signs in smaller centres, can significantly reduce
unnecessary movement and avoid frustration. Many off-street
parking areas and structures are not user-friendly and attractive,
and their size and design can be daunting, especially for older
people.
The major pedestrian routes from stops and stations, off-street Figure C-L9-4 Categorisation of roads and streets
parking areas and other pedestrian generating activities should according to user priority

TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT It is possible to regulate the use of the road space by vehicles. In
Singapore, only vehicles with permits are permitted in the central
Assuming that through traffic has been addressed and is not an zone. In other cities, vehicle access is permitted only at certain
issue, there are three vehicular functions to be considered: times of the day or excluded at particular times of the week.
circulation traffic, parking and public transport routes. Circulation
traffic is local traffic associated with access to sites, parking The conversion of existing shopping streets into pedestrian malls
areas and the provision of access services such as taxis. If this removes both circulation traffic and parking and can generally be
traffic is excluded, alternative routes and site access must be justified only for short sections. Security becomes a major
available. If on-street parking in an established centre is excluded concern with the exclusion of traffic from large sections. Deserted
or restricted to certain times, this will have an impact on streets tend to attract the criminal element after trading hours. As
business, especially in smaller centres. a result, many malls in the United States have been converted
back to traffic routes. A time-based restriction (i.e. no vehicles at
times of peak pedestrian activity) may be an appropriate
compromise.
Another option is to permit moving and parked vehicles within the

core, provided traffic volumes and vehicle speed are carefully
restrained. The road space should then be designed in such a
way that drivers respect the presence of pedestrians and cyclists,
and pedestrians can cross safely.
Transit malls are another form of road space allocation.

Footpaths can be widened and all vehicles except buses or
trams, taxis and emergency services are excluded. Vehicle
speeds should be restrained and bus frequency should be at a
level where pedestrian safety and amenity are not impaired. The
presence of large vehicles in a predominantly pedestrian
environment can cause problems, which are reduced if smaller
mini-buses are used instead (‘greenways’).
Site access for service vehicles and access for emergency

vehicles will be necessary in the core. However, the absence or
Figure C-L9-6 For each type of road and street, the dominant presence of vehicles in the core is not the most significant issue
and secondary transport mode should be determined (and it may well be desirable to have vehicles at times when
and used as the basis for design and management pedestrian activity is light - such as at night). It is more important

to create an environment where vehicle speeds are low (a STREETSCAPE AND THE SITING
maximum target speed of 25 km/h) and pedestrians can circulate AND DESIGN OF BUILDINGS
with comfort.
The principles described provide an appropriate land use and
The central issue in every case is the humanising of the core of transport context for a centre which is to function efficiently and
the centre. Safety and pedestrian amenity have to be given is safe and convenient. However, by themselves they do not
priority. This has clear implications for the allocation of road create an attractive place where people want to come. It is the
space as centres grow and attract more people. urban and landscape design which distinguishes the centre from
others; gives it character, variety and unity; and provides the
essential attraction during the day and at night.
An important step in this process is to relate the category of

street (according to its function) to the street environment and
built form.
Many centres contain shopping or mixed development complexes

with internal malls. Pedestrian concentration is internalised there
and the layout may result in businesses turning their back to
roads and public spaces. Blank walls facing active pedestrian
spaces should be strongly discouraged.
Internal malls may be closed after hours and opportunities for

after hour pedestr ian use of the public spaces may be
diminished.
Some land uses, such as supermarkets, generate large volumes

of pedestrians and vehicles. Wherever they are located in the
core, they should provide both a pedestrian and a vehicle
Figure C-L9-5 It is useful to categorise roads and streets ‘address’.
by function and relationship to the built environment,
as a basis for street design and development control There are numerous and important urban detailed design
aspects in the creation of attractive centres. As the focus of this
Guide is on integration, they are not specifically considered here.

INTEGRATION BETWEEN PUBLIC AGENCIES APPLICATION
AND THE PRIVATE SECTOR
HOW CAN IT BE DONE?
Planning and adapting centres as precincts requires close
collaboration between planning and transport authorities. A prime 1: Regional and local context
example is the location of bus routes and stops within and close
to the core. There is also a need for close collaboration between The starting point is the role of the centre and its accessibility in
the proper ty and development industry and the business a regional and local context (see R-4 A hierarchy of multi-
community, Proposals for adaptation will affect everyone purpose activity centres and R-5 Key regional and transit
differently. There is clear evidence that well-developed plans will, centres). There may be other factors such as a Regional parking
over time, lead to an enhanced business environment, policy (R-12) and an Accessibility/activity policy (L-1), which
improvements in safety and greater community satisfaction. influence the context.
2: Investigation
Functional requirements (land use and transport), site and

property details, and economic and social factors should be
investigated and documentated.
3: Principles
A range of matters need to be examined up-front: e.g.

pedestrian-vehicle dominance, development intensity, mixed use,
implementation options (see R-10 Integrating
investment), approaches to parking provision, public transport,
categorisation of roads and streets, urban design and staging.
4: Concept or structure plan
Land-use activities and transport are now arranged in space:

high-intensity core and lesser intensity frame areas, areas with
predominant pedestrian orientation, preliminary access and
Figure C-L9-7 Many country centres have places of heritage circulation networks for all transport modes, parking. Indicative
and the street environment should take advantage of them intentions for the urban design character are also determined.
(Lismore, NSW)

5: Development plan 8: Monitoring and review
A development plan is prepared by transforming the concept plan It is important to monitor trends and progress in implementation
and applying the principles defined in Step 2 into a plan on a as there are always changing pressures and needs, which may
dimensional base. It is important that the plan integrates land lead to revisions of plans and programs.
use, transport and the environment, to make sure relationships
are understood and followed through in implementation planning. APPROPRIATENESS
6: Infrastructure plan Application of the principle to develop centres as precincts is

appropriate in all centres where there is a conflict with vehicles
The development plan should identify the need for new and a need to improve the pedestrian environment.
infrastructure and the responsibility for, and timing of action. A
contribution plan may also be prepared at this stage. EFFECTIVENESS
7: Implementation plan There are many examples - in the adaptation of established

centres, as well as in the design of new centres - where the
The implementation plan should address all aspects of principles have been applied, and the intended benefits have
implementation: zoning plan, development control, urban design been achieved.
policies, traffic and parking management, enhancement
of public areas, marketing (if required) and promotion. Zoning by EXAMPLES
conventional land-use categories may not be appropriate. For
large centres, zoning based on the accessibility provided and the Aspects of the approach set out here have been incorporated in
mobility characteristics of the people and businesses, which use many centres, and there is a wide range of examples with
the area, may be more relevant. different treatments in the core. One of the recent examples is
the design of the Gungahlin Town Centre (yet to be built), with its
For example, land uses and development densities in areas near focus on an integrated activity street. Some details of this design
public transport nodes should maximise the benefits of such a are provided in C-2 Planning new Type II corridors (ACT Planning
location. A performance-based approach, which recognises the Authority, 1996).
important distinction between public transport accessibility and
vehicle accessibility can provide a better basis for integrated
land-use and transport planning than conventional land-use
zoning.

RELATED TOOLS

Figure C-L9-8 Centres as precincts are places for information,

communication and exchange - an environment of quality
where people want to come (Port Macquarie, NSW)

Residential precincts L-10
INTENT
The purpose of this tool is to encourage adaptation of existing

residential areas as precincts and the creation of new precincts
which are safe, convenient, have a high level of amenity and
facilitate the use of non-car-based transport modes.
There is much recent material on the planning of residential

areas (AMCORD, 1995). AMCORD stresses the importance of
integrated planning and addresses transport, land use and the
environment in order to create living areas which are safe,
attractive, convenient, cost-effective and offer choice. The role of
networks is important. Networks for each of the transport modes Figure C-L10-1 Amenity, safety, provision for low-speed
in relation to land use are addressed in other tools (R-6 Public transport modes, and convenient access to local facilities
transport and land use, R-8 Road systems and land use, L-5 are keyobjectives in residential areas
Cycle networks and land use, L-6 Pedestrians and land use). The
emphasis in this tool is on how to integrate these systems in a
residential precinct.
Integrated approaches towards the planning of residential

precincts can: • ensure that such precincts are designed or adapted to
prevent through traffic, and to ensure that vehicle traffic
• create environments for living; adapt existing residential is compatible with the quality of the environment;
areas as precincts, which are safe, convenient to live in,
with a high level of amenity; • ensure such precincts are designed or adapted with a
high level of pedestrian and cyclist access, and convenient
access to public transport; and

• ensure that there are opportunities for mixed development are called ‘Elements’, and include a wide range of topics
and a range of housing types, without adverse impacts on covering neighbourhood planning and movement networks,
the quality of the environment. physical infrastructure, stor mwater, streetscape and
neighbourhood character, site planning and building design.
Integrated residential planning is covered in AMCORD, but some There is a focus on performance criteria as a means of
aspects are highlighted here because of their relevance in the development control instead of a reliance on rigid standards. This
context of this Guide. They are: is also pursued in this Guide (see L-15 Performance-based
development control).
• integrated communities;
INTEGRATED COMMUNITIES
• creating precincts;
Creating integrated communities is important in the context of
• planning precincts; this Guide. Apart from the benefits of convenience, integrated
development can also contribute to reducing dependence on the
• managing precincts; and car and suppor t other measures, such as travel demand
management and travel blending. There is agreement about the
• streets and the built environment. need to create communities for living, but there are different
viewpoints as to what this means in practice. For example, it has
been conventional practice to separate housing from shopping,
RELEVANT FACTORS services and facilities and local employment on the grounds of
amenity, and to separate different housing forms from each other,
A FOCUS ON LIVING AREAS because of assumed incompatibility.
This Guide, like AMCORD, advocates a two-step process: An integrated approach towards planning for communities
establishing desired outcomes and tools to achieve them. requires providing: housing choice; diversity of housing forms
and density; selective opportunities for mixed use; choice in
Part 1 of AMCORD is similar in approach to Part B of this Guide. mode of transport; and a relationship between housing and
It encourages users to establish desired outcomes up-front and activities, which encourages physical and social interaction.
outlines the strategic and development planning processes Protection of amenity is the present priority. It does not depend
involved. It also underscores the importance of clarity, so that the on separating land uses nor prescribing uniform densities (such
parameters for development are known before design is as R1 and R2 zones). However, it does depend on streetscape
commenced. Regional and local requirements should be character, safety, overlooking, traffic management and other
determined and responsibilities be defined. matters.
Part 2 provides the tools (akin to Part C of this Guide). The tools

CREATING PRECINCTS development alongside, which must be specially designed to
reduce the impact of traffic noise. Research undertaken for
One way of creating living areas with a high level of amenity and AMCORD indicates that local traffic volumes above 6000 vpd
safety is the precinct or neighbourhood, protected from through are, generally, not compatible with a precinct environment, and
traffic, heavy vehicles, large traffic volumes and high vehicle that streets with more than 4000 vpd require special design
speeds. The notion of precincts for safety and amenity, and consideration.
corridors for movement is one of the main principles of this Guide
(see L-8 Corridors and precincts). Where a precinct has many connections to an adjoining Type I
corridor, there is less risk of local traffic volumes building up
Creating precincts does not mean exclusive and self-contained within the precinct. However, the efficiency of the transport
communities, as islands in an urban fabric. The provision of local function of the corr idor will be reduced by many local
services and facilities, accessible from all parts of the precinct, is connections and local traffic.
a desirable objective. Of course, people will always want choice
and have needs which transcend the bounds of local precincts. There are other factors such as residential densities, and the
For this reason, connectivity between adjoining precincts is accessibility and use of alternative transport modes. There is,
essential. Precincts can be quite small, provided adequate and therefore, no formula for defining precincts and the balance
safe cross-connections exist. Such connections should not be between precinct size and local traffic will always depend on
designed to attract through traffic. This should be deflected to local conditions.
corridors specifically designed for this purpose.
PLANNING PRECINCTS
In new areas, the neighbourhood concept is often used to create
precincts. The local centre and primary school, within walking The objective in planning precincts is to provide a high level of
distance, are the main organising pr inciples. There are amenity, convenience and safety in communities, a mix of local
advantages in this approach, but the dynamics of long-term land uses, a choice in housing and mode of travel. Precincts
urban change makes the concept less robust than has often should be planned in a distinctive way and have their own
been assumed (see L-12 Safety). identity. Yet they should also be capable of accommodating
change, as population, employment characteristics, and housing
More significant factors in determining the size of a precinct are demand change over time. Precincts should provide
(i) the amount of vehicle traffic, which can be accepted within it, opportunities for social interaction and be designed for security.
and (ii) the spacing of connections to the corridor network. Energy conservation, cost effectiveness in development and
maintenance are always important factors.
A large precinct may have a wider range of local services and
facilities, but will attract more internal traffic than a small one. There are many ways in which these criteria can be met and the
Some routes may have local traffic volumes, which either exceed planning response will depend on community values, technology
the environmental capacity of the precinct or require and market conditions. However, it is the common elements in an

integrated approach, which deserve discussion in the context of street widths. This greatly increases development and
this Guide: they are: local networks for different transport modes: maintenance costs and is not necessary, provided vehicles can
the road hierarchy (if there is one) and precinct layouts. move in a forward direction and there is opportunity for three-
point turning at cul-de-sacs. For details, see AMCORD.
Networks for each of the transport modes in relation to land use
are addressed elsewhere (R-6 Public transport and land use, R-8 Provision for on-street visitor parking is important in areas with
Road systems and land use, L-5 Cycle networks and land use, L- higher densities and developments with small lots (with many
6 Pedestrians and land use). The emphasis in this tool is on the entrance drives) and narrow streets. Special bays for visitor
integration of these systems in a residential precinct. parking may need to be provided. The practice of a uniform
width for a par ticular street type is widespread, but with
ROADS AND STREETS integrated planning and design of dwellings and streets there are
opportunities to vary the width of the reservations.
Roads should be seen primarily as routes for movement; streets
for access and local traffic. Hence roads are generally
inappropriate in residential precincts, while streets have to be
planned and designed to serve the residential function and
character of the community. This has implications for the detailed
design of streets - they should be related to the type and form of
development served, and the character to be given to each
street.
STREET SPACE AND PRIORITIES FOR USE
Streets can be used by local public transport, pedestrians,

cyclists and cars. The use of streets by these modes will vary.
Most streets will be used by vehicles, and all of them by
pedestrians. The street space in local access streets can be
shared by pedestrians and cyclists because vehicle speeds and
traffic volumes should be low. Where streets are used by buses,
and traffic volumes exceed 2000 vpd, sharing by pedestrians is
not recommended and separate footpaths will be needed. Streets Figure C-L10-2 Integrated street and housing design
near cyclist-generating activities may require special cycle ways. can lead to a more diverse and sustainable environment
Hence, there is a need for differentiation between streets as bus (New Haven, Port Adelaide)
routes, local traffic routes or streets for access.
Garbage collection is often used as an argument to increase

PRECINCT LAYOUT AND THE ‘NEW URBANISM’ contribution which should considered in the planning of
residential areas.
The New Urbanism seeks to produce a built environment, which
is diverse in use and population, scaled down for pedestrian use, THE ROAD HIERARCHY
and capable of accommodating the car and public transport.
The road hierarchy is a pragmatic approach to the classification
Two key features of the New Urbanism are relevant here: (i) an of roads and streets according to their existing or intended
interconnected street system, which provides access to precinct performance, and is widely used. It represents a traffic view of
activities and supports community interaction by providing many roads and streets; it is not a road environment view where the
alternative routes from one point to another; (ii) streets, and the transport function and the road environment are considered
buildings abutting them, designed to make walking pleasant, together. This limitation has been recognised in the road
efficient and safe. Although not necessarily representing a return environment typology, which is used in this Guide.
to the grid patterns of the early days of land development, the
New Urbanism seeks to create much greater connectivity, The relationship between streets and the built environment in
especially for pedestrians. The grid pattern offers the flexibility residential areas is addressed in AMCORD. There are two basic
and connectivity it seeks. In order to prevent through traffic, traffic types: access street and collector streets, and sub-categories in
management is an integral part of such development. each. They recognise the different types of relationship with the
built environment, depending on the type of street.
Advocates of the approach believe that this form of development
reduces trip length for vehicle trips, but there is no evidence yet MANAGING PRECINCTS
that it does (see Resource Document, Chapter 11). There is
a probability that the space for streets and the costs of Existing residential areas are subject to cycles of social and
construction and maintenance are increased, compared with physical change and problems may arise which are wide-ranging
those proposed in AMCORD, but this may be justified in areas of and varied. There may be traffic and parking intrusion, exposure
higher densities. Security is a residual issue: whether closed to traffic noise and degradation of the quality of the environment.
streets with one point of entry and exit are more likely to There may also be inappropriate development, inadequate
discourage crime than the traditional grid pattern (The Weekend parking or site access, housing in need of replacement and
Australian, 19.4.1997). Research In Canberra has shown that housing layouts unsuited for current residents. At the extreme
grid patterns increase the potential for vehicle accidents. end of the scale, there may be a lack of investment for
However, this problem can be overcome if traffic calming and improvement, social problems and crime. Adaptation and
special intersection design are incorporated from the start. management of existing precincts are issues of increasing
importance.
Whilst some of the claims of the New Urbanism have yet to be
substantiated, the attention given to the quality of the
environment and the creation of livable streets is an important

Management responses can range from: requires that streets and their environments are planned and
developed together, and not (as often is the case) a subdivision
• activity and accessibility policies, including local pattern first and individual dwellings later. The need for an
employment and mixed use; integrated approach increases as lots become smaller and
densities are higher, to ensure that a high-quality environment is
• traffic calming and safety schemes; achieved.
• urban design and streetscape policies linked with street There are options in the design of streetscape: building lines may
improvement and landscaping; be ‘urban’ without significant setbacks, ‘landscaped’ with
conventional setbacks, or a combination. Some streets may be
• crime prevention and social development policies; activity streets with a mixture of uses.
• selective redevelopment and renewal with or without Street design guidelines (‘Creating Livable Streets’), prepared for
incentives; and Portland, Oregon (Metro, 1997) take these aims to a practical
level. The guidelines provide preferred dimensions within a
• a combination of policies and schemes. minimum and maximum range for specific design elements.
There is a need for collective learning in all cases, a focusing on The design elements are organized into four areas:
the same problems and working towards integrated solutions. It
is important for the local community to play an active role in the • The street realm - the overall environment of the street;
development of precinct plans. To this end, a precinct planning
handbook can be prepared, which explains what a • Travelway realm - the travelway elements devoted to
neighbourhood plan is, how it can be prepared and how priorities motorised and non-motorised vehicle movement;
for action can be identified. One of the key activities is a needs
assessment and a statement of desired outcomes (or a ‘vision • Pedestrian realm - the areas, where pedestrian use is a
statement’, see Resource Document, Chapter 13). priority; and
In some areas, decay may have set in and more intensive • Adjacent land use - the elements which abut the street
management may be required, including structural change and and define the street’s character and use.
selective redevelopment (e.g. Hillcrest, Adelaide, see AMCORD).
STREETS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT
At the precinct level, the relationship between streets and the

built environment is of considerable importance. Integration

Figure C-L10-3 Building set-backs and parking
are important issues in the streetscape
and must be considered together Figure C-L10-4 A section of the South Sydney Plan,
which provides guidelines for all streets within the area

EXAMPLE Village Urban Centres
The South Sydney Development Control Plan (1996) is a good Development enriches the pedestrian environment and provides
example of an urban design-based street classification with improvements in accordance with the Public Domain concept
environmental design criteria for development. Plans for defined streets.
Urban Villages Links through sites
Development should encapsulate the thematic character of urban Development to provide mid-block [pedestrian/cyclist]
villages which are typified by traditional terrace houses, connections in large sites. Links should be a minimum width of
excluding the public housing estates, which are typified by 4.0 metres.
’modern’ walk up three storey and high rise flats. Building design
should have a sense of the pictorial, to be creatively achieved Key Nodes/Gateways and Secondary Nodes
through the manipulation of architectural form, visual composition
in relation to the setting; streetscape character, activity patterns Development to enhance and upgrade important nodes, activity
and quality of urban space created. centres and gateways.
Elements to consider: Building design provides:
• street definition and continuity, facade orientation and • clearly defined built edges and increased building height
treatment set-back, active street frontage and bulk to reinforce corner locations
• rooflines/skylines, character of contributory buildings • visual interest at street level

interface between the private and public domains
• special treatment by utilising public art, paving, lighting,
• floorspace treatment of footpath and carriageway landscaping and street furniture
• landscaping, street furniture and signage • welcome signs and information billboards
• protection and enhancement of pleasant views and vistas Active Street Frontage
• heritage conservation of places of cultural significance,
including the protection of trees, parks, statues, relics, Development reinforces the built form edge and activities along
signs, shop windows, verandahs, facades, colours, the main street frontage and enriches pedestrian activity by high-
buildings or whole streetscapes quality pavement, furniture and lighting. Provides set-backs for
plazas, or colonnades, where appropriate.

Streetscape and pedestrian improvements Typical streets
Development provides opportunity to carry out streetscape Thematic tree planting to reinforce the character of precincts.
improvements and footpath widening along the pedestrian
network and to improve connections and links between Setbacks required
residential centres, open space, community facilities and areas of
concentrated activity. Development should also contribute to Development to provide set-backs as follows:
Council’s LATM Program.
• 6.0 metres for all major principal road frontages
Development may provide the following LATM improvements:
• 4.0 metres for all streets and rear lanes varied only at the
• street closures to reinforce precinct edges, mark discretion of Council
pedestrian safe zones and pedestrian linkages;
• threshold treatments to reinforce edges and pedestrian

orientated areas; and
• etc. APPLICATION
Buffer Zones HOW CAN IT BE DONE?
Densely landscaped setbacks along railway embankments and Whether precincts are new or established influences the process
edges created by major institutions or special precincts. of developing and managing them. For adaptation of existing
precincts, an outline of the steps is as follows:
Boulevards
1: Determining precinct needs
Characterised by sidewalks and roadway separated by double
rows of avenue trees. Development to provide pairs of advance A needs assessment should be under taken with the local
trees in rows at 6.0 metre intervals. community.
Avenues 2: Determining regional and broader community

requirements
Broad street lined with continuous rows of avenue trees.
Development to provide rows of advance trees at 6.0 metre 3: Gathering background information
intervals.

4: Determining desired outcomes and priorities RELATED TOOLS
5: Exploring alternatives and selecting a preferred strategy L-3 Increasing choices in transport
L-4 Increasing choice in land use
6: Developing policies and action plans L-5 Cycle networks and land use
7: Co-ordinating actions and developing an integrated L-11 Traffic calming
management plan L-13 Visibility
APPROPRIATENESS
Integrated planning approaches to residential areas as precincts

are appropriate in all residential areas.
EFFECTIVENESS
There is ample evidence of the effectiveness of integrated

planning and management in residential areas. For further
details, see AMCORD.

Traffic calming is about setting priorities for different road and
Traffic calming L-11 street users, developing and applying measures to reduce
through traffic, vehicle speed and traffic volumes, and improving
the amenity and safety of the precinct or a section of a corridor.
Critical performance areas are:
INTENT • Noise;
The purpose of traffic calming is to reduce the incidence and • Air pollution;
impact of vehicle traffic on the environment and give priority to
environment-friendly transpor t modes. There are different • Pedestrian delay; and
definitions and interpretations of traffic calming (see, for example,
Federal Office of Road Safety, 1993, Towards traffic calming). In • Pedestrian safety.
a broad sense, traffic calming is the process of reducing the
impacts of traffic on urban life. Traffic calming can apply to the
city as a whole and include a wide range of measures, such as
travel demand management. This aspect is addressed in other
tools.
The intent of this tool is to associate traffic calming with local

precincts and establish an acceptable relationship between traffic
and the local environment. Outcomes of integrated approaches
towards traffic calming here can be:
• prevention of through traffic in precincts;
• reduction in the impact of traffic on the environment; and
• an improvement in safety and amenity.
These outcomes are important in residential areas, centres and Figure C-L11-1 Traffic calming in residential areas
special precincts, and also in sections of some Type II corridors, (Marrickville, Sydney)
where there is a high level of pedestrian activity.

RELEVANT FACTORS adaptations and bicycle adaptations.
OBJECTIVES Most of these devices are designed to reduce vehicle speed and
deflect vehicles to other routes. The devices, have different
The objectives of traffic calming are usually related to: effects and impacts. Some are effective in reducing vehicle
speed (such as road humps), but increase traffic noise on nearby
• safety - primarily concerned with vehicle speed, properties. Others prevent or discourage through traffic (such as
crossability and visibility; road closures), but lead to diversion to other routes with possible
environmental consequences. For this reason, traffic calming
• amenity - related to traffic noise and air quality; and must always be addressed at an area level.
• crossability - an objective of convenience as well as safety, There are other measures than those listed to reduce the impact
and measured in pedestrian delay. of traffic and increase the amenity in precincts. These are
considered in other tools (L-9 Centres as precincts, and L-10
These objectives focus on traffic impact. It is also possible to take Residential precincts).
a broader approach, in which the starting point is the notion of
environmental traffic capacity. This concept and its implications
will be explained later.
The levels of achievement of these objectives are directly related

to the type of area under consideration. In residential areas there
will be an expectation of a high level of achievement in safety and
amenity. In sections of Type II corridors, such as shopping strings
with a high level of pedestrian activity, crossability and safety are
of critical importance. Acceptable noise levels will vary with the
type of area, with special attention to noise protection in
residential precincts.
WHICH TECHNIQUES CAN BE USED?
There is a wide range of techniques (Towards traffic calming,

1993): roundabout; road closure; threshold; road hump; angled Figure C-L11-2 Traffic calming is about environmental protection
slow point; T-deviation; necking; driveway entry link; rumble strip; and setting priorities for the use of the road/street space
median island; wombat crossing; impellor; narrowed pavement;
shared zone; speed and priority sign; road markings; bus route

THE IMPORTANCE OF VEHICLE SPEED From a safety point of view, reduction in vehicle speed from the
current legal limit of 60 km/h in residential streets is desirable to
Vehicle speed is a critical factor in traffic calming and it is reduce the severity of accidents, and create a more pedestrian-
important to define it. A distinction can be made between target friendly environment. As a result, there will be an increase in
speed, operating speed, and design speed (RTA, 1993). travel time. These issues were addressed in the development of
AMCORD and a balance was struck, which sets target speeds of
• The target speed prescribes the degree of physical 40 km/h for ‘access streets’ (with 15 km/h for access lanes and
restraint on vehicle operation which is imposed in the places) and 50 km/h for major collectors with traffic volumes
design. It is the speed aimed for in (or adopted as the within a range of 1000–3000 vpd.
upper limit for) the design, and is usually expressed in
terms of the 85th percentile, i.e. the speed which no more In shopping strings along Type II corridors, there are additional
than 15 per cent of the vehicles are expected to exceed. factors. Traffic volumes are larger than in precincts; there are
many pedestrians crossing and pedestrian delay influences
• The operating speed (sometimes called the ‘street pedestrian behaviour. ‘Sharing the Main Street’ suggests target
speed’) describes the actual speeds observed in the speeds of 25 km/h in the core zone (and 35 km/h if there is a
street. The 85th percentile operating speed is that speed median). A critical factor in introducing speed restrictions is to
exceeded at any point in the street by no more than 15 provide for a transition or approach zone, where vehicle speeds
per cent of vehicles. The maximum operating speed are reduced gradually. Sudden changes in driver behaviour can
should not be greater than the design speed for safe become a cause of accidents.
operation.
ROAD/STREET FUNCTION AND SPACE ALLOCATION
• The design speed is the speed adopted for the fixing of
geometric features or characteristics of a street or As Brindle points out, traffic calming is not usually regarded as
carriageway element for safety purposes, and thus reflects traffic exclusion, providing bicycle and pedestrian facilities, or
the sight distances and alignment characteristics, which pursuing pro-public transport policies (Brindle, 1991). Traffic
are built into the design. It must be greater than the calming involves the allocation or re-allocation of preferred routes
maximum operating speed for safe operation. and existing road/street space to different road users: cars, public
transport, pedestrians and cyclists. This allocation takes account
There is consensus about the need to manage vehicle speed in of the function of different transport modes, the compatibility
precincts and in Type II road environments where there are between them and the combined effect on the local environment.
conflicts with pedestrians. However, there are differing views as There may be a need to establish some primary access routes
to which speeds are desirable. The StaySafe Committee of the for each of these modes and to determine where, and under
NSW Parliament has recommended a speed limit of 50 km/h in what conditions, sharing of the road or street space is possible.
residential streets, but one Council (Hurstville) has decided to set
a maximum of 40 km/h. Traffic calming measures should help to establish clear priorities

for access by different means of travel and be linked to AN AREA APPROACH
development area policies. In other words, they are always
dependent on the context. For example, in residential precincts, The approach towards traffic calming is partly covered in another
cyclists can use the carriage way, provided target speeds and Austroads publication: Local Area Traffic Management (1988), in
volumes are low. Footpaths will be needed in all streets except in Towards Traffic Calming (1993), Section A7 and AMCORD
access lanes and places, if target speeds are 15 km/h (1995), Section 1.4. There is general agreement that an area
(AMCORD). In the core of centres, the form of traffic calming approach is necessary, which should, desirably, be preceded by
depends on the pr iority given to a pedestr ian-friendly a strategic planning study. An initial strategic study clarifies
environment. impor tant parameters: which routes function as transpor t
corridors and which areas can be turned into precincts (see L-8
Traffic calming, therefore, is not about reducing road space, but Corridors and precincts), which types of corridors exist (see C-1
about allocation or re-allocatation of the available space, and the Corridor categorisation) and other important inputs (e.g. L-3
means used to achieve the obejctives. There is never the same Increasing choices in transport).
solution, as there are consequences, which affect stakeholders
differently. For this reason, consultation during the development There are often area-wide trade-offs (as illustrated in figure C-
of traffic calming plans is essential. L11-4) where traffic calming of a precinct affects the performance
of the adjoining major road network. Conversely, upgrading of
major transport routes may affect existing local areas traffic
management schemes (see C-4 Adapting Type I corridors, and
C-5 Adapting Type II corridors).
It is difficult to create precincts for the purpose of traffic calming

in inner suburbs. Usually there are externally induced vehicle
flows through the area, which use all available primary and
secondary routes, available at peak periods. In such situations,
selective or time-based traffic calming plans may need to be
combined with regional travel demand management measures.
Techniques for assessing and comparing the consequences of

alternative schemes and devices are explained elsewhere
(Towards traffic calming, 1993).
Figure C-L11-3 Many country towns have introduced

traffic calming schemes in their centres (Tamworth, NSW)

THE NOTION OF ENVIRONMENTAL TRAFFIC CAPACITY
How much vehicle traffic is acceptable in precincts? Traffic in

Towns (1963) first proposed the notion of environmental [traffic]
capacity. It is an important issue in many developed areas and
often a subject of public concern, when development or
redevelopment proposals are submitted for approval.
The notion of environmental traffic capacity is based on the

premise that there is a limit to the impact of traffic for a given type
of area (and, by implication, the amount of traffic, the type of
vehicles and the behaviour of drivers), beyond which it is no
longer compatible with the types and levels of environmental
criteria appropriate for that area.
There are no absolute figures which can be used, but there are
performance criteria which will help to clarify what is acceptable
in specific circumstances. These environmental performance
criteria vary with the type of precinct. It is now widely accepted
that the principal criteria are traffic noise, vehicle emissions,
crossing delay for pedestrians and pedestrian safety (see
Resource Document, Chapter 12).
All these criteria apply within a context, and impacts are

determined by a wide range of factors, which can be modified: (i)
road/street design, (ii) traffic characteristics, and (iii) the built
environment. Hence the environmental traffic capacity of an area Figure C-L11-4 Precincts and accessibility options
depends on specific local conditions.

as traffic management, which can be used to achieve, or
Controlling ‘rat runs’ progress, the environmental traffic capacity of a local street
Rush-hour motorists taking a short cut through side streets system’. Traffic calming then becomes more than the application
(rat-runs) could find their way barred by locked gates. Lane of devices; it provides an integrated approach to traffic in
Cove Council has successfully trialled the scheme in one precincts.
street, The plan involves the installation of gates - locked
during the peak traffic period - at one end of the street. There is considerable scope for modifying the street, its traffic
characteristics and the built environment, to reduce the impact of
Lane Cove Council installed a gate across Moore Street [in traffic. With those modifications, the environmental traffic capacity
May 1997], with the approval of the Roads and Traffic of established residential areas may be greater than it is at
Authority (RTA). present. It may also be possible, in the longer term, to reduce the
proportion of vehicle trips of the total travel demand when
It is opened and closed by council officers each morning to densities increase and the use of other transport modes is
prevent traffic diverting from Epping Road. Lane Cove’s facilitated.
General Manager, Mr Henry Wong, said it had been a
"fantastic success". Proposals to increase urban densities are not necessarily
constrained by traffic impacts. What matters is the relationship
"You have to appreciate Lane Cove took this drastic between dwellings and traffic, the way impacts are managed,
measure as a means to protect the local community from and whether they can be contained within acceptable limits.
the impact of a horrendous increase in traffic from the
opening of the M2." CRITICAL PERFORMANCE AREAS
Councils are now required to submit a Traffic Management The critical performance areas are noise, air pollution, crossing
Plan which identifies the impacts which will result from a delay and pedestrian safety. Most of the performance areas are
proposed road closure to the RTA for its approval. (Sydney linked to vehicle speed.
Morning Herald 11.4.1998).
Noise
In residential areas the generally accepted environmental limit is

TRAFFIC CALMING Leq(24h) 55 dB(A) at the facade of a dwelling. With an average
AND ENVIRONMENTAL TRAFFIC CAPACITY distance from the noise source of 10 metres, 5 percent heavy
vehicles, and no corrections for terrain or road surface, the
The environmental traffic capacity can be increased with traffic number of vehicles that can be carried by the street is about
calming. It is relevant that AMCORD defines traffic calming as 2,000 veh/pd at 40 km/h and 1,750 veh/pd at 50 km/h.
‘those measures related to street design and construction as well

In suburban areas, the distance between the facade and noise volumes do not exceed about 200 and 370 veh/ph respectively.
source is typically 12–15 metres. In urban streets, the distance With a carriageway width of 7.5 metres, the values are 110 and
may be less than 10 metres. Many residential streets carry traffic 270 veh/ph respectively. It follows that, at points where pedestrians
volumes of 2,000 veh/pd or less and their environmental capacity cross collector streets, carriageway narrowing increases the
is not exceeded if speeds and the percentage of heavy vehicles environmental capacity of the street system.
are kept low.
Pedestrian safety
In residential streets with higher traffic volumes and/or speeds, the
environmental capacity does not need to be a constraint as long As noted before, pedestrian safety in residential streets is
as the design of the dwellings takes account of the need for noise correlated with vehicle speed. A significant proportion of
attenuation. AMCORD suggests acoustic analysis in such an pedestrian accidents involve children, who have an undeveloped
event. perception of risk (Black, 1994). Another vulnerable group are
older people, who are often uncomfortable with speeds greater
Air pollution than 25 km/h. By keeping speeds below 40 km/h in most
residential streets, the risk is reduced. In streets where children are
Air pollution may be a concern along busy roads, but is not a likely to play, lower speeds should be set (Brown and Lam, 1994,
pervasive problem in low-volume residential streets. Acceptable Can I play on the road, Mum?). The same situation arises where
levels of exposure on footpaths along roads are set (overseas) at there are developments with a large proportion of aged people.
12,000 veh/pd for CO and 5,000 veh/pd for Nox (The Hague City
Council, 1990). Other factors
Pedestrian delay There are also factors of perception, such as the visual impact of
traffic and parked cars. Although not directly linked to
Pedestrian delay is a function of carriageway width, traffic volumes, environmental capacity in terms of definition, they are matters that
gaps in the traffic stream, vehicle speed and pedestrian are important to people and cannot be ignored (see L-10
vulnerability (the crossing speed of many aged persons and Residential precincts).
people with disabilities is less than half that of younger and fit
persons). An acceptable delay to all pedestrians in residential APPLICATION
streets is often set at 2.0 seconds.
HOW CAN IT BE DONE?
It is clear that carriageway narrowing on local streets or at
pedestrian crossings on collector streets and traffic calming can The process for the planning of traffic calming schemes is set out
greatly increase the environmental capacity of residential streets. in Austroads Local Area Traffic Management (1988). An integrated
With a carriageway width of 5.5 metres crossability for vulnerable approach, based on the notion of environmental traffic capacity,
and non-vulnerable pedestrians is within acceptable limits if traffic extends this process and is outlined below.

1: Determine acceptable performance standards for each 5: Prepare alternatives
criterion
The factors which influence the environmental traffic capacity can
Acceptable impacts for each of the performance criteria can be be modified and different levels of accessibility constraints can
determined by reference to established guidelines. where they be explored. This is useful where there is a need to distinguish
exist (such as exposure to traffic noise). Where there are no between different type of street/road environments. For example,
guidelines, objective measures for determining acceptable a high level of restriction is appropriate in access streets, a
conditions are difficult to establish. Community surveys and median level for collector streets in precincts, and a low level of
involvement can be used to gain an insight into people’s restriction for corridors.
perceptions. (See Sharpe and Maxman, 1972 in AMCORD,
Practice Note 7). The example indicates a way of exploring alternatives. It is
possible to develop an option which redistributes traffic whereby
2: Determine the relative importance of the criteria noise exposure on dwellings is minimised. Another option is to
optimise the pedestrian environment. A third is to reduce visual
There are no objective ways of determining the relative weight of intrusion. There are trade-offs when combining these options;
each criterion (e.g. the importance of traffic noise exposure to these should be discussed with the stakeholders.
pedestrian safety). This is intrinsically subjective and will depend
on local conditions and perceptions. Again, community 6: Assess
involvement is necessary.
The consequences of the alternatives can be assessed using the
3: Make an inventory same weights (see example). Composite measures are useful for
overall comparison, but the consequences should also be
The inventor y is made of streets as links. For each link, assessed for individual streets, land uses and properties.
carriageway widths and street reservation widths, traffic volumes,
vehicle speeds are recorded. For street links with speeds greater 7: Evaluate
than 40km/h and volumes >2,000vpd, pedestrian and noise-
sensitive land uses are identified and building set-backs Selection of a preferred solution can only be determined after
recorded. consultation with the stakeholders.
4: Undertake analyses
Analyses of acoustic conditions and pedestrian crossability for

the above links are made and the scope for removing
deficiencies is assessed.

EXAMPLE APPROPRIATENESS
Exploring alternative levels of restriction Traffic calming measures are appropriate in all precincts and
some sections of Type II corridors, but should be based on an
Gilbert (1988) developed an approach to determine levels of integrated approach towards environmental traffic capacity.
restriction. Acceptability was determined in terms of three types
of criteria: noise, pedestrian environment, and visual intrusion. EFFECTIVENESS
For each of these, three levels of criteria were adopted: most
restrictive, middle restrictive and least restrictive. He then Significant improvements in safety and amenity can be achieved.
analysed the proportion of network length, where environmental
capacities would be limited by these three criteria. This approach
helps to show the trade-offs involved RELATED TOOLS

CRITERION TYPE OF CRITERION L-10 Residential precincts
LEVEL L-12 Safety
Noise Pedestrian Visual Total C-5 Adapting Type II corridors
Env. Intrusion R-11 Air quality and traffic noise
Most 28 5 67 100
restrictive
Middle 48 30 22 100
level
Least 25 53 32 100
restrictive
Table C-L11-1 Propor tions of network length, whose

environmental capacities would be limited by three different
criteria

• the probability of conflict;
Safety L-12 • the potential severity, or consequences, of accidents; and
• measures which can be taken to prevent or reduce the

risk and the severity of an accident.
INTENT This Guide does not address issues related to safer behaviour,
vehicles and roads, because they should be addressed in a
Many measures have already been implemented by road different context (see, for example, RTA, 1995, Road safety 2000)
authorities and councils to increase the safety of road users, and
that of vulnerable groups in particular. The purpose of this tool is
to highlight aspects of safety by the application of strategies in
which land-use and transport planning are closely integrated. The
focus is on the pedestrian/vehicle relationship.
Outputs from integrated approaches towards safety are:
• identification of development areas and points in road

networks, where the safety of pedestrians, cyclists and
motorists is inadequate;
• addressing causes as well as effects; and
• the development of land-use and network policies for

specific purposes, which reduce conflict.
Safety in this context involves consideration of:

Figure C-L12-1 Priority signs may be necessary initially,
• the location of activities which generate pedestrians, when changes in driver behaviour are needed
cyclists and motorists;
• the routes they take;
• the risks they encounter along the way;

RELEVANT FACTORS • the routes they choose;
A SAFETY FRAMEWORK • the conflicts they encounter;
Safety is important for all road users. Conflicts occur between • the risks to which they are exposed; and
vehicles, vehicles and cyclists, vehicles and pedestrians, and
cyclists and pedestrians, Design for safety is a critical element in • the manner in which such risks are managed.
road design.
The focus in this tool is on the pedestrian/vehicle relationship on

transport routes. All road users become pedestrians at some
stage. There are potential conflicts wherever there are
pedestrians and vehicles, even in parking areas.
A safety framework can have the following components (see

figure C-L12-2):
Desired outcomes
Desired outcomes are established up-front and expressed in the

form of specific targets, such as reduction in pedestr ian
accidents in a particular area (e.g. residential precincts), near
categories of land-use activities (e.g. near schools), or along
particular types of transport routes.
Figure C-L12-2 A possible framework
Outcome areas for integrated safety planning
Possible outcome areas are:

Origin and destination of activities
• the location of activities;
All land-use activities are potential people destinations, but, from
• the kind of road user they attract; a safety point of view, some are more important than others.
Those are: schools, shopping centres, points where there is
• the time they travel; a transfer of mode (such as bus stops and parking areas), public
offices, entertainment and recreation centres.

Road-user type are part of integrated development and do not involve climbing
stairs or long ramps. Pedestrians feel unsafe in underpasses,
Some activities, such as aged people communities and schools, except as part of an integrated development with active frontage
require special attention in relation to safety. Young people under along the route.
the age of 8 do not have a fully developed sense of risk, while
older schoolchildren take risks, which are not acceptable to Definition of acceptable risk
adults. Older people have slower walking speeds and slower
responses (see AMCORD, 1995). Disabled persons have special It is impossible to remove all risks in all conditions, when there
needs and require special protection. are pedestrians as well as vehicles. Willingness to take risks
depends on age and condition of the pedestrian; the nature,
These different needs and behavioural patterns affect the speed and volume of the traffic flow; and the physical design of
location of activities and the transport system. the road space. Generally, a risk is acceptable when there is an
opportunity for conflict avoidance by either party, and where the
Time of travel severity of any accident does not lead to fatality or serious injury.
Some land-use activities generate pedestrian activity at Risk management

particular peak periods. This occurs at schools, entertainment
centres and major events. Time of travel can be important, Risk management in the context of this Guide includes
especially at night, when visibility conditions may be very addressing causes and effects. Land-use planning and transport
different from those during the day. planning can reduce the potential for conflict, whereas land-use
and traffic management can be used to reduce conflict to the
Routes level of acceptable risk.
Walking distance to destinations is generally short (under 1 km), Performance measurement

and pedestrians tend to take the shortest available route. In
inclement weather, routes with the greatest protection may be Performance measurement is necessary to assess whether the
selected instead. At night, the best illuminated route is preferred. desired outcomes are being achieved and to determine what
further action is necessary.
Potential conflicts en route
Three groups of actions
Conflicts can occur where pedestrian routes cross vehicle traffic
routes and at points of transfer (such as bus and tram stops). 1 Land-use planning to reduce the potential for conflict;
Pedestrians do not deviate more than 100m from the most direct
crossing, but take risks, such as jaywalking - and more seriously 2 Transport planning to reduce the potential for conflict; and
- jay running. They generally do not use overpasses, unless they

3 Land use and traffic management to manage acceptable • taking account of the nature of pedestrian-generating
risks (figure C-L12-3). activities and sensitivity of pedestrians to risk;
• providing safe and direct routes to pedestrian-generating

activities;
• separating vehicle-generating activities from pedestrian

generating activities; and
• avoiding conflicts in vehicle access/egress to/from sites

and pedestrians.
Examples of land-use planning for safety are the creation of

protected precincts, the location of pedestrian-generating
activities, such as schools and local centres within these
precincts, and the provision of safe routes to the pedestrian
activities. Superficially, the planning approach seems simple, but,
when viewed over time, it becomes more complex (see
example).
Figure C-L12-3 Mothers with prams, children and dogs An integrated systems approach should include matters such as
are all part of the safety equation. type of pedestrian-generating land uses and their location in
Here the Main Street is also a State Highway (Cooma, NSW) relation to precincts, household types, desire lines, pedestrian
routes (location and design), traffic routes and traffic calming, the
location of conflict points, and their design and management. As
many of these factors can change, there is a need for a robust
system of pedestrian routes. Decisions on the location of
LAND-USE PLANNING pedestrian-generating activities should be made after an
TO REDUCE THE POTENTIAL FOR CONFLICT assessment of the implications for the safety of pedestrians and
the scope for reducing risk.
Land-use planning can reduce the potential for conflict by:
• locating pedestrian-generating activities in areas away

from through fast and heavy traffic:

TRANSPORT PLANNING vehicles travelling at given speeds, and arrives at school within a
TO REDUCE THE POTENTIAL FOR CONFLICT well-defined time frame. The return journey proceeds in the
opposite direction. The journey normally occurs during hours of
Transport planning can reduce the potential for conflict by: daylight.
• protected precincts and safe movement within them; Setting aside any security aspects, the key objectives are to
locate schools with reasonably direct pedestrian routes, reduce
• grade-separated and signal-controlled crossings on major the number of potential conflicts points, increase the anticipation
transport routes along major pedestrian desire lines; level of both children and drivers at points of conflict and reduce
the level of conflict during crossing.
• signal-controlled crossings, where there are large
pedestrian volumes and/or pedestrians in need of special However, the reality is different. The system is dynamic and there
protection (such as children and aged people); and are unknown elements. The dynamics become apparent when it
is viewed over a period of time. School type, size and catchments
• safe location and design of bus and tram stops. change with variations in educational policy, particularly in
relation to high schools. Enrolments vary with changes in
Principles have been developed for creating precincts or traffic household size and composition. Some schools may close,
calming schemes within them (see L-9 Centres as precincts, L- redirecting children to other schools and changing the ‘desire
10 Residential precincts, and L-11 Traffic calming). Warrants exist lines’ of travel and the routes to be followed. New traffic routes
for determining where signal controlled crossings are justified. may develop on intervening school routes. Existing traffic routes
There are guidelines for the safe location and design of bus may attract more traffic and different types of traffic. Hence the
stops (Victora, Department of Infrastructure, 1994). Frequently, planning of a rigid route system may become ineffective or less
local bus routes and stops are located along major transport safe than was intended.
routes without adequate provision for pedestrian crossing. In
order to reduce the potential for conflict, local bus routes and This outcome of constant adaptation and change can be
stops should not be located in Type I corridors, unless safe observed in many older suburbs, especially in inner urban areas,
crossing is guaranteed. where major conflict often occurs. It leads to the more pervasive
problem of optimising desire line routing with minimal points of
conflict in a situation of change.
EXAMPLE: Land-use planning for safe routes to schools
There are other unknowns. For example, the balance between
A typical ever yday walk to school is as follows. A child public and private schools is changing, and as private schools
commences the jour ney from home to school on foot, tend to be more remote from where children live (because there
unaccompanied by an adult, selects a route, walks along the are fewer of them), children walk longer distances or walk to
route, crosses streets and roads with a certain number of some form of public transport for part of the journey. There are

knowns and unknowns about different age groups of children and TRANSPORT MANAGEMENT TO MANAGE CONFLICT
their perception and behaviour (e.g. Black B, 1994). There are
also unknowns about conflict-reducing measures and their Transport management can be used to manage conflict. Conflict
effectiveness in relation to school children of different ages. can be reduced by:
The implication for land-use planning is to locate schools in • providing designated pedestrian crossings;
areas where traffic calming principles have been applied and a
network of safe pedestrian routes has been provided. • managing vehicle speed in areas of pedestrian activity;
(Adapted from Guidelines for safe routes to schools, 1996, RTA) • esigning the road space to increase pedestrian safety; and
• assessing each development application from a safety

impact viewpoint.
Controlling the location of pedestrian-generating activities is a

technique which applies to all land uses along or near transport
routes. The performance criteria are different, depending on the
road/environment situation. For example, pedestrian-generating
activities should not be encouraged along Type I corridors, and
be carefully managed along Type II corridors.
The principle of activity profiles and their corresponding speed

profiles is relevant here (see C-5 Adapting type II corridors).
Instead of the conventional commercial type of zoning, a
distinction should be made between pedestrian-generating and
vehicle-generating zones in commercial areas along transport
routes.
Figure C-L12-4 Safety must be obvious. Pavement type which Designated pedestrian crossings are appropriate where there
clearly suggests continuity in behaviour (and expectation of are significant pedestrian volumes or special needs, but
safety) should not have to depend on signs alerting pedestrians adequate warning, and visibility for both pedestrians and drivers
to a conflict. The route should be relocated, the pavement (during the day and at night) are essential (see L-13 Visibility).
changed at the point where vehicles have priority, or a legal
crossing should be introduced. Speed profiles are essential in shared situations, with target
vehicle speeds of 25 km/h and 35km/h in the core zones

(depending on whether there is opportunity to cross in stages important to set targets which are capable of
with a median or refuge). Speed limits in precincts can vary, being measured and to determine which measures will be used
depending on the priority given to pedestrians and whether there for monitoring performance.
is separate provision for pedestrians and vehicles (see L-9
Centres as precincts, L-10 Residential precincts). 4: Establish acceptable risk
Design of the road space for pedestrian safety involves Acceptable risk will depend on the context, as there is clearly a
application of the principles of Sharing the Main Street and trade-off between what is desired and what can be achieved.
AMCORD.
5: Identify routes and conflict
APPLICATION
Conflict points and type of conflict should be identified and
HOW CAN IT BE DONE? related to the routes pedestrians take. An inventory is necessary,
with the assessment of the kind of conflict and its relative
The process for the planning for safety in the context of the severity.
Guide and for established areas is outlined below.
6: Land-use, transport planning or management?
1: Identify the main pedestrian-generating activities
There may be conflict locations which require land-use solutions,
Identify and categorise them according to sensitivity from a while others may need transport planning or traffic management
safety viewpoint. treatment.
2: Develop location principles in respect of pedestrian 7: Develop a safety strategy

accessibility and safety requirements
With the information collected and the principles established, a
For each category of pedestrian-generating activity, principles of safety strategy can be developed which covers location of
accessibility and related safety requirements need to be pedestrian activities, routes, and conflict management.
established. There may be different requirements, for example,
for retirement communities and shopping centres. 8: Develop action plans
3: Develop safety targets An action plan is developed which is based on the strategy,
targets, priorities for action and available resources.
Safety targets could be related to a reduction of
pedestrian/vehicle casualties or the number of conflict points
above a certain rating. It is

9: Monitoring EXAMPLE
Monitoring is necessary to determine progress

STEP PURPOSE INPUT
towards achieving targets.
Step 1 Establish perceived Surveys of
APPROPRIATENESS
problems Principals
A safety strategy and action plan is appropriate in all areas.
Step 2 Establish recorded Child pedestrian and
accident problem cyclist accidents
EFFECTIVENESS
(0800– 1000 am and
1430 –1630 pm)
Effectiveness of a strategy depends on the effort made in
preparing it, and the resources which are applied.
Step 3 Establish intensity of Road and traffic
vehicular traffic in characteristics,
school catchment including volumes
and speeds
Step 4 Establish hazards Parameters obtained

RELATED TOOLS
and exposure in steps 1–3
indices for each
school
Step 5 Rank schools Spreadsheet
L-13 Visibility
according to constructed in
C-5 Adapting type II corridors
combined risk index Step 4
C-12 Maintaining community cohesion
Table C-L12 Ranking schools in urban areas

(Guidelines for safe routes to schools, 1996, RTA)

Visibility is about sight distances in relation to speed, and about
Visibility L-13 behaviour of all road users.
Behaviour represents a response in a specific context, and

design for visibility must reflect this. The need for visibility
depends on the road and road environment situation, and this
tool explores the requirements in different road environment
INTENT contexts.
Visibility is greatly influenced by a combination of land use and

transport decisions and is a significant factor in accidents. This
can be observed, for example, in the:
• location of activities in relation to transport routes;
• the siting and design of buildings;
• road and street design;
• the layout of parking areas; and
• traffic management.
The purpose of this tool is to ensure that proper attention is given

to visibility of pedestrians, cyclists and vehicles in all planning
activities.
Visibility is the ability to see stationary or moving objects ahead, Figure C-L13-1 Visibility and driver behaviour are influenced by
which influence decisions on movement. There are many forms landscaping - a residential street in Kingston, ACT
of visibility: visibility by drivers of other vehicles, pedestrians,
cyclists and other moving or stationary obstacles; visibility by
pedestrians of vehicles, cyclists and other pedestrians and
objects; and visibility by cyclists of vehicles, pedestrians and
objects. Visibility can be very different during the day and at night
and is also dependent on weather conditions.

RELEVANT FACTORS
WHY VISIBILITY IS IMPORTANT
Accident statistics show a clear correlation between visibility and

accidents. Research indicates that 30% of crashes involving
pedestrians were failures by the pedestrian to see a vehicle and
15% of drivers failing to see a pedestrian (Rigby in ‘Stepping towards
2000’, RTA, 1994). Studies show that pedestrians underestimate
vehicle speed greater than 50 km/h, and expect that they are more
visible to drivers than they really are, especially at night.
Figure C-L13-2 Stationary view
Visibility is an issue in accidents involving drivers, particularly at
bends, roads with poor vertical alignments, and at intersections.
Driveways can also cause a problem: when there is no visibility for
drivers backing out of driveways and there are pedestrians on the
footpath, and vehicles on the road or street. Visibility can be an issue
in parking areas when drivers have to unpark from angle parking
spaces into the traffic stream and there are large or long vehicles
parked next to them, blocking their vision. Visibility is highly
significant at bus stops and many accidents have occurred at such
locations.
CONTRIBUTING FACTORS
Figure C-L13-3 Sight distance at 25 km/h
Vehicle speed
Vehicle speed affects the angle of vision of a driver. At high speeds,

the driver’s peripheral vision is narrowly focussed, but at lower
speeds the driver can take in much more of what happens in the
street space and respond accordingly. The stopping distance is
increased when speeds are high: at speeds of 60 km/h, the average
stopping distance is 55 metres, but at speeds of 30 km/h it is 20
metres and at 15 km/h it is 5 metres. Hence visibility needs to be Figure C-L13-4 Sight distance at 60+ km/h
greater at high than at low speeds.

Observations show that driver speed is greatly influenced by Driver perception and behaviour
visibility. On a long straight and level road, drivers tend to go
faster than on a road with poor visibility. This phenomenon has Geometric and detailed design should provide for a built-in and
been used as one of the bases for traffic calming: by deliberately consistent level of visibility. Where there is a need for changes in
constraining visibility through various measures and warning driver behaviour, the geometric and detailed design (including
drivers in advance, vehicle speeds can be reduced. pavement type and speed-reducing measures) should clearly
reflect this. Sudden changes in driver behaviour can lead to
Sight distances accidents. For this reason, the notion of ‘speed profiles’ is
introduced in areas where changes in driver behaviour are
Sight distances are determined by vehicle speed and safe required (see L-11 Traffic calming and C-5 Adapting type II
stopping distances. In a low-speed environment, sight distances corridors).
can be much lower than in a high-speed environment. Sight
distances apply to horizontal and longitudinal road and street An important issue is visibility at night, especially in relation to
alignments. There are standards and guidelines (Austroads, pedestrians. Pedestrians are difficult to see against a dark
1988b; AMCORD, 1995) for different speed conditions. background and illumination is essential. Illumination should also
be consistent and be varied in areas where driver behaviour
Sight distances are particularly important at intersections and needs to be changed.
junctions. Building lines, front fences and walls should be
deter mined on the basis of these sightlines. Planting in VISIBILITY AND THE ROAD/ENVIRONMENT
roundabouts should allow for a clear vision between 0.6 and 2m ARE INTERDEPENDENT
above ground.
All these factors are interlinked, as behaviour represents a
Pedestrian perception and behaviour response in a specific context, and design for visibility must
reflect this. The need for visibility depends on the road and road
Visibility must be linked with age and condition. For example, the environment situation. There are different requirements for
time a pedestrian needs to cross depends on distance and different corridors, precincts, land-use categories, and traffic
pedestrian speed. Physically impaired people move at speeds of management situations.
about 0.5 m/s; elderly people at 0.8 m/s; physically able adults at
1.2 m/s and children can cross at 1.5 m/s (Studiecentrum Corridors
Verkeerstechniek, 1984). Greater visibility, therefore, is needed
for movements of aged and impaired people. A median strip In corridors, where vehicle movement is dominant, friction is
allows pedestrians to cross in two stages, waiting for a gap in intended to be low and target speeds (see L-11 Traffic calming
each of the two directions. for a definition) are relatively high (Type I Corridors). Visibility is
then determined by these target speeds, and sight distances will
be relatively long.

In certain sections of Type II corridors, activities may be taking ENSURING ADEQUATE VISIBILITY
place generating a high level of pedestrian movements, and IN LOCAL LAND-USE PLANNING
friction may result. Speed profiles are then essential, and visibility
should be linked with the target speed, established in the speed Beware of gradients
profile. In order to avoid sudden changes, an approach or
transition zone is defined, where changes in driver behaviour are New access drives or roadways onto roads should, wherever
to occur. The transition zones can be highlighted by ‘portals’ or possible, be on level ground or in hollows where there is good
‘entry gates’, which may be physical or visual features, or a visibility. They should not be near the crest of a hill, near a sharp
combination of both. bend or where there are double white lines (indicating restricted
forward visibility). At eye level (defined as 1.15 m above road
Where there are incidental land uses nearby, with pedestrian or level) there should be a clear view over the whole area.
cyclist movements across a type II corridor (such as schools,
hospitals, nursing homes and housing for the aged), the same Sight distance at junctions and intersections
principle of a speed reduction zone applies.
Sight distances at junctions depend on the type of roads and
Visibility at intersections is influenced by the presence of traffic vehicle speed. As priority at junctions and intersections is
signals. In the absence of signals, structures on corners should signposted, a simple distinction can be made between priority (or
allow for adequate sight distances (see next section). ‘major’) roads and ‘minor’ roads. Austroads’ Intersections at
Grade (1988b) makes a distinction between Safe Intersection
Precincts Sight Distance (SISD) and Approach Sight Distance (ASD).
Visibility in precincts depends on the type of street, target vehicle SISD indicates the distance for a given speed to identify a
speeds and type of vehicles. Provision for visibility at street potential conflict; ASD is the stopping sight distance at a given
intersections in residential areas is set out in AMCORD. speed (figure C-L13-6). The Austroads guidelines make
Footpaths and cycleways should not be located along the corrections for grade. A ‘minor road distance’ is the distance for
property boundary unless there is clear visibility from entrance new junctions and for the improvement of existing junctions
drives. On streets with more than 6,000 vpd, vehicles should exit between access roads and district or local distributor roads. The
from driveways in a forward direction. normal distance is 7m and the minimum is 5m.
In industrial areas, greater splays at intersections are needed The Austroad standard makes a distinction between rural and
because of long and large vehicles. Provision for forward urban roads (see Table C-L13-1), but not between different types
movement is needed for all sites which are used frequently by of minor roads.
large vehicles.
In the UK, PPG 13 (1995) makes a distinction between a busy
minor road (for example, where it serves as a main connection

between the public road system and a housing estate
development or an industrial estate) and a less busy road (for
example, serving a factory, a freestanding shop or a petrol filling
station). In case of the latter, a minor road distance of 4.5m will
normally be the acceptable minimum. For other types of access
serving single dwellings or a small cul-de-sac of a half dozen
dwellings, the minimum acceptable minor road distance in the
UK is 2.0m (there does not appear to be an equivalent guideline
in Australia).
Figure C-L13-6 Sight distance at intersections

(Source Austroads,1988b)
Example: Visibility requirements at intersections

Major road
speed
(km/h) 120 100 80 70 60 50 40
Safe Intersection
sight distance
SISD (metres)
Figure C-L13-5 Visibility at roundabouts can be a problem,
when there are pedestrian crossings and extensive landscaping. Urban 165 130 105 80 60
This example is attractive, but not recommended.
Rural 330 250 175 140 115 90 70
Source Austroads (1988b)

Splays 2: Obtain and consult appropriate existing guidelines
Where an emerging vehicle crosses a footpath at a lightly used E.g. Austroads, AMCORD
access - for example, from the driveway of a proposed dwelling -
pedestrians will not have sufficient warning of its approach. A 3: Prepare development control and engineering policies
splayed opening will normally be necessary for this purpose.
Unless a suitable alternative standard has been adopted by the For each road environment situation apply the visibility criteria,
local planning authority, the splay should extend from the back of develop performance criteria and prepare acceptable solutions.
the footpath for a ‘minor road distance’ of 2.0m and for a similar
‘major road distance’ along the back of the footpath. Where the 4: Incorporate in plans
footpath is likely to be used by small children, there should be clear
visibility at a level of 0.6m above road level, in addition to visibility Incor porate the policies into development plans, traffic
at the 115m level. management plans, building siting and design, road/street design
projects
It is not always practicable to comply fully with visibility standards.
Such standards, like all other material considerations in APPROPRIATENESS
development control, should be assessed in the light of the
circumstances of each case. However, visibility should never be An integrated approach towards ensuring adequate visibility is
reduced to a level where danger is likely to be caused. appropriate in all circumstances.
Parking EFFECTIVENESS
In parking areas with angle parking there is a need for visibility Policies and applications can be very effective in improving
space which allows drivers, backing out, to see and be seen by safety.
oncoming traffic. A space of about 1.5 metres is usually adequate.
APPLICATION
HOW CAN IT BE DONE? RELATED TOOLS
1: Identify the road environment situation L-11 Traffic calming

L-12 Safety
Identify the type of corridor and precinct, and assess the land-use C-1 Corridor categorisation
and target speed environment. Establish categories for the C-5 Adapting type II corridors
application of visibility criteria.

Their role in relation to transport infrastructure is (i) to ensure
Incentives and L-14 that the density and location of development supports existing or
planned transport facilities; (ii) full use is made of the existing
contributions infrastructure before new capacity is added and (iii) the
profitability of new development reflects the incremental cost of
providing the requisite infrastructure.
Development contributions are designed to finance, in whole or

in part, capital expenditure on infrastructure, which is needed to
INTENT service a development.
The purpose of this tool is to encourage preferred development Following are the basic requirements for a contribution:
through incentives, and to plan for the provision of contributions,
where infrastructure is necessary as a result of development. • there should be a nexus to the development;
Integrated approaches towards development incentives and • costs should be apportioned fairly between contributing
contributions can: parcels of land or developments;
• indicate where development is preferable; • the contributions should be earmarked for the
infrastructure for which they are levied; and
• encourage specific types of development;
• the amounts raised should be spent within a reasonable
• recoup the costs of infrastructure, in whole or part; and time.
• encourage timely development. RELEVANT FACTORS
Development incentives are designed to ensure that: WHAT FORM DO INFRASTRUCTURE-RELATED

DEVELOPMENT INCENTIVES TAKE?
• development occurs in the most advantageous locations;
[Note: much of the material in this tool was contributed by Dr
• development is of a preferred type or density; and Richard Kirwan, Kinhill].
• the sequence of development is co-ordinated with Infrastructure-related development incentives can take a number
investment in infrastructure. of different forms. Typical examples might include:

• Variations in charges - Existing infrastructure charges can • there may not be an appropriate use-related revenue
be varied to encourage development of a preferred type. stream, as in the case of roads;
For example, charges for connection to water supply or
electricity grids may be lowered in areas where there is • the most appropriate form of use-related pricing may not
spare capacity and no new investment is required. be enough to cover the full cost - e.g. where the scale of
the investment dictates short-run marginal cost pricing,
• Planning bonuses - Variations in development conditions leaving the capital cost to be funded by other means, as is
or zoning can be given for development. which the case with water supply headworks; and
significantly improves the use of the transport system. For
example, higher densities may be permitted for • the infrastructure provider faces borrowing, or other capital
development directly adjacent to public transport funding constraints, which puts a premium on up-front
interchanges, such as rail stations. capital payments for new works.
• Tax breaks - These are more likely to be given for privately DIFFERENTIAL CONTRIBUTIONS
financed infrastructure than for development.
A further reason for capital contributions arises from the difficulty
In the USA there is a much greater usage of development of varying use-related charges by area or scheme. Where
incentives than in Australia, though the emphasis of the practical or if political considerations dictate a uniform user
incentives tends to be on economic development rather than land charge, significant variations in the capital cost of servicing
development. These include tax breaks, reflecting the higher different areas or developments are smoothed out. As a result,
incidence of locally deter mined taxes on land use and there are no disincentives to develop in the locations, or in the
development. They also extend to the transfer of development types of development which are more expensive to service.
rights and credits.
In these circumstances, the use of up-front capital charges, to
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DEVELOPMENT cover a significant proportion of the marginal capital expenditure
CONTRIBUTIONS AND USER CHARGES on infrastructure, assists to send correct pricing signals to the
development market: where, and in what form, development
The most direct way of tying financing of infrastructure to the should take place.
specific developments or land uses which it is designed to serve
is through user charges. User charges ensure that the burden is WHAT FORM DO DEVELOPMENT CONTRIBUTIONS TAKE?
borne by the primary beneficiaries.
Inter national experience points to four basic models for
However, often the whole cost of infrastructure cannot be development contributions. Most specific schemes are variants of
recouped in this way: these models.

Negotiated contributions underlying principle remains that the contribution is just, because
the development benefits from the infrastructure. Contributions can
These rely on direct negotiations between the infrastructure be either in the form of capital payments or in the form of recurrent
authorities and developers. They can be ruled illegal if charges.
development consent is judged to depend on the outcome of the
negotiations. It is reported that a building in Seattle was allowed to grow from 27
to 55 stories in return for contributions to 10 ‘public interest’
Planning bonuses schemes.
Unlike the use of planning bonuses as development incentives Recurrent charges in this instance are clearly distinguished from
(see above), the use of planning bonuses as a source of capital user charges because they are not directly related to use.
funds is less focused on the development which results, but more
on the funding of infrastructure. Indeed, it has been argued in Assessments based on cost alone involve an apportionment of
many cases that the resulting development is inappropriate, and cost. The apportionment principles often embody an implicit view
that it is wrong to allow additional development merely to obtain about the distribution of benefits as much as the distribution of
the funding required for essential infrastructure. cost, especially in relation to large ‘joint’ costs.
Planning bonuses depend, by definition, on the existence of well- Assessments based on benefit are typically related to land values
defined planning, zoning or building controls, which can be relaxed (or assessed rateable values) or land value increments.
in ways which are closely related to the additional payments.
Benefit-related assessments are hard to levy in areas of existing
Planning bonuses, if permissible by law, do not require a nexus development - e.g. where redevelopment or augmentation of
between the contributing development and the infrastructure infrastructure is required - especially in the form of capital
provided. The basic requirement is that funds must be for a ‘public contributions. Existing land uses may be unable to finance capital
interest’ purpose. payments. In some countries, there is explicit provision for the
deferral of payments, with or without rolled-up interest.
Planning bonuses have been used in the USA to provide
contributions for urban public transport investment. Special development areas
Benefit-related assessments Many countries have designated special development areas where
special rules apply to contributions to infrastructure. In some
Benefit-related assessments cover all charges levied on parcels of examples, additional powers to levy contributions are granted; in
land or developments which are assessed to benefit from the others the contributions to be paid by landowners and developers
provision of infrastructure. The charge itself may be based on the are agreed upon and embodied in the proposals for specific areas.
apportionment of cost rather than the recoupment of benefit. The These then have legal force.

This model is most appropriate to areas experiencing large-scale Methods of implementation
integrated development, such as major inner area redevelopment
schemes or ‘new town’ style development on greenfield sites. Typical forms of development contributions are:
APPLICATION • up-front capital payments;
HOW CAN IT BE DONE? • deferred capital payments; and
How development contributions and incentives are used depends • specific recurrent charges, such as special rates.
on conditions, which vary from State to State. However, some
general comments should be made. In most jurisdictions, special rates to cover contributions in
capital expenditure (or infrastructure augmentation) are an
Mismatch of powers under-used fiscal device.
The use of development incentives and development Other examples of development contributions include:
contributions requires special legislative backing. Existing powers
tend to be granted: • capital works or services in kind, in lieu of payments; and
• either to local government • infrastructure and area-specific charges, such as the

periodic recurrent transportation charges levied in many
• or to designated infrastructure providers, such as water - US cities.
and sewerage authorities/corporations.
THE DESIGN OF DEVELOPMENT CONTRIBUTION REGIMES
In some States, there is a major gap in the system, as there is no
provision for levying contributions in the case of infrastructure The implementation of the National Competition Policy has
services directly, provided by State governments - e.g. highways, focused attention on the design and implementation of
rail public transport. development contributions. The guidelines for water and
sewerage development contributions provide a good example of
Incentives relating to development are usually controlled by local the application of relevant principles.
government. Local government also has an interest in the
provision of community services, but not in the provision of major The basic principle is that the Present Value of the sum of
physical infrastructure. Development Contributions and Recurrent Charges should be
designed to equal the Present Value of all Capital and Recurrent
Costs. This means that development contributions should equal
the present value of all attributable costs less the present value
of attributable recurrent revenues.

For example, where normal recurrent charges incorporate a • an efficiency factor (40%) is to be applied to existing asset
contribution to average capital asset values, the development values.
contribution will only relate to the excess of capital cost over the
average amount. This avoids the ‘double-dipping’ which might These principles reflect the requirements of the National
otherwise occur where development contributions and recurrent Competition Policy. Similar principles will become embodied in
charges are both levied. the design of all development contributions for transport and
other categories of infrastructure.
The discount rate should reflect the intrinsic riskiness of the
project. Different rates may he applied to the replacement of past APPROPRIATENESS
assets and to newly planned assets.
Development incentives need to be used with care. There are
EXAMPLE obvious risks associated with the preferential treatment of certain
types of development. Transparency is important. However,
There are many examples of development contributions in incentives based on differential pricing can play a significant role
Australia. They mostly cover water and sewerage, community in guiding development to suit the pattern of infrastructure
service facilities, drainage and catchment works, and other development.
capital items.
Developer contributions are an appropriate addition to other
For example, development contributions for regional and local methods of cost recovery where:
roads in Queensland growth areas are based on the
apportionment of costs in areas within the total catchment of the • there are no direct user charges;
roads in question, with allowance for external movements on the
longer distance road network. • user charges are based on short-run marginal costs;
Development charges for water supply, sewerage and drainage • infrastructure providers are faced with capital funding
levied by Sydney Water Cor poration have recently been constraints;
determined by the NSW Independent Pricing and Regulatory
Tribunal. According to the determination: • it is important to send signals to the development industry
about the differential costs of servicing different areas or
• contributions must be based on Net Present Value about preferred forms and locations for development.
methodology;
• different discount rates are to be applied

to existing and future assets (3% and 9% respectively);
and

EFFECTIVENESS
Development incentives can have a significant influence on the

form and location of new development. They can ensure,
especially through differential charges, that development occurs
in a sequence and at a density which supports investment in
transport infrastructure.
Development contributions are an effective addition to the variety

of ways used to fund infrastructure. They are generally not as
well developed in relation to roads (other than local roads) and
rail public transport as they are in relation to major water and
sewerage headworks and infrastructure.
A more innovative approach is required to develop appropriate

ways of levying contributions to transport infrastructure in the
absence of direct user charges (see also C-9 Transport pricing
and tolls).
RELATED TOOLS


The application of standards in land-use and traffic management
Performance-based L-15 practice should be approached with caution. Some engineering
standards are based on clear evidence and should, in that event,
approaches prevail. Other standards, such as the pavement width in streets,
are derived from experience and what is considered to be good
practice at the time. Such standards need not necessarily be
applied in all circumstances.
Integrated performance-based approaches towards land-use and

INTENT traffic management can:
The purpose of this tool is to encourage the development of • ensure a strong focus on objectives and achieving desired
flexible approaches in land-use and traffic management which outcomes;
focus on desired outcomes instead of prescription.
• encourage a whole of government approach;
There is a need for more flexible approaches. Conventional
planning and engineering controls have been based on • provide greater opportunity for variety and choice;
prescription and adherence to numerical standards. They are
relatively easy to administer (e.g. does a development comply • allow for flexibility to respond to market needs and
with the prescribed standards?), but omit the reasons for the preferences;
standards. The crucial link between a proposed development and
an outcome desirable for all those involved, is often lacking. • respond to different location requirements and
Standards do not take account of local conditions and allow no characteristics; and
scope for trade-offs.
• allow scope for trade-offs, provided there is sound
There is clearly a need for making trade-offs. Housing needs, evidence.
commercial and industrial development have become more
diverse; urban growth and change have become more complex. RELEVANT FACTORS
Development which, ‘according to the rules’, could not be
permitted, may be desirable in a certain location, provided WHAT IS A PERFORMANCE-BASED APPROACH?
safeguards are being met. For example, a business providing
local employment may be acceptable in a residential area, A performance-based approach overcomes the problem of
provided it does not attract a significant amount of external inflexibility and is used in the Building Code of Australia and
traffic. Performance zoning allows it to happen. AMCORD. It focuses on objectives and desired outcomes. These
are established up-front, which ensures there is an agreed

framework of strategic or development outcomes. The objectives par ticular zone, area or site. Innovative solutions can be
are supported by a set of performance areas and criteria which considered provided it can be demonstrated that there are no
indicate the matters to be addressed in preparing and assessing adverse consequences.
a proposal.
REQUIREMENTS FOR A PERFORMANCE APPROACH
In AMCORD, the performance areas are called ‘Elements’. They
include aspects such as site access, set-backs and acoustic The requirements for a performance approach are (RAPI, 1996):
privacy. For each performance area there is a a statement of
intent and a list of performance criteria. Each Element has four Up-front planning
components:
Without comprehensive and inclusive up-front planning, it will be
(i) Explanation difficult, if not impossible, to define desired outcomes and the
specific policies which are required to guide future development.
Describes the need or justification for a particular Element and
includes relevant background Categorisation
material.
To simplify the design and assessment process, it is desirable to
(ii) Intent identify those particular ‘Elements’ and associated policies which
are related specifically to a particular category of development.
States briefly what is to be achieved - what the desired outcomes Examples of categories are forms of development (not housing
are for that Element. types such as detached houses, or commercial uses), such as
large greenfield developments, infill developments, shopping
(iii) Performance criteria centres, and areas for service industry.
Performance criteria state in general qualitative terms how to Weighting and trade-offs
achieve desired outcomes.
Site analysis for a particular category of development or a
(Iv) Acceptable solutions particular zone will show that there are Elements which are more
impor tant than others. The process of selecting the most
Provides examples of ways in which the performance criteria can important factors is called weighting. Weighting is conducted at
be achieved. Wherever possible, they are expressed in the form two points in the process: the up-front planning stage, and during
of numerical standards, but should not be interpreted as the preparation of a development proposal (or traffic
minimum standards. While these solutions may satisfy the management scheme). It involves discussions with the
performance criteria, other solutions may be acceptable and can stakeholders. For example, in the case of the preparation of a
also be considered. The aim is to suit the approach to the housing development, pre-design discussion with council staff

and neighbours who are affected may show that overlooking or CONVENTIONAL APPROACHES
traffic noise are the more important issues to be addressed.
Most development control systems are based on relatively fixed
In many cases, particularly with more complex developments, it standards, prescribing conditions under which a proposal is likely
will not be possible to satisfy all the relevant on-site and off-site to be approved. They:
performance criteria. Trade-offs will then be necessary -
satisfying one set of performance criteria may mean not • offer a measure of certainty and predictability to
satisfying others. This is a legitimate part of the development and applications, councils and the community;
design process and should also be acknowledged during
assessment. • simplify the assessment of development applications
because there are relatively few aspects where a
Exploring acceptable solutions judgement has to be made; and
There is a need for testing locally derived acceptable solutions to • incorporate standards which are usually set at safe levels
ensure that they satisfy the relevant performance criteria and and, when applied, can be expected to finish up with a
their application to a range of development possibilities. reasonable result.
Consultation, negotiation and mediation There are many situations where these advantages outweigh the
advantages of a performance-based approach. This applies, in
Consultation, negotiation and mediation are a feature of the particular, to the many routine developments which occur.
performance-based approach. They are likely to continue from However, there are also situations where there is a need for
the beginning of the up-front planning process to the assessment greater flexibility than can be achieved with a conventional
of development proposals or the implementation of a traffic approach. In these situations, the performance approach with its
management scheme. If well conducted, these processes will focus on outcomes is preferred.
help to produce a high quality of development outcomes, and will
reduce conflict. OVERCOMING OBSTACLES
Problem solving Performance approaches are not yet in widespread use. There
are several reasons:
Early consultation with affected groups (neighbours in small
projects, the wider community for larger projects), helps to • Up-front planning and consultation;
identify and resolve problems before development applications
are made or traffic management schemes are introduced. • More demanding documentation;
Streamlining the assessment and decision processes will lead to
an optimal outcome. • Resources and skills; and

• Communication. planning, engineering and community services) will help to
achieve an integrated and outcome-based approach to
Up-front planning assessment.
The performance approach requires sufficient up-front planning

to establish development and design outcomes which developers
can interpret and use. This activity depends on local resources
and priorities.
Documentation
Development proposals using the performance approach and

assessment reports prepared by officials need to include more
extensive documentation and analysis. This is especially the
case with complex projects involving a range of development and
design issues or a number of trade-offs. Without such
documentation, there is a risk that proposals may not succeed or
will be argued on appeal.
Resources and skills
The performance approach is likely to create extra demands on Figure C-L15-1 An integrated planning system, linking desired
the time and resources needed for research and consultation. outcomes, established by up-front planning, with development
Professionals involved should be suitably trained and empowered and design controls
to negotiate, mediate and document the processes.
There is considerable scope to apply the performance approach APPLICATION

where flexibility is important, and use conventional approaches
for routine matters. HOW CAN IT BE DONE?
Communication Step 1: Up-front planning
Rotating staff between different roles (such as development A strategic study is desirable for each local government area in
assessment and policy for mulation) and improving order to determine development areas or zones for particular
communication between administrative areas (such as between categories of development. For each development area or zone,

desired outcomes can then be determined. In the context of this Step 5: Monitoring
Better Practice Guide, these outcomes could be wide-ranging,
but should always focus on integrated results, such as residential The actual performance should be monitored so that any needs
developments with in-built public transport, or centres with for improvement are identified.
priority for pedestrians in the core.
Step 2: Implementation planning

Weighting
The next step is to determine which performance areas are
critical for achieving desired outcomes (i.e. which Elements are AMCORD suggests that, as a general rule, the appropriate
necessary), and the intent of these Elements and performance weighting to be applied within design Element categories
criteria which are attached to them. There may be a need for should be:
categorisation, weighting and establishing the scope for trade-
offs. It is impor tant to clarify, as much as possible, the • Priority 1: relating to community safety and well-being;
parameters for development control and the processes for
preparing and assessing proposals. • Priority 2: relating to safety and comfort of the
development occupants;
Step 3: Committing resources
• Priority 3: dealing with the relationship of a
The performance approach requires resources of skill and development with its surroundings;
experience in consultation, negotiation, mediation and
communication. These extra calls on human resources are far • Priority 4: dealing with the internal arrangements on-
outweighed by the benefits of achieving a mutually acceptable site.
solution early in the process, smooth implementation and a
general improvement in quality and choice.
Step 4: Providing information and assistance APPROPRIATENESS
The performance approach only works if developers, planners, Performance approaches in urban and rural management are
designers, engineers and others appropriate in all areas, but the details should be adapted to the
responsible for preparing proposals understand the purpose and specific needs and priorities in each area.
application of the process. Creating awareness and knowledge
are essential.

Effectiveness can be measured only if compared with current L-7 Parking standards and management
approaches. There have not yet been any comparative surveys L-10 Residential precincts
but the potential for improved integrated outcomes has been L-11 Traffic calming
recognised in other documents (e.g. Building Code of Australia, C-13 Visual enhancement
AMCORD - Australian Better Practice Guide for Residential
Development).
EXAMPLE
The performance approach has already been used in several

planning schemes, (e.g. Planning Scheme for Gatton Shire
council, Qld ,1994).
In Adelaide, performance zoning is being introduced for industrial

areas. Industrial areas are categorised by type, general
objectives for the zone are determined, the planning context is
described, development elements are identified and performance
criteria provided. These elements address matters such as the
utilisation of arterial roads and the preferred transport network for
primary vehicle access, use of residential streets, off-street
parking, access and egress, heavy vehicle access, loading bays
and impact on amenity (Industrial Planning Study, for
Department of Housing and Urban Development, 1995).

• it shifts the focus from transport routes to these
Corridor categorisation C-1 relationships at all stages of planning and implementation;
• there are many different situations, requiring different

approaches to integrated planning and management;
• it provides the basis for developing networks in new areas

and can be used to identify problems, solutions and
priorities in established areas; and
INTENT
• it helps to clarify what type of corridor is to be achieved in
Transport corridors in terms of the Guide are transport routes the longer term and the kind of changes in transport
and their land-use environment.As explained in Part B, Chapter function and/or in adjoining development, which will be
2, there are interactions between the function and performance required.
of transport routes and the environment in which they are
located.The purpose of this tool is to identify the different types of
corridors and categorise them for the purpose of integrated
planning, design, development and management.
Corridors can be described as spaces used for movement, plus

adjoining spaces, which interact with the movement function (for
a definition see L-8: Corridors and precincts).Considering
transport routes and adjoining areas together ensures that the
relationships between transport function, adjoining land use,
local transport, the natural and the built environment are always
addressed, and at all stages of planning and management of a
corridor.
Categorisation of transport routes as ‘corridors’ is useful

because:
• there are different types of transport routes with a different Figure C-C1-1 A Type I corridor with a dominant
relationship to adjoining land; transport function (Military Road, Neutral Bay, Sydney)

RELEVANT FACTORS • there are conflicts between road frontage activity and the
function of a road as a major regional transport route.
WHY CATEGORISATION IS ESSENTIAL
Instead of the conventional approach, regarding the transport
There are many interactions between transport routes and function as dominant and dealing with such problems on an ad-
adjoining areas.They will be described in more detail in C-2: hoc basis, a corridor approach involves looking at land use and
Planning for new Type I corridors and C-3 Planning for new Type environmental conditions as equal factors.There may be non-
II corridors. road-based solutions to problems, or solutions, which involve the
development of alternative modes or routes.
An understanding of these interactions is fundamental:
TWO BASIC TYPES OF CORRIDORS
• at the time, when networks are planned;
In the approach followed a basic distinction is made between two
• decisions are made on the upgrading of a particular route; types of corridors because they represent two fundamentally
different road/environment situations.
• routes are allocated for particular purposes (such as truck
routes); With Type I corridors, the through transport function is the
dominant function, and adjoining areas need to be planned,
• land-use zoning and development control plans are designed and managed to reduce or eliminate friction and impact
prepared; and (See C-2).
• development applications are prepared and assessed. With Type II corridors, both transport function and the function
and quality of adjoining areas are important, and both (or either)
The approach to these interactions can be reflected in a transport and the environment may require adaptation (see C-
categorisation of transport routes and their environments.This is 3).Other classifications can be adopted, such as a road hierarchy
useful from a practical viewpoint as it provides a basis for dealing and major roads (see R-8 Road systems and land use).The
with policy, planning and design issues. For example: classification used here is based on roads and their
environments.
• adjoining areas may be exposed to increasing traffic noise
and air pollution; There are other road/environment relationships, such as streets
in residential and commercial areas, cycle routes and pedestrian
• there may be a concentration of vehicle/pedestrian routes.They are included in the example later in this tool, butthe
conflicts along certain sections; and focus here is on road environments with primary and secondary
through transport functions.

THERE ARE DIFFERENT SITUATIONS APPLICATION
They are four major situations: HOW CAN IT BE DONE?
• corridors and urban development along them; 1:Determine the desired transport function in the network
• corridors without urban development as yet; Categorisation of corridors starts with establishing the desired
function of the transport route within the overall urban or regional
• no corridor and no urban development, but a new corridor network strategy, and any constraints arising from the road
is to be established; and environment.In the case of a Type I road environment, the
function may be to serve national, State, regional or district
• urban development exists and a new corridor has to be movements; the corridor may perform as a regional truck route, a
established. route for dangerous goods and for express public transport.There
may be environmental constraints along certain sections (such
Inevitable tensions between the transport function and the road as a high school adjacent to the road), which may make it
environment occur when there are changes in the former or the necessary to focus on such constraints before proceeding too
latter.Issues of land use, transport and the environment arise, quickly with considerations of capacity and traffic performance.
and there are different planning design and management
responses to them.A key factor is whether the corridor is a Type I 2: Establish movement concepts for different corridor types
or Type II Road environment.This distinction indicates which
function should be dominant and what kind of integrated Initial concepts need to be established for the movement space
approach is necessary. in different types of corridor and the allocation of this space to
different transport functions (see figures C-C1-2 and 3).The
It is not always easy to determine whether a road environment is different functions of transport routes are reflected in different
a Type I or Type II corridor.A Type I can become a Type II corridor cross-sections.There will be variations, depending on the
for short sections (for example, a Main Road through a country situation: (i) a new corridor and no urban development; (ii) a new
town with generally low traffic volumes); or for routes where the corridor and existing urban development, (iii) upgrading of
transport function will change (for example, a Main Street, where existing transport route in undeveloped areas; (iv) upgrading of
a by-pass has been planned).The balance between friction and existing transport route in a developed area.
impact can also vary during the day or time of the year (e.g.
tourist season), requir ing flexibility in corr idor 3: Determine criteria for the transport, environmental and
management.Generally, the determination of the type of corridor land-use performance of each type of movement concept
is made as part of the strategic planning processes for
regions and local areas. This is an essential step for a corridor approach.The transport
criteria are linked to the transport function and reflected in the

degree of friction which is acceptable for each function (for 4: Develop corridor categories
example, site access and intersection spacing).The
environmental criteria depend on the transport function and will Application ofthe above criteria to the movement concepts leads
include emission criteria.The land-use criteria are linked to both to a conceptual categorisation of Type I and II corridors.There will
environmental impact of the transport function and support for be several Type I and Type II corridor categories, depending on
the transport function (e.g. service stations).It also includes the context and situation (see for example, Table C-C3-1 in C3:
community severance and the way in which to address it. Planning new Type II corridors).
It should be noted that these criteria are not included in figures It is an idealised categorisation: trade-off decisions will often
C-C1-3 and 4. have to be made, especially in established areas.However, it
provides a clear basis for making such decisions on an
integratedbasis.It is possible to establish land-use and design
concepts for particular forms of Type I and Type II Corridors (e.g.
Metro, 1997).
APPROPRIATENESS
Corridor categorisation is appropriate in all situations.It provides

the basis for:
Type I
• integrated planning of new corridors:
• identifying problems in established urban areas;
• improving or adapting existing transport routes and their

Type II environments; and
• developing guidelines for land-use planning, development

control and urban design (seeC-14 and C-13).
EFFECTIVENESS
The effectiveness of corridor categorisation, using the principles

outlined, has yet to be established.However, there are many
Figure C-C1-2 Categorisation of transport corridors examples of partial application, such as the use of restricted

access routes and land-use controls along Main Roads, which
have proved to be effective.
EXAMPLES
In Portland, Oregon, a distinction is made between through ways

(freeways and highways), boulevards (regional and community),
streets (regional and community),and roads (urban and rural).
While the Portland differentiation is a significant example of

categorisation and performance components, it should be noted
that it does not address appropriate land uses and environmental
concerns (such as noise and air quality).
THROUGHWAYS
Freeways
Freeways usually consist of four to six vehicle travel lanes, with

additional lanes in some situations. They are completely divided,
with no left turn lanes. Freeway designs have few street
connections, which always occur at separated grades with
access controlled by ramps. There is no driveway access to
freeways or buildings oriented toward these facilities, and only
emergency parking is allowed. Freeway designs do not include
pedestrian amenities, with the exception of improved crossings
on overpasses and access ramps. Bikeways designed in
conjunction with freeway improvements usually follow parallel
routes.
Highways
Highways usually consist of four to six vehicle travel lanes, with

additional lanes in some situations. Highway designs have few
street connections, and they may occur at same-grade or on Figure C-C1-3 Major transport routes

separate grades. Highways are usually divided with a median, but Community Boulevards
also have left turn lanes (this is the USA!), where at-grade
intersections exist. There are few access driveways on highways, Community Boulevards mix motor vehicle traffic with public
and buildings are not oriented toward these facilities.On-street transpor t, bicycle and pedestr ian travel, where dense
parking is usually prohibited in highway designs, but may exist in development is oriented towards the street. These facilities
some locations. Highway designs include striped bikeways (in the are designed for low motor vehicle speeds and usually
US) and sidewalks with optional buffering. Improved pedestrian include four vehicle lanes and on-street parking. Fewer
crossings are located on overpasses, underpasses and at same- ve h i c l e l a n e s m ay b e a p p r o p r i a t e i n s o m e s i t u a t i o n s,
grade intersections. p a r t i c u l a r l y t o p r ov i d e o n - s t r e e t p a r k i n g . C o m m u n i t y
B o u l eva r d s h ave m a ny s t r e e t c o n n e c t i o n s a n d s o m e
BOULEVARDS driveways, although combined driveways are preferable.
Where appropr iate, centre medians offer a pedestr ian
Regional Boulevards refuge and allow for left turn movements at intersections.
Regional Boulevards mix a significant amount of motor vehicle Community Boulevards are designed to be transit-oriented,
traffic with public transport, bicycle and pedestrian travel, where with high-quality service, which is supported by substantial
dense development is oriented towards the street. These designs transit amenities at stops and station areas. Pedestrian
feature low to moderate vehicle speeds and usually include four i m p r o ve m e n t s a r e a l s o s u b s t a n t i a l , i n c l u d i n g b r o a d
vehicle lanes. Additional lanes or one-way couplets may be sidewalks, pedestrian buffering, special street lighting and
included in some situations. Regional boulevards have many street crossings at all intersections with special crossing amenities
connections and some driveways, although combined driveways at major intersections. Community Boulevards have striped
are preferable. These facilities may include on-street parking when or shared bikeways and some on-street parking. These
possible. The centre median serves as a pedestrian refuge and facilities also serve as secondary freight routes, and may
allows for left turn movements (in the US!) at intersections. include loading facilities within the street design.
Regional boulevards are designed to be transit-oriented, with high- STREETS

quality service and substantial transit amenities at stops and
station areas. Pedestrian improvements are substantial on Regional Streets
boulevards, including broad sidewalks, pedestrian buffering,
special street lighting and crossings at all intersections with special Regional Streets are designed to carry significant vehicle
crossing amenities at major intersections. These facilities have bike traffic, while also providing for public transport, bicycle and
lanes or wide outside lanes, where bike lanes are not physically pedestrian travel. These facilities ser ve a development
possible, or are shared roadways, where motor vehicle speeds are patter n which ranges from low-density residential
low. They also serve as primary freight routes, and may include neighbourhoods to more densely developed corridors and
loading facilities within the street design. main streets, where buildings are often

oriented towards the street at major intersections and transit
stops. Regional street designs accommodate moderate motor
vehicle speeds and usually include four vehicle lanes.Additional
motor vehicle lanes may be appropriate in some situations.
These facilities have some or many street connections,

depending on the district they are serving. RegionalStreets have
few driveways;they are combined whenever possible. On-street
parking may be included, and a centre median serves as a
pedestrian refuge, and allows for left turn movements (this is the
USA!) at intersections.Regional Streets have bike lanes or wide
outside lanes, where bike lanes are not physically possible, or
are shared roadways where motor vehicle speeds are low. They
also serve as primary freight routes, and may include loading
facilities within the street design, where appropriate.
Community Streets
Community Streets are designed to carry vehicle traffic while

providing for public transportation, bicycle and pedestrian travel.
They serve low-density residential neighbourhoods as well as
more densely developed corridors and main streets where
buildings are often or iented towards the street at main
intersections and transit stops. Community Street designs allow
for moderate motor vehicle speeds and usually include four
motor vehicle lanes and on-street parking. However, fewer travel
lanes may be appropriate, when necessary, to provide for on-
street parking. These facilities have some or many street
connections, depending on the 2040 Growth Concept (in
Oregon) land-use components they serve.
Community streets have few driveways and they are shared

when possible. A centre median serves as a pedestrian refuge
and allows for left turn movements (again, this is the USA!) at
Figure C-C1-4 Secondary transport routes intersections.Community streets are transit-oriented in design,

with transit amenities at stops and station areas.Community • On-street parking
streets have striped or shared bikeways. They also serve as
secondary freight routes, and may include loading facilities within • Public transport amenities
the street design, where appropriate.
• Pedestrians andcyclists (including crossing)
ROADS
• Freight function.
Roads are traffic-oriented designs which provide motor vehicle
mobility in the 2040 Growth Concept land-use components they As will become apparent from a perusal of other corridor tools,
serve and accommodate a minimal amount of pedestrian and this list is incomplete.In the context of the Guide, it should be
public transportation travel. These facilities may benefit from augmented by environmental and land-use performance
access management and ATMS techniques. Roads serve the measures.
travel needs of the region’s low-density industrial and
employment areas as well as rural areas, located outside the
urban growth boundary. Roads are, therefore, divided into urban [NOTE: This is a summary of the approach in Portland (Metro,
and rural designs. 1996)]
ROAD/STREET COMPONENTS
For each category, performance measures and characteristics

are determined (in Portland).They are:
• Applicability to type of district
• Buildings oriented towards road/street
• Number of vehicle lanes
• Vehicle speed
• Turn at median
Figure C-C1-5 The Hume Highway through Goulburn,
• Street connection which was a Type I corridor and has become
a Type II corridor after completion of a bypass.
• Access management The road/environment relationship has changed.

RELATED TOOLS

C-6 Access to roads
C-13 Visual enhancement
Figure C-C1-6 Type II corridor through a suburban area

Planning of new C-2
Type I corridors
INTENT Figure C-C2-1 A Type I corridor with an effective relationship

between transport function and the built environment
Type I corridors comprise major transport routes and the (Northbourne Ave, Canberra)
adjoining land and development. In Type I corridors the transport
function is always dominant and the adjoining land use and
development should be compatible with it. The purpose of this
tool is to encourage the integrated planning of Type I corridors. Integrated approaches to the planning of new Type I corridors
ensure that:
The transport function can take different forms: highways, arterial
roads, freeways, motorways, expressways, and railways. They • the development of new major transport routes is
can serving as general vehicle routes, freight routes, regional considered, not only in the context of their role in the
public transport routes or a combination. transport network, but also in the context of their relation-
ship with land-use and the environment at regional, local
There are three levels of consideration (ignoring national and adjacent levels;
relationships):
• there is a basis for categorising corridors and sections of
• Regional; corridors, according to their desired performance
characteristics, as well as the desired land-use and e
• Local; and nvironmental conditions along their routes;
• Adjacent. • there is a basis for zoning and development control along

corridors; and

• there is also a basis for decisions on the allocation of the At the regional level, existing and potential Type I corridors
road space, which take account of the relationship with should be identified based on regional studies and planning
adjoining areas. strategies. The function of the corridor, and the regional
accessibility it provides, should be linked. For example, a truck or
While the regional and local level are important, the relationship dangerous goods route makes different demands on local and
with adjoining areas is of particular significance. Key issues to be adjoining areas than an express bus route. The increased
addressed are the level of roadside friction (e.g. vehicle access); accessibility a new corridor provides has different consequences
the management of impact (e.g. traffic noise); and provision for for the location of land-use activities.
interdependent activities (e.g. roadside ser vices and
businesses). At the local level, the transport function and local accessibility
need to be assessed carefully. Many existing corridors serve
RELEVANT FACTORS regional, as well as district and local transport functions.
Restrictions on local access, spacing of intersections, and
A distinction is made in this Guide between new and existing prohibitions on turning movements will have consequences for
corridors. New corridors comprise new major transport routes, the development of precincts and local networks. The need for
including their ‘footprint’. They may be established in (i) rural regional corridors should not compromise the opportunity for
regions, (ii) outlying areas, which are being developed, and (iii) connectivity for pedestrians, cyclists, public transport and local
developed areas. Upgrading of existing Type I corridors (or from vehicle movements. Transport routes should also not become
Type II to Type I status) raises additional issues, especially within barriers to local communities (see C-12 Maintaining community
urban areas. These are addressed in C-4 Adapting Type I cohesion).
corridors. A by-pass is regarded here as a new corridor, although
the decision to construct it is often made after considering the At the adjacent level, important land-use and environmental
alternative of adapting an existing corridor (discussed in C-4). issues arise. Land use should be related to the transport
function. For example, pedestrian generating activities are
THREE LEVELS OF LAND-USE inappropriate in Type I corridors (see Resource Document,
AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATION Chapters 11 and 12). In the case of truck and dangerous goods
routes, land-use activities with a large concentration of people
There are three levels of consideration (ignoring national should be located well outside the corridor. There are other land-
relationships): use criteria, such as the location of vehicle-oriented uses and
access-dependent activities.
• Regional;
Where road reservations exist, adjoining land uses should be
• Local; and developed with adequate environmental protection and without
the need for a retrofit at the time when the road is constructed.
• Adjacent. Protection from traffic noise and local air pollution has clear

implications for land use, siting and design of buildings, road RELATIONSHIPS AT THE ADJACENT LEVEL
design and traffic management. Design and visual relationships
are also important at this level, as they can provide recognition of Significant issues arise in the relationship between transport
the road function, and allow the driver or passenger to have a function, land use and the environment at the adjacent level. A
sense of or ientation and direction (see C-13 Visual distinction can be made between friction, impact and
enhancement). interdependent associations:
• Friction can be defined as the impedance of the transport

performance and can be attributed to frontage related
activities (e.g. vehicles parking and unparking, pedestrians
crossing, jaywalking, vehicles entering and exiting access
drives, bus or tram stops, delivery vehicles stopping to
load/unload, visual distraction, obtrusive advertising), road
design and management factors (e.g. intersection spacing,
traffic signals, turning movements, speed and parking
controls) and traffic composition and conditions.
• Impact can be defined as the effects of transport and

traffic on adjoining land use, and quality of the
environment, such as air pollution, traffic noise, run-off
and water quality. There may also be impacts related to
the safety of crossing pedestrians, cyclists and vehicles
entering and exiting driveways, and impacts related to on-
street parking, loading and delivery.
• Interdependent associations are land-use/ traffic

associations, such as service stations and businesses,
which depend on vehicle access or advertising to passing
traffic.
WHAT ARE THE TRANSPORT FUNCTIONS?
The transport functions applicable to a corridor are determined at

Figure C-C2-2 Levels of interaction the strategic level and usually will be the input into the process.
There may be options, such as a corridor for rail; fixed public

transport with or without a road; multi-purpose regional road; or THERE ARE COMPETING INTERESTS AND VIEWS
specific-purpose road. These options need to be carried through
to an assessment and evaluation stage (see Part B, Chapter 2 From a transport planning viewpoint, primary concerns are: (i)
and Part D, Chapter 1) before a final decision on function is the transport function in the network; (ii) preservation of transport
made. performance; and (iii) cost-effective utilisationof the proposed
investment in infrastructure. Friction should be prevented by
The significance of road environment can be both an opportunity controlling access, spacing and design of intersections, and
and a constraint when the intended transport functions are turning movements. Transport users are primarily concerned with
determined. For example, the reservation of a bus or light rail convenience, travel time and costs.
route in a corridor with major road transport functions may be
incompatible with the road environment. There is no There are different issues at the local planning level: (i) the
incompatibility if such public transport routes are line haul or creation or preservation of precincts; (ii) amenity of land uses
express routes with infrequent and off-road stops. However, a along the corridor; (iii) the impact on local circulation and access
different situation exists when they are local ‘people’ routes with to the transpor t route; and (iv) likely development or
frequent stops. The public transport route then becomes a people redevelopment pressures. For example, truck routes and routes
corridor in a vehicle-dominant route. It is better to locate public carrying dangerous goods have a different ‘footprint’ than multi-
transport where the potential passengers are than to attract them modal corridors with rapid transit.
to a vehicle-dominant route (see also C-7 The right transport
task, right mode, right route). Property developers are interested in land development and
maximising returns. They may see the corridor as an opportunity
for the location of high-profile buildings with advertising potential,
and adjoining areas suitable for development, infill or
redevelopment.
Some urban designers may see the corridor as an opportunity for

design of a character and scale, appropriate for the movement
function and the use of carefully controlled visual elements.
Other urban designers, concerned about the proliferation of back
fences, acoustic walls and mounds believe that roads should be
opened up, and may advocate pedestrians along the edge and
service roads with buildings in view from the road.
Environmental health specialists are concerned about the impact

Figure C-C2-3 A Type I corridor and planned of air and noise pollution on pedestrians and residents.
as an integrated corridor, Canberra, ACT Separation and edge treatment (such as acoustic protection) are

seen to be necessary. can be prevented by frontage access control and other measures
(see, for example, C-6 Access to roads).
Some of these interests are compatible, but others are not. Noise
and air pollution, associated with high volume and often high-
speed traffic, are incompatible with a pedestrian environment.
Adjoining development must be planned or adapted to achieve
an acceptable relationship in the long term. Planning of the
corridor should incorporate the relationship between adjoining
land uses; address the management of friction and impact; and
consider the road in relation to the built environment (see C-14
Urban corridor management).
In current planning there is a lack of awareness that driving on a

road (or being a passenger) is a dynamic experience. Each
section of a corridor can be examined, having regard to the
dynamic view from the road as one moves along it. The strategic
location of landmarks can give ‘legibility’ and a sense of
orientation. The relationship between the road space and design
of the built environment is especially important when a new
transport route is established through an established urban area
(see C-13, Visual enhancement).
The design of acoustic screens is another important option.

Transparent screens provide a visual connection with the world
beyond the route. An example is the 14 km architecturally
designed noise wall, constructed along the Eastern Freeway
extension in Melbourne. It includes a section of curved clear
acrylic material which suppresses noise and provides a view
through the screen.
OBJECTIVES AND TRADE-OFFS

Figure C-C2-4 Steps in the process,
Accepting the premise that maximum transport use should be based on OECD (1993) model for strategic assessment
made of the major investment in a transport corridor, prevention
of roadside friction will be a major objective. Roadside friction

Friction management involves the making of trade-off decisions. • land-use change, infill, revitalisation with traffic calming,
For example, there will be demands for connections with near connecting routes (in established urban areas). The
adjoining communities. This affects the spacing of intersections tunnelled section of the City Northern By-pass in Perth is
and ramps, and the provision for turning movements. Trade-off an example of this.
decisions have also to be made about the provision for transport
modes with different performance characteristics (e.g trucks on APPLICATION
steep grades, buses and stops, cycle routes). Space
requirements will be a significant factor, and there may be trade- HOW CAN IT BE DONE?
offs between road capacity and space for different forms of
transport. 1: Establish the parameters
Another major objective for a new Type 1 Corridor, at the The first step is to determine the approach, establish an
adjacent level, is to maximise the opportunities for appropriate integrated structure for the management of the study, identify the
development, while reducing the impact of traffic on the amenity stakeholders and develop a consultation program. For details see
and functioning of adjoining communities. Trade-off decisions Part A and the beginning of this section.
here are about physical separation (with its consequences in the
economic use of land); acoustic screening and mounding; and 2: Corridor planning is based on a regional needs and
building design to limit noise impact. impact study
All these aspects should be examined during the preparation of The next step is to determine the transport function of the
corridor development and management plans. corridor in a regional context. Options should be explored,
assessed and evaluated. Assessment and evaluation should take
A CORRIDOR APPROACH MAY LEAD TO NEW SOLUTIONS account of the regional impacts on land use and the
environment. The output of this process is a preliminary
A corridor approach, in which the level of performance of the statement on regional accessibility and land use, the transport
transport route and adjoining areas are considered together, can function of the corridor and route performance characteristics.
produce solutions which are unlikely to emerge if planning is
limited to the road reservation. For example: 3: The relationship between the corridor and the local area is
explored
• lowering of the carriageway with local cross links being
maintained; The impact of different routes on land use, environment, local
circulation, property boundaries and access, and severance (see
• tunnelled sections, with development above, at selected C-12: Maintaining community cohesion) are assessed and
locations (in established urban areas); and evaluated. In the case of inner area bypasses, routes may
include a tunnel (or cut with or without cover) option. The output

is a route concept plan which shows possible connections to pending. After assessment and evaluation these plans
existing and proposed local transport systems; property impacts; become development control plans and the basis for road
the possible location of roadside services (see C-16: roadside design.
services); and other aspects demanding a detailed study.
8: Final definition of corridor and implementation plans
4: Friction and impact categories are established
The corridor can now be finalised, including the gazettal of the
Friction and impact categories, in relation to adjoining land, are road reservation and zoning plans. Priorities are established for
identified and preliminary performance criteria are established both the road and adjoining development; and corridor
(see insert). management plans are prepared (see C-4 Adapting Type I
corridors and C-14: Urban corridor management and C-15 Rural
5: Corridor categorisation corridor management). The responsibilities for the actions in the
management plans are clearly defined.
If the corridor route runs through areas with different land use or
environmental conditions, there may be a need for different Although this is the general sequence, there will always be
planning approaches for sections. The corr idor is then variations depending on the particular context and nature of the
categorised along its length according to its function, and the problem.
friction/impact criteria, which apply.
6: Implications for future adjoining development
The implications of this categorisation for future adjoining

development are assessed and evaluated. Development
opportunities and constraints are identified and reviewed.
Alternatives for mitigation of adverse impacts are explored. The Performance criteria (adjacent)
output is a statement of performance requirements for zoning,
access, development control and urban design (and FRICTION
redevelopment in established urban areas).
Roadside friction
7: Section corridor development plans are prepared,
assessed and evaluated • Vehicle traffic generation
The performance requirements, established in Step 6, are now • Pedestrian traffic generation
used in the preparation of development plans for sections of the
corridor, with priorities for areas where development may be • Parking generation

• Loading/unloading IMPACT
• Access driveways (see C-6 Access to roads) • Truck routes, noise and vibration
• Visual features • Dangerous goods movement and exposure to risk
Road design/management friction • Air emissions
• Intersection spacing • Traffic noise production and mitigation
• Ramp spacing • Property access, including restrictions caused by

clearways, medians and turning bans
• Ramp design
• Local accessibility and circulation (e.g. impact of turning
• Right hand turns bans and side street closure)
• Road safety and vulnerable groups

• Lane width
• Community and property severance
• Truck lanes
• Bus/tram operation and access to bus/tram stops
• Bus lanes
• Development potential, property values and business
• Tram lines activity
• Bus and tram stops • Drainage, run-off and water quality
• Cycle ways and cyclist turning movements • Acid soils and other geological conditions
• Pedestrian and cyclist crossings • Scenic and other visual aspects
• Trees • Heritage sites
• Aboriginal sites
• Endangered species (flora and fauna)

INTERDEPENDENT ASSOCIATIONS City Northern Bypass in Perth
• Roadside services The City Northern Bypass provides the missing east-west
link in the metropolitan arterial road network. Although
• roadside corridor preservation there may be concern about transport engineering works,
requiring extensive space for roads and interchanges in
• Image enhancement and built environment urban areas, a redeeming feature of the 6.5 km by-pass is
a 1.6 km tunnel underneath Northridge.
APPROPRIATENESS
The tunnel option was chosen to preserve the heritage and
A corridor approach to new transport routes is appropriate and social function of Northridge without splitting the area into
desirable in all circumstances. two. Residents, workers and visitors will not know that
traffic is passing under neath because of the land
EFFECTIVENESS development on top of the tunnel. Improvements and urban
renewal of the heritage and entertainment precinct of
Effectiveness of the integrated planning of corridors must be Northbridge are part of the package. The bypass is now
compared with the effectiveness of current practice. There is under construction and will be completed by the year 2000.
often little integration, except perhaps at the EIS stage, when
major decisions have often already been made. A corridor
approach permits land use, transport and the environment to be
considered at all stages, and establishes more clearly the
parameters for implementation.
RELATED TOOLS

EXAMPLES
L-8 Precincts and corridors
Scoresby Corridor, Melbourne for an approach in an urbanised
area; Pacific Highway relocation North Coast of NSW for a rural
C-6 Access to roads
corridor in a coastal region.
C-11 Reducing noise exposure
C-14 Corridor management in urban areas
C-15 Rural corridor management
C-16 Roadside services

Planning of new C-3
Type II corridors
INTENT
Type II corridors include secondary transport routes and their

environments - both the transport function and frontage function
are important. The purpose of this tool is to encourage the
creation of secondary transport routes which are not only safe,
attractive and compatible with the environment, but also have
performance characteristics which are modified depending on
the nature of the frontage functions.
The transport function in Type II corridors is not so dominant, as

in the case of Type I corridors where the land use and access
function along the corridor have to be sub-servient at all times.
Type II corridors may perform as secondary regional through
traffic routes during peak hours; as main district routes; or both.
The corridor environment is likely to comprise a range of land
uses, some of them interacting with the transport function, and
others not. Type II corridors may be planned as multi-modal
routes and ‘activity streets’, and carry traffic volumes ranging
from about 5,000 to 25,000 vehicles per day.
Figure C-C3-1 The relationship between transport function,
land use and built form needs consideration up-front

Integrated approaches to the planning of Type II corridors ensure There is potential for conflict in the planning and development of
that: Type II corridors and there will always have to be trade-offs. For
example, the friction caused by frontage development, access
• new secondary transport routes are planned not only in and on-street par king may constrain the function and
the context of their role in the transport network, but also performance of the corridor as a secondary transport route. The
considering their impact on, and relationship with, local impact of traffic noise and air pollution may constrain
and adjacent land use and the environment; development along the frontage, and has implications for land
development and building and road design. Vehicle speeds and
• there is a basis for categorising corridors according to traffic volumes make it difficult for pedestrians and cyclists to
their desired performance characteristics in transport, land cross, and create barriers between development on either side of
use and environmental terms; the corridor.
• the categorisation is used for the design and traffic Built form relationships are also important and reflect the
management of secondary transport routes which take character of the road as a transpor t route, as well as the
account of the relationship with adjoining areas; and also character of the adjoining area. An important issue is whether
for the design and development of adjoining land, taking buildings should turn their backs to the road or be protected by
into account the transport function; acoustic walls or mounds or whether they give shape and scale
to the road space. The use of the corridor for public transport
• varying relationships between transport performance and introduces pedestrians at bus or tram stops, and they will need to
adjoining land use are given adequate recognition; and cross the road. Cyclists can be accommodated within the road
space, preferably on separate cycle tracks or cycleways.
• zoning and development control of areas within and Separate cycleways increase the width of the road reservation
adjoining the corridor are consistent with the desired and require special provision at intersections and turning
performance. movements. Cycleways make use of the carriageway and there
should therefore be limits on vehicle speed to ensure the safety
of cyclists (see L-5 Cycle networks and land use).
RELEVANT FACTORS Integrated approaches to the planning of Type II corridors require

looking at the transport and adjacent development in the corridor,
RELATIONSHIPS AND WHY ARE THEY IMPORTANT together with the aim of avoiding potential conflicts, managing
friction and impact, and creating an attractive environment.
With all corridors there are three types of relationships: friction,
impact and interdependent associations. An explanation of these
terms is given in C-2 Planning new Type I corridors.

IS THIS DIFFERENT FROM THE ROAD developing appropriate categories, but there are matters to be
HIERARCHY APPROACH? considered and general principles to be applied. Examples of an
integrated approach are the Street Design Guidelines, developed
The present road hierarchy model is widely used, simple to apply for Metro (Metro, 1997) and for the Gungahlin Town Centre (see
and will continue to be of practical value. However, it has example).
limitations, as it does not address the fundamental interactions
between road function, land use and the quality of the Categories need to be developed in a local context because
environment. Conditions associated with adjoining development there are different combinations of road width, space allocation
can be part of a road hierarchy model (such as the provisions for to transport modes, land uses in the corridor and access
driveway access and setback in AMCORD, 1995), but the road conditions. In all cases, the impact and friction factors need to be
hierarchy essentially is a concept from a roads perspective. identified and understood, and potential for conflict must be
addressed. Table C-C3-1 illustrates how this can be done.
The corridor approach links roads and their environment with the
possibility that: An example of this diversity with incorporation of friction and
impact management, is an ‘activity street’ (See figure C-C3-8). A
• the transport function or its performance is modified to suit list of matters to be considered in such a case is provided in C-5:
the corridor environment; Adapting Type II corridors and not repeated here.
• the road environment is adapted to suit the transport HOW CAN A CATEGORISATION BE USED?
function and/or its performance; or
Once Type II categories have been developed, they can be used
• both are adapted to suit each other. as a tool for achieving desired outcomes in the network and land-
use planning of new areas. They then form the basis for
With Type I corridors, only option (ii) is possible, but with Type II determining reservations for the transport function, road space
corridors, all options can be considered. The option selected allocation, design speed, land-use allocation along the corridor,
depends on the kind of relationship which is to be achieved. design and siting parameters for buildings, access (where
accepted), acoustic treatment, and connectivity across the
WHAT DOES CATEGORISATION MEAN? transport route.
There are different kinds of transport and frontage functions and Categorisation thus becomes a creative tool for differentiating
different ways in which they can be combined. This goes beyond between combinations of transport and frontage functions,
the example given in C-1 Corridor categorisation. establishing appropr iate perfor mance measures, and
implementing different type of corridors to achieve a range of
With an integrated categorisation approach, many different kinds desired outcomes.
of Type II corridors can be established. There is no model for

PERFORMANCE NEW TYPE II CORRIDORS
INDICATORS
II-1 General purpose - II-2 Corridor serving ‘C’ II - 3 General purpose - II-4 Activity corridor
high volume locations low volume
(see R-3 and L-1)
Movement function
Transport modes PTX, PTL, Trucks, Cars, PTL, Trucks, Cars, CY PTL, Trucks, Cars, CY PTX, PTL, Goods delivery,
CY Cars, CY
Volume AADT 13,000–25,000 13,000–25,000 6,000–15,000 6,000–13,000
Max % Heavy Vehicle 8% 15% 8% 5%
Target speed 70 km/h 60 km/h 50 km/h 25 km/h
Road space allocation
Lanes for vehicle 2+2 2+2 2 2 (or 1+1)

movement (total)
Lane width 3.5m 3.8m 3.5 3.7m
Median 2.5 min 1.6 min, but variable At pedestrian crossings Depends
Bus stops Only near signalled Only near signalled Only near pedestrian Near pedestrian crossings
intersections crossings crossings
Cycleways yes 1+1 Shoulder Shared
Footpaths 1+1 1+1/ 2.5m+ 1+1/ 4m+
Table C-C3-1 Illustration of categorisation continued next page PTX = Public Transport Express, PTL = Public Transport Local, CY = Bicycles

Parking no yes yes yes
Reservation width 30m 30m 20m or 25m 22m+
Friction management
Access drives >100m apart, forward Yes, forward movement Yes, forward movement Rear except road service
movement only only only establishments
On-street parking No Parking bays Parallel Parallel or angle
Cyclist/pedestrian Signal control only Signal control only Zebra, pelican, signals with Zebra, pelican, signals
crossing speed reduction
Junction spacing 300m minimum 150m minimum 150m minimum 100m minimum
Intersection spacing 500m minimum 200m minimum 150m minimum 150m minimum
Impact management
Land use No pedestrian- generating No pedestrian- generating Categorise vehicle, No vehicle-generating uses
activities except near bus activities except near bus pedestrian and mixed land in core
stops and/or legal stops and/or legal uses and incorporate in
crossings crossings zoning plans
Heavy vehicles Prohibition between 11 pm No restrictions Prohibition between 11 pm Generally light vehicles
and 6 am and 6 am only
Acoustic protection Design and siting No noise-sensitive Design and siting Design and siting
performance standards set activities performance standards set performance standards set
by noise code by noise code by noise code
Building line, weather NOT SPECIFIED HERE BUT TO BE ADDED TO ANY CATEGORISATION
protection, lighting etc.
Table C-C3-1 Illustration of categorisation continued from previous page

APPLICATION 3: Friction and impact categories are established
HOW CAN IT BE DONE? Friction and impact categories are likely to include:
1: Identify potential secondary transport routes as Type II • the type of land uses along the route;
Corridors
• pedestrian and vehicle generation;
This step requires an exploration of the future development of an
area, the overall strategy, the regional and district networks • site access;
needed (public transport, cycle, freight, cars) and the role of
secondary transport routes within that area. This should indicate • set-back;
which secondary routes are Type II candidates; whether they are
likely to be multi-modal; what kind of traffic volumes may be • on-site and on-street parking and loading;
expected; and what should be the overall level of performance.
• sensitivity to air quality and traffic noise;
2: Explore the relationship between the Type II corridors and
the development of the district • design for noise protection;
The relationship between corridors and potential precincts is • multi-modal use of the road reservation;
explored (see L-8: Corridors and precincts). It is an important
step, which examines (i) the desired function of the transport • vehicle speed and composition;
routes within the areas they serve; (ii) the creation of precincts;
(iii) the identification of district and local land use; and (iv) the • intersection spacing and turning movements; and
connections with, and across, the corridor.
• pedestrian and cycle routes across the corridor, and cross
This is an iterative process in which land uses, precinct connectivity for public transport.
boundaries and corridors may go through several trial runs. The
output is a series of Type II corridors in conceptual locations. These and other friction and impact categories (see C-5
Alternative concept plans may be developed with different Adapting Type II corridors) need to be identified and preliminary
relationships between the corridor and the adjoining precincts. performance criteria should be established. They are refined later
as the plan becomes more detailed.

4: Corridor categorisation The development plans incorporate land use, urban design, road
design, development control and traffic management.
A range of Type II corridor concepts is developed which
combines the corridor functions in different ways. 6: Reconciling preliminary outputs with regional plans
For example: The preliminary outputs now need to be related to regional

planning intentions for land use and network development. One
• One category of Type II corridor may be multi-modal; of the tests will be the impact on Type I corridors,
another have traffic volumes requiring four lanes for
moving traffic; and yet another no frontage access. APPROPRIATENESS
• Another category caters for freight movement from a A corridor approach is appropriate for all new secondary
regional corridor to a zone, where vehicle-oriented land transport routes.
uses are to be located (see L-1 Accessibility/activity
zoning). It may have frontage access, but limitations on EXAMPLE
the type of land use, and a median restricting vehicle
movement from access drives across the road. Gungahlin Town Centre (ACT)
• In yet another case, there could be a two-lane corridor, The accompanying illustrations show how the relationship
without restrictions on land use, but with a target speed between transport routes and the built environment can be
appropriate for the land uses along its frontage. explored to arrive at Type II (and Type I) corridors. They are taken
from the Gungahlin Town Centre study. Although the terms (Type
• There may be an activity street type of corridor, where I and II corridors) were not used, the principles followed in
pedestrian activities are accepted and vehicle speeds are arriving at the preferred plan show how it can be done.
reduced.
It is an interactive approach, which starts with a conceptual
An illustration of categorisation is given in Table C-C3-1. It must diagram of land use, transport and the environment (figure C-
be stressed that developing such a categorisation should be C3-2). In this example, a core of high pedestrian activity is
done in a specific local planning context. determined centred along a ‘Main Street’ and surrounded by
boulevards. The relationship of the core to indicative land uses
5: Applying the corridor categories and transport routes is established.
The corridor categories can now be applied to the network. This Then follows an assessment of transport needs for each of the
should be done on a section by section basis, and some routes transport modes: public transport (figure C-C3-3), vehicle traffic
may change from one category to another along the length of the (figure C-C3-4), cyclists (not shown) and pedestrians (C-C3-5).
route. The output is a preliminary performance specification for
the preparation of development plans and design of the corridors. The built form is determined, especially the relationship to the
roads. In this case, frontages with zero setbacks and colonnades

or awnings are indicated (figure C-C3-6). Buildings whose
internal functions require large unarticulated facade elevations
(e.g. supermarkets, parking structures) are to be located
internally to sections (or ‘street blocks) and not on street or public
space frontages. They should have an entrance from the Main
Street or a north–south street Building height and landscape
treatment are also determined (not shown).
The road space is dimensioned and allocated to different

transport functions and landscape intentions (figure C-C3-7).
There are many other elements, not mentioned here, but part of
the town centre plan, including signage, street lighting and
furniture, and advertisements.
Figure C-C3-3 Gungahlin Public transport routes
Figure C-C3-2 Gungahlin TC concept plan Figure C-C3-4 Gungahlin Type I and II corridors

Figure C-C3-5 Gungahlin TC Pedestrian routes
Figure C-C3-7 ‘Boulevard’ crossections

(Source: Metro, 1997)
Figure C-C3-6 Gungahlin TC Zero setback

RELATED TOOLS
Housing above shops
L-8 Corridors and precinct
C-7 The right transport task, right mode and route
Tram
Footpath
Bus way
Cycleway
Figure C-C3-8 A Type II activity street in a suburban area

of Amsterdam. It is a multi-functional and multimodal street.
Vehicle speed is controlled by friction and there is a high level
of safety for pedestrians and cyclists.
EFFECTIVENESS
Effectiveness of the integrated planning of Type II corridors must

be compared with the effectiveness of current practice, often
showing little integration. Consideration of land use, transport
and the environment at all planning and implementation stages
offers a range of new opportunities, and is, on all counts, far
more effective than planning separately.

Adapting C-4
Type I corridors
INTENT
The characteristics of Type I corridors were described in C-2

Planning new Type I corridors. The purpose of this tool is to
encourage the adaptation and enhancement of existing transport
routes as corridors, in which transpor t, land use and the
environment are considered and integrated at all stages. There
can be three main reasons for adaptation:
• the transport function has reached a point where there is

a capacity problem or likely to be one in the near future;
• the transport function is impeded by friction, either caused

by roadside development or the design or management of
the road space; and
• the impact of traffic on the road environment has created

unacceptable conditions for people living and working
nearby or engaged in other activities.
Figure C-C4-1 Upgrading requires more than a transport
solution. New local connections are needed and there are
new development opportunities (Eastern Distributor, Sydney)

Integrated approaches to the adaptation of Type I corridors in environment of an existing corridor may be impaired by traffic
established areas ensure that: and there is a need to improve it.
• upgrading of existing major transport routes is considered, ADAPTATION OF TYPE I CORRIDORS

not only in the context of their role in the transport CAN HAVE DIFFERENT CAUSES
network, but also for their impact on regional, local and
adjacent land use and the environment; There are different reasons for the adaptation of Type I corridors:
• there is a basis for categorisation of corridors according to • there is a need to upgrade the transport function. For
their desired performance characteristics, associated land example: conversion to multi-modal routes, priority routes
use and environmental protection; for line-haul public transport services, routes for goods
movement, high-occupancy vehicle lanes, improvement in
• there is a basis for identifying existing conflicts and their traffic flow, or increase in traffic capacity;
causes, and for addressing them;
• removing or reducing friction along the transport route.
• the development of zoning and development control of Friction may be caused by the design and management of
areas within and adjoining the corridor; the route: intersection spacing and signalling, and turning
movements. It may also be caused by roadside-induced
• there is a basis for the redesign and management of the friction: parking and parking manoeuvres, pedestrians and
major transport routes which takes account of the cyclists crossing, and driveways.
relationship with adjoining areas; and
• removing or reducing impact on the transport
• there is a basis for land-use change, urban design and environment. Possible causes are excessive exposure to
redevelopment of land adjoining the transport route. traffic noise or air pollution, local access, and community
severance.
RELEVANT FACTORS
Upgrading of existing Type I corridors (or from Type II to Type I
THERE ARE DIFFERENT CONTEXTS status) raises additional issues compared with the planning of
new corridors, and requires extensive consultation processes.
The focus in this tool is on the adaptation of existing Type I
corridors in rural regions, outlying areas, which are being WHAT ARE THE TRANSPORT FUNCTIONS
developed, and established areas. The tool is also relevant when AND LEVELS OF PERFORMANCE?
there is a need to upgrade the transport function or the level of
performance. This occurs, for example, when a lower-order traffic The transport functions and levels of performance are generally
route is to be converted into a major transport route. Finally, the determined at the regional level and the outcome of an integrated

strategic planning process. There may be options such as a and performance of local networks.
corridor for express public transport with or without a road, multi-
purpose regional road, or a specific purpose road such as a truck Upgrading of corr idors in established areas can have
route. These options need to be carr ied through to an considerable land-use consequences, especially when there are
assessment and evaluation stage, before a final decision on the connections with secondary transport routes. In this situation, the
transport function is made (see also C-7 The right transport task, potential for change and redevelopment must be examined,
right mode, right route). along with any need for preser vation of the existing
environmental character and quality.
REGIONAL LAND-USE
AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS The link between transport and land use association also applies
to road-based public transport. For example, upgrading of a
As with new corridors, there are three levels of consideration in corridor or modifying it for public transport should not be divorced
corridor planning: regional, loal and adjacent. However, there are from the land uses it serves. If the public transport route serves
significant differences between new corridors and adaptation. local areas, a conflict between a ‘people corridor’ and a ‘vehicle
corridor’ may be created.
At the regional level, existing and potential Type I corridors
should be identified, based on regional studies and planning An aspect of particular local concern is that of maintaining
strategies. The function of the corridor and the accessibility it community cohesion (see C-12). Corridors should not become
provides should be linked, and a distinction should be made barriers to local communities. Upgrading should not compromise
between vehicle and public transport accessibility. The proposed the need for pedestrians, cyclists, public transport and local
transpor t function and level of perfor mance should be vehicle movements to have access to areas across the corridor.
deter mined first, as it influences decisions on the road
environment. For example, a truck or dangerous goods route Major routes through country towns are often classified as Main
makes different demands on adjoining land use than an express Roads. Adaptation here may take a different form. Traffic volumes
bus route, and the increased accessibility it provides has different are often not high and adaptation of the Main Street section as a
consequences for the location of land-use activities. Type II corridor may be possible. Where this cannot be done, a
bypass or diversion of heavy vehicles may be required.
LOCAL LAND-USE
AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS ADJACENT LAND-USE
AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS
Many existing corridors serve not only regional functions, but
also carr y distr ict and local traffic. Upgrading will have At the adjacent level, other land-use and environmental issues
implications for local access and the spacing of intersections. arise. Many of these were referred to in C2: Planning of new Type
Prohibitions on turning movements will have consequences for I corridors and are not repeated here.
the development of precincts, traffic calming, and the function

In the case of adaptation, adjoining land should be developed the safety of crossing pedestrians, cyclists and vehicles
and redeveloped in a manner which ensures adequate entering and exiting driveways, and impacts related to on-
environmental protection. Protection from traffic noise and local street parking, loading and delivery.
air pollution has clear implications for the type of land use, siting
and design of buildings, and road design and management. • Interdependent associations are land-use/traffic
Visual relationships are also important at this level, as they can associations, such as service stations and businesses,
provide recognition of the road function, orientation and a sense which depend on vehicle access or advertising to passing
of direction. Adaptation, therefore, is much more than finding a traffic.
transpor t solution. It involves integrated planning and
management of the transport route and its surroundings. COMPETING INTERESTS AND VIEWS
FRICTION AND IMPACT The conflicting interests identified in C-2 are more sharply
focused in the adaptation of existing corridors and can lead to
There are significant interactions between the transport function, vigorously argued, opposing views.
land use and the environment at the adjacent level. They are
often matters of major community concern. As explained in C-2, Transport efficiency
a distinction can be made between friction, impact and
interdependent associations. As they are of critical importance in From a transport efficiency viewpoint, transport function in the
the adaptation and enhancement of Type I corridors, they are network, preservation of transport performance and cost-
restated here: effective utilisation of the investment in infrastructure are of
primary concern. Friction should be prevented by controlling
• Friction can be defined as the impedance of the transport access, the spacing and design of intersections, and turning
performance of the road and can be attributed to frontage- movements. This view typically
related activities. Examples of friction are: vehicles parking represents regional interests,
or double-parked; pedestrians crossing; jaywalking;
vehicles entering and leaving access drives; bus or tram Local communities
stops; delivery vehicles stopping on-street to load/unload;
visual distraction and obtrusive advertising; intersection From a local planning viewpoint, the preservation of precincts
spacing; traffic signals; turning movements; speed and local accessibility, amenity of land uses along the corridor,
controls; and traffic composition and conditions. the impact on local land use and circulation, and the
maintenance of arterial access are of uppermost concern. Local
• Impact can be defined as the effects of transport and communities often argue for other solutions (such as providing
traffic on adjoining land use and quality of the better public transport).
environment, such as air pollution, traffic noise, run-off
and water quality. There may also be impacts related to

Business community innovative approaches to the adaptation of properties along a
route, which will not disenfranchise existing property owners (see
The business community, with businesses along the transport C-14 Urban corridor management).
route, seeks the patronage of passing motorists, the advertising
advantage of a highway address, and the convenience of on-
street parking and drive-way access. Property developers are
concerned about land development and maximising returns,
They may regard the corridor as an opportunity for the location of
high- profile buildings with advertising potential. Yet others are
troubled by a possible reduction in property values and difficulties
in selling their property.
Other interests
There are many other interests such as those related to urban

design and environmental health, which are not repeated here
(see C-2).
Some of these interests are compatible, but others are not
It is possible that some concerns may disappear with the

introduction of quiet trucks and cars and non-polluting vehicles,
but this is unlikely to happen in the near future and will not
reduce the pressure for greater transport capacity. In the
meantime, the precautionary principle should apply. Pedestrian
safety, noise and air pollution, associated with high volume and
often high-speed traffic, are incompatible with a pedestrian
environment. Adjoining development must be planned or adapted
progressively to an acceptable relationship in the long term.
Transpor t routes are used by a large number of people.

Unfortunately, the image of the built environment is often poor
and the local concer ns about increasing traffic must be Figure C-C4-2 Friction and impact analysis
recognised. Adaptation should embrace the relationship between
the road, existing development and built form. This may lead to

OBJECTIVES AND TRADE-OFFS would probably not emerge if planning is just limited to the road
reservation. For example:
An important objective for upgrading of a Type I corridor at the
adjacent level is to reduce the impact of traffic on adjoining • widening associated with redevelopment of adjoining
properties and to plan, develop and, where necessary, redevelop street blocks;
land to create acceptable living and working conditions. This is
not only a justification for important environmental reasons; it • tunnel with development above, at selected locations;
makes sense on economic grounds. Property values along heavy
traffic routes are generally 10–15 % lower than those one street- • lowering of the carriageway with local cross links being
block away. With adaptation and proper protection, these values maintained; and
could be restored.
• land-use change and redevelopment joint ventures with
Accepting the premise that maximum transport use is made of existing property owners (see R-10 Integrating
the major investment in a transport corridor, reduction of friction investment).
should be another major objective. In established corridors this
will require longer-term policies on pedestrian-generating and COMPARING UPGRADING WITH
vehicle-generating activities. This may raise trade-off issues DEVELOPING A NEW CORRIDOR
about priorities, especially in relation to business activities with
frontage access. Restrictions relating to on-street parking need to It is often necessary to investigate the option of upgrading an
be compensated by the provision of off-street parking nearby and existing corridor and the option of developing a new one, so that
adequate signposting, and may be part of the cost of upgrading a a comparison can be made. In that event, the steps in C-2
Type I corridor. (Planning new Type I corridors) could be used for the new
corridor and the steps in C-4 for the upgrading option.
Another trade-off issue is the imposition of restrictions on local Comparisons can be made at various points in the process, and
access. Restrictions on local access will require a revisiting of at each point there is an opportunity to choose a preferred
local street systems and traffic calming schemes. All these option, and to proceed with more detailed investigation of the
measures should be examined concurrently when preparing preferred option.
corridor development and management plans.
A CORRIDOR APPROACH CAN LEAD TO NEW SOLUTIONS
Major upgrading can be controversial and complex. A corridor

approach, in which the transpor t function and level of
performance are considered together with the development or
redevelopment of adjoining areas, can produce solutions which

program. The consultation program is of critical importance and
should be structured to ensure that stakeholder involvement is
tailored to the particular level and stage in the planning process.
(See Part D, Chapter 4 for details).
2: Corridor planning is based on a regional needs and

impact study
The next step is to determine the change in transport function of

the corridor in a regional context. Options should be explored,
assessed and evaluated. Assessment and evaluation should take
account of the regional impacts on land use and the
environment. The output of this process is a preliminary concept
of the transport function(s), level of transport performance and
route performance characteristics.
3: The relationship between the corridor and the local area is

explored
The impact of the desired function of the transport route and

performance on local land use and environment, local circulation,
Figure C-C4-3 Upgrading should include adaptation precinct boundaries and access, and severance (see C-12:
of the road environment to reflect the changed transport function Maintaining community cohesion) are assessed and evaluated.
The output is a concept plan which shows possible connections
to local road systems and connectivity across the route. The plan
also identifies areas where landuse and circulation changes may
need to be considered in more detail. Alternative concept plans
APPLICATION with different relationships between the corridor and the local
area should also be considered.
HOW CAN IT BE DONE?
1: Establish the parameters
There are different types of road environment situations and
The first step is to establish the approach and organisational detailed policies should be attuned to them. Key elements are the
structure, identify the stakeholders and prepare a consultation type of land uses, degree of pedestrian and vehicle generation,

site access, set-back, on-site parking, sensitivity to air quality 8: Section corridor development plans are prepared,
and traffic noise, design for noise protection, intersection spacing assessed and evaluated
and turning movements, community severance and cross
connectivity for public transport, pedestrians and cyclists. These, The performance requirements established in Step 7 are now
and other friction and impact categories (see insert in C-2), need used in the preparation of development plans for sections of the
to be identified and preliminary performance criteria should be corridor. Priorities are set for areas where redevelopment or land-
established. They are refined later in the process, after an use changes may be pending and where upgrading is most
inventory of existing conditions has been made. urgent. After assessment and evaluation, these plans become
development control plans and the basis for road design.
5: Investigation of adjoining conditions
9: Final definition of corridor and implementation plans
Inventories are made of land use, road design, traffic and
environmental conditions along the route. By using the friction The corridor and zoning plans can now be finalised. Priorities are
and impact performance criteria, existing conflicts between the established for upgrading of both the road and adjoining
transport function and the adjoining development are identified. development, and corridor management plans (see C-14 Urban
Potentially undesirable impacts of upgrading are also corridor management) are prepared. Responsibilities for the
determined. Based on such an assessment, the opportunities actions will have to be clearly defined.
and constraints for upgrading and the nature of adaptation can
be established. APPROPRIATENESS
6: Corridor categorisation The appropriateness of this tool is directly related to the nature
and extent of proposed changes and the sensitivity to them.
The investigation is likely to show that there are significant Proposals for major upgrading, especially in sensitive areas, will
variations in friction and impact conditions in different sections, benefit from an integrated approach. Relatively small changes,
requiring different planning responses along its length. The such as the proclamation of clearways, may not require an
corridor is then categorised by sections and used as a basis for extensive process, and consultation with specific target groups
exploring options to reduce impact and/or friction. may be sufficient. However, even in such more localised or
specific cases, there is a need for an approach based on the
7: Implications for future adjoining development principles for integrated problem solving.
Development opportunities and constraints for each section are

identified and reviewed. Options to reduce friction and impact are
explored, assessed and evaluated. The output is a statement of
performance requirements for land-use adaptation, access, road
and urban design, and development control.

GOAL HIGHWAY TYPE
TO ENHANCE THE OPERATION AND SAFETY OF THE HIGHWAY AS AN ELEMENT OF
AN INTEGRATED TRANSPORT SYSTEM CONSISTENT WITH LAND-USE PLANNING 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
INITIATIVES AND TAKING ACCOUNT OF THE NEEDS OF ALL TRANSPORT MODES.
OBJECTIVES
Provide sufficient lane capacity to meet the designated travel time targets for weekday and
weekend travel.
Provide horizontal and vertical alignments which allow for safe travel at the designated
design speed, consistent with the need for the highway form, to enhance the concept of the
Blue Mountains Parkway.
Reduce existing direct vehicle accesses from fronting properties.
Control the provision of additional direct vehicle access from fronting properties.
Control new development, with associated access requirements adjacent to the highway.
Progressively reduce parking along the highway corridor.
Reduce the number of at-grade highway crossing points.
Enhance the safety of retained intersections.
Reduce the need for local traffic to use the highway.
Provide safe pedestrian links along and across the highway.
Provide cycle facilities along the highway corridor to cater for the range of cycling groups,
consistent with the development of a regional cycleway network.
Promote the balanced development of the transportation system by encouraging the use of
alternative modes of travel.
Ensure that development of the highway corridor promotes regional and local planning
policies,and is consistent with land-use planning initiatives.
Great Western Highway Management Plan (1992)
Table C-C4-1 Example of categorisation of different road/environments along highway length continued on next page

GOAL HIGHWAY TYPE
MAINTAIN OR IMPROVE THE VISUAL AMENITY OF THE HIGHWAY CORRIDOR AND
PROTECT THE NATURAL AND CULTURAL VALUES OF THE BLUE MOUNTAINS. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
OBJECTIVES
Incorporate landscape planning considerations into the design of new highway works to
promote the development of the Blue Mountains Parkway consistent with the natural and
cultural values of the region.
Develop landscape rehabilitation strategies for currently degraded visual environments along
the highway corridor.
Reinforce or re-establish clear differentiation between townships.
Great Western Highway Management Plan (1992)
Table C-C4-1 Example of categorisation of different road/environments along highway length continued from previous page

EFFECTIVENESS
There are numerous examples of road-based approaches which

did not consider the relationship between land use, environment
and urban design at the conceptual stages. The weight of
stakeholder concerns forced the proponents to reconsider their
proposals, which is time-consuming and costly. Integrated and
interactive approaches throughout the planning process are
essential tools in arriving at acceptable solutions and leading to
better outcomes.
This is demonstrated in the above example. Reconstruction and

adaptation are now in progress, with benefits to road users and
land uses along the frontage.
RELATED TOOLS
All tools for corridors

their desired performance characteristics in transport, land
Adapting C-5 use and environmental terms;
Type II corridors • the categorisation can then be used for identifying

conflicts, their causes and solutions, and for determining
priorities for action;
• in priority areas, there is a basis for (i) the redesign and

traffic management which takes account of the
INTENT relationship with adjoining areas; (ii) the promotion and
assessment of land-use changes; and (iii) urban design
A description of Type II corridors was given in C-3 Planning new and redevelopment of land, taking account of the transport
Type II corridors. The focus of this tool is on the adaptation of an function; and
existing Type II corridor. Its purpose is to encourage the
adaptation and enhancement of existing transport routes as • zoning and development control of areas within and
secondary corridors in a manner which ensures that transport, adjoining the corridor are consistent with the desired
land use and the environment are considered and integrated at performance.
all stages. Most secondary transport routes are road-based and
the focus here is on road environment situations.
There are many different kinds of Type II corridors and wide-

ranging conflicts between the transport function and the road
environment.
Integrated approaches to the adaptation of Type II corridors

require looking at the transport and frontage function together
and can ensure that:
• upgrading of existing secondary transport routes is

considered not only in the context of their role in the
transport network, but also in their impact on, and
relationship with, local and adjacent land use and the
environment; Figure C-C5-1 Improving opportunities for pedestrians
to cross is one of the many measures that can be taken
• there is a basis for categorising corridors according to (Hampton Rd, Melbourne)

RELEVANT FACTORS There are different responses to such conflicts. For example, it is
possible to reduce vehicle speed where there are pedestrian
RELATIONSHIPS AND WHY ARE THEY IMPORTANT concentrations and to influence the location and type of land
uses which generate pedestrians. It is also possible to change
The corridor environment is likely to comprise a range of land the mix of transport modes and give priority to certain modes or
uses, including strip shopping centres serving local needs, transport users at particular times of the day.
service outlets, institutional uses and dwellings. Examples of
Type II corridors are tram routes, sub-arterial roads, major WHAT IS THE PURPOSE OF CATEGORISATION?
collector streets and Main Streets of country towns. Type II
corridors are often multi-modal and carry traffic volumes ranging Categorisation can help to get a handle on these problems.
from about 5,000 to 25,000 (and sometimes more) vehicles per There are different kinds of transport frontage functions and
day. conflicts along the length of Type II corridors. Many conflicts
occur in shopping strings with often heavy pedestrian crossing
As with all corridors, there are three types of relationships: movements, parking, turning movements and a mixture of
friction, impact and interdependent associations. An explanation transport modes (see Resource Document, Chapter 11).
of these terms is given in C-3 (Planning new Type II corridors)
and C-4 (Adapting Type I corridors). There are also sections with specific conflicts, such as children
crossing a busy route on their way to school, retirement homes
These relationships are important because there are conflicts with aged people having difficulty crossing, intersections with
between them and there will be trade-offs. For example: frequent or significant turning movements, and dwellings
exposed to air and noise pollution.
• transport routes often have development alongside
generating pedestrian and vehicle movements, which Differentiation of combinations of transpor t and frontage
conflict with the transport function of the road; functions enables appropriate performance measures to be
determined, and sections where adaptation or remedial action is
• vehicle speed and composition make pedestrian crossing necessary, to be identified.
unsafe;
HOW CAN CONFLICTS BE IDENTIFIED?
• parking manoeuvring causes delay, but removing on-
street parking conflicts with business operations along the First, there is a need to define the friction and impact indicators
frontage; and (see, for example C-2 Planning new Type I corridors).
They need to be worked through to establish a basis for
• traffic volumes and speeds produce noise and air measuring the degree of friction or impact. In some cases,
pollution, affecting people living along the route and quantitative standards exist for measuring impact (such as
walking on the footpaths. impact of traffic noise), but this is not always possible. A ranking

scale is the best alternative. speed and activity profiles (see figure C-C5-2). A low vehicle
speed is an essential safety measure where pedestrians are
Next, an inventory is made of the presence or absence of these crossing. The corresponding activity profile is targeted at frontage
measures along the length of the corridor. Consultation with local activities which generate pedestrians, to confine the interaction
communities, residents, business organisations, schools and between pedestrians and vehicles to areas where vehicle speeds
other bodies is desirable. The outcome is a route analysis and are low.
interpretation, which highlights the nature and degree of conflict
along the route. It is essential that the community be involved in determining the
character of their centre and the trade-off decisions which have
HOW CAN THEY BE RESOLVED? to be made. This process of community involvement and
collective learning is as important as the technical expertise in
Resolution of conflicts will depend on clearly identified problems designing the road space (see Part D, Chapter 4).
and measures to ameliorate or resolve them. With an integrated
approach, the range of options is increased. The solution may be
to address certain symptoms (such as the need for a school
crossing) in the short term and the cause (such as the location of
a school or the creation of safer routes) in the long term. In other
words, there may be a land-use solution to a transport problem, a
transport solution to a land use problem, or both. An example of
how conflicts can be addressed in shopping strings is given
below.
WHAT DOES ‘SHARING THE MAIN STREET’ MEAN?
Areas with a high degree of conflict are traffic routes through

busy shopping centres. ‘Sharing the Main Street’ is a process
which attempts to reduce these conflicts by considering the
frontage and transport function together (RTA, 1993). The
process offers an opportunity to create a safe and more attractive
environment, a focus for the community, a place where people
want to come, and where the private sector wants to conduct its
business. This is achieved by adaptation of the frontage and the
road space, and by traffic and activity management.
Two of the key measures in environmental adaptation are the Figure C-C5-2 Speed and activity profiles in shopping strings

APPLICATION 3: Explore the future land-use function along Type II
Corridors
HOW CAN IT BE DONE?
Possible changes in land use should be explored. For example,
There are two phases, depending on the nature of the task. there may be proposals for new commercial development, which
may influence the function of shopping strings along a corridor.
Phase A Establishing performance characteristics for Type II
corridors in a local area and implementing an 4: Explore the relationship between the corridor and the
integrated approach towards progressive local area
adaptation.
The impact of the desired function of the transport route and
Phase B Resolving conflicts in a specific section along a performance on local land use and environment, local circulation,
corridor. precinct boundaries and access, and connectivity across the
corridor are assessed and evaluated. The probability and
PHASE A - Performance characteristics consequences of urban change in the local area (such as infill or
redevelopment) are also assessed.
1: Identify existing or potential secondary transport routes
as Type II Corridors The output is a concept plan which shows adjoining precincts,
possible connections to local streets and connectivity across the
This step requires an exploration of the local and district route, and identifies areas, where there may be changes in land
networks and the role of secondary transport routes within those use and/or local circulation. In some cases it may be desirable to
networks. Many authorities have a road hierarchy plan, which explore alternative relationships between the corridor and the
may provide a useful start. adjoining precincts, leading to different approaches to the
concept plan.
2: Investigation of adjoining conditions
Inventories are made of land use, road design, traffic and
environmental conditions along the route. By using the friction Step 2 will have given an indication of the incidence of friction
and impact performance criteria (see C-2) and preliminary values and impact associated with the corridor. Performance criteria
determined for them, existing conflicts between the transport should be established to develop a consistent approach for
function and the adjoining development are identified. Potentially adaptation.
undesirable impacts of upgrading the transport function (if that is
intended) are also determined. Based on such an assessment,
the need for adaptation and what it would involve can be
established.

6: Corridor categorisation PHASE B - Development plan for the adaptation of a priority
area
The investigation is likely to show that there are significant
variations in friction and impact conditions in different sections, It is important in both Phase A and B that the stakeholders be
requiring different planning responses along the length of the identified and involved throughout the process. A typical example
corridor. The corridor is then categorised by sections and, with of a priority area is a suburban shopping string or main street in
this as a basis, options will be explored to reduce impact and/or a country town. The steps in the process are described in
friction. Another possible outcome is the development of sub- Sharing the Main Street, but modified in the light of recent
categories of Type II corridor with different performance experience. It is assumed that mechanisms for effective
conditions, such as routes through residential areas and involvement of the stakeholders are in place.
shopping centres, and routes with different carriageway widths.
1: Establish the parameters
7: Implications for adaptation
The first step is to define the project area, establish the approach
Opportunities and constraints for adaptation are identified on a and organisational structure, identify the stakeholders, and
section by section basis and reviewed. Options to reduce friction develop a consultation program. The consultation program is of
and impact are explored, assessed and evaluated. The output is critical importance and should be structured to ensure there is a
a statement of perfor mance requirements for land-use collective learning process. For details see Part D, Chapter 4.
adaptation, access, road and urban design, and development
control. 2: Objectives and desired outcomes
8: Development plans are prepared, assessed and evaluated The overall objectives, scope and desired outcomes are
identified and agreed between the client body and consultant (or
The performance requirements established in Step 7 are now project officer).
used in the preparation of development plans for the area,
through which the corridor runs. Special development plans may 3: Strategic planning context
be required for troublesome sections and areas where adaptation
is most urgent (see Phase B). After assessment and evaluation, Examination of the strategic planing context can provide
these plans become the basis for development control, road important parameters for the development of a concept plan. For
design and traffic management. The responsibilities for the example, there may be significant development proposals in the
actions in these management plans are clearly defined. vicinity which could change the concentration or nature of
pedestrian activity. There may be assets nearby which should be
integrated, such as a river frontage (see figure C-C5-3). It may
also be possible to limit the number of lanes available for moving
vehicles all the time or only during the off-peak period, to make

space available for pedestrians or parking. The output is a 5: Interpretation
statement of planning parameters to be used in the development
of a concept plan. The information collected and analysed needs to be interpreted
to gain an understanding of the key issues, constraints and
opportunities in the development of a concept plan. At this stage,
areas where pedestrian space should be given priority over
vehicles (e.g. core zone) are determined.
6: Concept options
There are different ways in which the objectives and key issues
can be approached. There may be shor t-ter m traffic
management and street design options; long-term land-use and
development (or redevelopment) options; and staging options.
Important variables in the design of the road space are: the
allocation of space to pedestr ians, parking and vehicle
movement, space for pavement activity and a community focus,
bus/tram stops, parking form (angle or parallel), variable centre
lines, friction measures (speed control devices), existing
laneways, pavement treatment and street lighting, landscaping
and furniture.
The treatment of intersections is important, as there are often

Figure C-C5-3 Adaptation is more than traffic calming - conflicts between crossing pedestrians and turning movements.
there are often significant land-use issues There are different ways in which these conflicts can be resolved,
(Old Pacific Highway, Taree, NSW) depending on the degree of priority given to pedestrians or
vehicles, or whether there is a shared zone.
7: Assessment and evaluation

4: Data needs, collection and analysis
Each option has certain consequences. All options need to be
Data needs must be related to the nature of the problem and the assessed before a final choice is made. It is possible that new
objectives of adaptation. In the case of shopping strings and options or a combination of previous options emerge at this
main streets, a wide range of information may be needed (see stage
Information Needs).

8: Design options 12: Monitoring and review
When the outline of the concept plan has been agreed, there is a Performance monitoring is undertaken at an appropriate time
need to determine what kind of character should be given to it. after implementation, using some of the criteria used in the
There are choices in the use of pavement materials, in street assessment of options (e.g. pedestrian safety, vehicle speed).
furniture, street lighting and landscape treatment. The outcome of
this process becomes the urban design input into the concept
plan.
9: Draft Development Plan
The Draft Development Plan will show pedestrian and vehicle

frontage development, the configuration of spaces for
pedestrians, parking and moving vehicles, traffic management
details, bus stops, landscaping and urban design details.
Indicative costs of implementation, timing and responsibilities are
also determined. Sketches of plan details and a perspective
should be prepared, to give a pictorial impression of the
adaptation. The perspective is important during exhibition of the
Draft Plan. Figure C-C5-4 Yass (NSW) Main Street adaptation
10: Exhibition
The draft plan is now exhibited and comments are invited. APPROPRIATENESS
11: Development control plan An integrated approach towards adaptation of Type II corridors is
appropriate everywhere, because it enables conflicts to be
A Development Control Plan is now prepared, which incorporates identified in a systematic way, and to be resolved not only by
the comments made and includes all matters requiring action treating the symptoms (for example, by traffic management
(e.g. land use, design and siting of buildings, road design and measures), but also the causes (for example, through
traffic management). On the basis of this plan, construction development control plans).
drawings are prepared, final costings are determined, and
commitments made for completion.

EFFECTIVENESS EXAMPLES
Experience with environmental adaptation of shopping strings There are examples of adaptation where an integrated approach
shows that the approach is effective in developing acceptable has been applied [e.g. Sutherland (NSW), Wagga Wagga (NSW),
integrated plans with the stakeholders and that the short-term Taree (NSW)]. Numerous examples of road space adaptation
objective of reducing pedestrian/vehicle conflicts can be exist: Marrickville (Sydney), Batemans Bay, Kiama, Dubbo,
achieved. There is no conclusive evidence yet in relation to the Goulbourn, Yass, Port Macquarie, Lismore. The Entrance (all in
longer-term objectives, as that will require a longer time frame. NSW).
There are also many examples of activity streets, where an

effective and successful balance has been created between
transport and frontage function (e.g. Wellington NZ, Crows Nest,
Sydney).
Figure C-C5-6 Crows Nest Main Street adaptation.

Parking space is reclaimed for restaurants and cafes.
Figure C-C5-5 Adaptation of an existing road Alternative parking space is provided nearby.
to make it more pedestrian-friendly

INFORMATION NEEDS • footpaths width and condition
• significant generators of activity nearby, which cause • awnings and verandahs

movement across the corridor
• road signs and advertising signs
• land use along the corridor by distinguishing between
pedestrian-generating and vehicle-generating activities • drainage, utilities and underground services location
• business type and activity • street lighting, landscaping and furniture
• site access and servicing • views, heritage buildings, facades and other urban design
details.
• pedestrian movements and behaviour (including the
incidence of jay running) • visitors’ and business community perception
• cyclist movement
• vehicle flows and traffic composition at vehicle and

pedestrian peak periods
• turning movements
• vehicle speed under impeded and unimpeded conditions
• accident location and type
• public transport routes and stops
• on-street and off-street parking provision, duration and

utilisation
• cross-sections and gradients
• building lines, set-backs

RELATED TOOLS

C-3 Planning new Type II Corridors
Figure C-C5-7 Adaptation of a sub-arterial road

carrying more than 16,000 vpd (Campsie, Sydney)

• ensure that appropriate and compatible land uses are
Access to roads C-6 located next to traffic routes, and that adequate access is
provided; and
• do not unduly hinder access to commercial activities.
INTENT
Access management is the process of controlling the interface
between a traffic carriageway and the adjacent land to provide for
adequate interaction between them while protecting the utility
and amenity of both. The purpose of this tool is to ensure that
access to sites and local streets along major traffic routes does
not impede the function of such routes and the safety of road
users.
Access management ‘is an important component of modern road

network management, which aims to satisfy diverse needs and
protect and enhance the utility of major arterial roads. At the
same time, it is an important planning and management tool for
those responsible for the urban environment and for creating
livable land use-road combinations’ (Brindle, 1996).
Integrated approaches:
• help to minimise interruptions in traffic flow, thus creating

safer traffic conditions and smoother traffic flow;
• contribute to lower road user costs and externalities;
• facilitate pedestrian and cycle movements;

Figure C-C6-1 Combining access control with mounding
• enhance rather than diminish the amenity of sites for noise protection serves two purposes
adjoining traffic routes;

RELEVANT FACTORS efficiency (measured in travel times, delays, fuel consumption
and emissions) or to minimisation of the scale of road
NOTE: this subsection is based on material prepared by Dr Ray construction, required for a given traffic task.
Brindle (see 1995, Brindle, 1996a and b, and Brindle, 1997).
There are many reports, as well as traffic theory, to demonstrate
WHY ACCESS MANAGEMENT IS IMPORTANT that fewer interruptions in the traffic stream converts to more
appropriate arterial free flow speeds and hence to ‘level of
Access drives and local streets intersecting with the road can: service’ improvements.
• produce unexpected events for drivers along the road and The primary purpose of access management is to regulate the
lead to accidents; incidence of turning conflicts, speed differentials within the
arterial flow, and side friction.
• increase delay and reduce the capacity of the road;
The relevance of access management depends on the road
• diminish the value of the road investment; function, road safety, economic efficiency and land-use type.
However, existing rights in established areas cannot be ignored,
• be constrained, because of traffic flow or management and this adds an extra dimension to access
controls, with possible consequential loss in abutting management of existing transport routes.
property investment or business activity.
TECHNIQUES OF ACCESS MANAGEMENT
Safety is a key motive for access management. It is a
fundamental precept of traffic engineering that the ‘elimination of Techniques of access management include:
unexpected events and the separation of decision points
simplifies the driving task’ (Stover 1991). Australian road safety • access controls;
practice has long recognised the impor tance of access
management (Exper t Group on Road Safety 1972). The • driveway controls;
Australian guidelines Planning for Road Safety (Office of Road
Safety 1984) are based on the widely-accepted principle to • local widenings;
separate traffic movement and land access functions of roads as
much as possible. This segregation philosophy underpins most • intersection (location, spacing and controls);
access management practice around the world.
• turn controls;
There is also clear evidence that access management -
particularly access control, through limitation of the number of • medians and median openings;
driveways and intersections - can contribute either to road

• traffic and parking control; and There is no clear evidence that access management (particularly
control over points of vehicular access) consistently adds to
• land-use control. development costs (Brindle 1995). There are four types of traffic
access conditions: indirect access; service roads, auxiliary lanes
Legislation and powers and duties seem to focus largely on and direct access to through lanes.
access control. The many other techniques of access
management are implemented through a variety of specific and A no-vehicle access boundary clearly results in fewer traffic
general traffic instruments. These are typically administered by conflicts at arterial speeds. It also offers opportunities for better
the State road agency or by local government, depending on the noise impact management (see C-11 Reducing noise exposure).
status of the road. Service roads have frontage on one side only, and are not cost-
effective in land development terms.
On highways and other primary arterials the frequency of access
points is typically managed by the use of service (frontage)
roads. Also common in areas, developed over the past two
decades, is the orientation of sites, buildings and their access
away from the arterial onto a local access street on another
boundary. These ‘back-up’ lots usually present a continuous
fenced or walled boundary to the arterial, most often with a 10m
or more ‘plantation strip’ (usually provided by the developer) to
provide roadside landscaping.
EFFECTS OF ACCESS MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES
The effects of access management techniques

on traffic performance were studied by Brindle (Brindle, 1996b).
A summary of accidents relating to access points on urban roads Figure C-C6-2 The speed-access relationship
shows that removal of access limitations can increase the Source: Brindle (1997)
accident rate by up to three times. Each minor access point adds
2–3 % to the accident rate on 2-lane roads in non-commercial
areas, and more in commercial areas. Increase from 2 to 6
junctions per km leads to a 20–100 per cent increase in accident Surveillance and personal security are factors to be considered.
rate on 4-lane roads and 50–100 % on 2-lane roads. Undivided There is a perception that pedestrians are safer walking
sections of roads have a 30–40 % higher rate than divided alongside traffic routes by virtue of the passing traffic, level of
sections. street lighting and the presence of frontage development.
However, the impact of air pollution and traffic noise on

pedestrians cannot be overlooked (see R-11 Air quality and turns into another street or driveway; and
traffic noise). There is also an additional safety issue with
pedestrians walking along and attempting to cross high-speed • ‘Within-lane’ conflicts - arising from speed differentials
arterials. caused by vehicles slowing to turn (or accelerating after
turns), vehicles commencing or completing U-turns, and
Access limitations, combined with acoustic control measures, slowing or lane changes due to parked vehicles.
has clear implications for the relationship between the road and
the built environment (see C-13 Visual enhancement).
TOWARDS INTEGRATED ACCESS MANAGEMENT
There are detailed specifications for access management

available overseas and within Australia and New Zealand.
However, access categories defined in road classification
terminology generally do not allow for variations in access
character within road types, to accommodate local conditions.
There is also the problem that some roads defy classification.
Each State could consider a definition of access categories

which resor ts to specifications of design and operation
standards. In all cases there is the possibility of defining access
categor ies in ter ms of a combination of perfor mance
requirements and indicative physical characteristics. Figure C-C6-3 Integration of access management
and urban design
PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENTS
AND LEVELS OF CONFLICT
‘Performance requirements’ could be described in terms of the KEY MEASURES TO CONTROL THESE CONFLICTS
levels of various kinds of conflict which will apply. The three types
of conflict which access management tries to influence are: The key measures to control these conflicts are:
• ‘Crossing’ conflicts - arising from right-angle movements, • Non-traversable medians and control on median
as at an intersection; openings;
• ‘Turning across’ conflicts - arising from centre-of-the-road • Control of frequency of minor connections to the

carriageway (driveways, service road entries and minor Deterioration and compromises in access condition will always
street junctions); lead to a decline in quality of outcome (safety, livability and traffic
service), if the speed environment remains constant.
• Control over the frequency of at-grade intersections, their
signalisation and vehicle progression; This is an immutable ‘law’ and forms the basis of land-use control
with respect to traffic routes.
• Control of parking; and
ACCESS CATEGORIES
• Ways in which decelerations and accelerations are
handled (taper requirements, ramp entry and exits, Brindle proposes a description of access categories as a basis
auxiliary lanes, driveway and intersection design). for planning policy (Brindle, 1997). It is based on three sets of
assumptions or starting points:
SPEED AND ACCESS CONDITIONS
1. Speed limits/desirable operating speeds and other design
Speed limits are a separate, but very important, parameter in or operating characteristics will arise from the categories
access management. Speed, access condition and outcome (or and the way they are implemented, not the other way
performance) are linked. What may not be acceptable at a higher round (i.e. design details do not prescribe the categories).
speed in terms of access type and frequency may be more
acceptable at lower speeds. Speed zoning guidelines reflect this. 2. The requirements influencing this table are restricted to
For example, if parking within the travelled way is unavoidable, those concerned with the movement function of the road.
the speed limit should drop accordingly, to protect the level of Tighter (or other sorts of) access and siting controls may
safety performance. If the speed goes up in a given access be imposed by others for local planning or site amenity
condition, then the performance outcome goes down in terms of reasons, which are not the primary business of the road
safety and amenity. agency.
Figure C-C6-2 highlights the difference between access category 3. While there is a multiplicity of combinations of access
and functional classification. A road may be designated as a conditions, there is a limited range of basic types
highway, yet, because of its access conditions, may be forced to of access condition. The proposal is based on four generic
operate at a speed lower than normal for that class of road. A types of access condition.
‘high’ road class, with an intermediate access category, may be
appropriate under the circumstances. If operating speeds are set
as requirements for higher-order roads, and performance criteria
are not to be compromised, then higher-quality access control
conditions are required.

The proposal is based on four generic types of access condition 4: Establish access categories See Table above.
ACCESS CONDITION BASIS OF MAJOR 5: Develop planning policies for access management
TYPE SUB-SETS
APPROPRIATENESS
1 Limited access roads Whether or not
(no driveway or minor intersections are Access management is appropriate everywhere and an essential
road connections) grade-separated component in integrated planning.
2 Roads with minimal Level of traffic service, EFFECTIVENESS

direct access reflected by access
spacings adopted Access management can be an effective tool in protecting the
infrastructure investment and achieving high levels of traffic
3 Roads with frequent Whether or not safety.
but regulated access there is a median
EXAMPLE
4 Roads with no traffic- Local planning
related access requirements The development plans (overlays) prepared by Cranbourne
restrictions Council (Vic).
Table C-C6-1 Access condition types
APPLICATION
HOW CAN IT BE DONE?
1: Determine the desired transport function in the network

See C-1 Corridor categorisation
2: Determine the relationship with the road environment

3: Determine appropriate speed profiles

CATEGORY CROSS TURN IN LANE GENERIC DESCRIPTION TYPICAL ROAD TYPE
CONFLICT CONFLICT CONFLICT OUTCOME
1A None None None Limited access roads - roads with no driveway or Freeway
minor street connections, and with grade-separated
intersections
1B Only at intersns - Only at intersns Only at intersns Limited access roads - roads with no driveway or Expressway
higher spacing where located where located minor street connections; and with some at-grade
standard intersections to meet network needs
2A Only at intersns - Higher standard Higher standards Roads with minimal direct access - roads with no Higher speed urban arterial
higher spacing spacing of median of diverge/ merge direct access to carriageway except via service road with access only via
standard breaks points exit/entry, A: subject to higher spacing and design intersecting streets and
standards consistent with higher speed (80km/h and service road entries/exits at
above) and higher- quality traffic operation wide spacings. Most access
movements left in - left out
2B Only at intersns - Medium standard Medium standards Roads with minimal direct access- roads with no Intermediate speed urban
medium spacing spacing of median of diverge/ merge direct access to carriageway, except via service arterial, with more frequent
standard breaks points road exit/entry, minor street junction or driveway median breaks, minor
constructed as a junction. B: subject to medium junctions and regulated
spacing and design standards consistent with driveways
intermediate speed (70-80km/h) and moderate
traffic service
3A Intersns at Lower standard Turns from left Roads with frequent but regulated direct access and Mixed function (secondary)
spacings to suit spacing of median lane normal, median control/protection of right turns road with median, serving
traffic control breaks access frequency community and secondary
criteria subject to traffic functions, typically
planning control 60–70km/h
3B Intersns at No restriction Turns from left Roads with frequent but regulated direct access and Mixed function road without
spacings to suit lane normal, no right turn restrictions median, serving community
traffic control access frequency and secondary traffic
criteria subject to functions, typically
planning control 50–60km/h
Source: Brindle, 1997
Table C-C6-2 A suggested description of access categories as a basis for planning policy

RELATED TOOLS
L-12 Safety
L-13 Visibility
Figure C-C6-4 Land use and frontage access to urban arterials

must be subservient to the transport function of the corridor
(Woden, ACT)
Figure C-C6-5 Access management of an industrial area

in a country town (Princes Highway, Nowra, NSW)

Right transport task, C-7
mode & route
INTENT
The purpose of this tool is to ensure that transport reservations

are planned and managed for a range of compatible transport
modes, together with their land-use ‘footprint’.
Figure C-C7-1 An activity street in Glenelg (SA)
Transport space is an increasingly scarce resource. There is at with a mix of transport modes
present an embargo on creating new major urban roads in the
UK. It has become a controversial issue in Australian cities,
because of costs and community concerns. In New Zealand,
roads are seen as economic assets which should be built only if
benefit/cost ratios and road pricing figures stack up. The issue
how the existing road space should be used, and what transport Integrated approaches towards transport reservations can:
mode is given priority, will become an increasingly difficult and
critical issue. • contribute to the allocation of the right transport task to the
right mode;
In addition, each transport mode has a particular land-use
association. Public transport routes are people routes, serving • ensure that reservations and their adjoining land use are
adjoining communities (unless they are line haul routes). Freight suitable for, and have adequate space for, particular
routes are goods routes and should be accessible to freight transport tasks and modes;
distributions centres, industries and warehousing. There are also
environmental associations. The allocation of transport space, • ensure that reservations are located for the efficient
therefore, should not be considered from a transport efficiency performance of the right transport task, within the context
viewpoint alone, but take account of the land uses and of a strategy, to protect the environment and transport
environmental conditions, appropriate for the different transport users;
modes.

• ensure that some reservations can be used for a range of place. They can be recycled; Rundle Street in Adelaide, for
transport tasks and provide for compatible transport example, has gone through seven life cycles and now is a mall.
modes; Transport reservations can be allocated different transport tasks
or a combination of them.
• make it possible to accommodate a shift from one
transport mode to another (such as from moving cars to Transport space also provides access to frontage activities, and
moving people), if this is desired at some stage in the some activities depend on the interaction between business
future; and turnover and passing transport (see, for example, C-2 Planning
of Type I corridors). The transport mode operates in a land-use
• facilitate (if and where desired) the introduction of new environment and interacts with it (see R-6 Public transport and
transport technology, such as intelligent transport land use, L-2 Transit friendly land use, R-7 Freight movement and
systems, and transport techniques, such as congestion land use). Some transport modes can share the transport space
pricing. under certain conditions, but need separation under other
conditions (see L-5 Cycle networks and land use, L-6
RELEVANT FACTORS Pedestrians and land use).
THE CONCEPT OF TRANSPORT SPACE
Reservation of transpor t space is a land-use matter. The

definition of transpor t space in this tool is the full width
reservation, not just the carriageway. It may include on-street
parking and space for the provision of utility services (above or
underground). It may also include elements which enhance
amenity - landscape space, space for human interaction, and
space for community and commercial activities (e.g. pavement
cafes). However, the principal purpose of transport space is for
movement.
Transport space for movement is different from most other land

uses because it derives its public benefit from continuity in space
to ensure transport tasks will be carried out without detours and
bottlenecks.
Once created, transport reservations are almost permanent, and Figure C-C7-2 Transport modes, threshold distances and trip
difficult to change, especially when urban development has taken lengths Source: PPG 13 (1994) NOTE: Based on UK data

KEY ISSUES between agencies, and the likely new knowledge that will emerge
as a result.
The creation, use and allocation of road space to transport tasks
raises important questions: TRANSPORT TASKS, NETWORKS AND SITUATIONS
• should a transport reservation include (wholly or in part) This Guide addresses some of these issues in other tools, but
space for mitigating environmental impacts, or should not conclusively. Some physical aspects will be considered here.
mitigation be incorporated in development along transport Other fundamental issues (see C-8 Congestion management
routes? and C-9 Transport pricing and tolls), are dealt with elsewhere.
• can we manage with less space or do we need more? Transport space is a consequence of urban structure and form,
in which history and culture play important roles. Cities, or parts
• are there transport modes which are over- or under- of cities, developed before the motorised age, have very different
represented and modes which may change or decline? amounts and arrangements of transpor t space and face
considerable problems of adaptation. Yet the transport tasks are
• can we make better use of existing transport space? similar: transport of freight and hazardous goods carried by rail
and truck; movement of people for work, business, education,
• which transport tasks are compatible, and when is it social, recreation and many other purposes, using a range of
necessary to separate transport tasks and modes? transport modes: car driver, car passenger, public transport,
cycling and walking.
• which transport mode should be given priority when there
is competition for space for different transport tasks? All these tasks and modes of transport have consequences for
network development and space needs. However, there is a
• how do we cope with growth and change in transport basic distinction between them:
tasks and modes?
• Tasks linked to origins or destinations - these transport
• how can land-use change be encouraged, when existing tasks are concerned with pick-up; delivery, access and
transport space is reallocated to different transport egress. They are generally performed within precincts
modes? where amenity and safety are of primary concern. Some
tasks are performed almost wholly within precincts, such
There is no systematic body of knowledge or practice which as walking or cycling to shops and schools.
assists in answering these questions. However, answers will have
to be found as pressure on existing transport space increases • Tasks and modes for movement between origins and
and the space available is not increased. This demonstrates the destinations beyond precincts. Performance of these
need for integrated approaches tasks requires a focus on efficiency and effectiveness, as

well as equity and environmental protection. For these and The general conclusion may be that the street space in precincts
reasons mentioned elsewhere, the Guide promotes the should occupy about 18–22 percent of the precinct. The lower
concept of corridors for movement and precincts for proportion may be appropriate in areas with integrated design,
environmental protection. and the higher proportion in areas where there is a need for
greater flexibility.
TRANSPORT SPACE IN PRECINCTS
TRANSPORT SPACE IN CORRIDORS -
The determinants for transport space in precincts are set by PREDICTING DEMAND
efficiency and cost-effectiveness alone. Past practices, providing
enough space for three garbage trucks abreast, have nearly Transport space in corridors is another matter. Generally, about
disappeared. 8–12 percent of urban areas is space used for transpor t
networks (other than local streets). The amount of space
Transport space for access and internal circulation within needed, and how it is used, has much to do with the distribution
precincts typically ranges from 16 to 25 percent of the built-up of land uses (see R-3 The right activity in the right place), the
area, with the larger proportion in lower-density suburbs with opportunities and constraints for choice in transport route and
wide streets. AMCORD shows that narrower streets in residential mode (see for example, R-2 Urban density, R-1 Urban form and
precincts are possible and can achieve considerable savings in structure, and L-3 Increasing choices in transport). It also
land, development costs and maintenance. A precondition is that depends on the priority given to the different transport tasks.
streets are designed for safety and amenity, including low vehicle
speeds. Most streets can be shared by vehicles and cyclists, and There are no studies, as far as we are aware, which examine the
some streets can be shared with pedestrians. Integrated transport space needed in urban areas. A frequently used
approaches, in which the development, building set-backs, method can lead to an estimate of the transport space, but is
services and street space are designed together, can reduce the based on numerous assumptions:
amount of space to about 16 percent (see for example, the
Housing Trust pilot project in Osborne, Part Adelaide). • land-use pattern for determining travel demand
There are also views that the transport space is permanent and • the mode split (usually the proportion of people travelling
has to be capable of accommodating transport tasks associated by public transport, car, or other modes)
with subsequent redevelopment and higher densities. Advocates
of the ‘New Urbanism’ argue that precincts require a high level of • the occupancy rate of vehicles (cars and public transport)
permeability. There are others who believe that the combination
of narrow streets and small lot development reduces the option • the choice of routes (based on travel time, distance and/or
for trees and greenery in the precinct, and the opportunity to costs)
create landscaped streetscapes.
• the number of lanes required for each route

• the cross-sections for transport routes (including, perhaps and does not increase the road space significantly.
the provision of a separate right of way for public
transport) A more critical issue concerns the relationship with adjoining
development. In the case of a freeway, space is usually provided
These assumptions are often made for peak hour travel, and this for the introduction of noise mitigation measures. Depending on
is assumed to be the period for travel to or from work. It has been land-use sensitivity, there is then a trade-off between physical
argued that networks should be developed for off-peak flows, separation and building acoustic barriers. In built-up areas, with
accepting a level of congestion during peak periods. However, in access drives, neither option is available and the solution may
large cities, peak hour travel only occupies about 25–30 percent have to be found in the form and design of development along a
of total travel and the travel demand in off-peak periods is corridor.
increasing.
MAKING MORE INTENSIVE USE OF THE SPACE
Assumptions about mode split are usually based on present
travel choice and behaviour, with the good intention to increase The amount of transport space in corridors is not just a matter of
the proportion of public transport because it makes more efficient projecting transport demand. Where space is at a premium, or it
use of the road space (by a factor of about 10, depending on is not feasible to expand the transpor t space, other
vehicle occupancy and lane utilisation). The occupancy rate of considerations apply. Going under or over may not be options,
vehicles is, therefore, a ready target: an average increase from except in special circumstances. The more likely options centre
1.2 to 1.5 leads to a 25 per cent increase in efficiency. Provision around the use of the space, which tasks and modes should be
of a lane for high-occupancy vehicles (including public transport, given priority (and this may vary in location and time), and the
taxis and passenger vehicle carrying three or more people) can extent to which the impacts of traffic on land, adjoining the
be an efficient way of using the transport space, provided there is corridors, are ‘internalised’ within the reservation.
efficient use of such lanes.
Technology may lead to more intensive use, such as intelligent
TRANSPORT SPACE IN CORRIDORS - transport systems (see C-10 Intelligent Transport Systems) and,
CONVERTING DEMAND INTO SPACE perhaps in future, automated highways, but these systems may
be confined to selected routes.
A significant factor to determine the road space needed is the
cross-section. An important aspect, usually considered as an A (tentative) conclusion is, that it may be difficult and undesirable
afterthought, is the transport space for cyclists. As shown in L-5 to reduce the total space in transport corridors below 10 percent
Cycle networks and land use, cyclists need separation where of the urbanised area. Networks are enduring elements and
vehicle speeds are high and this contributes significantly to the difficult to enlarge, and there must be flexibility for growth and
width. change.
A median improves road safety, is necessary for turning space

• operational requirements; or
• vulnerability of the road user.
In new corridors in undeveloped areas incompatibilities may be

resolved by separating transport modes where this can be
justified for reasons of safety, capacity and efficiency. For
example, provision for separate regional cycleways can be made
along routes where vehicle speeds are high. This (and the need
for noise protection) will affect the width of the reservation.
In established urban areas the often narrow width of the

reservation and proximity of adjoining development make it much
more difficult to allocate space for incompatible transport modes.
Incompatibility in speed or size of vehicle may require lowering
Figure C-C7-3 Separating modes demands transport space vehicle speed for reasons of safety. Experienced cyclists are
willing to travel without special protection from fast-moving traffic,
if routes are direct (such as in the breakdown space along
freeways). However, for less intrepid cyclists, alternative routes
may have to be found.
ALLOCATING SPACE:
COMPATIBILITY AND INCOMPATIBILITY Operational incompatibility can also occur. Express lanes for
high-occupancy vehicles should desirably be on the inside (i.e.
There are two issues: (i) the compatibility and incompatibility of along the median), but may conflict with right hand turning
different transport modes using the same reservation; and (ii) movements. Express buses may need to use the outer lane, if
compatibility of transport mode and the land use environment. there are stops. Stops need to be off-lane to ensure through
traffic is not delayed.
The relationship between modes, within a transport reservation,
is of crucial importance. Incompatibility may occur when there Compatibility with the land-use environment is of particular
are significant differences between transport modes in: importance in the case of goods movement and multi-modal
transport routes (which are not line haul routes).
• speed;
• vehicle size;

(see C-14 Urban Corridor management for the approach
in Victoria). The creation of shared zones in areas with a
high level of pedestrian activity, will affect vehicle speed
and travel time. This is also the case with an ‘urban
greenway’ (see figure C-C7-6) or transit mall, where
priority is given to public transport.
• Within precincts, amenity considerations will influence

priorities given to pedestrians and vehicles. There may be
areas where vehicle deliveries are prohibited at times of
pedestrian activity. This affects the operation of deliveries
and businesses.
In the context of integrated planning, changing priorities in the

use of the reservation have consequences which may cut across
Figure C-C7-4 Allocating priorities of limited road space traditional professional and departmental boundaries. They must
will dominate planning in future be assessed and worked through.
PRIORITIES
There is no general answer to the question as to what priority

should be given to particular modes when there are space,
capacity or environmental constraints. It depends on the context
and desired strategic outcomes, but there are procedural issues:
• Changing priorities can have significant overspill effects

which must be assessed, evaluated and addressed. For
example, conversion of a traffic lane to a high- occupancy
lane may lead to traffic congestion in other lanes, and
require travel demand or congestion management.
Conversion of a parking lane to a clearway can have a
considerable effect on businesses. Provision for Figure C-C7-5 Priority is given to public transport (tram)
alternative parking may be part of a package of measures and pavement cafes in Glenelg (Adelaide)

Example: Busway strategy for Brisbane APPLICATION
Brisbane City has a good pubic transport system. with both train HOW CAN IT BE DONE?
and bus services, but the overall level of public transport usage is
about the same as it was a decade ago. In the last half decade, 1: Identifying transport tasks and appropriate transport
train patronage has fallen, while bus patronage has grown. The modes for them
bus system is increasingly affected by traffic congestion, which
reduces the level of service and increases costs. The Council The transport tasks and the approach taken towards them are of
has made a commitment to double the proportion of public fundamental importance, and can only be determined through
transport usage by the year 2011. After considering alternatives, strategic exploration. For example, there may be a commitment
it decided on the construction of a busway network to give priority to economic growth and efficient movement of
freight, or a commitment to reduce greenhouse emissions, with
The environmental benefits of the busway strategy arise from the targets for the movement of people in high- occupancy vehicles.
much higher person trip capacity of the busway, compared to that
of an ar terial road or motorway. The busway will remove 2: Document and analyse existing transport reservations
approximately 20,300 peak hour trips from Brisbane’s roads
across the CBD cordon. 13,800 of these trips are new trips, This would include an analysis of width of reservations, their use
which would otherwise have had to be accommodated on the for different transport tasks and by different transport modes. The
road system. At an average car occupancy of 1.2 in 2011, this outcome would be the identification of corridors according to their
translates into 11,500 cars or about 12 new arterial equivalent potential for different modes.
lanes across the CBD cordon. This compares to the three peak
direction busway lanes, which the busway network will require. 3: Making forecasts of the transport tasks and modes
The busway will mostly be using existing roads, but be in the Analyse the consequences for the use of the transport network
form of a HOV lane with bypasses, signal priorities and grade without extensions or changes in the reservations and establish
separation for congested sections and conversion of the median, the ‘base case’ of ‘doing nothing’.
where there is space. (McCormick Rankin, 1995).
4: By reference to the strategic plan, develop options
By reference to the strategic plan, develop options for making (i)

more intensive use of existing transport space and investment,
and (ii) changes in the allocation of the transportation space for
specific sections of the network. The former may include
reducing roadside or on-road friction and intelligent transport
systems.

The latter could include creating designated freight routes,
conver ting lanes for high-occupancy vehicles (including
busways), creating a separate or shared right of way for light rail,
making separate provision for cyclists along some routes, or
giving priority to pedestrians in particular sections or at certain
times of the day. It is important when developing integrated
options to assess the consequences of changes from one
transport mode to other transport modes.
5: Assess and evaluate options
For each transport task and mode, consequences of the options

are to be examined. This should include the use of the transport
reservations and identification of black spots, bottlenecks and
other conflicts.
6: Develop an integrated strategy for network development

Boom gate for
and use
electronically
tagged vehicles
Develop a staged approach towards implementation of the
only
preferred strategy, identify the actions required by all agencies
affected, and establish management str uctures for
implementation.
APPROPRIATENESS
The right transport task for a particular route will always be a

moveable feast. What may be right at one time, may not be right
in the future. This is clearly the case where there are constraints
in vehicle capacity or unacceptable environmental consequences
of satisfying transport demand. Without expanding transport
space, the strategy may shift from managing vehicles with people
to managing people in vehicles: the re-allocation of space for
high-occupancy vehicles. Figure C-C7-6 Proposal for an ‘urban greenway’
giving access to licensed vehicles only (IRTP. 1997)

EFFECTIVENESS
Integrated approaches can be effective in creating and managing

transpor t reser vations as multi-modal transpor t routes;
addressing issues
of compatibility; making more intensive use of transport corridors;
establishing priorities for transport modes in particular areas or
along particular routes; and addressing the consequences of
changes in priorities.
RELATED STRATEGIES

C-6 Access to roads
C-3 Planning Type II corridors

management, therefore, should be addressed on a broader
Congestion C-8 basis, rather than improving flow in selected segments of roads.
management Congestion management can also contribute to making cities

more sustainable. People and businesses are known to be
influenced by travel time and cost in the choices they make in
their mode of travel and location decisions. Measures to reduce
congestion can be targeted to certain forms of transport, such as
High Occupancy Vehicles (HOV), and to some areas, but not to
INTENT others.
The intent of this tool is to reduce the causes and incidence of RELEVANT FACTORS
congestion, without recourse to major additions to the existing
road network Congestion management can: WHAT IS CONGESTION MANAGEMENT?
• reduce the demand for travel through congested areas; Few transport systems are designed to cope with peak demands:
people queuing for buses and trains or automatic teller
• make better use of the existing infrastructure; and machines, waits for taxis or restaurants on a Saturday night,
cyclists held up behind pedestrians on dual-use paths, and
• provide a basis for selective improvements in pedestrians waiting to cross a road, are all manifestations of
infrastructure. congestion. Similarly, gridlock is an extreme state not only for
roads. It is a potential characteristic of any network, subject to
Congestion is not simply a characteristic of roads. It is a potential demand in excess of capacity’ (Urban Transport Working Group,
characteristic of any network, subject to demand in excess of 1995).
capacity. Congestion management in this tool focuses on the
management of traffic congestion. It can be described as the The focus here is on the management of traffic congestion on the
process of ‘moving towards a level of congestion, where total road network. The emphasis on management is deliberate.
transport costs are minimised, as the cost of ameliorating the Congestion will remain a fact of urban life, but congestion
remaining congestion exceeds the penalty associated with the management can be used to achieve broad as well as specific
congestion’. objectives. The largest returns will be gained by targeting
congestion management in those situations where congestion is
Congestion management involves selective targeting of manifestly higher than is optimal.
congested areas, but should be combined with travel demand
management at both regional and local levels, and other policies Congestion management is a valid approach to improve
related to the protection of environmental quality. Congestion transport supply, selectively. However, it should be seen within

the broader context of travel demand management. Thirdly, the suburbanisation of activities results in a greater
geographic spread of congestion.
WHAT ARE THE CAUSES
CONTRIBUTING TO CONGESTION? Fourthly, changes in the population structure, such as smaller
and older households, means that the number of drivers is
Congestion can be attributed to: increasing.
• Inflexible travel times; Fifthly, security concerns are an issue for women, with the result
that women make more trips by car (see Resource Document
• Lack of differential pricing for peak services; p699).
• Poor perception of the cost of transport;
• Inadequate road capacity;
• Inadequate alternatives in mode of travel (such as public

transport);
• Inadequate alternative routes;
• Land-use location and traffic generation in areas with

limited transport capacity;
• Factors which do not constrain vehicle use (such as low

fuel costs and parking charges); and
• Growth in travel demand.
All these factors are important. Yet the most significant factor
amongst them all is the growth in travel demand. Firstly, the
demand for the movement of freight and people rises with Figure C-C8-1 Relationship between costs and flow
income. (Urban transport working group,1995)
Secondly, increasing growth in travel now also occurs at times

other than the traditional peak hours.

HOW CAN CONGESTION MANAGEMENT Congestion management measures
ADDRESS THESE CAUSES?
POLICIES AND MEASURES
It can address these causes by better utilisation of the existing TO INFLUENCE TRANSPORT DEMAND
infrastructure. The focus is usually on traffic management, e.g.
traffic signalling, automatic advance alerts for congested links, Road Pricing
access control on feeder links to arterials, road space allocation
(including changes and reverse lanes depending on peak • tolls
conditions), slip zones, preference for buses, trucks and HOV,
and accident management. • direct charges for use of roads
All these are the typical responses to a problem, which is • increased awareness of motoring costs
perceived as ‘needing to be fixed’. In other words, there will
always be pressure to treat symptoms in the shor t term. Land Use and Economic Planning
Treatment of the causes with long-term consequences is
generally postponed, because they demand more fundamental • co-ordination of land use and transport planning
and difficult solutions. And yet, congestion management requires
a long-term approach to land use, the transport infrastructure • zoning regulations and building codes
and use of the road space.
• location of economic growth
Within such a longer-term context, a range of travel demand,
transport supply policies and measures must be set in motion to Car Parking
address the causes of congestion. The inser t lists those
suggested by the Urban Transport Working Group, reporting for • quantity controls on parking
the National Transport Planning Framework (1995). The list
contains policies and measures, which were also identified in • taxation of parking
Travel Demand Management (see R-13).
Accessibility Restrictions
All these policies are of potential value, but it is clear that in
addressing the causes of congestion, management requires a • restrictions on car use
wide range of tools and a long-term approach. The approach to
the causes of congestion is dependent on intervention and its Travel Time and the Need to Travel
acceptance by government and the community. The kind and
degree of intervention must be • allow more flexible work, shopping and education hours
understood and widely supported.

• encourage telecommunications as a substitute for physical • improve marketing**
travel
• promote innovative transport systems
Car Pooling
Cars
• employer-based ride
• taxation and charges for vehicles and fuel**
• share schemes
• emission and fuel consumption standards
• promotion of ride-sharing
Cycling and Walking
Local area traffic management/traffic calming*
• improve cycling and pedestrian facilities
POLICIES AND MEASURES
WHICH INFLUENCE TRANSPORT SUPPLY • provide priority to public transport, pedestrians and
cyclists
Roads
• encourage cycling and walking
• construct additional road capacity
Source: Urban Transport Working Group (1995)
• improve traffic management
NOTE: One could argue that (*) belongs in the Supply group and
• provide priority for high-occupancy vehicles (**) in the Demand group.
• improve road information systems

HOW CAN CONGESTION MANAGEMENT
Public Transport ADDRESS THE EFFECTS?
• increase the quantity, quality and accessibility of public In the context of integrated planning and management, there are
transport two basic responses in addressing the effects of congestion.
• reduce the price of public transport** The first is to predict the prospects of congestion in particular
areas or corridors, and to use traffic management and
• provide priority to public transport vehicles development control measures to prevent it from getting worse.
This may include measures such as: banning right hand turns; on

street-parking; side street closures; restricting entrance drives; be that congestion near A-locations could be better addressed by
and discouraging further development, which contributes to road space management (see C-7 and C-14), than by increasing
congestion. All these will have an impact on land use and local road capacity.
circulation systems.
APPLICATION
The second is to respond proactively. Priority could be given to
the introduction of Intelligent Information Systems (see C-10) in HOW CAN IT BE DONE?
congested areas. Selective improvements could be made in the
form of bypasses, construction of missing links, pedestrian 1: Regional context
overpasses, restrictions on the use of the network at particular
times and preferential treatment for different modes of transport. The first step is to examine land-use and transport policy options
at the regional level. These can be wide ranging and may include
Development and redevelopment could be encouraged in areas several of the tools outlined in the Guide: R-3. The right activity in
with a high level of public transport accessibility and an extensive the right place; R-5 Key regional and transit centres; R-12
existing social infrastructure (e.g. education, health). Regional parking policies; R-13 Travel demand management; R-
14 Commuter planning; and R-15 Travel blending.
Freight distribution centres could be encouraged to be relocated
to sites with good accessibility to major roads which are not likely Most of these tools address causes and do not offer solutions in
to become congested. the short term (except for Travel blending).
2: Local context
CONGESTION MANAGEMENT
AS A TOOL TO INFLUENCE URBAN STRUCTURE In areas with a high incidence of congestion, options should be
examined in a local context. This, too, should be wide-ranging.
Households, individuals and businesses all make decisions by Relevant tools are L-1 Accessibility zoning; L-3 Increasing
taking account of congestion. Some are short term (e.g. time of choices in transport; L-4 Increasing choice in land use; L-5 Cycle
travel); others are long term: location decisions and decisions on networks and land use; L-7 Parking standards, and L-11 Traffic
transport mode. Increasing vehicle speed (other than that of calming.
public transport vehicles and HOVs) in congested areas may
make it more attractive for people to use their cars. For example, 3: Corridor context
increasing vehicle speed near the CBD, which is generally well
served by public transport, may be counter productive. Options could be considered for congestion management of
sections of transport routes. They could include giving priorities
Congestion management should be part and parcel of a vehicle in relation to the use of the road space, the application of
speed management and accessibility policy. For example, it may intelligent information systems and road pricing. Relevant tools

are: C-6 Access to roads; C-7 The right transport task on the Hence, selective transport supply and land-use management
right mode and route, C-9 Transport pricing and tolls; and C-10 options may be effective in preventing further deterioration,
Intelligent Transport Systems. provided they are combined with measures which ensure any
increased capacity avoids attracting induced traffic.
4: Developing a policy and action package
Ultimately, the issue comes back to realistic pricing and making
After exploring the range of possibilities, a policy package is all transport users responsible for bearing their full costs (UK
developed which has strategic components and priorities for Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution, 1997). This
action, and a program for implementation. aspect is considered further in Chapter 5 of the Resource
Document.
APPROPRIATENESS
Congestion management is appropriate in all circumstances. It

goes to the hear t of the management of cities and travel
behaviour. Addressing symptoms may be necessary in specific
situations, but longer-term polices are required to effectively deal
with the causes and effects.
EFFECTIVENESS
Effectiveness of congestion management depends on the

context and the criteria used. Isolated treatments may reduce
congestion in specific cases and thus be seen as effective.
However, effectiveness also needs to be assessed in a long-term

and system-wide context. This is a complex issue, because the
potential effectiveness of regional transpor t demand
management measures is constrained by the fact that people still
have considerable discretion in determining when, how and
where they travel. The incidence and knowledge of congestion is
a factor in the decisions they make. On the other hand, easing
congestion by increasing capacity triggers off suppressed
demand, which has been described as ‘induced traffic’ (UK
Commission on Trunk Roads, 1995).

RELATED TOOLS

L-7 Parking standards
C-6 Access to roads
C-7 The right transport task, mode & route
Figure C-C8-2 Congestion management C-10 Intelligent Transport Systems
can be addressed only on an area basis C-14 Urban corridor management

Integrated approaches towards transport pricing and charges
Transport pricing C-9 can:
and tolls • rationalise the unrestricted use of road networks;
• ration the use of networks in congested areas, according

to economic priority;
• increase the use of alternative transport modes;

INTENT
• help to preserve areas where there is a conflict with
Transport pricing can serve a number of goals: vehicle penetration;
• influencing the use of the transport system to achieve a • charge motorists for the use of major infrastructure and
more efficient overall transport system; recover costs;
• influencing the use of the transport system to optimise • influence travel behaviour; and
environmental impact; and
• control accessibility in particular locations.
• financing the system (for example, when roads are
privately financed through tolls) or generating revenue.
The requirements for these objectives are quite different; prima

facie they are often in conflict. Great care should be exercised if
the goals are to be satisfied through one transport pricing
measure. The most important and controversial arena for pricing
policy is in relation to roads. The purpose of this tool is to
encourage efficient use of the existing infrastructure and reduce
the amount of vehicle travel in congested areas (both a transport
efficiency and environmental goal). In New Zealand, road pricing
as a means of financing the road system is under scrutiny (see,
for example, NZ Ministry of Transport, Land Transport Pricing
Study, Options for the Future, 1997).
Figure C-C9-1 Tolling will give priority to those who can afford it

RELEVANT FACTORS ROAD TOLLS AND ROAD PRICING
TRANSPORT COSTS The pricing of roads implies the establishment of charges for the
use of all road space within an area. (In this context, a zero price
The structure of travel costs by different modes and for different for a specific road or link would be part of a conscious pricing
conditions is shown in figure C-C9-2. It shows that there are policy.) Road tolls, on the other hand, control access to specific
direct and indirect costs, paid and unpaid costs for car travel, and road links (or facilities, such as tunnels or bridges) and are
fixed and variable costs. Transport pricing can relate to both fixed commonly designed to finance the original investment and
and variable costs. Road pricing and tolls are user charges and, upkeep.
therefore, direct costs.
Road tolls are not an efficient way of pricing road space, unless
[NOTE: Much of the material for this tool was provided by they can be viewed in the broader context of pricing the use of all
Richard Kirwan, Kinhill]. roads in an area.
Road pricing is inevitably controversial, because:
• it involves rationing, through price, a ‘good’ which has

traditionally been regarded as ‘free’;
• it appears to restrict a fundamental liberty; and
• as with all user pay systems, the impact is seen to be

regressive - i.e. to have a more adverse impact on those
with lower incomes.
IMPACT OF ROAD TOLLS IN URBAN AREAS
The tolling of specific links within an integrated and largely

untolled urban road (and transport) network risks distorting the
use of the transport system in ways which diminish its efficiency.
In these circumstances road tolls may:
Figure C-C9 - 2 Structure of travel costs by different modes • prevent the most beneficial use of the available road
space;

• distort the choice by road users between tolled and COSTS AND BENEFITS OF TOLL COLLECTION
untolled road links;
The cost of collecting tolls is a drain on resources, which detracts
• impose additional costs on land users and traffic in areas from the benefit derived by road users from the use of tolled
abutting tolled roads; and roads.
• entail additional costs from the collection of tolls. Nonetheless, there are circumstances where the tolling of
individual links in an urban road network can be beneficial.
EFFICIENT USE OF THE ROAD NETWORK
The tolling of river (or equivalent) crossings is usually regarded
The most beneficial use of a road network will occur if it is freely as fair where otherwise there is no ‘natural’ link between the
available to road users up to the point at which congestion networks on either side. The construction of a link in these
becomes manifest. Before this point, the addition of extra traffic circumstances should be funded by the main beneficiaries - that
does not impose a cost on existing road users; as a is, the users of the crossing. Notwithstanding, the argument
consequence, there should be no price-disincentive to the use of about excluding potential users from sharing in the funding of
the facility. The imposition of a road toll, when there is no construction remains valid.
evidence of congestion, excludes road users unable to pay.
When the two parts of a hitherto divided transport network (i.e.
The juxtaposition of tolled and untolled road links in an urban tolled and free links) become more integrated, the arguments for
road network also distorts road users’ choice of route. To the removal of ‘distorting’ tolls grows stronger. (Similar arguments
maximise the benefit road users derive from the road network, led to the removal of tolls on 19th century turnpikes as links,
their choice of route should be based only on the speed and level which were initially seen to be of special benefit to a few users,
of service characteristics of the route (assuming no congestion). and became regarded as part of the general infrastructure.)
A toll on one road, with no toll on a parallel route, would only be
justified, if the first were congested and the second was not. The other main benefit from the tolling of specific links in an
urban or rural road network arises in circumstances where the
IMPACT ON NEIGHBOURING AREAS authorities responsible for the public road network suffer from
severe budget constraints. If there is sufficient demand to justify
The tolling of selected routes in a dense urban road network can the investment, but there are insufficient funds (relative to other
lead to traffic through neighbourhood streets and ‘rat runs’ in an priorities) to implement the proposal, the tolling of a road in order
attempt to avoid the toll (see the Lane Cove Council’s approach to advance its construction is advantageous.
to this problem in L-11 Traffic calming). This imposes costs on
land users and road users in the affected areas (particularly in However, this is strictly a benefit from the privatisation of the
the form of accidents, noise, air pollution and disturbance). funding, rather than from tolling per se (see below).

ROAD TOLLS AND PRIVATE FINANCING • increased risk of accidents; and
Road tolls are often connected with the private financing (and • increased delays at intersections or access points.
operation) of roads. Tolls can also be imposed when roads are
not privately financed; and, conversely, privately financed roads At this point, the total cost of road use, including the cost of
do not always have to depend on tolls. vehicle operation and the value of time, increases with the
addition of each extra vehicle: the marginal cost of road use is
Arguments about road pricing and tolling should be kept higher than its average cost and r ising. Under these
separate from the discussion of involving private capital and circumstances, the welfare of road users as a group will be
expertise in the provision and management of roads. increased if all vehicles are charged the difference between
marginal and average cost of road use, in addition to the average
For example, the private financing of roads can be based on cost, which they bear directly.
‘shadow prices’. Examples of a shadow pricing regime are found
in the United Kingdom. There, local authorities have agreed in The optimal road price would be set somewhere between the
advance to pay a fixed amount per vehicle movement for short-run marginal cost of providing road space and its long-run
privately funded roads. Revenues are related to actual traffic marginal cost (depending on the level of demand and
flows. The traffic risk is still borne by the provider. Monitoring congestion).
devices and surveys are used to determine the volume of traffic.
The imposition of road prices, based on marginal cost, will only
Shadow pricing enables an infrastructure provider to recoup the be efficient if it is applied uniformly to all those parts of a road
cost of providing and maintaining a road; it does not involve the network which effectively complement or substitute for one
restraint of road use, which is the aim of congestion pricing. another. Otherwise the distor tions, mentioned above in
connection with road tolls, will arise also in the case of road
CONGESTION PRICING pricing.
The pricing of road space is the most efficient way of managing The effect of charging a congestion price would be to:
and reducing congestion.
• reduce the number of vehicles using the road network;
Congestion occurs when the addition of extravehicles onto a
road network or link reduces the level of service for the existing • improve traffic operations and reduce accidents;
road users (see C-8 Congestion management). The most
common reductions in service arise from: • ensure that those users who derived most financial benefit
from road use had priority over those who derived less
• slower speeds; benefit; and

• leave some congestion - ie. some detectable negative DIFFERENTIAL CHARGES
interaction between vehicles on the road network, but
ensure that it is consistent with the best overall use of the True congestion pricing in dense urban areas requires differential
system. prices for categories of roads and times of day. As with other
infrastructure pricing systems - e.g. electricity, rail transport - a
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CHARGING primary objective of congestion pricing is to diminish demand at
FOR ROAD SPACE AND CONGESTION PRICING the peak, and to spread the peak load.
There is a significant difference between charging for road space This reinforces the normal response of road users to increasing
and congestion pricing. congestion, based only on average road use costs. Differential
charging will result in an overall improvement in the use of road
Charging for road space, according to the economic principle of space and will increase the total benefit which road users derive
welfare maximisation, should be based on short-run marginal from the use of the road network.
cost, when there is no congestion, and a price between short-run
and long-term marginal cost, if there is congestion. However, the Without the ability to differentiate between peak and off-peak
appropriate price for road space would normally be limited to the prices it would be impossible to achieve the gains from reducing
cost of providing the road. The long-run marginal cost of congestion at peak times without incurring substantial losses of
providing road space is in effect the average cost of providing the welfare from unnecessarily harsh restrictions of road use at other
next increment of capacity, times.
Increments of capacity may take the form of relatively simple The requirement for differential pricing, by road link (or area) and
measures - such as the introduction of roundabouts or passing time of day, has been a barrier to the introduction of road pricing
lanes - or may involve major expansions, such as additional and congestion pricing schemes. It establishes technical
lanes or total reconstruction. requirements, which are difficult and expensive to implement.
With new technology, this may change.
Congestion pricing goes beyond this. It implies that the price
should take into account the effect of additional vehicles on the APPLICATION
average (or total) level of service provided by the road -
par ticular ly travel time and accident rate. Prices set to HOW CAN IT BE DONE?
‘internalise’ these aspects of road use, in addition to the costs of
providing the road, recoup much greater revenue than required to It is too early to identify a generic process for road and
cover the marginal cost of road space. Road pricing implies, at congestion pricing. However, some comments can be made
the least, charging for the provision of road space; congestion about their application.
pricing implies marginal cost of road use.

Methods of pricing • prepayment, combined with recognition of an authority to
use the road space, and progressive debiting of the
The technology for road tolling is improving. Many toll roads still appropriate charge; or
rely on the manual collection of tolls. Recently, systems for the
automated recognition of vehicles - using either prepaid labels or • recognition and recording of road use by different
end-of-period billing - and for card swiping, are being trialled in categories of vehicle, with end-of-period billing, as with
different countries. Significant improvements are expected to other major infrastructure systems such as power and
occur in the next few years, based either on smar t card telecommunications.
technology or automated vehicle recognition (see C-10 Intelligent
Transport Systems). The cost of introducing technology adapted to these needs would
be high, but is declining. Most commentators assume that some
The technology for full-scale road or congestion pricing was form of electronic tolling will be readily available within the next
outlined more than 35 years ago. The need for differential pricing, few years.
without disrupting traffic flow - which would impose additional
costs and thereby reduce the net benefit from pricing - means EXAMPLE
that sophisticated systems are required for the recognition of
vehicles, calculation of appropriate charges and debiting. Despite many years of discussion, there are only limited
experiments taking place with road pricing and congestion
This technology is still at an early stage of development, but the charging worldwide.
possibilities are improving rapidly. Smart cards will be in use in
Melbourne by the year 2000 for tolling Melbourne City Link. A limited experiment with electronic road tolling has been
undertaken in Hong Kong to demonstrate the efficacy of the
Area license equipment, but it has not been widely applied.
The simplest form of differential road pricing or congestion tax is Congestion tolls have been implemented in California. A privately
the special area licence. This permits entry to a designated area, funded expressway, grafted onto the existing freeway system,
such as a Central Business District, only to vehicles displaying has used peak period pricing to even out the demand for the
the requisite licence. Compliance can be achieved through either available space. The peak price was initially set at 10 times the
automated or manual scanning. The licence fee is set to reflect off-peak. Similar differential pricing has been proposed for the
the appropriate congestion charge (marginal cost), in the light of San Francisco - Oakland Bay Bridge.
the known responsiveness of traffic demand.
Singapore has operated a system of supplementary licences for
More sophisticated systems, allowing for greater differentiation motorists wishing to bring cars into the central area of the city in
between road links, times of day etc. require either: the morning peak for 20 years. In the context of other measures
limiting the growth of car ownership, the licences have reduced

the volume of traffic entering the central area on a daily basis. On the other hand, one major group of beneficiaries from higher
The program has been accompanied by substantial investment in road speeds and fewer delays are public transport users (buses).
rail-based transport. Bus users tend to come from lower-income households, people
without access to cars, the young and the elderly.
POSSIBLE WAY FORWARD
Investment response
A possible way forward would be to combine greater private
involvement in the provision and maintenance of roads in urban Where prices are allowed to rise, reflecting the scarcity of a
areas, with a move towards road pricing - without reliance on resource, there is an implicit obligation to investment in increased
conventional road tolls. It would be used to invest in area-wide supply. This occurs naturally in a competitive market, which
electronic recognition and charging equipment. However, it would responds to the balance between demand and supply. A private
be used in the first instance to estimate ‘shadow prices’ for monopolist, who allowed prices to rise without providing a
private road operations (such as long-ter m maintenance greater supply, would be seen to be anti-social.
contracts). At a later date, the same mechanism, once proven,
could be used as a basis for direct user charges. There is, therefore, a strong view that ‘rationing’ prices are only
justified in the short term, if they are matched by a commitment
APPROPRIATENESS to additional supply in the longer term. Road pricing (as opposed
to congestion pricing) underscores this: as soon as the rationing
The controversy surrounding road pricing and congestion tolls price is equal to the long-run marginal cost, new supply is
raise fundamental questions about the provision of, and justified. In relation to congestion pricing, the aim is usually to
accessibility to, public infrastructure. limit car use without any obligation to provide additional road
space. This approach is hard to sustain politically, without public
There are two basic issues: understanding and acceptance.
Equity, price and access Evidence from a number of countries illustrates the dilemma.
Limits on access to central areas in Norway and Sweden, for
The main argument against road pricing is that it denies access example, were unacceptable to the local communities, until a
to what is regarded as a public good. The use of price as a commitment was given to improve road facilities. This was
means for rationing scarce road space, especially in large urban achieved by building roads which would direct traffic and land
areas, will, in effect, exclude a significant number of road users in use away from congested central areas, with urban ‘cells’ (or
order to benefit those that remain. The outcome will owe more to precincts) defined in terms of their traffic carrying capacity. In the
the availability of income than to any true measure of need or United States, the introduction of peak period tolls in the San
benefit. Francisco area was made contingent on improved public
transport services and lower off-peak tolls.

Figure C-C9-3 Toll gates on the M2, Sydney.
Provision has been made for cyclists.
The M2 also provides for express public transport by bus.
RELATED TOOLS


Intelligent C-10
transport systems
INTENT
‘Intelligent Transport Systems’ (hereafter called ITS) is a term

used to describe advances in information and communication
technology which improve the links between the road, vehicles
and users. The purpose of this tool is to provide an overview of
current technologies and encourage, where appropriate, their
development and application in practice.
Intelligent transport systems can lead to (Taylor, 1997):

Figure C-C10-1 Links and outputs
• more effective use of the existing transport infrastructure;
• improved traffic flow;
• better services from public transport;

Technologies used include:
• enhanced safety;
• navigation systems;
• lower-cost freight transport; and
• assistance for safe driving;
• reduced environmental impact and better use of
resources. • optimisation of traffic management;
• establishment of electronic toll collection; driver and

passenger information systems; and

• freight management systems. RELEVANT FACTORS
Current technologies include: HOW CAN ITS BE USED?
• Stored value cards and ‘smart cards’; The technologies can be used for (Taylor, 1997):
• Vehicle tracking systems - satellite-based or ground- Advanced Traffic Control

based;
Advanced traffic control systems are designed to control and
• Vehicle identification systems - electronic tags, which can facilitate the movement of traffic and pedestrians using co-
be read by detectors or electronic recognition of ordinated traffic signal technology.
registration plates;
Route Guidance
• Advance sensors - ranging from simple vehicle detectors
at traffic lights to sensors triggering safety devices; A digital street directory keeps track of the location of the vehicle
and provides route guidance to the driver through an electronic
• Variable message signs; map display or synthesised voice instructions. The category also
includes computerised street maps and similar systems,
• Digital video imaging of the traffic stream or number assisting with route finding and planning.
plates;
Driver Information
• High-speed, affordable computers, allowing processing in
real time and access to instant information; and Provides drivers with information pertinent to their journey, either
prior to their departure or during the journey. Information on
• Data and voice communication by cable and wireless delays (due to congestion, fog, flooding, accidents, etc.), road
systems. works, parking guidance and alternative routes allows drivers to
make informed decisions about their journey. The information can
be conveyed by the media, computer network, roadside signs or
direct into the vehicle on in-vehicle displays. It provides timely
and accurate information, allowing travellers to make better
decisions about their route and time of travel.

Incident Management Public Transport Information
A high proportion of congestion on major roads is caused by Systems designed to provide travellers with information about the
incidents such as breakdowns, accidents and road works. availability of public transport. This information can be provided
Incident management systems can assist in rapid detection and before the trip (routes, timetables, transfers, fares, etc.) or during
rapid response. the trip (waiting time until the next bus, availability of seats,
estimated time of arrival at destination, etc.). The information can
Electronic Toll Collection be displayed at bus stops (e.g. Perth), distributed by phone, or
accessible by computer. By linking timetables with vehicle
Systems designed for automatic payment of tolls on roads and tracking systems and information about current traffic conditions,
bridges, without the need to slow down. Vehicles are equipped the information can be up to date and accurate.
with a ‘smart card’ or are electronically tagged; as the vehicle
passes the toll point, the toll charge is deducted from the card or Public Transport Management
account.
Includes systems which enhance the efficiency and safety of
Automatic Vehicle Control public transpor t vehicles, such as auto-vehicle location,
computer ised timetabling, dispatch and roster ing, fleet
Cruise control currently installed in many cars is a simple monitoring and intelligent control systems. Technology is making
example of this type of system. The next step is adaptive cruise public transport not only more cost effective, but also more
control, which uses radar, video or radio-based technology to responsive to the needs of travellers. Computerised vehicle
detect vehicles ahead and to adjust speed accordingly. There are dispatch systems are already used in taxis.
proposals to extend the idea to fully automated highways on
which steering and speed are controlled by a combination of Road Safety Enhancement
computers and sensors installed in the vehicle and roadway.
Systems assisting the driver to avoid an accident and providing
Vehicle Engine and Suspension Technologies better protection in case of a crash. Australian vehicles are
already fitted with a range of safety devices, but in future they will
Developments in engine and suspension technologies are be supplemented with systems which respond to imminent
reducing damage to the environment (reduced noise and collisions.
emissions) and the road surface, and are making driving safer.
In particular, advanced suspensions on heavy vehicles are Parking Management
making the vehicles safer, and by spreading the load are causing
less road damage. Systems which advise drivers when searching for a space in an
off-street parking garage whether spaces are available and how
many.

Security and Emergency Services WHAT ARE THE BENEFITS AND COSTS?
The combination of vehicle tracking and two-way There are important potential benefits of ITS:
communications provides protection for drivers; vehicles and
cargoes are continually monitored from a central control room. • It has the potential of making public transport more
The same technology can be used to monitor the movement of attractive by making people aware of the choices, and
hazardous cargoes through urban areas, and to monitor and providing them with information before and during the
optimise the deployment of emergency vehicles. journey, along with improving its reliability.
Freight Management Systems • It can improve the efficiency and reliability of public
transport.
Involves a range of technologies aimed at increasing the
reliability, service quality and efficiency of freight transport. New • It has the potential of reducing traffic accidents and
technologies are also being used to monitor compliance with reducing time losses resulting from traffic congestion.
government regulations. Sensors can be used to identify Users will be able to travel with a high degree of reliability
individual vehicles and measure their weight and dimensions, and convenience, in response to the specific conditions of
without the vehicle having to stop. Another application is the an area and at particular times.
tracking of containers regardless of make.
• It will improve energy efficiency and reduce vehicle
Environment and Pollution Monitoring emissions by improving traffic flow and reducing traffic
congestion.
Pollution monitoring devices and warning systems are already
installed in vulnerable locations such as the Sydney Harbour • Reduction of the driver’s work load can provide a road
Tunnel. Continuous pollution monitoring systems will become transport system which is easier to utilise by an aging
more widespread, and will be used to broadcast warnings and population.
implement traffic control strategies. Mobile systems, which can
be utilised to identify non-compliant vehicles in a traffic stream, • ITS can improve the efficiency and safety of the freight
are available and expected to be used distribution industry.
in Sydney.
• It will also improve the utilisation of existing infrastructure
and reduce the need to provide more roads and road
transport services.
It is difficult to quantify the individual benefits and costs of the

emerging technologies. Some benefits can be measured (e.g.

shorter travel times, better service quality), but others cannot be APPLICATION
easily identified (e.g. reduced environmental impacts). The
overall benefits will depend on the characteristics of each city or HOW CAN IT BE DONE?
region and the combination of technologies, which are in use.
One way to express the benefits is by the type of benefits which Several authorities in Australia are developing strategic plans for
a particular application will deliver (see Taylor, 1997). The costs ITS and there are also significant efforts to develop national
will also vary between each city or region. standards, but there is as yet no established practice. The
following steps are no more than a possible way of developing an
Not all the costs are transport-related. There are also significant integrated approach in metropolitan areas.
implications arising from information sharing between different
agencies and community concerns about loss of privacy. 1: Identifying need and scope
IMPLICATIONS The first step is the identification of opportunities and constraints.

It involves an appreciation of the range of technologies available
The main contribution of ITS is the better use of existing and an interpretation of the scope for application.
transpor t infrastructure; the technologies also improve
accessibility and knowledge about accessibility. It is likely, 2: Identifying and defining a core infrastructure
therefore, that it will lead to changes in land-use location and
travel behaviour. However, it is difficult to predict what the nature The Department of Transport in the US has circulated a set of
of these changes will be. seven categories of a core infrastructure to focus the application
of ITS in metropolitan areas (see example). In defining them, the
ITS offers respite, but not a panacea. While it creates an following principles were followed:
opportunity to use the existing infrastructure more effectively,
there will come a time when the maximum capability of the • Deployment will enable meaningful implementation of
existing transport infrastructure is extracted and there is no more metropolitan-area ITS user services and facilitate
scope for further improvement. For this reason, other integrated deployment of many other ITS user services.
management strategies such as demand management and
corridor management should be vigorously pursued. • Each category could be applied independently of the
others, but concurrent implementation would significantly
ITS may also serve as a model for the development of intelligent increase overall benefits and/or decrease incremental
land-use systems. For example, information on accessibility and costs.
travel time by different transport modes in a particular location
may be developed, and become a tool in location decisions. • The application can be readily deployed in the near term
using ‘state-of the-art’ concepts and technologies (versus
existing ‘state-of the-practice’).

• Varying technologies, from ‘low-tech’ to ‘high-tech,’ can be 6: Choice of package
used to deploy/implement each feature.
After consultation with the stakeholders and addressing their
• The definitions should account for different institutional concerns, a choice of the package of applications is made.
environments, varying spatial/geographic relationships
among centres of activity (i.e. as with CBD / ring city / 7: Implementation program
suburb relationship), and recognise that systems will
evolve over time, providing greater benefits and lower An implementation program is developed, including
costs. responsibilities and the commitment of resources. The program
can include pilot projects and investigations. A community
3: Making a survey of core infrastructure categories information program is an essential component.
Each of the core categories should contain a statement of 8: Monitoring and review
required capability. Progress towards application of the The effectiveness of the program should be tested and reviewed.
categories requires an inventory of existing capability. The US
DOT provides an initial set of features for each of the seven APPROPRIATENESS
categories, which assists in making such an inventory.
ITS comes into its own in large urban regions, where the existing
4: Determining preliminary package of ITS components transport infrastructure and the environment are under pressure.
It is possible to introduce individual technologies progressively,
Based on analysis of the unique needs in a specific area, a but many are complementary and the full benefits will only be
preliminary package of the core categories is determined. delivered when they are all in place.
Factors to be taken into account are common physical (hardware
and software) components and institutional relationships which Movement towards their application will occur in an evolutionary
contribute to successful implementation of more than one core way, and build on existing information and communication
feature. Another consideration is the longer-term evolution of the systems and institutional relationships.
package to a full ITS.
EFFECTIVENESS
5: Assessment of likely costs and benefits
The effectiveness of ITS has yet to be proven, but there is
A careful assessment is made of the costs and benefits, and how considerable potential.
they affect the stakeholders and the community. Funding sources
are identified.

EXAMPLE 6. Electronic fare payment system(s); and
Defining a ‘core infrastructure’ 7. Electronic toll collection system(s).

US Department of Transport has defined a set of seven features
which constitute today’s ‘state-of the-art’ implementation of ITS
and which ‘will establish a foundation for deployment of future [NOTE: In Australian urban regions, perhaps another could be
ITS user services, to be provided by both public and private added: 8 Parking management systems]
sector entities’ (http://www.itsonline. com/new_sta.html).
‘Establishment of the core infrastructure permits optimal

operations and management of roadway and transit resources
through use of currently-available technologies and strengthened RELATED TOOLS
institutional ties. In the near term, implementation of the core
infrastructure features is expected to be led by the public sector, C-8 Congestion management
and development of these capabilities is expected to occur in an R-13 Travel demand management
evolutionary manner. However, private sector participation is R-14 Commuter planning
highly encouraged, and appropriate partnership opportunities R-15 Travel blending
should be actively sought by State and local implementing
agencies. Maturation of the core features in a number of
metropolitan areas can be expected to drive private sector
development of products and industries to provide future ITS
user services.’
The features are:
I. Regional multi-modal traveller information centre;
2. Traffic signal control system(s);
3. Freeway management system(s);
4. Transit management system(s);
5. Incident management program;

The focus of this tool is on the second objective: to reduce
Reducing C-11 exposure to traffic noise through planning and design. Integrated
approaches towards reducing noise exposure can:
noise exposure
• prevent problems from occurring which may be difficult or
costly to overcome; and
• ameliorate situations of unacceptable noise exposure.

INTENT
There are six areas where integrated planning can contribute
Traffic noise is a pervasive element in present-day cities and towards noise prevention and mitigation:
carries a social and economic cost. The final report by the Road
Traffic Noise Task Force (NSW EPA, 1993) quoted estimates that • residential precincts;
over 11% of the population in the Sydney areas were exposed to
traffic noise over 65 dB(A) Leq, and a further 38% to traffic noise • activity centres;
between 55 and 65 dB(A) Leq.
• corridors;
The overall amount of traffic in a city, and the traffic noise
produced, is determined by its land use and transport system • noise barriers;
and the manner in which it is utilised. One of the main objectives
of current planning is to shift the demand for travel from private to • building siting and design; and
public transport and other modes, and thus reduce the overall
level of traffic on roads (see R-13 Travel demand management). • noise abatement plans.
Another objective is to develop and implement planning
strategies which prevent further deterioration and which will
ensure acceptable levels of noise exposure are not exceeded
when sites for new developments are selected and buildings are
designed.

RELEVANT FACTORS
CONTEXT
Planning for a reduction in exposure to traffic noise must be seen

within the broader context of traffic management, which aims to
achieve two main purposes:
(i) to protect the environmental quality of areas where such

protection is essential for the well-being of the community
(i.e. ‘traffic calming’ for ‘precincts’); and
(ii) to assist the proper functioning of the city and its road
network by facilitating the flow of traffic along routes,
designated to carry through traffic (i.e. ‘corridors’), without
undue stress on the environment (see L-8 Corridors and
precincts).
Figure C-C11-1 Land-use and network planning
RESIDENTIAL PRECINCT-PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT can create quiet areas and identify areas
where acoustic design is necessary
Residential precincts in new areas are generally designed to
discourage through traffic, and to prevent the occurrence of
unacceptable traffic noise levels. Guidelines have been
developed (AMCORD, 1995) which ensure that traffic volumes
and vehicle speeds are appropriate for a residential environment.
The arrangement of land uses and local street networks is residential streets. The process of modifying an existing street
important, as they determine how much traffic will be on local system, making it more acceptable in environmental terms, is
streets and the noise produced. referred to in L-11 Traffic calming. There are well-established
procedures for preparing traffic calming plans (Local Area Traffic
Residential precincts developed before the 1950s were not Management - LATM - Austroads, 1988).
designed on this basis. Many are now inner and intermediate
suburbs and adversely affected by traffic noise, because Guidelines for traffic noise exposure in precincts, provided in
increasing traffic demand has forced through-traffic into AMCORD, set the acceptable level of exposure) at 55 dB(A) at
the facade, without variations for day and night conditions and in
ambient levels. This level can generally be achieved, if traffic

volumes do not exceed 3,000 vehicles per day, vehicle speeds ACTIVITY CENTRES - PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT
do not exceed 50 km/h and conventional set backs apply. Where
traffic volumes and speeds exceed these levels, acoustic One of the issues in activity centres is how to re-arrange the
analysis is required. activity and movement functions, and convert them into less
noisy and more friendly precincts (see L-9 Centres as precincts).
Planning of new areas should aim to distribute land-use activities
and develop networks which limit, as much as possible, the While the principles of traffic calming in activity centres are well
number of vehicles in residential streets and thereby avoid the established, there are no generally recognised acceptable noise
need for special acoustic design measures (see figure C-C11-1). exposure levels in Australia. A practical test is the ability to carry
on a normal conversation on the footpath. In some countries, this
In established precincts there will be occasions when it is not level has been set at 65 dB(A) with 68 dB(A) an upper limit. In a
possible to achieve the desired exposure levels, even with traffic simplified situation, without heavy vehicles and with a typical
management measures. In these situations, acoustic calculations road reservation of 20 metres, the maximum number of vehicles
should demonstrate that acceptable levels of noise exposure can would be about 12,000 (16 hour period and 68 dB(A)) with
be attained within the dwelling (such as 35 dB(A) in bedrooms). speeds at 30 km/h.
The development of traffic calming plans is an impor tant In order to maintain the same level of exposure with increased
consideration in urban consolidation. Where there is an increase speed, the number of vehicles must be reduced (see Figure C-
in the number of dwellings and in vehicular traffic, traffic calming C11-2). Alternatively, land-use changes should be considered to
measures are required to ensure that the environmental permit less sensitive land uses, such as warehousing, in areas of
capacity of existing streets is not adversely affected (for a traffic exposure and to encourage sensitive land uses to more
discussion of environmental traffic capacity, see Resource quiet locations.
Document, Chapter 8).
Whenever possible, the planning of new precincts should be
Measures should be selected which do not create additional based on the creation of a vehicle-free pedestrian core. The core
traffic noise. There are traffic calming devices which can is surrounded by local streets, providing access to parking and
contribute to the generation of traffic noise. Devices which involve buildings and catering for internal circulation. A major traffic
vertical displacement (such as humps and thresholds) may lead route, external to the precinct, provides for through traffic and
to increased acceleration/deceleration and cause rattling from connections to the local street system.
trailers.
In existing precincts, the aim should be to create similar
conditions through traffic and land-use management. Where this
cannot be achieved (or at least not in the short term), the first
priority should be to address the routing and time-management
of heavy vehicles. Traffic speed should be considered next, and

be reduced to ensure pedestrian safety as well as noise Issues in noise management
reduction (see L-11 Traffic calming). A speed profile should be
established, to ensure that speeds are reduced gradually. Key issues in noise management for corridors are:
Sudden changes contribute to increased noise levels.
• the determination of acceptable exposure levels;
Many large parking areas and stations have been built, serving
activity centres within close proximity to residential areas. In such • land-use management to discourage noise-sensitive uses;
locations, proposed parking areas and stations should be
designed to make sure traffic noise does not disturb nearby • traffic management measures to reduce emission;
residents. The elements of design include internal roadway/aisles
to attain a uniform travel speed and pavement material to reduce • access restrictions to provide continuous walls or mounds,
traffic noise. which act as a noise barrier; and
CORRIDOR PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT • building siting and design.
The term ‘corridor’ is used to include both the road reservation

and any adjacent development, which may be affected by the
design of the road and the traffic it carries (see L-8 Corridors and
precincts).
There are different corridor situations requiring different

approaches to noise management (see C-1 Corr idor
categorisation).
Many existing arterial and sub-arterial roads have developed into

major traffic routes over time, and little consideration was given
to the relationship with the road environment, including the
impact of traffic noise. Existing zoning, particularly in older urban
areas, does not reflect the standards of environmental
performance, which are expected today. As pressure on these
routes increases, noise protection has become a matter of critical
importance. Figure C-C11-2 Relationship between speed,
volume and traffic noise (based on CRTN method)

An important issue is the definition of acceptable levels of protected from traffic noise, are exposed by removal of buildings
exposure and how to achieve such levels in the short and long required for widening. VicRoads also retrofits barriers to older
term. Traffic noise level objectives for new road projects, major freeways when the noise levels exceed 68 dB(A)L10(18hr) and
road upgrading projects and major traffic management projects funds are available. New buildings, abutting existing roads under
(for uses conforming to zoning) are specified in some State VicRoads control, will not be protected.
guidelines. Some local authorities, notably the Hornsby Municipal
Council in Sydney, have set exposure standards for flat buildings Studies have shown that there are community concerns about
along major traffic routes. traffic noise in shopping strings. Pedestrian-generating activity is
inappropriate in Type I corridors, and corridor management plans
Guidelines for traffic noise exposure exist in all States and should aim to reduce this type of activity as far as possible
Territories. In some States, noise exposure guidelines distinguish (Land-Use Management along Ar terial Roads, Black and
between exposure levels for different land uses (e.g. hospitals Westerman, 1990). Under certain conditions pedestrian activities
and classrooms). The objectives can vary for day- and night-time may be appropriate in Type II corridors and objectives for
conditions and also with the ambient noise level. acceptable levels of exposure should be developed.
In Victoria, for example, the VicRoads’ Traffic Noise policy TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT TO REDUCE EMISSION
objectives for new or improved roads make a distinction between
different land uses: Traffic management can play a role in minimising emission by
reducing the incidence of acceleration/deceleration (particularly
• Category A: residential dwellings, aged persons homes, of heavy vehicles), reducing vehicle speed in areas of high
hospitals, motels, caravan parks and other buildings of a pedestrian activity, and limiting the use of certain corridors by
residential nature. The objective is 63 dB(A) L10(18hr) heavy vehicles, at specified times or days. Similar restrictions
measured between 6am and midnight; may also be placed on the use of Type II corridors by light
commercial vehicles. The introduction of restrictions on routes
• Category B: schools, kindergartens, libraries and other and/or times should not be considered without consulting the
noise-sensitive community buildings. The objective is 63 road transport industry.
dB(A) L10(12hr) measured between 6am and 6pm; and
• In existing Type I corridors there may be limited scope
• Where the noise level adjacent to Category A or B for reducing emissions (although more can be done to
buildings, prior to road improvements, is less than 50 ameliorate night-time conditions). Measures such as
dB(A) L10(18hr), consideration will be given to limiting the acoustic screens to reduce transmission may not be
noise level increase to 12 dB(A). feasible. The focus will have to be on land-use adaptation,
development control and building design. It will take time
The VicRoads policy defines ‘improved roads’ as roads which are for such measures to be effective.
widened by two or more lanes and where buildings, previously

• In new Type I corridors both emission and transmission ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES
measures can and should be used, to achieve the target
levels of exposure. There are procedures for considering traffic noise produced on
arterial roads as part of the requirements of an Environmental
• Existing Type II corridors require different approaches. Impact Statement, and these are in widespread use. An EIS is
They may be heavily used in peak periods during the day, only required where there are proposals for a new arterial
but not at other times. If trucks use them at night, traffic (usually a Type I corridor) or for significant changes to existing
noise exposure may also be important because of the arterial roads. Changes in traffic management are not subject to
presence of residential and other noise sensitive uses in an EIS-type scrutiny.
the corridor.
There is a need to clarify the role of State and local Authorities in
corridor planning and management for Type I and Type II
corridors respectively, and to establish the responsibility
(including the costs) for measures to achieve target exposure
levels. Policies and guidelines should be developed for the
integrated planning and management of transport corridors by
State authorities and include:
• performance targets for traffic noise emission,

transmission and exposure for existing and proposed
‘Type I’ and ‘Type II’ corridors and for corridors in built-up
and non-urbanised areas; and
• guidelines for the preparation and implementation of Type

I and Type II corridor management plans, including the
responsibility of State and Local Authorities respectively, and
consultation with the road transport industry.
NOISE BARRIERS
Figure C-C11-3 Land use zoning to reflect noise exposure
In order to reduce the transmission of noise, noise barriers are
often introduced. They can take the form of walls, fences or
mounds (with or without landscaping), or in some combination.
The technical aspects and their effectiveness in noise mitigation
are beyond the scope of this Guide. However, in the context of

integration, several aspects are important.
• placing noise compatible uses such as parking, open
Earth mounds space and garages between the noise source and
sensitive areas;
Earth mounds require sufficient land and their application is
generally restricted to new areas. Half mounds take less space • use the house, other buildings and walls as barriers to
and can also be used (e.g. Robina, Gold Coast). Who should shield outdoor living areas (e.g. a courtyard);
provide them? Where a new road is to be built, there is an
expectation that the road reservation has sufficient space for • exploit natural features such as slopes; and
mounding and the road authority constructs it. Where a road
exists and new development is proposed, there may be an • where possible, use excavated material to form mounds.
expectation that the developer provides a mound within the
development site (e.g. Forest Lake, Brisbane).
EXAMPLE
Walls and fences
TREATMENT APPROXIMATE
Walls and fences take less space and are more appropriate NOISE REDUCTION
along established roads or new major roads through built-up
areas. There are two critical issues: access control and Roadside barriers 6dB(A) typical and more
appearance. Noise mitigation is ineffective if there are openings (fences or mounding) depending on design
in the structures, because of entrance drives. The appearance of
canyons of walls and fences along major transport routes, where Roadside surface treatment 3–4 dB(A) compared to dense
drivers have little or no contact with the surrounding environment, graded asphalt
presents a difficult design challenge. In some countries, sections
of walls are made of transparent materials, but the costs are Building insulation 20 dB(A) or higher
high. There are well established techniques for the design of
walls and fences in precincts (see for example, Vic Roads, 1994). Planning orientation and siting Up to 15 dB(A)
BUILDING SITING AND DESIGN Open space buffers 5–10 dB(A)
Acoustic site planning can be effective in reducing noise impact. Source: RTA (1994) Liverpool-Hornsby Highway Strategic Study)
Some principles are (VicRoads, 1994; AMCORD, 1995):
• placing as much distance as possible between the noise Table C-C11-1 Noise mitigation methods
source and noise sensitive uses;

INSULATION
Where none of the above measures can be used, insulation may

be needed. It is possible to obtain significant reduction in noise
levels without necessarily having to rely on air conditioning for
ventilation. This is shown in Table C-C11-2 (VicRoads (1994).
Insulation may be needed in areas of high noise levels. Special

conditions may need to apply in approving development
proposals. AS3671-1989 Acoustics - Road Traffic Noise Intrusion
- Building Siting and Construction specifies the requirements,
where traffic noise at the facade of buildings constructed in whole
or in part for residential occupancy is between 60 dB(A) and 70
dB(A).
Where the noise level is 70 dB(A) or louder, buildings for multiple

residential occupancy are designed and built to ensure interior
sound levels comply with those as set out in AS 2107 - 1987
Acoustics - Recommended Design Sound Levels and
Reverberation.
NOISE ABATEMENT PLANS
In established urban areas, traffic noise abatement plans should Figure C-C11-4 Design for noise protection
be prepared for precincts and corridors, and incorporated in
development plans and projects. Noise abatement plans should
address: the nature of traffic noise; peak and ambient noise;
emission, exposure and transmission; the notion of acceptable
levels of exposure; different forms of, and scope for, intervention;
responsibilities; time frames; and funding. Policies and guidelines
should be developed for local authorities, to assist them in
preparing such plans.

NOISE TYPE AND TYPE OF APPLICATION
REDUCTION THICKNESS OF WINDOW
POSSIBLE ) GLAZING HOW CAN IT BE DONE?
DB(A
For residential and activity precincts:
5 to 15 Any type of window when open
(depending on size of opening) 1: Determine acceptable levels of exposure for new and
existing precincts
Single Glazing Closed
2: Design new precincts where traffic noise levels will not
Up to 20 3mm glass Openable, no seals exceed acceptable exposure levels as determined
Up to 25 3mm glass Fixed, permanent seals 3: Introduce traffic calming plans for established precincts
Up to 25 4mm glass Openable, weather Traffic calming plans should incorporate traffic noise abatement
stripped measures designed to achieve the acceptable exposure levels for
such precincts;
Up to 30 6mm glass Fixed, permanent seals
4: Select traffic control measures, which do not increase
Up to 35 12mm glass Fixed, permanent seals ambient noise levels
5: Use building siting and design performance criteria

Double Glazing (100mm separation)
Address existing and potential problems in situations where
Up to 30 4+4mm glass Openable, weather exposure levels exceed, or are likely to exceed, acceptable
stripped levels, through building siting and design performance standards.
Up to 35 6+6mm glass Openable, weather For planning and managing corridors:

stripped
1: Determine acceptable exposure levels for new and
Up to 40 6+6mm glass Fixed, permanent seals existing corridors
Performance criteria for traffic noise exposure should be

Table C-C11-2 Insulation developed.

2: Set performance standards for new land uses and RELATED TOOLS
buildings in the corridor
3: Minimise emission in corridors, while facilitating flow C-2 Planning new Type I corridors
4: Incorporate measures to limit transmission to achieved C-13 Visual enhancement
desired exposure levels C-14 Urban corridor management
5: Address specific problems, associated with existing L-14 Incentives and contributions
corridors, where exposure levels exceed acceptable levels
6: Identify responsibilities for implementation and

monitoring
APPROPRIATENESS
Traffic noise amelioration should be seen as part of the general

objective of improving the quality of the local environment.
Integrated land-use and transport planning can contribute
significantly towards prevention and amelioration, and is
appropriate at all levels of planning and management.
EFFECTIVENESS
Integrated approaches can be effective in preventing and

mitigating traffic noise exposure.

• Location of land uses which generate movements across
Maintaining C-12 the proposed route;
community cohesion • Pedestrian, cyclist and vehicle links;
• Bus routes;
• Impact on the local road hierarchy;

INTENT
• Categorisation of severity of impact;
The healthy functioning of a community depends to a great
extent on the maintenance of its links. Community severance will • Mitigation potential; and
occur when people can no longer comfortably or safely use the
normal means and routes to visit other parts of their community • Mitigation options.
for social interaction and/or use of its facilities and services. The
purpose of this tool is to ensure that roads and traffic do not
become barriers to the functioning of a
community.
Integrated approaches to maintain the integrity of communities

can:
• ensure that the effects of major roads and traffic on the

functioning of adjoining communities, and the possibility
of severance are identified and taken into account;
• ensure that appropriate measures are incorporated in the

planning, design and management of major transport
corridors, and in the planning and development of
adjoining areas to reduce or eliminate the risk of
community severance.
There is a potential for community severance when a new

transport route is proposed or an existing route is to be Figure C-C12-1 Example of typical local activities
upgraded. Key issues are: and catchment areas

RELEVANT FACTORS local circulation patterns and possible environmental and social
consequence.
WHAT IS COMMUNITY SEVERANCE
AND WHY IS IT IMPORTANT? There is a further possible impact: changes may take place in
local land use as a result of changes in local accessibility arising
Proposals to create new roads or upgrading existing ones can from the development of a corridor. This possibility should be
have an effect on the functioning of adjoining communities. It is explored when a preferred corridor has been selected.
important to understand how a community functions and how
problems of possible severance can be addressed. Community severance, for the purposes of this Sub-section, does
not include property severance.
A community can be defined as a social, demographic and
territorial activity, which has characteristic patterns of multiple LAND USE AND COMMUNITY SEVERANCE
services/facilities, and modes of social inter-relationships, such as
solidarity, collective action. Severance can be mitigated by providing sufficient cross
connections. Mitigation is nor mally considered at the
A corridor in its vicinity may impede social interaction and/or affect Environmental Impact Assessment stage, once a preferred route
community cohesion, and sever community access to has been selected and detailed studies are undertaken. It is
services/facilities. Community cohesion is related to the level of important that the potential for severance be considered at an
interactions among people in an area, and the attachment to the early stage, as it will influence the selection of proposed transport
services and functions provided in a locality. They are inherent routes or the upgrading of existing ones.
aspects of a community, but beyond the scope and intent of this
tool (see: L-10 Residential precincts). The principal local land uses, important for an assessment of
potential severance, are: schools (of all kinds); local centres; local
Community links are hierarchical: most daily interactions operate open space (including playing fields); local employment areas;
at the local community level, but some extend beyond it. For special local uses, such as community centres, health, recreation,
instance, access to primary schools, local shops and community education, aged facilities and services, clubs; and other activities,
centres are typical local interactions. Access to high schools, which generate local pedestrian/cyclist and vehicular movements.
district shopping centres, playing fields and special interest
community centres are district-type of interactions. Community severance is potentially more serious when a new
route is proposed. Where there is an existing transport route
Therefore, the location of local uses, attracting pedestrian, cycle, which is heavily used the problem of severance has probably
vehicle and other movements, is of first concern. A second already occurred. In that situation, it could be assumed that
concern is the possibility of severing the links to these land uses people have adjusted their lives. However, any residual problems
(a distinction can be made between pedestrian/cycle and will have to be addressed, irrespective of the selection of the
vehicular links). The third concern is that of resulting changes in preferred corridor.

A distinction should be made between severance of generating activities are primary and secondary schools, local
pedestrian/cyclist links and severance of vehicle links. open spaces and local centres.
PEDESTRIAN LINKS CYCLIST LINKS AND HORSE TRAILS
Severance will be experienced as severe when pedestrians Severance also occurs when bicycle routes and horse trails are
cannot reach their destination by the route normally used. This severed. In many instances, cyclist-generating activities are also
applies especially to people who rely on walking to reach their pedestrian-generating activities (such as schools, see L-5 Cycle
destination, such as school children and aged people visiting networks and land use). Although not always the case, bicycle
local shops. It is possible to mitigate this problem by providing routes are likely to follow similar paths to those of pedestrians.
grade-separated pedestrian crossings or light controlled Detailed study is necessary in such a situation to determine the
crossings at intersections. However, where the trip length is frequency of use of the route and which options are available.
increased significantly, people may be seriously disadvantaged,
and their lifestyle affected accordingly. Even where sufficient VEHICLE LINKS
crossing points minimise the physical effect of severance, a
major new road is often a mental barrier, which land-locks or The standard design of a limited access road often includes
bisects a community. grade-separated intersections, while the standard for the design
of arterials mainly provides for at-grade intersections. Depending
Yet, there are limits to which pedestrian crossmovements can be on the type of road, there may be an impact on existing vehicular
catered for. A pedestrian phase at a light-controlled intersection movements. This can occur in three forms:
is usually provided on arterial roads in built-up areas, but there
are no or limited opportunities in the case of access controlled 1 Where the new road is of limited access road standard,
roads. Even when there are light controlled intersections, their there will be no access from local streets. Local traffic will
spacing is unlikely to be less than 1 km, and more frequent have to be diverted. If this cannot be done, because there
crossings may be needed. are no alternative streets or routes, local streets may have
to be carried over or under. In some cases, especially in
Additional pedestrian crossings can be provided, but they have to areas where urban development has not yet occurred,
be grade-separated and add to the cost of a project. There are there may be a possibility of providing a service road or
no standards for the spacing of pedestrian crossings when there creating a new link in the local network.
are significant cross movements. A figure of about 500 metres is
regarded as a reasonable balance between convenience and 2 For a new arterial road, a question arises whether existing
cost. This spacing may still involve some people in longer travel local streets should be connected. By connecting them,
distances and special study of pedestrian-generating activities is the traffic and safety performance of the arterial road is
required to optimise their location. Typically, these pedestrian- reduced. By removing them, a service road may be

needed or new links in the local network should be IMPACT ON THE LOCAL ROAD HIERARCHY
provided. Another possibility is to permit a partial
connection with left hand turning movements only. In these The development of a new road or the upgrading of an existing
situations there will always be implications for the local road is likely to have an impact on local circulation patterns. The
network. two major variables here are (i) the intended performance of the
proposed corridor (e.g. many, few or no intersections; access or
3 Where the road is an existing route, which is upgraded or no access), and (ii) its vertical alignment, as this affects the
its design changed to increase its capacity, local streets scope for under- or over-passes).
may continue to connect with the road. There may be
constraints on vehicle crossing, as the median strip may In limited access road options, some existing local roads are
well be continuous. Longer travel distances will occur as a likely to be severed, while others are carried over or under the
consequence and attention must be given to turning new arterial road. Alternative arrangements must therefore be
opportunities for these vehicles. made for local circulation. Some existing local streets and roads
may carry less and others more traffic as a result. Local bus
routes can also be affected.
In new arterial road options, a similar situation may arise, except

there may be more frequent links with the arterial and sub-
arterial roads in the local road hierarchy, and there may be
opportunities for providing limited connections with the local road
system (e.g. restricted opportunities for right hand turns). There
will still be impacts on the local road system, because
redistribution of local traffic is inevitable.
In existing corridors this issue will only arise when it is proposed

to upgrade the corridor by reducing the number of connections to
the local street system.
Figure C-C12-2 Upgrading has consequences

for the LATM plan

SEVERANCE IMPACT CATEGORIES
There are six impact categories for land use and community
severance:
A. Areas where there is a high probability of severance of

pedestrian routes, cycleways or recreation trails, unless
mitigation measures are introduced.
B. Areas where there is a high probability of severance of

bus routes.
C1. Areas where there is a high probability of vehicular

severance, if a freeway/tollway is built.
C2. Areas where there is a high probability of vehicular

severance, if a new arterial road is built.
C3. Areas where there are likely to be longer travel times

because of the presence of an uninterrupted median strip,
if an existing road is upgraded.
D. Special activities such as shopping centres or community

centres where there is a high probability of severance,
unless measures are introduced to facilitate existing
movements.
Areas which may be affected require further study once the route
has been selected, so that mitigation measures can be
determined. Such investigations should include not only what
people do, i.e. their behaviour, but also what people value, i.e.
their attitudes.
Figure C-C12-3 Impact categories

MITIGATION POTENTIAL • The catchment areas which the proposed corridor
crosses;
An assessment should be made of the need for mitigating
measures. These measures can take the form of bridges or • Existing pedestrian and cyclist routes;
underpasses across the arterial (without connections to the
arterial), providing service roads and new links in the local street • The potential for severance of these links;
system. Minor changes in the local road hierarchy and traffic
calming measures are likely to be necessary. Changes in local • The groups affected by such severance;
bus routes would have to be considered as well.
• Bus routes which may be severed;
MITIGATION OPTIONS
• Vehicle routes which provide access between the local
Pedestr ian/cyclist links should be provided to maintain area and the existing or proposed corridor;
reasonable accessibility. Detailed study of movements is
necessary. Guidelines for the frequency of pedestrian and cyclist • Vehicle routes which provide cross connections to
crossings in different situations (e.g. high-density built-up areas, adjoining areas; and
low- density built-up areas, and partially developed areas) should
be developed. The application of mitigation measures becomes • Vehicle routes which do not have alternative access.
an input into development and project planning after the
preferred route has been selected. 2: Investigate mitigation potential
APPLICATION The potential for mitigation should include:
HOW CAN IT BE DONE? • whether pedestrian and cyclist cross links can be provided
at a spacing of not less than 500 metres;
1: Identify links and potential severance
• whether bus routes can be relocated in accordance with
The following should be identified: the requirements of the bus operators;
• All activities which generate pedestrian/cyclist, vehicular • whether existing collector and sub-arterial connections
and other movements; can be maintained or be provided, and additional traffic
volumes do not exceed the environmental traffic capacity
• The catchment areas of each of these activities; of such connections;

• whether vehicular connectivity with adjoining areas can be RELATED TOOLS
provided at a spacing of not less than 1,000 metres;
• whether alternative access can be provided C-2 Planning of new Type I corridors
for links which are severed; whether the redistribution of traffic C-14 Urban corridor management
can be managed within the local traffic management scheme;
• whether provision can be made for service roads or new

links, where vehicle access cannot be provided;
• alternative locations for new roads; and
• alternative locations for community facilities.
EXAMPLE
The technique was used as par t of a strategic planning

investigation of the National Highway link from Hornsby to
Liverpool in Sydney.
APPROPRIATENESS
It is appropriate to use this approach in the planning of all major

corridors, especially where there are existing or proposed
communities. Better integration between roads and adjoining
communities can be achieved, especially if this approach is
applied at the strategic planning stage.

• the quality of the roadside environment and the safety
Visual enhancement C-13 of drivers are enhanced and not impaired by advertising
signs and other elements; and
• the importance of special sites and buildings is recognised

in road design and traffic management.
INTENT There are many aspects which are relevant in the context
of integrating land use, transport and the environment.
The intent of this tool is to draw attention to the important The focus in this tool is on two of these aspects:
relationship between transport routes and the built environment.
Buildings should be sited and designed to reflect the relationship • the dynamic relationship between people in motion -
between the character and function of the transport route. in vehicles, as passengers or drivers, on bicycles or on
People travel along transport routes in urban areas, surrounded foot - and the surrounding natural or built environment;
by buildings and spaces. They should get their bearings from and
adjoining buildings and landmarks and enjoy their experience as
an interesting experience. • advertising control.
Attractive advertising signs can be used to enliven and inform.

They should not impair the safety of travellers nor detract from
the relationship between buildings and spaces. Regrettably,
these conditions rarely apply; urban roads are generally notable
for a proliferation of signs, visual blight and an absence of
distinguishing features.
Integrated approaches towards transport routes and the built

environment ensure that:
• relationships between routes and the built environment

are an integral part of (i) the planning and design of such
routes, and (ii) the location and scale of buildings;
• buildings and landscape elements are related to the visual Figure C-C13-1 Enhancing heritage can be a major objective
experience of people in motion; in street design (Lismore, NSW)

RELEVANT FACTORS environment through which they travel. Nodes, typically, are
decision points for changing directions or transfer to different
THREE LEVELS OF RELATIONSHIPS transport modes. Landmarks give direction and orientation in a
network and provide information for pending action (e.g.
On roads and streets people move in a continually changing changing lanes or where to get off the bus or train).
space: a visual experience in motion. Although there are
overlaps, it is useful to distinguish three levels of relationship: These features are relevant to the visual experience of all users
of the road space, but the relationship varies with the speed of
Level 1 Issues arise related to overall image. Moving along user. This is because perception depends on visibility at different
roads and streets, the built environment should give speeds (see L-13 Visibility). At high speed, the field of vision is
people a sense of direction and location. long and narrow, but at low speeds, such as walking speeds, the
field of vision is wider. Hence, the spacing and character of
Level 2 The streetscape and roadscape are significant. At building and landscape elements should vary with the speed of
this level, there is a need for planning and the observer. High-speed transport routes require different
designing roads and streets with characteristics spacing and scale of land marks and fewer nodes than low-
and qualities which reflect the different functions speed routes, pedestrian and cycle routes.
and uses of the road space. The road space should
provide users with a range of perceptions and elicit Planning should be based on an appreciation of the need for
behaviour appropriate for the transport and legibility and scale appropriate for the role of the corridor. People
frontage function. moving in the transport space should be able to recognise the
relationship between the road and the environment and respond
Level 3 Detailed design elements are important here. to it. This can be achieved by a range of measures: road design,
These elements are concerned with advertising traffic management, frontage development, building location and
and direction signs, set-backs, illumination, street design.
furniture, landscaping, pavement activities etc.
One increasingly important element is the construction of
At all these levels there is a need to recognise the range of road acoustic barriers along major transport routes. They protect
users: drivers, passengers, public transpor t passengers, adjoining areas from traffic noise, but do not give drivers and
pedestrians, cyclists. There are also different conditions: day and passengers an indication where they are (unless the barriers are
night and weather conditions. transparent).
NETWORK IMAGEABILITY
Lynch (1960) identified the key elements of image: paths, edges,

nodes and landmarks. They provide people with clues about the

STREETSCAPE AND ROADSCAPE
At the streetscape, the relationship between the built

environment and the road space, as perceived by people moving
through it, is important.
Some of the issues are:
• the land-use activity and its associated built form along

the road or street (e.g. small-scale retailing, pavement
cafes, large-scale warehousing);
• enclosure and openness, and the variations in enclosure

and openness along a route;
• the width of the road space in relation to the height of

buildings,
• ‘leg’ length, i.e. the length of vision, before there is a

change in direction or gradient; and
• the relationship between horizontal and vertical elements

within the road space, such as trees, and light poles.
There are opportunities for establishing an urban design concept

for roads and streets in precincts. This was done in the South
Sydney Draft Development Plan (1996). Categorisation is an
important tool (see C-1 Corridor categorisation) to distinguish
different types of movement space and built edges, and to
determine desired urban design outcomes for each type.
A categorisation should recognise the different types of

development area, e.g. residential, industrial, activity centres. For
Figure C-C13-2 Visual experience in motion -
example, in residential precincts some streets may have a
Cahill Expressway, Sydney (sketches by John Haskell)
landscape dominant streetscape, an ‘urban’ streetscape with

walls or buildings close to the proper ty boundar y or a
combination of different elements. The Mosman Council (Sydney)
developed a streetscape plan as part of its development control
Gradual Regular Wide Symmetrical Simple Gradual
plans which varied with each type of precinct. In the new town of long views rhythm space space built form modulation
Almere in the Netherlands, a range of streetscapes - ‘urban’,
‘landscape’ and mixed - were determined at the planning stage.
The same principle was used in the planning of the new town
centre of Gungahlin, ACT
DESIGN ELEMENTS
At the third level, detailed design elements are relevant. They can Driver perception of road space
vary with the type of corridor, and include a wide range of
elements.
The City of Waverley in Melbourne developed design guidelines

for transport corridors (City of Waverley, 1992). They cover
building set-backs, building heights, selected landmark and
corner buildings, building form, mass and bulk, building exteriors, Sudden Irregular Narrow Asymmetrical Complex Sudden
car park set-backs, signage, fencing, landscape enhancement, short views rhythm space space built form modulation
utilities and traffic control devices, and street furniture and
accessories. (City of Waverley, 1992).
They are important from a practical viewpoint, as they can be

incorporated into planning instruments and applied whenever
development applications are made.
Pedestrian perception of road space
Figure C-C13-3 Perception of space (Based on Rapoport, 1977)

Figure C-C13-4 In a small country town the road Figure C-C13-6 An urban road space and built form
function and space often dominate in which the built form dominates (Brisbane CBD)
WHAT IS IMAGE ENHANCEMENT?
Image enhancement is a term which describes the use of urban

design elements to improve the visual relationship between
roads and the built environment at all three levels. It may involve:
• identifying sites with potential for landmarks, and including

design parameters in a development control plan;
• developing policies for noise protection along major
transport routes which do not reduce the ability for
orientation;
Figure C-C13-5 The road space is an extension • establishing a desired precinct character, developing
of the frontage function and built form (Cairns) detailed policies on streetscape and the use of design
elements, including illumination; and

• identifying areas in Main Streets and activity centres
where the quality of the pedestrian and business
environment can be enhanced by widening and improving
footpaths; continuous weather protection; designing the
footpaths for a range of uses; creating attractive places for Appropriate
social interaction and events; and enhancing heritage sites
and buildings.
BUILT FORM AND SAFETY
Built forms in relation to the road space play a major role in road
safety. There are several critical relationships:
• Visibility: this is linked to sight distance (which is a Not appropriate

function of speed of vehicles, pedestrians and cyclists),
and the ability to stop within a safe distance (see L-13: Figure C-C13-7 Advertising design
Visibility). Sight distances must be appropriate for the (Source: City of Waverley [Vic], 1992)
particular situation, weather condition, day and night.
Visibility relates not only to the primary agent (e.g. a
driver), but also to the recipient (e.g. a pedestrian). For
example, pedestrians are difficult to see at night against a
dark background and underestimate vehicle speeds in ADVERTISING CONTROLS
excess of 50 km/h.
Advertising controls are of critical importance, not only from a
• Distraction: this can be linked to shifting driver attention safety viewpoint, but also because transport corridors present a
away from the road. It can occur by advertising signs or powerful image of the character of a city or town. Few cities will
eye-arresting roadside structures. A policy should address seek to project an image of rampant commercialism. The quality
the size, frequency, location and type of illumination of of a number of cities is the outcome of carefully designed and
roadside signs, especially on high-speed transport routes. administered advertising policies (e.g. Zurich, Canberra).
Standards typically address:
• Confusion: A proliferation of signs and symbols confuse
drivers and can lead to uncertainty in decision-making. • Area and number - different standards for the total area
and number of signs on any site, depending on location
and zone;

• Location - ground floor, upper floor, below and above There are many locations in existing cities, where the road
awnings, roof line; environment has special significance and the design of the road
space has been, or can be, adapted to enhance the visual and
• Size of lettering, symbols and other graphics; functional relationships. This situation exists in Macquarie Street,
Sydney; Swanson Street, Melbourne; Georges Terrace, Perth;
• Height and dimensions; and North Terrace; Adelaide.
• Illumination - e.g. Christchurch does not permit Special design controls can be established for selected roads. In
intermittent or flashing light sources; Canberra has a that event, development plans or corridor management plans
requirement for back lighting of signs on buildings and should be prepared to achieve an effective integration between
also a requirement for maximum intensity; transport, land use and the built environment. It should also be a
basis for the management of the road space and adjoining
• Verandah-related displays, e.g. Christchurch has specific buildings and spaces.
requirements for them;
• Projecting displays;
• Architectural features - significant features, such as

windows and parapets should not be obscured; and
• Traffic safety - e.g. Christchurch, requires that no outdoor

advertising sign be erected within 50m of an intersection
controlled by traffic signals or a roundabout.
SPECIAL ROAD ENVIRONMENTS
There are some roads and streets which have a life of their own
and require special consideration. For example, boulevards may
become locations for pavement cafes and restaurants, while still
performing as transport routes (e.g. Lygon Street, Melbourne;
Champs Elysees, Paris). Another example are parades or
avenues which are important for symbolic or historical reasons. Figure C-C13-8 Road space needs adaptation
An example is Anzac Parade, Canberra, where the urban design for special buildings - King William Street, Adelaide
intent is of dominant concern and transport, traffic management (Sketch by John Haskell)
and land use are subservient to the design concept.

RETROFITTING identified. Computer simulation models may be useful in
determining potential sites for landmarks, and in developing
Retrofitting means improving the existing relationship between concept plans (see next step).
the road space and the built environment. The same procedure,
as mentioned above, should be used. There are constraints 3: Develop concept plans for the design of nodes and
associated with existing approvals, and property and market landmark sites
conditions. Usually opportunities arise when redevelopment or
change of use occurs. However, road authorities can (and do) The concept plans have a focus on the relationship between
reconstruct the road space, improve the pavement, street lighting roads and the built environment.
and landscaping.
4: Develop design parameters for nodes and landmarks
Retrofitting presents a challenge, which takes effort and time,
and requires a partnership between the public and private This should include building locations and forms for nodes and
sectors (e.g. Parramatta Road, Sydney). landmarks, and signs and illumination for nodes.
APPLICATION 5: Incorporate into corridor management plans
HOW CAN IT BE DONE? The notion of corridor development plans is described in C-4
Adapting Type I corridors and C-5 Adapting Type II corridors.
There are different processes for the three levels of interaction.
For the overall image, the process could be as follows: For level 2, the streetscape, the process could be as follows:
1: Determine the type of corridor, its function and target Step 1: Determine the type of precinct
speed
Examples of precincts with different types of streetscape are
This step requires inputs from other tools: e.g. C-1 Corridor residential precincts, industrial areas, the core and frame of
categorisation, C-7 The right transport task on the right mode centres.
and from other sources (e.g. network development).
Step 2: Develop categories of streetscapes
2: Determine significant nodes and sites for potential
landmarks For each development area type, categories of streetscapes are
developed.
Significant nodes are locations where decisions have to be made
on changes in route, such as major intersections. Significant land Step 3: Develop design policies for each streetscape
forms, which influence the view from the road, should also be

Design elements for each streetscape type are identified and APPROPRIATENESS
policies developed.
Application of urban design principles in the design and
Step 4: Incorporate in Development Area Control Plan development of precincts and corridors are appropriate and
desirable in all circumstances.
For the design elements, the process could be as follows:
EFFECTIVENESS
1: Identify different road environment types
Urban design can be effective in enhancing the quality and safety
Here the corridor categories are the basis for the development of of the road environment. However, it should be emphasised that
design guidelines (see C-1 Corridor categorisation). the relationship between the built environment, transpor t
functions, and the speed and behaviour of road users should be
2: Identify relevant design elements well understood.
Relevant design elements are likely to include those listed in the EXAMPLES
design guidelines of the City of Waverley.
Level 1:
3: Develop performance criteria for each design element
There are, as yet, few examples in urban areas of a deliberate
For a description of performance criteria see L-15 Performance- attempt to create legibility and orientation. Some of them are in
based development control. Canberra: Northbourne Avenue, Woden Parkway.
4: Prepare examples of design solutions Level 2:
Examples of desirable design solutions are prepared to illustrate South Sydney Development Control Plan.
possible ways of achieving desired design outcomes.
Level 3
5: Prepare performance-based design guidelines
Greater Western Highway Management Plan, Blue Mountains;
6: Incorporate in Development Control plans City of Waverley urban design guidelines; Parramatta Road
enhancement plan.

An example of corridor improvement
In NSW, State Rail Access Corporation has launched a corridor

improvement scheme to improve the outlook from the rail
corridors. Rail Access Corporation will assist property owners by
contributing up to to 50% of the funds required to complete any
worthwhile improvement or beautification project. Improvements
may include: graffiti removals, erection or repair of fencing,
installation of security lighting, tree and shrub planting,
landscaping, vegetation control and
rubbish removal.
Priority will be given to improvement projects, which incorporate Figure C-C13-9 Example of the integration
long-term strategies to deter graffitists and vandals (Sun-Herald of a bus station with a built environment (Canberra)
19.4.98).
RELATED TOOLS

L-12 Safety
L-13 Visibility
C-5 Adapting type II corridors
C-14 Urban corridor management Figure C-C13-10 Detailed design of the road space
transformed the image of Batemans Bay (NSW)

Urban corridor C-14
management
INTENT
The intent of urban corridor management is to ensure that

transpor t routes and their environments are managed as
corridors. Changes in the role of the route should take account of
the route environment, and changes in land use and built form
should reflect the function and intended performance of the Figure C-C14-1 Corridor management plans are needed
transport route. The first step in corridor management is to define for busy transport routes in towns and cities
the role of the transport route (see C-1 Corridor categorisation
and C-7 The right transport task, mode and route).
The use of the road space changes over time; traffic volumes Integrated approaches towards corridor management can:
change and usually increase; land use along adjoining frontages
evolves and redevelopments occur. Roadside-induced friction will • focus on corridor outcomes - not only transport outcomes,
increase, and traffic management measures may need to be to provide a balance between land use and transport
introduced to improve the transport performance. The impact of needs, using a performance-based approach;
traffic on adjoining properties may also increase and steps may
have to be taken to ameliorate it. • ensure that land-use decisions consider the potential
friction which a proposed development may have on the
Urban corridor management is essentially regarded as an transport function, and the impact of traffic on the
operational tool. Issues associated with major upgrading and proposed development; and
reconstruction are addressed elsewhere (C-4 Adapting Type I
corridors, and C-5 Adapting Type II corridors). • ensure that transport management decisions include the
impact of changes on adjoining communities, properties
and businesses, and measures to ameliorate them.

It is suggested that corridor management plans be prepared with
priority given to the following situations:
ISSUES IMPACT POSSIBLE SOLUTION
• the level of transport performance has to be improved or
modified; S-lanes, clearway or Loss of on-street Alternative parking and
a busway parking on business signposting
• the level of friction impedes the existing or intended viability
transport performance of the corridor;
Loss of perceived Barriers
pedestrian safety
• the level of impact is no longer acceptable, or is expected
to deteriorate to an unacceptable level; and Shifting a bus stop Marginal businesses Improve pedestrian
critically dependent on environment
• new corridors are proposed and urban development passenger trade
adjoins, or may adjoin, the transport route in future.
Redevelopment Increased use of Alternative access
for town houses driveway
RELEVANT FACTORS
Increased noise Design for noise
WHY INTEGRATED MANAGEMENT IS IMPORTANT exposure protection
Warehouse Larger vehicles entry Two driveways: one in

The relationship between land use, environment development and exit and one out
and transport is important along all routes where movement and
frontage development co-exist. It becomes of special importance Median to separate Blocks right turn Provide for turning
when the movement function increases and the development traffic streams movement out of movement elsewhere
driveways
intensifies. Table C-C14-1 gives examples of issues requiring
integrated approaches. Shopping centre Additional vehicle trips Alternative access
and parking manoeuvres
These are not isolated events. There is constant change and
continuous interaction between transport function and frontage
Pedestrian generation Signalled pedestrian
development. Much of it is incremental and has a cumulative
crossing or overpass
impact. These cumulative consequences are usually not
considered.
Table C-C14-1 Indicative issues, impacts and possible solutions

CURRENT APPROACHES MAY NEED REVISITING • Friction management tends to be uni-lateral; there are no
guidelines for mitigation or for considering trade-offs.
Changes in the road environment occur because of: (i) the need
by transport agencies to respond to shifts in transport demand to • There are statutory provisions for the preparation of EIS
maximise the effectiveness of the transport performance and and for taking account of a wide range of matters.
improve standards of safety; and (ii) market pressures to develop However, this is impact management from a road and not
sites along major transport routes on account of accessibility, a road environment perspective. An integrated approach
visibility and an ‘address’. In larger urban areas, land along towards impact management would take account of
existing corr idors is often under-used. When sites for additional matters (see sub-section 5 below).
redevelopment are scarce, proposals for higher residential
development are submitted, despite complications arising from A POSSIBLE FRAMEWORK
site access and noise exposure.
Establishing an integrated framework for corridor management is
Existing provisions for dealing with change often do not ensure not straightforward. For integrated corridor management to be
integrated corridor management. For example: effective, there is a need for strategies which establish desired
outcomes for corridors. These strategies rely on performance
• Many local planning instruments do not address critical indicators to identify critical aspects of performance, standards
variables (such as pedestrian-generating activities, on- for achieving objectives, and measures to observe progress
street parking, access drives, noise protection); towards such objectives.
• Regional policies (where they exist) rely on consultation, Performance objectives can be - and often are - specified for
without clear or comprehensive guidelines by road transport routes. Performance indicators, such as Level of
authorities on corridor intentions, including levels of Service (LOS) are used to describe current and future traffic
transport service. conditions. Such indicators do not exist for frontage development
and, even if there were, there is still a dearth of information about
An example is State Environmental Planning Policy 11 in road frontage conditions.
NSW (Traffic Generating Developments). The policy
requires that development applications specified in the A framework for integrated corridor management could consist of
Schedules be referred to the NSW Roads and Traffic the following components:
Authority. The type of developments defined in the
schedules are categorised by land-use type and a 1 A network strategy which establishes the intentions or
measure of size (number of units, GFA). It is then left to desired outcomes in respect of function, transport
the road authority to judge whether, in the light of its performance, and level of transport service (LOS). The
current plans, the development can proceed and under strategy also sets the parameters for the type of corridor
what conditions. (Type I or II with sub-categories if required).

2 Transport performance and friction management. express buses, high-occupancy vehicles. Objectives for the road
environment may be related to the level of friction and level of
3 Transport performance targets. impact (explained below)
4 Land-use performance standards and impact The advantages of such a management system are:
management.
• clearly stated performance objectives, with public
5 Performance targets for road environment. involvement in the setting of those objectives;
6 Guidelines and procedures how to deal with development • clear public accountability for performance;
and transport management proposals which reflect the
integrated nature of any of such actions. • a basis for transport management;
1 NETWORK STRATEGY • a basis for land use and development control;

AS A CORRIDOR MANAGEMENT TOOL
• a basis for funding priorities; and
The kind of integrated management needed for a particular
corridor will depend on the role of the corridor in the network In • a basis for charging operating costs of the road at some
all States, classifications exist, but they do not always reflect future time.
actual or intended transport performance. Except for limited
access routes, the relationship with adjoining properties is not 2 TRANSPORT PERFORMANCE
part of such a classification. AND FRICTION MANAGEMENT
A useful way to get a handle on this is to follow a two-stage There are several factors which deter mine transpor t
approach: (i) clarify the transport function: national, regional, performance. We focus here on those which are related to the
subregional and major local (see R-8 Road systems and land performance of a transport route as a corridor. The critical factor
use); and (ii) determine appropriate corridor status. Generally, is that of friction (see C-2 Planning new Type I corridors). There
national, urban regional, and some urban sub-regional routes are two categories of friction: road-design/management friction
can be assigned Type I corridor status. and roadside friction.
The transport and land-use planning authorities can then specify The following transpor t performance indicators could be
the performance objectives for both the transport function and considered:
the road environment for each corridor (or sections of them).
Examples of objectives for the transport function are: minimum
average speeds at peak times, road accidents, opportunity for

PERFORMANCE INDICATOR transport performance (see Resource Document Chapter 11).
AREA However, there is empirical evidence to offer practical guidance.
Road design friction Intersection spacing It is possible to use the notion of ‘level of service’ for roadside
impact and develop it as a management tool for roadside friction.
Right hand turns What follows is not intended as guidelines, but as a way of
identifying problems and determining priorities.
Pedestrian crossings
Composite index of friction
Cycleways and turning movements
There could be six levels:
Tram lines
A Free flow. No friction from the road environment. This
would be the case where there is controlled access, no
Roadside friction Driveways on-street parking and no pedestrian crossing. The road in
this case is a boundary and not a seam in the community.
Vehicle generation
B Stable flow. Some elements of friction, but the
Pedestrian generation impediments are not affecting the general traffic
performance. The road is clearly a boundary with little
Loading/unloading pedestrian crossings, but there would be frontage access
for some large-scale land uses and some on-street
On-street parking parking, except in peak periods (e.g. clearways).
Bus stops C Stable flow, but the traffic performance is impeded by

pedestrian crossings, manoeuvring of parking vehicles
and property access movements. Traffic volumes are still
Table C-C14-2 Friction performance indicators relatively high, accident rates are increased, and vehicle
speed is subject to roadside friction.
D Freedom to manoeuvre is severely restricted by friction

elements. A high level of driver attention is required and
There are performance standards for the level of transport average speeds are at times considerably reduced.
service, but not for roadside friction (see C-6 Access to roads).
There is incomplete evidence to relate friction indicators to

E Speeds are reduced to a low, but relatively uniform level.
Vehicles frequently have to give way to pedestrians and
parking manoeuvres, and one lane may occasionally be
blocked by delivery vehicles.
F A condition of total congestion, where there are queues,

major movements of pedestrians across the road,
frequent double parking.
It should be noted that a high level of traffic service corresponds

with a low level of friction or impact. It is commonly accepted in
traffic engineering that a LOS of A is highly desirable and B
desirable. They are achievable in new situations and at some
considerable cost in intermediate and outer urban areas when
new roads are constructed. For existing roads in built-up areas, Figure C-C14-2 Example of urban corridor management,
level C is considered acceptable and level D is regarded as showing transport function and friction management intentions
tolerable. Level E is serious, while level F is critical. (Dorsten, 1986)
It is worth pointing out that the LOS for traffic flow is an empirical
measure, established after much observation and professional
discussion. Such observation and discussion have not yet
occurred in respect of levels of friction and impact.
It is possible to be proactive or reactive in this (see, for example,
3 PERFORMANCE TARGETS FOR FRICTION L-14 Incentives and contributions). It is also possible to link
friction and impact reduction through integrated redevelopment
Performance targets are desired outputs for a specified time. (see later). The choice in approach will depend on the existing
Targets for reducing friction will need to be set for selected level of friction, the priority for reducing it, and acceptability of the
corridors and this will depend on the network strategy, relative means to achieve it.
priority and the means available to achieve them.
When performance targets for specific corridors have been
Targets for road design and management are controlled by the determined, and the level of acceptable or desired friction has
responsible road authority directly. However, the setting and been derived from such targets, there is a basis for friction
implementation of targets for roadside friction partly depend on management. Friction should not be based on land use or
development control. Changes can be made when there are density, but on performance. Possible performance criteria are:
proposals for development, land-use change or redevelopment.

• whether access is permitted;
• whether access and egress are in forward direction;
• the number of access drives per section;
• the anticipated vehicle movements to and from the site;
• the anticipated large vehicles serving the site;
• pedestrian- or vehicle-oriented land uses;
• the provision for on-site parking, including visitor parking;

and
• the impact on development, if transport management

conditions need to change.
Figure C-C14-3 Friction management - access drive options

(Wyndham Council, 1994)

Examples of roadside friction reducing policies for Type I on the availability of alternative access, and on the
corridors provision for such access in planning instruments.
[Depending on the intended transport performance for a corridor] • No pedestrian generating activities with direct frontage.
• Progressive phasing out of on-street parking for • Major existing pedestrian-generating activities with direct
employees and visitors. frontage are eliminated progressively.
• In existing corridors, re-subdivision of frontages below a • New small retailing outlets should be discouraged.
certain width should not be permitted.
• Existing small retailing outlets without set-back should be
• In existing corridors, redevelopment of allotments below a phased out progressively. They should be replaced by an
certain width (yet to be defined) should not be permitted integrated retail development with separate access; and
unless there is alternative access. off-street parking in situations where there is a strong local
demand and which does not attract pedestrians across
• In all corridors rear or side, access should be required in the road.
all new development, with the exception of road-service
facilities. • Offices with a high concentration of pedestrians should
not be permitted unless they are part of integrated
• Consolidation of commercial and residential sites without developments with their own service facilities - away from
rear access and/or inadequate on-site parking into sites the road frontage and located close to intersections.
with a minimum frontage of 30 m (this dimension requires
further validation), rear access and on-site parking should • Rerouting of local bus services and retention of express
be encouraged through the application of bonus buses only with separate stopping bays, located close to
provisions. controlled pedestrian crossings.
• Progressive elimination of frontage access except for: (i) 4 LAND-USE PERFORMANCE AND IMPACT MANAGEMENT
activities which perform a direct and sole service to
through traffic should be located in groups and then only Impact criteria are listed in Tool C-2 Planning new Type I There is
in locations where access and egress are possible extensive practice in impact management related to traffic noise,
without interference to the traffic stream (e.g. immediately habitat, heritage and water run-off. Other interactions are often
downstream from a controlled intersection); and (ii) large- given less attention: the impact on the enjoyment/efficient
scale developments and road service centres which have functioning of land and property, and the impact on businesses
alternative access and make provision for slipways to and which depend on the passing trade. There are legitimate uses
from the site. Opportunities for implementation will depend such as service stations which are necessary for the service of

motorists. However, other commercial land uses are located E Noise disturbance is serious for most of the day and night; few
along a transport route for advertising or other reasons, which properties have rear access and frontage access is difficult for
are not essential for the transport function. most of the day; the road is impossible to cross at peak periods;
people-oriented business does not survive.
Information on links between impact indicators and the factors
which cause a particular impact is incomplete, but sufficient for a F Noise is a health hazard, there is no rear access and frontage
preliminary approach to impact management. access is hazardous at all times; crossing is dangerous at almost
any time; site access and business development is constrained
In developing the notion of level of roadside impact as a to the point where the area is in decay.
management tool, it must be understood that there are ‘apples
and pears’. The purpose of such a tool is to have a basis for Examples of impact reducing policies
comparing different sections of a corridor. Where a section rates
poorly in overall impact, there is prime facie a problem and more • Provision of alternative access is made in all future
detailed investigation is necessary. development where there is presently frontage access
only.
Composite index of impact
• Provision is made for adequate on-site parking in all future
As with friction management, there could be six levels: development for employees, residents and visitors.
A No impact at all for any land uses; • Noise standards are defined for all land-uses and
incorporated in local planning instruments.
B Some impact on some of the more sensitive activities, but
generally quite manageable; occasionally a problem with • Noise mitigation measures are introduced to reduce
access; impact to acceptable levels.
C A definite impact on sensitive activities, reflected in noise • New and noise sensitive land uses, such as schools and
nuisance and some difficulty in getting access to the hospitals, are not permitted within 200 m from the
property at times. There is alternative rear access; some property boundary with the arterial road. New residential
impact on business activity, but parking nearby. development is set back and the subject of an acoustic
impact report, demonstrating how the guidelines for noise
D Significant impact with noise levels above the norm and exposure can be met.
difficulty in access at peak periods; aged people
experience difficulty in crossing the road; people-oriented • New activities with pedestrian-based catchments across
business activity is hampered by parking restrictions and the arterial road are not permitted.
few alternatives nearby.

5 ROAD-ENVIRONMENT PERFORMANCE TARGETS Possible criteria for land-use management and development
control include:
Corridor management plans, prepared on the basis of the
network strategy, should also address the levels of acceptable • whether alternative access can be provided;
impact and mitigation measures. Where existing conditions show
a poor level of environmental performance (e.g. levels E and F), • whether noise protection or amelioration can be
there is blight as a consequence of traffic impact. It is possible incorporated in the design to achieve acceptable levels;
that such levels will be reached in future. In both situations,
proactive approaches need to be considered. These could • whether the development is sensitive to noise or air
include redevelopment, joint ventures (see figure C-14-7), bonus pollution; and
provisions and other measures to facilitate change and
adaptation (see R-10 Integrating investment). • whether development exposes a large number of people
at risk in the event of an incident involving dangerous
goods movement.
In other areas existing levels of impact may be at an acceptable
level (C) or tolerable level (D), but they may decline as a result of Issues related to noise protection are considered in C-11 and
further growth in traffic and/or traffic management measures, visual enhancement in C-13.
designed to improve transport performance. All these situations
need to be identified and priorities set for action. The type of 6 GUIDELINES AND PROCEDURES
action appropriate will have to be determined in each case.
Corridor management plans which include friction and impact
Possible performance criteria related to changes in road space management will be a significant advance. Guidelines for the
management are: preparation, content, implementation and monitoring of such
management plans should be established. It is also desirable to
• impact on business activity along the frontage and what develop procedures which identify roles, institutional and funding
measures are taken to ameliorate such impacts; arrangements and requirements for consultation. There are
guidelines and procedures for facets (such as traffic noise), but
• impacts on desire lines for pedestrian and cyclist not for an integrated approach.
movement;
An integrated approach can produce advantages which outweigh
• impact on accessibility for people with constrained mobility the costs. An example is the case of a transport route which is to
and children; and be upgraded by adding lanes. If conventional practice were to be
used there could be impacts which would be difficult to manage.
• impacts on the local traffic and bus system. Figures C-C14-4 to 7 show that there are options and
demonstrate the advantages of a corridor approach. It can be

shown that overall benefits exceed costs, depending on the responsibilities and targets for implementation; and (v) develop
mechanisms used for implementation (see R-10 Integrating indicators for monitoring achievement of desired outcomes.
investment). Active participation of existing property owners
would increase the opportunities of a succesful 5: Develop guidelines and procedures for ongoing friction
outcome. and impact management
APPLICATION Guidelines and procedures should address:
HOW CAN IT BE DONE? • opportunities for integrating friction and impact

management;
1: Develop a network strategy and set parameters
• roles and responsibilities;
Determine desired outcomes and parameters. This involves
establishing the levels of transport performance for the major • consultation procedures;
elements of the network, the identification of corridor types and
the requirements for such corridors • the establishment of friction and impact information
systems;
2: Establish friction and impact indicators
• performance indicators and data collection.
Indicators need to be set for both friction and impact and levels of
performance are defined. 6: Implement, monitor and review
3: Identify priorities for the preparation of corridor Using the performance indicators and measures undertake
management plans regular performance audits. See Part B for an example of
performance auditing.
Using the levels of friction and impact determined in step 2 and
the desired network outcomes developed in step 1, determine
priorities for the preparation of corridor management plans.
4: Prepare corridor management plans
Corridor management plans should reflect:

(i) network objectives; (ii) incorporate performance standards for
transport and roadside development; (iii) identify measures
required for managing friction and impact; (iv) assign roles,

Figure C-C14-4 Widening with little regard to protection Figure C-C14-6 Frontage redevelopment and noise protection
Figure C-C14-5 Acquisition, widening and noise protection Figure C-C14-7 Integrated redevelopment reduces friction
and impact. Benefits exceed costs

EXAMPLES
Framework for parking management
A Local Environmental Plan, prepared by the Canterbury Council on Principal Traffic Routes (VicRoads, 1996)
in 1985 for Canterbury Road, Sydney, covered a section of the
highway. Canterbury Road is a Type I corridor with traffic volumes Guidelines are provided for each of the following steps:
of more than 40,000 vpd in a road reservation of 20 metres. The
level of impact on residential properties at the time could be 1 Description of a Kerb-Lane Management Plan
described as level E. The management plan set standards for
conversion to less sensitive commercial land uses and provided 2 Description of technical need
guidelines for combining access and the siting and design of
buildings. The plan has been implemented and achieved its 3 Current land use
objectives.
4 Estimated current parking requirements
An integrated management plan was produced for the Great
Western Highway through the Blue Mountains by the NSW 5 Recent studies, investigations and development
Roads and Traffic Authority and the Blue Mountains Council in proposals
1992. It established performance targets for land use, transport
and the environment and is now being implemented. 6 Practical alternative land uses
A technique available in Victoria is for Councils to introduce 7 Opportunities for compensating action
design and development ‘overlays’ along arterial roads covering
such matters as building and works requirements, subdivision 8 Submission, discussions and negotiations
and advertising signs.
9 Desirable Local Area Management Plan (LAMP)
A framework for parking management on Principal Traffic Routes
was prepared for VicRoads, which provides a process for 10 A preliminary Local Area Management Plan
balancing and resolving the conflicting demands for the use of
kerb-lane road space at locations where sensitive land uses such 11 Review Preliminary LAMP
as shopping centres, businesses and schools front the Principal
Traffic Routes (see insert).
The London ‘Red Routes’ Program provides a rational system of

parking and loading control of London’s primary traffic routes and
takes account of pedestrians, cyclists and business operators.

Corridor management plans are appropriate for all existing L-13 Visibility
corridors. Priority should be given to those sections where: L-15 Performance-based development control
• the level of transport performance has to be improved or C-4 Adapting Type I corridors
modified; C-5 Adapting type II corridors
• the level of friction impedes the existing or intended C-16 Roadside services
transport performance of the corridor; R-10 Integrating investment
• the level of impact is no longer acceptable, or is expected
to deteriorate to an unacceptable level; and
• there are new corridors, and urban development adjoins

or may adjoin the transport route in future.
EFFECTIVENESS
There are as yet few examples of integrated corridor

management plans, but in the few cases where they have been
developed (such as the two specific examples cited), the
outcomes have been shown to be very effective.

Rural corridor C-15
management Install erosion control
measures at head of drainage
lines to protect catchment
areas during construction
INTENT
The purpose of this tool is to ensure that transport corridors in

rural regions are managed as environmental assets. Use of the
term ‘corridor’ is different from that used elsewhere in the Guide.
It is defined here as the land within the road reservation because
this is the definition used in the source document (NSW Roads Catchment
and Traffic Authority, 1995, Roadside Environment Strategy).
In aggregate, land within road reservations is a large area: in

NSW it represents 5 percent of the total land area of the State - Figure C-C15-1 Preparing erosion control plans
an area equal to all of the State’s national parks combined. In to protect adjoining water catchments (RTA, 1995)
many areas, the roadside is the only place where native
vegetation remains. For example, one land care group in NSW
estimates that, while only 3 percent of native vegetation remains
in their area, 60 percent of it survives along the roadside
corridors.
Corridor enhancement is important for ecological, social and

economic reasons and includes matters such as (NSW Roads • seed source of vegetation;
and Traffic Authority, 1995, Roadside Environment Strategy):
• control of erosion and siltation;
• wildlife habitat; • scenic reservation;
• remnants of original plants; • routes for pedestrians and cyclists;

• green buffer; The management of the roadside corridor and the adjoining land
can be improved through effective communication with land
• areas for rest and recreation; owners and managers.
• windbreak; and ECOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS
• the location of utilities like gas and water. Indigenous vegetation
Integrated approaches towards rural corridor management can: Vegetation along roadways often represents the most intact
examples of the vegetation pattern, which naturally occurs in an
• preserve and restore ecological values within road area. This is particularly the case in many agricultural areas,
reservations and areas adjoining them; where much of the natural vegetation has been removed.
Roadside vegetation also contributes to other ecological values,
• enhance the travel experience along roads in rural such as wildlife habitat, and social values, such as scenery.
regions; and
When planning a corridor, an assessment of the existing
• facilitate the economic functions of the road. vegetation should be made to determine individual species,
structural character, level of disturbance and associations. This
RELEVANT FACTORS should be followed by an analysis to determine intrinsic values
and potential threats to maintaining community diversity, and the
THREE MANAGEMENT FUNCTIONS setting of priorities for maintenance and re-establishment.
The NSW strategy is based on three sets of functions: ecological, Weeds

social and economic. Each function contains a number of factors
and for each factor a goal, strategies and guidelines are The direct disturbance to indigenous vegetation caused by roads
provided. creates conditions favourable for the spread of weeds,
par ticularly when it is considered that motor vehicles are
The linear nature of roadside corridors creates an extensive extremely efficient at carrying and depositing weed seeds.
range of adjoining land uses and neighbours. Roadside corridors Controlling the numbers of weeds in road corridors is vital in
often divide properties, particularly in rural areas, and cut across maintaining or enhancing ecological values, both within road
water catchments. These conditions require careful planning and corridors and within adjoining areas of indigenous vegetation.
management to ensure that both the roadside corridor and the
adjoining lands can function efficiently in an ecologically, There is a need to identify the extent and species composition of
economically and socially desirable way. weeds and their sources. Weed removal priorities are determined
by relating the extent of weed infestation in an area to the

ecological values and sensitivity of roadside and adjoining Pollution issues
vegetation.
Pollution includes emissions from vehicles, spillage as the result
Pests of accidents, load spills, sedimentation from erosion, illegal
dumping, materials fallen from vehicles and litter.
Pests include feral animals, such as cats, and exotic wildlife,
such as foxes and rabbits. Control of these animals is of Each of these forms of pollution affects the roadside environment
importance to the local ecology and to adjoining land owners in in different ways. Some items such as exhaust emissions,
relation to both crop and farm animal losses. Often roadsides accident and load spills can spread beyond the roadside corridor,
provide ideal shelter and home sites for pest species, while the while the balance tends to primarily affect the corridor itself.
adjoining lands provide the major food source.
Co-ordinated safety and clean-up strategies should be developed
The Road Authority, Local Government, land holders and other in the case of an accident. A structure to enable ongoing
stakeholders should liaise in relation to all pest control strategies community involvement in the control and management of
which should be specially targeted and take into consideration pollution in roadside corridors would also be desirable and
the feeding, shelter and home site requirements of native useful.
animals.
Soil conservation
Wildlife
Road construction can rapidly disturb the environment, often
Roadsides often provide a food source and/or habitat for wild life. leaving extensive scars on the landscape in the form of cut and
These roadside attributes are important, especially since the fill batters. The large areas disturbed by heavy earth moving
habitats in areas adjoining the roadway have often been equipment are a potential soil erosion hazard. Erosion on
destroyed. The vegetated corridor can provide valuable links construction sites can affect adjacent properties and cause the
between habitat areas. Roads can cut across existing habitats, sedimentation of private and public lands, streams, rivers, water
increasing wildlife kill, which in turn also decreases road user storage dams, harbours and lakes.
safety. Strategies need to be developed to address the potential
conflict between wildlife and traffic. Soil erosion and sedimentation not only threatens surrounding
lands and waterways, but can present a serious threat to the
The wildlife habitat of roadside corridors should be identified and safety, stability and durability of the road itself.
conserved. Roadside corridors should provide selective links
between valuable habitat areas, and should incorporate provision Soil conservation strategies should be incorporated in planning,
for transverse wildlife crossings as part of road design. The road design, specifications, construction and ongoing road
development of wildlife movement corridors extending beyond management.
the roadside should be encouraged to reduce road kills.

Protection of watercourses SOCIAL FUNCTIONS
The construction and ongoing management of roadways have a Roadside corridors provide a range of social functions. These
major influence on the water catchment, within which the road functions relate to the experience, behaviour and enjoyment of
occurs. To achieve pavement and grade requirements during both road users and those who live or work in areas adjoining
road construction, major earth works involving cut and fill will roads. Social functions also involve the protection of cultural and
occur. These earthworks will interfere with natural drainage natural heritage resources, which reflect the social values of the
patterns and the resultant sediment can adversely affect the community.
water catchment. Similarly, water-borne pollution from the
roadway, e.g. oil, grease, tyre rubber, can adversely affect the Scenic values
water catchment.
The importance of the visual experience should be reflected in
Construction of waterway crossings, such as bridges, can cause the planning and design of roads. Scenic areas of recognised
changes to channel form and path, erosion of banks upstream significance along roadways should be identified, maintained and
and downstream, disruption to riparian corridors and loss of enhanced. Adjacent land owners and managers should be
riparian vegetation. encouraged to protect and enhance scenic values along roads.
Route planning, construction and operations should minimise Cultural and natural heritage values
adverse effects on water catchments, stream channels and
sensitive water ecosystems, such as wetlands and riparian lands. Roadsides offer unique resources of cultural and natural
heritage. Areas of the road reserve left relatively undisturbed by
Bushfire comparison with adjoining rural and urban land provide a
sanctuary for both cultural and natural heritage sites. Aboriginal
The roadside is a potential source of bush fire outbreaks, and sites and artifacts can be found in areas of undisturbed remnant
management of fuels in roadside areas is therefore necessary. vegetation, while examples of European heritage such as
There are many fire control techniques, which can be bridges, sign posts and commemorative plantations occur under
implemented to improve the fire control status of the roadside. and adjacent to the roadway.
However, roads can also be a good fire break and provide a safe
point from which bush fires can be fought. Road management programs should identify and protect these
cultural and natural heritage resources. Those adjacent to the
Roadside bush fire control and management programs should be roadside corridor should be identified and protected. Appropriate
developed in consultation with appropriate departments, bush levels of access and interpretation of these resources should be
fire services bodies, local bushfire control officers and adjoining determined and included in management plans.
land owners.

Cultural planting existing within the roadside directly affect road safety. While road
safety issues often conflict with other issues such as ecological
In many roadside areas, especially close to and within towns and values (where remnant vegetation occurs in close proximity to
urban areas, cultural plantings often occur. These plantings the road pavement), measures can be taken to ensure that both
include both native and exotic vegetation and can be part of road safety and ecological values are protected.
landscape treatments associated with streetscapes, gateways to
towns, memorial drives and rest areas. They create a visual The potential for conflict between road users and the roadside
focus as they contrast with the form, line, colour and texture environment should be reduced through planning, design and
values of the Australian flora. maintenance strategies. Information along roadsides and
awareness programs throughout the community are also of great
Cultural plantings should be limited to appropriate areas, such as assistance.
areas of cultural significance or recreation areas because of high
establishment and maintenance costs. Community involvement
Rest areas All sections of the community have some interest in the
management of roadsides. The wide range of values of the
Roadside rest areas provide the motorist with a convenient site roadside perceived by different sections of the community
to break a journey. Rest areas fulfill a combination of functions reflects the need for representatives to be involved in decision
including: reducing driver fatigue, providing facilities for a snack making processes. Community involvement in the development
or meal, and presenting an opportunity for the motorist to of policy, planning, design and management for roadside
appreciate a view or a local point of interest. Roadside rest areas corridors should be elicited (see table on p503).
are used by drivers of both cars and trucks, but there are
different requirements for them. Truck drivers mostly require them ECONOMIC FUNCTIONS
for resting points to break a long journey or to check their vehicle
or its load. The roadside corridor provides and influences a range of
economic functions. These functions include the economic
Rest areas should be located in attractive settings and in places benefits of transport links between centres of population and
which provide convenient, safe and comfortable conditions for commercial and tourism activities. There are also less obvious
road users. They should be managed and maintained to ensure activities, which provide economic benefits, such as public
an appropriate level of amenity. utilities, travelling stock, honey production and advertising. The
economic functions of the roadside corridor extend beyond the
Safety issues road reservation: roads provide access to adjoining land use and
development.
Road safety is a central issue in the planning, design,
construction and maintenance of any road, and the conditions

Roadside Assessment Sheet (for use by community groups
A. Road Name/Number
Road Type: Sealed Date Start Odometer Reading
Assessor Unsealed End Odometer Readinq
Start Point Map Reference0 Length of Section
End Point Direction of Travel
Section Number
B. Width of road reserves C. Condition of indigenous vegetation D. Introduced species

Tick one line for each side. Score L R Include trees, shrubs, herbs, grasses.
Score L R Degraded 1 Score L R
Unfenced 0 Modified 2 Dominant 0
1–5 metres 1 Near natural 3 Scattered throughout 1
6–21 metres 2 Isolated clumps 2
21+ metres 3 Few or none 4
E. Regeneration F. Potential fauna habitat G. Roadside category

Are there young native trees present? Tick when features are common. Total score for the R and L side Box L R
Score L R Score L R A
None 0 Trees 2 B
Moderate 1 Trees with hollows 2 C
Extensive 2 Shrubs 2 D
Native herbs and grasses 2 E
Fallen logs/Litter 2 F
Rocks/crevices 2 Total score
Wet/marchy 2 Assigned Category
max. value 5 each side 2 A14+ B 10-13 C 1-9
H. Rare species and significant sites I. Wildlife corridor K. Indigenous species

Indicate species or community name and site location Does this section connect areas of natural bushland ist most common species
including right or left reserve, odometer reading. greater than 10 Ha? Trees
reference or grid points. Yes No Shrubs
Herbs and grasses
L. Road management activities J. Introduced species M. Comments

For location include right or left reserve, odometer Botanical name or common name.
reading,reference or grid points. Trees/shrubs
Herbs/grasses
1. Road works affecting reserve Location Noxious plants
2. Erosion/drainage problemsLocation
3. Stockpiles or soil dumpLocation
4 Other - specifyLocation
Source: NSW Roads and Traffic Authority (1995)

Transport facilities should be provided.
Amongst the many functions of the road corridor, transport of Land use/development
people and materials remains the primary purpose and activity.
The provision of access for transport has both a positive and The road corridor, in providing access to adjoining properties,
negative effect on the roadside corridor. Finding the balance, creates economic benefits for these properties and leads to
which retains the essential transport function and enables the developments along the corridor, ranging from industrial estates
corridor values to coexist, is an ongoing challenge for both the to fruit stands. Some of these developments may be acceptable,
road managers and the community. others may conflict with the transport function and scenic quality
of the road, and the safety of travellers.
Road reservations should be of sufficient width to maintain an
efficient road system, with appropriate standards of design and Strategies and development controls should beintroduced to
construction, while protecting and enhancing the roadside indicate where and what type of development activity is
corridor. The width of the reservation may vary along its length, to acceptable, and what standards of development activity and
ensure that both objectives are satisfied. access are appropriate.
Tourism Travelling stock
Tourism on the State’s roads takes a number of forms, including Many roads have the twin status as Road Reserve and Travelling
those undertaking a tour of a region by car, bus or bicycle, and to Stock Route. joining a network of Travelling Stock Reserves,
those who observe the roadside landscape while travelling to a which provide resting areas for stock as well as reserves for
specific destination for a holiday. The experience of travel is an pasture and watering places. Often referred to as the Long
important feature of any holiday and influenced by the scenery Paddock, these Routes and Reserves are now less frequently
within and beyond the roadside, the standard of rest areas, the used, but their role is still essential for graziers moving stock
design and character of the road, the form and character of between properties, and those seeking relief in drought stricken
service centres, the presence and character of roadside areas.
structures, and the form of, and access to, facilities on or
adjacent to the road. An inventory should be made of the use of road reserves for
travelling stock. Requirements for travelling stock should be
The full range of tourism and recreational opportunities along incorporated in the management plan for each area or route (e.g.
roadside corridors should be identified, protected and enhanced. VicRoads, Stock Crossing Guidelines, 1997).
The visual experience of the traveller should be considered in the
planning, designing, constructing and maintaining of roads and
roadsides. Travellers need to be informed of areas with tourist
facilities, and appropriate levels of access to these areas and

Roadside structures and public utilities should be considered. A number of groups or organisations will
fund or sponsor activities outside their normal area of operation,
Roadsides are frequently used to accommodate a range of if some form of benefit accrues to them (e.g. community tree
structures including electricity and telephone transmission lines, plantings). However, it usually requires some form of recognition
a variety of signs and billboards, lights and fences. The location and in some instances can include signs identifying their
and frequency of these structures at the roadside depends on a involvement. Signage should be well designed and not detract
wide range of factors, including the essential provision of from the visual amenity of a road.
information, control of access, supply of cost effective services
and commercial benefits. Commercial activities
There is a need to limit such structures, ensure that there is Commercial activities often have competing commercial
consistency and quality in size and design, and no conflict with requirements, such as the service centres and fruit stalls, which
the recognised roadside values and functions. require exposure to motorists, whereas bee hives need to be at a
distance from the road to avoid dust and noise disturbance.
Roadside corridors offer convenient locations for public utilities in Honey production and seed collection have economic benefits
relation to construction and maintenance, but these can and can contribute to the fertilisation and propagation of native
constitute roadside safety hazards, and conflict with other vegetation, but service centres and fruit stalls require vegetation
roadside values, such as retention of vegetation and wildlife removal for access and exposure, which may result in a
habitats, as well as scenic values in the case of transmission degradation of the visual and ecological values of the roadside.
lines.
Guidelines should be developed to define permitted commercial
The placement and management of these services along activities within the roadside and the conditions, under which
roadsides and their environmental impact must be assessed on a they are carried out (see, for example, C-16 Roadside services).
case by case basis. There are guidelines and codes of practice
(e.g. Telecom/NAASRA Joint Code of Practice for Telecom Plant APPLICATION
in Road Reserves - 1980). There is a need to determine, if and
where services should be placed in a roadside, and how any HOW CAN IT BE DONE?
environmental impact of construction and maintenance can be
minimised. 1: Establish a roadside management framework
Funding/sponsorship The framework should consist of policy, planning and

implementation components.
Funding is a common problem for authorities responsible for
management and enhancement of roadsides. The potential of
funding and/ or sponsorship from outside traditional sources

2: Develop a vision statement and priorities into specific actions and funding. Performance
criteria should be included for construction of projects, monitoring
The vision statement should be responsive to community and auditing.
expectations in relation to the planning and management of
roadside management. EXAMPLE
3: Develop environmental policies The NSW Roads and Traffic Authority has developed plans for
green corridors along the New England, Great Western and
The policies should cover all issues which relate to the Mitchell Highways. Included is a process to help implement an
ecological, social, cultural and economic components of the Adopt-a-Roadside scheme.
environmental spectrum. Other measures include:
4: Develop strategies and guidelines • Enhancing roadscape quality through landscape planting;
The strategies and guidelines can be developed at two levels. At • Controlling the use of chemical herbicides and pesticides;
the first level, the strategies and guidelines illustrate the general and
approach to achieving a management goal in relation to the
various environmental variables. The second level of guidelines • Developing ways to share information on principles for
represents detailed planning, design and implementation sound roadscape management.
techniques, which will provide specific directives in the planning,
design, implementation and ongoing management of the APPROPRIATENESS
roadside.
Appropriate everywhere.
5: Develop management plans
EFFECTIVENESS
Management plans can be prepared by the regional offices of the
road authority in partnership with local government and other Effective in achieving the objectives of
stakeholders. The management plans cover those strategies and a conservation and enhancement strategy,
guidelines which are relevant to the particular region and could if adequate consultation has taken place.
include broad directions for specific proposals.
6: Operational plans
RELATED TOOLS
These plans detail specific design, implementation and ongoing
management strategies. They translate the regional strategies C-16 Roadside services

• ensure that their spacing along the highway assists the
Roadside services C-16 travelling public;
• the function of the highway as a major transport route

is maintained;
• provide facilities which are appropriate and do not impair

INTENT the viability of business in nearby towns; and
Roadside services attend to the needs of the travelling public and • are designed to minimise the impact on the road
transport operators along highways in rural areas. The purpose environment and should be attractive.
of this tool is to ensure that provision is made for roadside
services which are safe, convenient, do not affect traffic RELEVANT FACTORS
performance and do not detract from business in nearby town
centres. SAFE AND EFFICIENT OPERATION
Highways, for the purpose of this tool, are defined as access Rural highways should be safe and efficient transport routes.
controlled transport routes, such as freeways and motorways. Side friction resulting from direct access of adjacent development
Important factors are: and frequent access to rural properties, settlements and towns
should be minimised. However, safe and efficient operation also
• safe and efficient operation; depends on the condition of the driver and vehicle. Roadside
services play an important role here.
• driver fatigue;
DRIVER FATIGUE
• spacing;
Fatigue related accidents have a significantly higher likelihood of
• facilities; causing death or serious injury than other types of vehicle
accidents. Fatigue was identified in 6% of all accidents in NSW in
• location; and 1993; 12 % of serious injury accidents and 17% of fatal accidents
(Dobinson, 1996).
• impact on nearby towns.
It has also been established, that the likelihood of fatigue as
Planning for roadside services can: contributor to accidents is higher on rural than urban roads.
Fatigue tends to be of greater significance in accidents on
• ensure a safe location; access controlled roads and freeways. They accommodate a

higher proportion of long-distance travel, where fatigue is likely to • toilets;
be a factor. Roadside service centres provide facilities which
encourage drivers to stop and break their journey. • public telephones and tourist information;
Regular and frequent rest breaks assist in the prevention of the • emergency breakdown facilities;
onset of fatigue. Once fatigue has developed, rest breaks can
relieve the symptoms of fatigue temporarily. A rest break which • adequate quantities of free short-term parking for all types
involves leaving the car, eating a light snack and drinking a cup of vehicle; and
of coffee, is possibly the most effective type of rest break (Fraser,
Wilson and Richardson, 1996). A drive-through service does not • picnic areas and playgrounds.
encourage drivers to have a satisfactory break.
The facilities should serve only the needs of highway users and
SPACING should not include substantial accommodation, leisure or
conference facilities. The use of facilities for other purposes,
Experience has shown that motorists need to stop at about 2 including parking, would be to the detriment of highway users,
hours travelling distance. The point at which this travel distance is would generate travel demand and could interfere with the safe
reached differs between road users. Facilities at this spacing flow of traffic. The availability of non-revenue-earning facilities,
would not serve all road user needs. For rural conditions, such as toilets, parking and picnic sites, depends upon the
facilities should be located at a maximum of about 100 commercial viability of other services.
kilometres distance (Dobinson, 1996).
Service centres with a range of facilities attract three to four
In order to reduce the amount of side friction, there is also a times the number of passing motorists, compared to the
minimum distance in the spacing of centres. In the UK, the conventional service station, and drivers take a longer break
recommended distance is 32 km (PPG13, 1995). (Dobinson, 1996) The average stop at the comprehensive
service centre is about 15–16 minutes for car drivers, about
FACILITIES 30–40 minutes for truck drivers and about 30 minutes for bus
operators. These stopping periods may have a marked impact on
The following facilities are appropriate: fatigue reduction and a consequent substantial impact on fatigue
related accidents.
• fuel (petrol, diesel, LPG) available 24 hours a day every
day of the year;
• food and refreshments (but no sale or consumption of

alcohol on the site);

LOCATION of further exploration (see Victoria Department of Infrastructure,
1997).
The location of roadside service centres is influenced by road
safety. A minimum distance of 2 km is desirable between ramp APPLICATION
entry from the service area to the highway and ramp exit at the
next intersection. HOW CAN IT BE DONE?
IMPACT ON NEARBY TOWNS 1: Consider the regional context
The development of freeways and bypasses redistribute roadside In view of the importance of service centres not only in the
rest stops. For example, the context of the highway, but also in relation to the impact on
by-pass at Yass caused a decline of about 25–30% in stops, with nearby communities, regional corridor plans should address:
a significant impact on local trade (Fraser et al, 1996). Roadside
service centres provide an essential service to the travelling (i) the need for roadside service centres within the plan area;
public. However, there are strong arguments against providing
other facilities and services which compete with facilities in (ii) criteria to assist the preparation of appropriate policies in
established towns nearby and attract additional traffic to the local plans; and
service centres along the highway. Accommodation, tourist
attractions, vehicle repair and shopping facilities are best (iii) recommend criteria to be included in local plans for
provided at towns nearby, which are already served by roads assessing development applications.
connected to the highway.
2: Identifying locations
DEVELOPMENT AND DESIGN
Co-operation between neighbouring authorities is desirable to
Roadside service centres can be developed along the highway determine optimum locations. This is especially the case in areas
(in which case there are usually twin centres). This is the current where suitable locations may be scarce. Developers are to be
form of development in Australia. An alternative is to develop a guided to areas where the development of a service centre does
single service centre on a bridge above the highway. This form of least damage to the landscape. Possible locations can include
development exists in some European countries. A further areas contiguous with freeways/motorways. Where these are not
alternative to developing twin centres or a single centre above generally suitable, other areas such as those adjacent to
the highway is to provide basic facilities on one side and freeway/motorway intersections can serve motorway users,
enhanced facilities on the other side and a pedestrian bridge provided there is appropriate signage, aler ting drivers in
across the highway. There are cost and design implications in advance. Such proposals would need to take into account the
these forms of development. The development and design possible attraction of non-motorway users.
alternatives (including the view from and to the road) are in need

3: Facilities required and serious injury accidents due to fatigue have reduced by 5–7
percent and 6–11 percent respectively.
Policies are determined for the range of services and facilities to
be provided. These policies should preclude the provision of EXAMPLES
services which are not essential for the travelling public and
transport operators, and which may conflict with services already The Department of Infrastructure in Victoria produced guidelines
provided in nearby communities. The facilities should be for Freeway Service Centres (1997). The guidelines have been
consistent to make sure that the customer knows what to expect. prepared to:
4: Siting requirements • provide direction regarding the location, design and layout
of freeway service centres, with particular reference to
Siting requirements would need to satisfy the requirements of safety and access requirements, and to ensure that the
road authorities, especially those in respect of traffic flow, safety, objectives of the guidelines are met;
geometric design and visibility. The risk of congestion or slowing
of traffic on the main carriageway should be considered. • provide assistance to local councils when assessing the
planning merit of proposals for freeway service centres;
5: Design and
Careful consideration should be given to the scale and mass of • confirm the expectation of the Minister for Planning and
the development within its setting. Roadside service centres Local Government in relation to the performance of
should be designed in tune with the environment and minimise freeway service centres.
the impact on the surrounding area, whether in terms of visual
intrusion, noise or vehicle emissions.
APPROPRIATENESS
RELATED TOOLS
Roadside service centres are necessary along all limited access
rural highways where traffic volumes warrant their provision. C-15 Rural corridor management
EFFECTIVENESS
The effectiveness of roadside services can be measured in

several ways. One measure is the reduction in accidents due to
fatigue. Studies undertaken by the New South Wales Traffic
Authority for the Sydney–Newcastle Freeway, indicate that fatal

Part D
CONTENT
Introduction to Part D
Processes
PROCESSES
Chapter 1 Strategic Planning

Chapter 2 Development Planning
Chapter 3 Operational Planning
Chapter 4 Community Involvement

local access, and the type and form of appropriate development.
Introduction to Part D Chapter 2 has a focus on development planning.
Operational planning can mean different things. In the context

of this Guide, it includes detailed project design and construction,
development control, traffic management and administrative
procedures. Operational planning is addressed in Chapter 3.
DIFFERENT PROCESSES
All these processes are linked. Development and operational
To achieve desirable and acceptable outcomes, we have to planning should be preceded by strategic planning; operational
explore appropriate processes to work towards those outcomes. planning, in some cases, should be preceded by a development
Processes are different, depending on types of agenda and planning process (Figure D-1).
outcomes desired. The three most relevant to this Guide are:
strategic, development and operational planning. There are common features and differences in all these activities.
The similarities are evident in the sequence of steps in arriving at
Strategic planning is a continuous and systematic process, desired outputs; the differences are related to the nature of the
when organisations make decisions about intended future outputs: e.g. whether they are policy- or project-oriented, whether
outcomes, how they are to be accomplished, and how success is they are long-term or short-term oriented, or a combination of
to be measured and evaluated. Strategic planning is needed for them.
integrated approaches towards urban areas as a whole, and for
major parts of them. For example, strategic planning is used to
determine the need for a transport corridor, its function and
approximate location. Important outputs of a strategic planning
process are targets and priorities, accompanied by action plans.
Chapter 1 outlines the process.
While key activities of strategic planning are to chart directions

and make selective commitments, development planning is an
activity which focuses on the achievement of development on the
ground. Development planning is used in the preparation of
‘masterplans’, development concepts and development control
plans as a means of integrating public and private development
(e.g. AMCORD, 1995). For example, integrated development
planning can be used to determine the location of a transport
corridor and its relationship to land uses nearby, provision for Figure D-1 A hierarchy of linked processes

With all processes, involvement of the stakeholders is essential. process is then needed.
For this reason, the Guide sets out pr inciples for public
involvement in Chapter 4. Sometimes it may be necessary to work on several fronts
simultaneously. This may be the case in inner suburbs where
There are other processes such as project management, value strategic processes may have to proceed in parallel (and
management, risk management and statutory planning. interacting) with development and operational processes (see the
Integrated approaches are important in all of them. They can be example in Part B, Chapter 2: Local Planning).
regarded as sub-sets of the above processes or given their own
status (see, for example, Parkin, 1996).
SELECTING THE PROCESS
Selection of the most appropriate process should not be a matter

of routine. It may seem obvious at the beginning of a study or
project at which level the process should be pitched. However,
this may prove to be wrong. For example, a proposal for the
adaptation of a Main Street may appear to be a simple matter of
traffic calming and urban design. During the development of an
initial concept, however, strategic issues may come to the
surface, which should be resolved first.
Before selecting the process, there is a need to understand what

outcomes are expected and what kind of tools may be required
to achieve them. It may be a strategic plan, development plan,
policy or program, or a combination of them. Both the desired
outcomes and the tools to be used will determine which
processes should be used.
There is considerable pressure in project planning and

development planning to bypass strategic planning processes
and outputs. This is especially true in the case of employment or
revenue-generating development proposals, and with projects
which address short-term problems (such as black spots). Figure D-2 Relationship between processes and outputs
Achieving integrated outcomes is likely to require a shared
commitment to a strategy or policy first. A strategic planning

Chapter 1 Strategic Planning The purpose of strategic planning is to:
• anticipate change;
• develop a vision how change can be accommodated;
• set longer-term objectives and establish a long-term

framework (i.e. a ‘concept plan’, ‘structure plan’ and/or
‘policy plan’) for the development of the land-use and
CONTEXT transport structure, infrastructure and the environmental
quality of the area;
For the purpose of this Guide and its focus on integration, it is
relevant to consider urban areas as corporate entities and to • provide a framework for longer-term strategies and
apply pr inciples of cor porate management. Cor porate policies for specific issues;
management approaches take the whole of the organisation
(‘whole of government’ and the resources of the private sector) • establish priorities for action;
into account. Strategic planning is a powerful tool in the
corporate management of urban areas. • identify ‘action areas’ for more detailed development
planning;
[Note: what follows is based on Strategic Planning Process
(Draft), Austroads, Integrated Local Area Planning (ILAP), • serve as a channel for communication with the community,
Blackerby, 1994 and AMCORD, 1995, and adapted to highlight other authorities and the private sector;
the integration of land use, transport and the environment.]
• identify resources required to service growth and change;
WHAT IS STRATEGIC PLANNING? and
Strategic planning is a continuous and systematic process during • co-ordinate and integrate the activities of spheres of
which people and organisations make decisions about intended government.
future outcomes, how they are to be accomplished, and how
success is to be measured and evaluated.

STRATEGIC PLANNING MODEL
All strategic planning should include at least eleven basic

elements to some degree:
(1) needs assessment;
(2) context scan;
(3) values and visions;
(4) strategic directions and objectives;

Figure D-3 Strategic planning and project planning
(5) scenarios and strategies;
(Austroads, Strategic Planning Process, draft)
(6) assessment criteria (or outcome measures);
(7) assessment;
1 Needs assessment
(8) evaluation (or strategic choice);
A needs assessment is undertaken to identify the needs for
(9) action plan (or ‘strategic priorities’ );
integrated planning and management and the key issues to be
addressed. It requires a strategic overview which identifies the
(10) implementation (or ‘strategic commitments’); and
significant issues facing the regional or local community;
establishes an agreed basis of facts and attitudes from which the
(11) monitoring and review (or ‘performance feed-forward’).
planning process can proceed; identifies the various
organisations, departments and spheres of government involved;
and facilitates the selection of key issues.
The strategic overview is not intended to provide a complete

picture of all facets of the regional and local community, but
provides sufficient information for selecting the key issues (see
Step 3). Compilation of the strategic overview will involve
extensive consultation and interpretation. Broadly, such
information will be an assessment of regional or local land use,

transport and the environment. It is focused on matters likely to technology. Forces which may be influenced are: environmental
require integrated action during the planning period; and gives a strategies; State and regional economic strategies or settings;
description of the organisations, departments and spheres of organisational responsibilities and arrangements, infrastructure
government involved. A broad range of areas can always be funding approaches and priorities; and macro planning policies,
explored, but a selective approach is essential to avoid such as urban consolidation, growth centres etc.
excessive expenditure of time and effort. It is important to keep Forces at the local level, which the process cannot or not directly
the process within manageable proportions, and to ensure that influence, are State and regional policies. Internal organisational
subsequent implementation measures will concentrate on those responsibilities and arrangements, infrastructure funding
issues. The selection of the key issues will generally be based on approaches and priorities, meso and micro policies and settings
dominant areas of concern, identified in the strategic overview, and local budgets can be influenced.
and critical linkages between different activities, agencies or
spheres of government, which require co-ordinated action. The key factor for the purpose of achieving greater integration is
the overcoming of constraints associated with organisational
Integrated planning implies that the workload should be shared. structures and priorities, and with project-based funding. For this
Those agencies directly responsible for the major elements of reason, the scan should include the identification of
key issues should undertake necessary follow-up investigations organisational arrangements and documentation of those
and actions. It will usually be necessary for the lead agency to existing structures, policies, strategies, instruments, regulatory
act as facilitator and co-ordinator of this task. and funding practices, which are likely to significantly influence
the outcomes.
The output of the needs assessment is an agreed statement of
issues to be addressed and an agenda for the remainder of the A context scan may set boundaries to the development of
process. options. It can be undertaken primarily by means of consultation.
This step provides an opportunity for the planning team to
2 Context scan (exploring the limits) engage some of the stakeholders in a dialogue which can serve
to extract the relevant contextual issues, as well as briefing the
A context scan is an assessment of the external influences which stakeholders on the process. The agencies consulted at the
constrain the scope of the planning process or create regional level could include: Federal and State departments, local
opportunities for it. There may be forces we cannot (or not government, major industry groups and others.
directly) influence and those we can expect to have an influence
on. The principal output will be a context/background paper, which:
Examples of forces at the regional level, which the process • summarises the major relevant external and internal
cannot influence, are matters such as: macro economic settings; influences on the strategic planning process;
Federal Government policy, such as immigration; taxation; and

• defines the limits for exploring options; and The preparation of a vision statement is an attempt to free
participants from existing functions, organisational and funding
• identifies the range of opportunities, which may be arrangements, and operations of the agencies involved, and to
considered. focus collectively on the general results, or outcomes.
A significant outcome is the knowledge and understanding There may be different visions and goals depending on the
gained by both the planning team and the stakeholders. values and perceptions of the stakeholders. The sponsoring
agency (or agencies) will have established values and visions
(possibly incorporated in their corporate plans or enabling
legislation). The other stakeholders embraced by the strategic
planning process will have (perhaps) less formal positions, but
nonetheless important values and visions.
An exploration of different values and visions at the early stages

of the planning process forms the foundation for the identification
of:
• the areas of agreement (and disagreement) between

stakeholders;
• the criteria to be used for assessing alternative strategies;

Figure D-4 Strategic planning model and
• the kind of alternative futures to be assessed.
The consultation process provides the forum for the identification

3 Values and visions of visions and values. Ideally, these will be explored in group
sessions/ workshops, where the stakeholders become aware of
This step deals with the conceptual and philosophical aspects of each other’s positions and have the opportunity to participate in a
the collective management of the region, local area or corridor. collective learning exercise.
Individuals and organisations will have different visions in relation
to the future development of the area, and these visions are a The output of this step in the process is a collection of
reflection of the values held. An integrated planning process aims value/vision statements and an expression of future states which
to identify these visions and values, and discover what priorities we might aspire to. Such future states, for example, may be an
participants in the process ascribe to them. ecologically sustainable future, a ‘green’ future, an economic

rationalist future, or a socially equitable future. These may then 9 Support transparency in decision making; provide clarity
form the basis for the development of strategic choices to be why and by whom decisions are made. Inform
made later in the planning process. stakeholders who is responsible and accountable for
implementation.
Principles of strategic planning for integrated outcomes
10 Monitor the strategies and actions, by measuring their
1 Focus on the outcomes desired by the urban community, effectiveness in achieving the desired outcomes.
rather than on the outputs normally delivered by the
organisation.
4 Directions and objectives
2 Tailor the process to the problem, taking into account its
nature and complexity, political and community Directions and objectives are the crystallisation of the visions and
imperatives, and the availability of resources and time. these will have to be consistent. They are statements which
define the desired outcomes or effects of the planning activities
3 Generate possible futures, with a view to identifying the on the region, city or town (examples of desired outcomes are
kind of future we would like to create. given in the sections on regional, local and corridor planning).
4 Consider the full range of means available to achieve In the context of the strategic planning process there will initially
intended outcomes. be statements prepared by the sponsoring agency. They provide
direction for the process, but can be modified through discussion
5 Involve all stakeholders, including organisations whose and consultation with the other stakeholders. The development of
activities impinge on achieving the outcomes, and all strategies which achieve some of the objectives of a range of
those who have an interest in the fulfilment of the stakeholders will obviously have a high probability of acceptance
outcomes. and support.
6 Inform the stakeholders of the choices available and the The set of strategic objectives should be comprehensive,
anticipated consequences of these choices. describing the intended outcomes for all the organisations
involved in the process. They should be achievable, have
7 Use ‘iterations’ - review, and, if necessary, modify the measurable outcomes and provide the focus for the process of
results of earlier stages of the planning process in the light developing and testing strategy options.
of feedback from subsequent stages.
The output is a documentation of the objectives of the major
8 Balance certainty with flexibility - commit to important stakeholders for the region, local area or corridor. Objectives may
strategic choices, but avoid prematurely closing off change in the planning process when unexpected consequences
options. of certain objectives are revealed.

5 Futures, scenarios and strategies generated by stakeholders, the process of exploration of ideas
will build understanding and acceptance of alternative solutions.
When this step in the process is reached, the full range of Care should be taken not to prematurely exclude options which
potential solutions is canvassed in a systematic search to have few but enthusiastic supporters.
address the objectives of the planning process. In most strategic
planning studies there are several (related) objectives and The process of exploring alternative futures and scenarios is a
multiple options for achieving them. For example, the objective powerful collective learning device, and overcomes many
may be to ensure sustainable development, economic criticisms of conventional forecasting techniques. However, a
development, with a high level of accessibility, or a combination; common problem is that the issues and relationships between
options for achieving them may involve demand-oriented policies, them can become quite complex. A technique which can assist in
supply oriented policies or a combination of carrots and sticks. A focusing on essentials in workshops is the Delphi technique (see
wide range of tools is available for generating futures and options Part C, R-16 Keeping options open).
(see Part C, Keeping options open).
The iterative nature of the process with the ‘reporting back’ to
It is expected that a long list of planning options will emerge participants, between the generation of a long list of ideas, helps
which require assessment and evaluation. A robust method of to reduce the range of strategies. In the early stages there is no
combining individual elements into a manageable number of need for a consensus. What is impor tant, however, is to
strategic choices is required. An iterative process, involving the consolidate the range of possibilities into a few, but quite different
progressive sieving of elements and options, should be used. bundles.
The level of detail in the assessment will increase as the process
proceeds. The output will be a a limited number of bundles which address
the fundamental objectives of the study, which can then be used
The creation of strategies from a long list of ideas is a for assessment and evaluation.
challenging task, since the ‘long list’ should contain ideas or
principles for the integration of land use, infrastructure and 6 Assessment criteria
system management (such as funding, regulation and pricing).
The concept of thematic bundles of ideas is a robust method of Assessment criteria are the measures against which the
grouping them into a practical number of strategies, for strategies will be listed, to determine if they are likely to be
assessment and evaluation. Each bundle can then be directed effective in achieving the desired outcomes. They are important
towards a particular vision or have a common emphasis. because they are the yardsticks for testing the likely
consequences of proposals or alternatives, and should be
The process should allow input from the major stakeholders to comprehensive. Many so-called ‘planning failures’ can be
capture the accumulated ideas of the participants. Experience attributed to having missed criteria which later show up as being
shows that stakeholder ideas are often central to the finally critical during implementation of the preferred strategy.
accepted strategy. Regardless of the ultimate ‘survival’ of options

It is not always possible to know in advance which criteria are 7 Assessment
significant for decision-making. The judgment as to which criteria
are most significant cannot be made without a full knowledge of For the purpose of this section, assessment is defined as the
all the issues, and it requires participation of all the stakeholders process of applying predetermined assessment criteria to predict
to obtain that knowledge. Although some studies have made the anticipated consequences of a strategy bundle, and
attempts to establish some sort of ranking and selection up-front, presenting the results in an objective manner.
experience shows that stakeholders find it difficult to make such
judgments in the abstract (i.e. before the assessment has been It is likely that a number of quite different strategy bundles will be
completed). If the assessment criteria are not agreed upon, then produced during the previous steps in the strategic planning
the assessment has a high chance of not being accepted. process. Assessment then becomes an essential tool in
identifying and comparing the different consequences of each
Assessment criteria are established in collaboration with the option. The combination of a par ticular bundle and its
stakeholders. The client, in association with other agencies, may consequences (a ‘package’) then becomes the basis for an
define an initial set of criteria and include them in the brief. Other evaluation of the preferred package.
criteria may emerge in consultation with external stakeholders,
and the consultant undertaking the study may suggest further Strategic assessments are usually undertaken by consultants on
criteria. In practice, many criteria will surface during step 2 behalf of the client body. The methodology involves predicting the
(Context scan) and 3 (Values and visions). consequences of each of the bundles for each criterion.
It is useful to develop a broad framework for the criteria at the Some of these consequences can be quantified, using models
beginning. The framework should reflect the relationship between (such as changes in travel time or energy use), but others cannot
the scope and type of study, and the kind of assessment and be readily quantified (such as social and environmental impacts).
evaluation needed. It is also useful to group the assessment Where quantification is not possible, a ranking system can be
criteria by broad categories (such as: economic benefits, used, or, where there may be disagreement about assigned
economic costs, built environment, social environment, natural values, a comparative description of impact can be used instead.
environment, institutional arrangements; or a categorisation,
based on stakeholders affected: State government, local As a result, it is not possible to express all impacts in a common
government, development industry, transport industry, transport unit of measurement (such as costs) and there will always be
system users, property owners and occupiers). apples and pears. Techniques, such as environmental costing
and benefit cost analysis, have been developed to reduce this
The output will be a set of assessment criteriasuitable for use in problem. However, even if it were theoretically possible to
the assessment process, which follows. express all impacts into a single unit, such as dollars, one would
encounter scepticism of stakeholders about the values placed on
them and a perceived lack of transparency.

The final step is the presentation of the assessments for each of
the options and criteria. This can take the form of a ‘planning
balance sheet’ which records in a single tabular form or matrix
the consequences of the bundles for each criterion.
8 Evaluation (choice of strategies)
Evaluation is the activity of examining strategy bundles and their

impacts (packages) and making an informed choice of the
preferred course of action.
Assessment of the options shows the likely consequences of

each option in an objective manner. It may be possible to
ameliorate any adverse consequences at a cost. Thus there is a
series of ‘packages’, each consisting of an option, its predicted
consequences and any measures of amelioration. Evaluation is
the process of giving weight to these criteria and of making
deliberate judgments about the trade-offs associated with the Figure D-5 Relationship between issues,
selection of a particular package. options assessment and evaluation
Evaluation is not a technical activity; it is a process, during which

the stakeholders have the opportunity to make an informed
judgment. There may be consensus, but it is also possible that
there are significant differences in priorities and preferences.
Evaluation does not aim to resolve these differences, but to The second phase is necessary when the first phase does not
assist stakeholders in clarifying their choices, and present produce a consensus and/or where there are additional factors
decision makers with the information they need in making the which are beyond the grasp of the external stakeholders (such as
final decision. matters of gover nment policy, changes in institutional
arrangements, funding approaches and budgetary priorities).
There are two phases:
Evaluation with the external and internal stakeholders (phase
1. Evaluation with the external and internal stakeholders; one) might be facilitated by a consultant. Evaluation with the
decision-makers (phase two) would be managed by the top
2. Evaluation by the internal stakeholders in association with management.
the decision-makers.

The evaluation with the external and internal stakeholders is best In most processes the final decision maker will be governments
undertaken in a workshop context, with the participation of the or sponsoring agencies, with stakeholders providing input rather
different stakeholders. It starts with the output of the Assessment than determining the outcome of the work.
stage: a statement of the options and impacts. It is essential that
the stakeholders understand the options and the results of the
assessment, before being asked to express their preference for a
particular package.
The steps are:
• Presentation of options and impacts and responding to

questions of clarification. This can be challenging when
there are many criteria (as is often the case). Presenting
stakeholders with a large matrix of assessment criteria
and impacts for each package is confusing and
counterproductive. There are ways around this problem
(See next page).
• Choosing the preferred package. There are different

techniques.
The first technique is to ask each participant to record his/her

preference with the reasons for making this choice. The results
are then presented to a plenary session. If it appears that there is
consensus or a high level of support for a particular package, the Figure D-6 A process for reducing options
meeting concludes. However, when there are clear differences - (Based on Warringah /Lower North Shore Study, 1994)
often a more likely event - the Delphi technique can be
employed. Participants are asked to rank each package on a
scale of, say, 1 to 10. The results are then presented to all
participants in the group. It will show the spread of preferences The output is likely to be a report on the process and outcome
and will indicate where there is a measure of consensus and from the evaluation exercise. The possible outcomes are:
where there are fundamental differences. A second round can be
held to give participants an opportunity to revise or adjust their • not a consensus, but a feedback from the participants on
scores. the degree of support for, and opposition to, one or more
of the packages. This information is valuable as it provides

the basic input into the second (political) evaluation phase Action (or task) description
or leads to one or two quite different composite packages
for political decision. A statement starting with an ‘action verb’, which clearly and
concisely describes a discrete task to be undertaken in a limited
• the identification of robust elements of a ‘package’ which time - generally within the current planning period or cycle (often
have general support or which remain valid in all or most one, three or five years). ‘Open-ended’ or imprecise statements
cases. With such an outcome, commitments can be made should be avoided.
with confidence, while leaving options for future choice.
The tools identified in Part B are specific strategies and contain
9 Action plan (strategic priorities) examples of good practice, to be used in developing more
specific policies. These policies will need to be defined (where
An action plan specifies what is to be done to implement they do not exist), and this should be part of the action set out in
strategies. An action plan is indispensable to the implementation the Action Plan. Absence of specific policies should not impede
of a planning processbecause it translates general statements of progress towards greater integration, as it is also possible to start
direction into specific statements of action. These make clear with statements of intent and performance criteria (i.e. matters to
who is to do what, by what time, with which resources and be taken into account). However, there should be agreement to
actions. Implementation for integrated outcomes may include prepare those policies by a date specified in the Action Plan.
organisational or procedural changes. Integrated management
depends on the acceptability of the action plan by those who are Responsibility
allocated responsibility for implementation. Hence, they must be
party to its preparation. If they have also participated in the The agency accountable for completing - or ensuring the
strategy process and the selection of the tools of implementation, completion of - the action should be identified.’
so much the better.
Timing/sequence
Without an action plan, individuals remain ignorant of what is
required, nobody is accountable for doing anything, and there is Ideally state the date by which the action must be completed. If
no clear mechanism for accommodating implementation of the this is yet to be determined, the relative priority of actions, or
strategy outputs in organisation budgets their staging, or the order, in which they are to be carried out,
should be indicated.
The output is an Action Plan, which is often presented in the form
of a table - or one table per strategy, or one table per budget Resources
year, or one table per program - listing some or all of the
following aspects. Include the budget, if funds have been allocated. If not, the
Action Plan document should explain how the question of
funding is to be addressed. The financial year, in which the

budget allocation is committed, should be clear. Depending on The outputs of a successful process should include integrated
the nature of the Action Plan, it may be useful to list other policies and programs. Actions to influence the behaviour of
resource requirements (e.g. personnel). others (outputs) should be included among the implementation
measures. These may include policies, regulations, fees and
Consultees/par tners/stakeholders or other process charges, guidelines, education, training, enforcement, and
information advocacy.
Effective integration during implementation includes maintaining 11 Monitoring and review (‘performance feed forward’ )
communication. It can be useful to list departments, individuals,
agencies and others, who need to give approval, participate, or Monitoring is the measurement and assessment of performance
be consulted during the course of the action. Similarly, reference after decisions on preference and priorities have been made.
could be made to legislative and regulatory issues (e.g. permits
needed). Monitoring and review are a systematic procedure for comparing
actual performance to planned performance, and for using that
10 Implementation infor mation in subsequent planning cycles. Other ter ms
frequently used include program evaluation, management
Implementation is the process of giving effect to the tasks or evaluation and management audit. The purpose of this step is to
actions in the Action Plan. provide information about actual performance, assess needs
more accurately and improve outcomes in the future. It will yield
Implementation is carried out by the agencies responsible or by information about the strategies, which were effective, and which
service providers for the client organisation. There should always did not work. Analysis why strategies did not work is an essential
be a clear line of responsibility with the body responsible for step for reviewing both the strategies and tools for
integrated management. Progress has to be monitored and any implementation, and to examine whether there is a need to
variations factored into a review. change directions.
Specifications have traditionally concentrated on describing the Monitoring may be under taken at regular inter vals or at
inputs of a project or action. The more recent trend has been to predetermined times, and is usually undertaken by the body
state, in as precise terms as possible, the required outcome, and responsible for implementing the actions agreed to in the Action
to let the responsible agency decide the best means of delivery. Plan. Aspects may be under taken by an independent
This approach has the advantage that agencies can devise organisation, such as an academic institution.
methods which for them are the most appropriate. Also their
performance is judged on what generally matters most - the
product, rather than the process.

HOW THE TOOLS CAN HELP PRINCIPAL STRATEGIC TOOLS
IN DEVELOPING INTEGRATED STRATEGIES INTERACTION
Land use/ R-1 Urban structure and form
Depending on which outcomes are to be achieved, a range of accessibility R-2 Urban density
tools are available. These are provided in Part C of the Guide.
R-3 The right activity with the right accessibility
In Table D-1, examples are given of some of the tools which R-4 Hierarchy of centres
could be relevant for strategic planning purposes. A summary of R-5 Key regional and transit centres
their intent is given in Part B, Chapter 1. They are grouped by R-6 Public transport and land use
‘principal interaction’. Principal interactions between land use, R-7 Freight movement and land use
transport and the environment are identified in the Resource R-8 Road systems and land use
Document, Chapters 5, 8 and 11. R-12 Regional parking policies
L-3 Increasing choice in transport
Networks, L-8 Corridors and precincts
transport modes C-1 Corridor categorisation
and road space
C-3 Planning new Type II Corridors
C-6 Access to roads
Amenity, safety Many of the above tools
and R-11 Air quality and traffic noise
environmental
quality L-8 Corridors and precincts
Table D-1 Interactions and tools of strategic relevance

Chapter 2 Development government; and
Planning • serve as a communication device with the community,

other public authorities and the development and transport
industry.
ELEMENTS IN THE PROCESS AND THEIR RELATIONSHIP
WHAT IS ITS PURPOSE? The elements of the development planning process are
substantially similar to the strategic planning process (see Part
In the context of this Guide, the purpose of development planning D, Chapter 1 for a description of each of these elements).
is to: However, the matters addressed in each of the elements, the
stakeholders involved and the outputs are different. It also
• apply the strategies and action plans determined by a requires different professional inputs and skills.
strategic planning process, and work them up into a
detailed framework for development; Table D-2 illustrates the kind of aspects to be considered where
the output of a development planning process is an area
• ensure that such a framework indicates intentions for all development plan (sometimes called a structure plan, outline
aspects of the future development and/or conservation of plan, master plan or concept plan).
the area, including the kind of land-use activities, transport
requirements, form of the built environment, and the HOW THE TOOLS CAN HELP
relationship between them;
Depending on what outcomes are to be achieved, a range of
• indicate development priorities and staging, including the tools are available. In Table D-3, examples are given of some of
provision, responsibility, funding and timing of the tools which could be relevant for development planning
infrastructure; purposes. A summary of their intent is given in Part B, Chapter1.
• indicate the role of the public and private sectors in EXAMPLE OF POSSIBLE OUTPUTS
development;
Examples of possible outputs of a development process are the
• provide the planning and development parameters for design of a residential neighbourhood, a town centre, an
operational planning, including guidelines for project industrial area, a ‘Main Street’ and an Integrated Local Area Plan.
design; traffic management and development control; In the example which follows the focus is on an integrated local
area plan.
• co-ordinate and integrate the activities of all spheres of It is an interesting example for several reasons. Firstly, it was an

ILAP and Better Cities Project and won the Brisbane City Council
an award. Secondly, the process is a mix of a strategic and
development planning - using the terminology identified in the
Introduction to Part D. Yet some of the outputs, in terms of this
Guide, are clearly ‘developmental’, and would probably have
been given another name elsewhere (e.g. a Development Control
Plan in NSW). The example also highlights the need for a
common understanding of the terms we use.
Secondly, the structure in the example must be seen in the

context of the Brisbane City Council’s statutory planning system
and terminology. In other States and Local Government areas,
there may be variations. For example, in NSW, the output could
be four documents:
• Recommendations for a Local Environmental Plan;
• Development Control Plan;
• Development Contributions Plan; and
• Action Plan (as the basis for programming and budgeting).
Thirdly, and in hindsight, the question can be asked whether

awareness of the range of tools available could have led to
additional considerations, such as activity/ accessibility studies,
precinct definition, or transport corridor planning. Steps 5-7 in
Part B Chapter 1 indicate how this can be done; Step 6 contains
a list of the tools which could be considered.

ELEMENT ASPECTS TO BE CONSIDERED
Refer to Figure D-4 and description of Elements in Part D Chapter 1
1 Needs assessment Identify significant interactions; discover the REAL problem; identify other agencies.
2 Context scan Identify and interpret strategies and policies which set the parameters for development planning;
examine the constraints and opportunities for greater integration; explore the scope (e.g.demand
and supply factors, organisational responsibilities, infrastructure funding, and statutory
requirements).
3 Values Issues and preferences.
4 Objectives and desired outcomes This is a first round of determining desired outcomes; the range of development tools which may
be used should be explored.
5 Alternative ways of achieving objectives This involves considering alternative packages of tools to the point where there are different
concept plans and different ways of realising them (for example, with different funding and
development arrangements, or approaches to land development).
6 Assessment criteria
As for strategic planning.
7 Assessment Again, this is a ‘technical’ activity, provided no judgments are made of the relative weight of the
criteria.
8 Evaluation and choice Participating agencies or disciplines may have different preferences and priorities. There will be
trade-offs and consultation with the wider community, development industry and property owner
is essential; there may be a need for referral to CEOs or Council before a final choice is made.
9 Action program The action program should identify how each agency will align its responsibilities with the
agreed outcomes and what action they will take to achieve them.
10 Implementation Following up the agreed actions.
11 Monitoring and review Arrangements for ongoing monitoring and review should be put in place; performance measures
should be identified and responsibilities for measuring and reporting should be agreed upon.
Table D-2 Using a development planning process to achieve greater integration

PRINCIPAL DEVELOPMENT TOOLS
INTERACTION
Land use/ R-2 Urban density
accessibility L-1 Activity/accessibility zoning
R-3 The right activity with the right accessibility
R-4 Hierarchy of centres
L-7 Parking standards
Amenity, safety and Many of the above tools, and some listed in the last group
environmental quality R-2 Urban density
L-12 Safety
L-13 Visibility
Transport routes and L-8 Corridors and precincts
their environment C-1 Corridor categorisation
C-6 Access to roads
C-11 Reducing noise exposure
Table D-3 Interactions and relevant tools

Example of Development Planning • integrate planning and services in keeping with local
needs and priorities;
PURPOSE
• encourage a collaborative approach to plan preparation
Brisbane City Council’s Local Area Planning Program is an involving a multi-disciplinary team of professionals;
established process for:
• provide a corporate planning mechanism to deliver a
• delivering integrated planning for local communities in range of local outcomes for communities within a regional
Brisbane; and strategic framework; and
• ensuring that local planning is consistent with city-wide • provide for an annual review by the community, elected
strategies and programs. representatives and project teams to consider successes
and shortcomings.
The program involves engaging communities in a planning
process to guide Council’s service delivery and expenditure in an Involvement of the whole of the community in local area planning
integrated way at the neighbourhood level, and to set the context processes is an important aspect in plan preparation. Special
for private and public development in the area (Brisbane City efforts are made to involve those people not normally involved in
Council, 1997b). The Integrated Local Area Planning model, mainstream consultation activities. Young people, aged people,
developed by the Council, has married physical, social and people with disabilities are all involved in plan preparation,
corporate planning processes to ensure a holistic approach to par ticularly where issues of accessibility and community
service delivery and planning for local communities. development are being addressed.
Local Area Planning is also the primary means to ensure the ‘big OBJECTIVES
city vision’ becomes reality for local communities. The program is
implementing city wide plans and programs through the The objectives of Brisbane’s Local Area Planning Program are:
preparation of Integrated Local Area Plans. Integrated Local Area
Planning means co-ordinated outcomes for neighbourhoods 1. Manage development and change in local areas (in the
across the city. The process has been ‘built’ right throughout the context of broad policy framework of the Metropolitan
City Council, ensuring budgets and programs include Strategy Plan, now the new Strategic Plan);
mechanisms for the implementation of Local Area Plans.
2. Establish a shared vision and common understanding of
APPROACH key issues in the local community;
Instead of the delivery of services on a functional basis, the 3. Establish an integrated approach to local area planning;
overall approach is to:

4. Identify and prioritise local area planning initiatives; and reports, such as:
5. Ensure that private and public sector development • Character and heritage studies, providing objective data
proposals are consistent with local aspirations. on streetscape, character and heritage issues;
PROCESS • Green Space and Recreation Studies, identifying natural

assets and how communities relate to and use them;
Local Area Plans are developed through a planning process
generally involving the following stages: • Traffic and Transport Studies, providing analysis and
strategies for all aspects of accessibility and mobility;
Stage 1 - Identification of vision and issues
• Social and Community Development Studies, highlighting
This initial stage is a process of gaining background information, social need and promoting community development
including consulting with the relevant Ward Councilors to identify outcomes;
existing community networks, opening dialogue with the local
community to gain a broader understanding of major issues • Business and Industry Studies, aimed at better facilitating
facing the area and their concerns and aspirations for the area, economic growth in local areas; and
together with the development of a draft vision for the local area.
This information is incorporated into a Vision and Issues Paper. • Environmental Quality Studies, identifying how local
communities can take action in areas of air and water
Stage 2 - Collect information and prepare technical studies quality, and in looking after Brisbane’s natural assets.
Various technical studies are prepared, including detailed Stage 3 - Preparation of Draft Local Area Plan
analysis of particular issues or topics and supporting information
for the development of strategies, actions and improvements The results of the technical reports and consultation culminate in
plans for the local areas. These technical studies are primarily the preparation of the Draft Local Area Plan. The Draft Local
prepared ‘in house’, although some studies are prepared by Area Plan is comprised of two documents:
consultants. This stage is supported with a range of consultation,
including focus groups, a questionnaire and a community • Action Plan - the primary resource document available for
steering group. use by the local community, Council departments and
other government agencies involved in its implementation.
In preparing Local Area Plans, detailed technical reports provide Actions are prioritised, generally reflecting the aspirations
data and analysis, on which to base integrated local area plans. of the local community and Council resource allocations.
In particular, extensive research and community consultation is
undertaken in the preparation of background

• Outline Plan - containing the planning provisions to be Community Development Study
implemented through the statutory Town Plan, including
guidance in the use of discretion under the existing Town The major components of this study are:
Plan provisions, and recommendations in terms of
preferred development types and future zoning allocations • a young person’s community mapping project;
for adoption in a formal sense in the new City Plan.
• cultural needs identification;
Stage 4 - The finalisation of the Local Area Plan
• community inventory/directory;
The Local Area Plan is finalised by checking with all stakeholders
whether the plan addresses the identified issues and visions of • disability issues;
the particular area. Once finalised, the Local Area Plans are
distributed to other Council Departments, State Government • health issues identification; and
Departments, relevant community organisations and interested
members of the local community. • recreation and sport strategy.
Stage 5 - Implementation Negotiations are undertaken with regard to funding and work
programs with local community organisations, State and
The final stage is the implementation of the actions and Commonwealth agencies and Council Departments to facilitate
oppor tunities identified in the Local Area Plans. This the implementation of this plan.
implementation is the responsibility of the relevant Council
Department, Government agency or community group, which Heritage Study
has ‘signed off’ on the Local Area Plan. The Local Area Plan
teams assist with the identification of priority actions for the The need for a heritage study is often generated by community
relevant Departments. It is anticipated that the Local Area Plans concern over the changing character of an area. The objectives
will be implemented incrementally over a 10 to 15 year period, as of this study are to:
resources permit in each local area.
• produce an overview history about the development of the
HOW THE PROCESS WORKS area;
Figure D-7 shows the relationship between visions, studies, • identify and assess character and potential heritage
preferred future, action plan and ‘outline plan’. places, based on historical research, field survey and
established criteria; and
The following studies are examples of what Council does for a
developing area (Brisbane City Council, 1997a).

• develop statutory and non-statutory mechanisms to assist
and encourage the conservation of the valued elements
within the area.
Green Space Study
The study identifies:
• existing and future urban nature parkland;
• local and district level open parkland;
• local and district level sporting parkland;
• multi-purpose waterway corridors; Figure D-7 Process of preparing the Local Area Plan
• natural area corridors; and
• areas of environment and scenic constraint.
Landscape Character Study Mobility Study
The outputs from this study include: The aim of the Mobility Study is to establish a strategy which will
better manage traffic and transport while improving accessibility
• a landscape structure plan; and safety for the local community, consistent with city-wide
strategies. The major outputs of this strategy are:
• street tree strategies; and
• Road Hierarchy Strategy;
• precinct strategies.
• Traffic Management Strategy;
These plans and strategies are used by Council in the
assessment of applications for development and to prioritise • Pedestrian/Cycle Network Strategy; and
Council action in terms of street tree planting and other
streetscape improvement projects. • Public Transport Strategy.

OUTLINE PLANNING
The Outline Plan is prepared as part of the Local Area Plan. This
plan is developed in consultation with landowners and existing
residences to provide guidance for the orderly design and layout
of newly developing areas and for the efficient provision of
infrastructure and services.
The Outline Plan generally will show for example such things as
potential development areas, desirable park and sporting
facilities, a preferred road hierarchy and proposed pedestrian and
bikeway network.
EXAMPLE OF AN ACTION PLAN
Figure D-8 is an example of an action plan. The action plan

consists of a diagram, a legend (not shown here), and specific
programmed actions. In the example, there are six actions
ranging from bicycle and pedestrian paths, street planting,
installing traffic signals and an investigation of a proposed road
link.
Figure D-8 An Action Plan - the numbers identify

(and describe) specific actions

Figure D-9 An ’Outline Plan’
EXAMPLE OF AN OUTLINE PLAN
Figure D-9 is a diagrammatic illustration of the development plan

for an area. It is accompanied by a clear statement of constraints
and opportunities for development, and guidelines which enable
developers to prepare development proposals on an informed
basis.

Chapter 3 Operational • development regulation and traffic management recognise
these interactions as a matter of standard practice; and
Planning • performance audits are made which measure progress in
one field (e.g. provision for cycling, or increasing access to
public transport) in relation to other policies, plans and
programs.
WHAT IS ITS PURPOSE? ELEMENTS IN THE PROCESS AND THEIR RELATIONSHIPS
Operational planning can be described as a process concerned It should be noted that the emphasis is here on establishing
with the ‘logistics’: interpreting intentions, expressed in strategies operational guidelines to achieve greater integration. The
and development plans, and ensuring that these are carried elements of the process are substantially similar to the previous
through in implementation. Operational planning can take processes. However, the matters addressed, the scope,
different forms: stakeholders and outputs are all different. See Part D Chapter 1
for a description of each of these elements.
• project planning, design and construction;
PERFORMANCE AUDITS
• land-use and development control;
A performance audit provides a checklist of objectives, targets,
• traffic management and public transport operations (such policies and mechanisms for action by a responsible authority. A
as scheduling); and range of indicators are used to measure compliance and/or
progress towards specified objectives and targets.
• performance audits.
Performance audits are important monitoring tools and can take
The purpose of operational planning is to establish guidelines, different forms. An example is a State of the Environment Report
which ensure that: in NSW, which includes a wide range of indicators.
• projects are developed in conformity with strategies, Another example is the Environmental Management System
policies and development plans; (EMS), which documents relationships after developments have
been completed, keeps track of any issues or problems, which
• take account of all the interactions between land use, may arise, and can be used to generate reports. Such a system
transport and the environment, which arise at an is now being installed by the NSW Roads and Traffic Authority’s
operational level; EMS for selected main roads and their environments.

A third example is a performance audit to measure progress in It would be useful to make an inventory of relevant guidelines at
one field in relation to other policies, plans and programs. Here, State and local levels.
the focus is on integration across institutions, roles and funding
towards a particular outcome (e.g. increase access to public
transport or increase the use of cycling as an alternative
transport mode; see example at the end of this Section).
HOW THE PROCESS CAN BE USED

TO ACHIEVE GREATER INTEGRATION
It is useful to explore how operational planning can be used to

increase the prospects of integrated outcomes. Table D-4
illustrates the kind of aspects to be considered.
HOW THE TOOLS CAN HELP
Depending on what outcomes are to be achieved, a range of

tools can be used. They are set out in Table D-5. State and local
government have developed guidelines for aspects, such as EIS,
EMS, and development control. They are not included in this
Guide, because there are too many of them and it would require
a substantial research effort to collate and interpret them, which
is beyond the scope of the Guide.
It is of interest that one of the purposes of (UK) Planning Policy

Guidance 13 (Transpor t) is to bring together all existing
Government guidelines and achieve greater co-ordination
between them. However, the central government in the UK plays
a significant role in providing guidance towards integration at the
national, regional and local level. In Australia, this responsibility is
a matter for the States, Territories and local government. In New
Zealand there is a mix of responsibility (some aspects -
environment and transport - at national level, public transport at
regional council level, and the remainder at local levels.

ELEMENT ASPECTS TO BE CONSIDERED
Refer to Figure D-4 and description of Elements in Part D, Chapter 1
1 Needs assessment Why are guidelines needed, which interactions are relevant, which public agencies and private
sector organisations should be involved.
2
Context scan Identify and interpret strategies, policies and plans, which set the parameters for operational
planning; examine the constraints and opportunities for greater integration (including the roles
of the public and private sector; procedural changes).
3 Values Stakeholder issues and preferences.
4 Objectives and desired outcomes This is a first round of determining desired outcomes; the range of operational tools, which may
be used, should be explored.
5 Alternative ways of achieving This involves developing and using alternative packages of tools to the point where there are
objectives options for discussion and testing (for example, with different funding and procedural
arrangements).
6
Assessment criteria (or outcome As for strategic planning.
measures)
7
Assessment This is a ‘technical’ activity.
8 Evaluation and choice Participating agencies may have different procedures and priorities. Consultation with the users
and those affected is essential.
Action program The action program should identify how each agency will align its responsibilities with the
9 agreed outcomes, and what it will do to achieve them. There may be advantages in publishing
provisional guidelines and seeking comment.
10 Implementation Following up the actions agreed to.
11 Monitoring and review This is a crucial activity. Arrangements for on-going monitoring and review should be put in
place; performance measures should be identified and responsibilities for measuring and
reporting should be agreed upon.
Table D-4 Using an operational planning process to achieve greater integration

PRINCIPAL OPERATIONAL TOOLS
INTERACTION
Land use/ R-12 Regional parking policies
accessibility
Form, structure and Many of the above tools, and some of the tools that are listed in the last group
environment
L-12 Safety
L-13 Visibility
Networks, transport C-6 Access to roads
modes and road space
C-15 Rural corridor management
C-16 Roadside service
Table D-5 Interactions and relevant tools

EXAMPLE OF POSSIBLE OUTCOMES 7 Staffing
An example of possible outcome is a performance audit. 8 Funding
Performance Audit-Provision for cycling A selection of some of these items is made to show the kind of
details which could be included.
A model performance audit for the provision of cycling by local
authorities, produced for the UK by Bikeframe (1997), covers the Targets
following main items:
1 Does the Plan/Strategy include the following targets (with
1 Objectives time scales):
2 Targets • To increase cycle use to contribute to national targets of

doubling cycle use by 2002 and quadrupling by 2012?
3 Time scales [YES NO]
4 Policy context • To reduce, by 2012, cyclist accident rates (measured per

trip) to [75% 50% 25%] of the 1997 rate?
5 Mechanisms and policies to deliver the objectives
• To increase, by 2012, cycling’s modal share of journeys to
• Engineering: e.g. strategic inter-urban routes: safer routes secondary schools to: [10% 20% 30% 40% 50%]
to secondary schools; adequate cycle parking at schools;
fine infill of distributor and access routes for cycling in all • To reduce cycle theft to 1997 levels, by 2012 [90% 80%
main towns by 2002; cycle parking installation strategy; 70% 60% 50%]
• Encouragement: e.g. a program to encourage cycle- • To reduce car use (measured as % of all trips) by [0.5%
friendly employer schemes; publicity programs; 1% 2%] per annum?
• Education: e.g. on-road cycle training for adults; and • To ensure that cycle schemes make up at least:
• Enforcement a) [10% 20% 30% 40%] of the funding submission for

• Complementary Policies county councils?
b) [2% 5% 10%] of the local safety scheme budget?
6 Monitoring and review

2 Are targets appropriate and realistic for local situation? Complementary Policies
[YES NO]
1 Does the Plan/Strategy contain commitments to the
3 etc. following:
Policy context • Car Demand Restraint
1 Do the objectives, policies and strategies for action take a) Reducing the availability of car parking? [YES NO]
full account of key national, regional and local strategic b) Increasing car parking charges? [YES NO]
plans and guidance on: c) Prohibiting access by private motor traffic to certain routes
(to give time advantages to cyclists/pedestrians/buses)?
• Reducing the need to travel? [YES NO] [YES NO]
• Improving accessibility for pedestrians, cyclists and other • Adoption of a travel awareness program and promotional
vulnerable road users? [YES NO] activities such as ‘Travelwise’ or ‘Headstart’ [YES NO]
• Increasing the modal share of walking, cycling and public • Green Commuter Plans
transport? [YES NO]
a) at council sites? [YES NO]
• Restraining and reducing short journeys by private motor b) advice and support for other companies? [YES NO]
traffic? [YES NO]
• Public transport improvements? [YES NO]
• Minimising car parking provision? [YES NO]
• Consideration of cycling as part of wider transport,
• Reducing traffic danger to pedestrians, cyclists and other environmental and other local authority policies?
vulnerable road users? [YES NO] [YES NO]
• Reducing the environmental impact of transport: (air Summary checklist

quality, noise,damage to habitats,community severance)?
[YES NO] Are objectives, targets, policies and mechanisms to increase
cycling covered adequately in the following local authority
• ‘Health of the Nation’ targets on physical activity? documents:
[YES NO]
• Structure Plan ? [YES NO]

• Local Plan ? [YES NO]
• Transport Policies and program? [YES NO]
• Road Safety Plan? [YES NO]
• Cycling Strategy? [YES NO]
• Transport Strategy? [YES NO]
• Local Agenda 21 ? [YES NO]
Extract from: The Cyclists Public Affairs Group - UK (1997),

Bikeframe, Model Cycling Policy, Surrey, UK.

Chapter 4 Community • outcomes affect people and groups differently;
Involvement • there may be outcomes which affect the value systems of

people and organisations; and
• there may be outcomes requiring changes in perceptions

and behaviour of individuals and organisations which
need to be understood and accepted.
INTRODUCTION
Problems with community involvement in integrated planning are:
There is a great diversity of stakeholders and viewpoints in many
planning activities. Naturally, the nature and degree of interest in • different issues and contexts with different agendas
consultation often depend on how close people live and how requiring the participation of different stakeholders;
much they fear, or are uncertain about, adverse impact. For
example, a proposal for a new residential area on the urban • groups of stakeholders who have strong views and insist
fringe rarely attracts much public interest, despite the fact that on shaping the outcome, while there are those who stand
the development plan may lock future residents into a movement to gain but do not volunteer to participate;
pattern with limited choices.
• longer-term issues without any stakeholders to show
On the other hand, a proposal to upgrade a transport route interest as yet (or of an age where they would); and
through an established area will generate intense interest by
those along the route and little by those who stand to benefit. • risks of the responsible authority losing control of the
Longer-term proposals, such as an integrated strategy, often do process.
not produce anything like the interest which short-term projects
attract. With integrated planning, a framework and a program of
community involvement is essential.
There is a need for public involvement in all these situations, but
the examples illustrate the problems associated with it. Public It should be clearly focused and representative, and will add
involvement is needed because: considerable value to the planning process.
• there are different views on desired outcomes, all of which GOALS

must be taken into account;
Throughout this Guide, the impor tance of stakeholders’
• there often are conflicting priorities; involvement has been stressed. However, it is essential to
determine the goals before commencing any community

involvement program. It requires a significant commitment, not 2 The community should be able to understand the
only on the part of the agency or agencies involved, but also by decision making process
the stakeholders. Therefore, there should be a clear idea what is
to be achieved and how it is to be done. If the community is to fully participate in any process, it needs to
understand how decisions will be made. Information about the
Community involvement can be used in a variety of planning full decision making process from the decision to investigate a
processes and for a variety of pur poses, such as the problem to the decision to implement a solution, will assist the
development of a strategy (e.g. road safety), route alignment community in making informed decisions and how to participate
selection, development planning, project planning and specific effectively in the process.
problem solving. In this chapter, the focus is on solving problems
by community participation. The principles outlined in this chapter 3 Desired outcomes of the process should be defined
are of generic application, but the process needs to be adapted
to the specific purpose of a consultation program (see the A clear focus should be presented to the community to ensure
Resource Document, Chapter 4 for further information). that there will be clear outcomes. Agreement is necessary on the
purpose of consultation and the process to be used at the start
PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT of a program. There should be an understanding and acceptance
of constraints and a willingness to stay with the process until its
Seven fundamental principles underlie the practice of community conclusion.
involvement. These principles are:
4 The process must deal with the resolution of conflict
1 Community involvement should be an interactive
learning process The community involvement process must be designed to take
into account the interests, needs and concerns of all parties. By
The purpose of consultation and communication may be to openly addressing these matters, conflicts can be dealt with,
inform, persuade or engage in a process of learning. There is a optimising the benefits and minimising the disadvantages for all
place for all these purposes in integrated planning. Through parties concerned.
focusing on community involvement as a collective learning
activity, we recognise that many problems and issues are It is not implicit that there should always be consensus; there will
complex and require an understanding of the many linkages be many occasions when fundamental differences remain. Other
which exist. A process of collective learning means that mechanisms may be required to resolve these conflicts, such as
stakeholders come to appreciate these linkages and can add mediation, or a policy decision by elected representatives.
value to the exploration of desired outcomes and possible However, the process should give credibility to such decisions
solutions. The prospects of a sense of collective ownership and and, in complex situations, may be designed to provide for
its benefits for the community and professionals cannot be political decisions at critical points in the process.
underestimated.

5 The process must make it easy for people to CREATING THE COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT FRAMEWORK
participate
Figure D-10 sets out a a generic approach in the development of
Individuals (and organisations) will participate in a process if they a framework and process. It is based on VicRoads (1997)
find that the time and energy they contribute is worth the effort. Community Participation - Strategies and Guidelines. The first
This principle does not only extend to the logistics, but also five steps (A1- A5) deal with the framework.
includes the type of material presented and the manner in which
it is done. Complex issues must be reduced to simple A.1 Prepare a draft definition of the problem
statements to create understanding.
The understanding of the issues cannot be taken for granted, as
6 The process must be transparent and fair. the perception of the real problem by the sponsoring agency may
not be that of the stakeholders. A preliminary statement of the
The process should be open and transparent. There should be a objectives should also be made and checked with the
preparedness to explore new ideas, make information available participants, when the program gets under way.
and participate with an open mind. Credibility depends on a
genuine effort to collective learning without hidden agendas. In the context of integrated planning, issues are likely to arise
Mechanisms are needed to ensure that no single group or which may go beyond those that may be considered relevant by
individual dominates the process. Effective management is an the sponsoring agency (see Part B, Chapter 1 Step 1). For this
important element, to ensure that all groups and individuals have reason, it is important to go through steps 1–4 in Chapter 1 with
an equal opportunity to contribute. At the end of any community a steering group, so that the real problem, the institutional
involvement process, participants should have the experience setting, the desired outcomes and the scope are determined.
that the process was fair. Notwithstanding this, they may need to be reviewed at the
beginning of the program.
7 The process must follow a logical sequence
A.2 Outline the scope of the problem-solving process
The process must follow a logical series of steps, which include:
The purpose is to identify the scope of the problem-solving
• the definition of a problem or problems; process. This will help to identify what situation is to addressed,
and which stakeholders should take part.
• a thorough exploration of the issues associated with the
problem; and Figure D-10 shows the sequence of problem solving for a
highway authority (Note the figure is based on - but adapted from
• the development and analysis of possible solutions to the - VicRoads Community Participation - Strategies and Guidelines,
problem against agreed criteria. All processes outlined in 1997, p13). There is a hierarchy of steps and each step involves
Part D include these steps. a problem-solving approach of the kind shown in figure 11. Each

step produces an outcome which becomes the input for the next
step.
It can be seen that the upper section of these steps involve a

number of strategic issues which require a strategic problem-
solving approach and the selection of the stakeholders. Lower
down, when routes are being considered, development planning
issues arise and different stakeholders should be involved. At the
bottom of the figure operational issues arise such as design and
construction, and these may involve people directly affected by
the design and the type of construction.
Community involvement with an understanding of the sequence

of the steps can avoid the problems which have occurred in other
consultation programs. There are different agendas, and putting
them all together into a single process can result in a loss of
control and unresolved conflict.
Figure D-11 also highlights the difference between a highway-

oriented approach and an integrated approach. With an
integrated approach, there are issues at each step which may
need to be included in a consultation framework. For example,
the need for a link may involve considering land-use strategies to
influence the transport demand; the location of a route may
involve an investigation of precincts and corridors, and the friction
and impact along different corridors.
Figure D-10 Integrating the community participation

and problem solving processes

A.3 Establish the need for a participation process because of its impacts on that other group (i.e. they act as
a ‘champion’ to a particular stakeholder group, which may
Community participation is not always necessary or desirable for include Councils and politicians); and
each of the steps. There may be no choice, there may be time
constraints, or some issues have been addressed in other • the media - the media may have an interest in
contexts (for example, in the preparation of an integrated regional maintaining reader interest and sales, therefore tending to
strategy). It may also be possible to bundle some of the steps seek out the more controversial aspects of news items;
and reduce the cost and time of the process. However, the the media is seen at times as being more inclined to
judgement should not be left to the sponsoring agency. With an exacerbate community tensions. They should be
integrated approach, there should be agreement with the encouraged to co-operate and educate the community.
participating agencies on the role and extent of community
involvement.
A.4 Identify and research the stakeholders
Stakeholders include all individuals, groups or organisations who

consider themselves affected by a proposal, as well as those
with the potential to influence the outcome.
Stakeholders can be categorised in terms of the particular

aspects of their stake:
• primary stakeholders - those, whose activities are

directly and significantly affected by the problem and its
resolution;
• broad interest stakeholders - generally those affected

by any solution, although less affected than primary
stakeholders (e.g. peak transport groups, peak
environmental groups);
• champions - those stakeholders, who may have no direct

or broad interest in the problem, but who have an interest
in or relationship with another group which is affected. Figure D-11 Steps in consultation and implications
Champions are therefore only interested in the problem for selecting the process and form of consultation

Some groups can be readily identified; there are others where • the way in which input from stakeholders will be dealt with.
this is not the case. The purpose and scope of a process can be
advertised and expressions of interest in participation can be ESTABLISHING THE PARTICIPATION FRAMEWORK
invited. This of itself does not guarantee a balanced
representation. It also raises the question how many places The participation process itself is generally well understood and
should be reserved for those who need to be there and those there are practical guidelines elsewhere (e.g. VicRoads, RTA,
who respond to an invitation, when it is proposed to conduct Sarkission et al., 1994). Integrated approaches do not alter the
workshops with a limited number of places. The key to this general validity of these approaches. A brief summary, based on
dilemma is to carefully consult community leaders and VicRoads, 1997 follows:
community groups before any process is commenced.
B.1 Engage the stakeholders in the process
A list should be prepared of likely stakeholders, which takes
account of: The process is assisted if a constructive working relationship is
established. This depends on agreement on:
• the need for representation of the diversity of interests;
• the interests of the various stakeholders;
• each stakeholder group’s key characteristics, including
values, preferences and likely initial response to the • the definition of the problem (or on a means of resolving
problem definition; and the problem’s definition);
• why it is important to involve each stakeholder group in • the issues which need to be addressed;
the participation process and their specific needs for
information.
• given conditions or constraints which may limit the
A.5 Prepare a draft participation plan available solutions;
The plan provides guidance on: • the principles and details of the program; and
• who should be invited; • sharing information and the means of communication.
• how to invite them; B.2 Review possible impacts
• what information to give them; Check that all people who will be affected by any aspects are
included in the participation process.
• the participation process and the program; and

B.3 Finalise the community participation plan and program B.5 Confirmation of preferred solution
This step provides an opportunity for the stakeholders to review The final decision will be made by the lead agency (after
the participation plan and program, and to recast them, if consultation with other agencies and, perhaps, with government),
necessary. The participation program involves agreement on: the Minister or Council. The stakeholders should be advised of
the decision and the grounds on which it was made.
• the objectives for the program of community participation;
The outcome should be a practical and achievable solution;
• the choice of strategies to be used (giving information, without such an objective the purpose of the exercise remains
information with feedback; co-ordination of information open to question. However, there should be a commitment in
with other agencies, facilitating dialogue between principle by sponsoring agencies to make a decision or to make
stakeholders); a recommendation to the final decision-makers. Without such a
commitment, any community involvement programs thereafter
• matching the steps in the process of giving and receiving will be treated with cynicism and not gain support.
information with the related steps in the planning and
technical phase of the problem solving process; and B.6 Conclude the process
• select techniques to suit the set of strategies. Where there is implementation (there may be further steps and
hence no implementation), arrangements should be put in place
The problem-solving technique (figure D-10) is used for each for monitoring and review of the effectiveness of the program.
step. Any conflict which develops should be dealt with by
clarifying the original premises which were used to define the B.7 Prepare any necessary hand-over procedures
problem with its justification. Appropriate conflict resolution
techniques or changes in the participation program should be There have been many consultation programs which did not lead
used to resolve the issue. to actions or policy decisions within a shor t time after the
program had been completed. People who have been actively
B.4 Implementation of the program and intensively involved over an extended period often question
with some justification the value of a consultation program.
If a decision is made to proceed with the program, the project Consultation programs have an expiry date and, if there is no
manager must have the resources to undertake the technical commitment to implementation, the investment of effort should
work, assured of the integrated community participation and not be made. The outcome of any program is not always
problem solving approach. There should always be some predictable and there may be sound reasons for deferring a
flexibility in the program because of unforeseen delays (e.g. in decision. In that event, the stakeholders should be informed of
getting relevant information). the reasons. The risk of an extended delay may be that new
stakeholders appear, shifts in values occur, and the outcome of a

previous consultation program are no longer shared. information and providing comment, reviewing documents and
suggesting forms of consultation with the wider community.
When part, or all, of the implementation process is delayed, Selection of the members should be based on a representative
document the outcomes and agreements of the participation and range of interests.
problem solving process for use by the next ‘problem solving’ or
implementing group. Public meetings and forums
TECHNIQUES Public meetings can be a good way of soliciting ideas or

imparting information, but are of limited value in collective
Interactive workshops learning. Sometimes there are difficulties with such meetings
when controversial issues are to be dealt with, and a public,
Interactive workshops can be very effective, provided there are which may respond with the stacking of meetings. It is desirable
several workshops with the same people in sequence at various to invite an independent person to chair the meeting and officials
points in the process, and the inputs and outputs of each should avoid defensive reactions to criticisms. Both officials and
workshop are clearly defined. There are limits to the number of the community benefit from an atmosphere where people can be
people who should attend if an effective environment for candid and open to ideas.
collective exploration is to be created (in our experience about
60). Workshops should be by invitation and the composition of Agency-initiated outreach
participants should reflect a wide range of interests, ensuring
that no single group dominates, and opportunities for interaction Shopfronts, hot lines and mailing lists can be established to
are created. provide the wider community with an opportunity to learn and
contribute.
Task forces, focus groups and charettes
Public information/education campaigns
Task forces, focus groups and charettes are concentrated forms
of workshops, requiring a greater commitment of time and effort Campaigns may be developed to inform people of issues, options
by the participants. Task forces may have a sharper focus and and impacts, or actions they can take to contribute to the solution
there may be several, concentrating on one aspect of the of a problem. An example of this was how a threat of shortage in
problem. Interaction between task forces is important, as they water supply capacity in Sydney in 1995 was averted through a
should not work in isolation from each other. carefully managed information campaign (although recent events
in Sydney were a little less successful...) Ongoing information
Advisory committees and education campaigns can be used to encourage higher rates
of vehicle occupancy or reduce the risk of accidents. They may
Advisory committees are useful in complex projects. They can lead to a shift in public attitudes and behaviour.
assist in the development of the process, in requesting

confusing statements without appearing to challenge or disagree
with the assertions, and ensure that people who feel intimidated
get a fair hearing.
Informing the wider community
A concentration of effort on a collective learning activity with a

relatively small group should not mean the neglect of attention
given to the wider community. The wider community should be
kept informed of the exploration and the main findings as work
progresses. This can be done through media releases, leaflets,
mailing lists and other techniques.
CONCLUSION
Key principles
Useful key principles are (Potter, 1995):
• Focus on people’s values;
• Ask the right questions;
• Consult the right people;

Figure D-12 Relationship between problem solving
and technical work • Be honest about how much power you are sharing;
• Recognise people’s concerns;
Dispute resolution techniques • Create genuine dialogue between ‘non-experts’ and

‘experts’;
Experienced and independent facilitators and mediators can
often assist in creating a positive atmosphere for co-operation • Build on common ground; and
and problem solving. They can request information which may
not have been offered by agencies, encourage people to explain • Work across boundaries.

Integrated approaches are demanding Leadership but with sensitivity
Integrated systems are more demanding in consultation than Leadership is the key to effective two-way consultation. There is
narrowly-based and well-defined projects. However, it is now well a need for a firm handle on the process, with sensitivity to the
understood that transport planning and land-use planning are needs and interests of all the stakeholders. Consultation, which
rarely stand-alone and well-defined activities. They affect people is well handled and genuine, always proves to be a satisfying and
and business in many ways and operate in a broader urban and useful learning process towards desirable outcomes.
regional context. Two-way consultation is essential and a
process is required which enables collective learning and Collective information sharing and exploration of options
selective decision-making. invariably elicits or brings out unforeseen and often valuable
ideas and possibilities.
Clarity in purpose
There must be a clear understanding at the onset as to what

purpose is to be served by consultation. From a management
point of view, there will be a preference for an outcome-driven
process with consultation playing a subordinate but important
role. Another view is that the central purpose of consultation is
information sharing, a collective exploration of desired outcomes.
Whatever purpose is chosen, it is essential that value be added
to any actions which may be contemplated.
Complexity and simplicity
There is a continuing conflict in most integrated projects between

the perceived (or real) need to canvass a wide range of issues
and the need to keep it simple and comprehensible. It is useful to
establish boundaries at the beginning of the process, but it is
also important to be sensitive to real concerns and not to restrict
the scope of the process unduly. It may also be possible that
boundaries be moved as the process evolves.

CITIES FOR
TOMORROW
Integrating Land Use, Transport and the Environment
Commissioned by AUSTROADS as a contribution to integrated planning
Hans L Westerman AM
Professor Emeritus of Town Planning
Westerman Consultants Pty Ltd
1998
Resource Document
Cities for Tomorrow Resource Document
Acknowledgments
The development of the Resource Document was assisted by
many people who provided infor mation and comment.
Constructive criticism on the first draft was given at a series of
workshops in Australia and New Zealand during August 1996
and attended by some 200 engineers, planners and others
involved in urban development.
A considerable amount of useful material was provided during an

overseas visit in late 1996 to Portland, Oregon, the UK and the
Netherlands. Mr Klungboonkrong, a doctoral student at the
School of Civil Engineering, University of South Australia, and Dr
Shiran, a doctoral student in integrated land use and transport
planning at the School of Civil Engineering, UNSW, assisted with
a literature search.
The chapters on Corridor Planning are based on research

undertaken by Professor John Black and the author. Professor
Black’s contribution and long-standing support are gratefully
acknowledged.
The active interest and encouragement of the Advisory Panel

was of considerable assistance. Special thanks are expressed to
Allan Krosch, Program Manager, whose superb management
has led to a constructive partnership, and Graham Taylor, Project
Manager, for his efficient support.
Notwithstanding these contributions, the author carries the sole

responsibility for the selection and interpretation of the material
and the views expressed.

Foreword
Austroads first commissioned the preparation of an ‘Overview’ of information to proceed with confidence, where this is possible,
the integration between road and land-use planning, to be and how this can be done.
followed later with a Guide to Better Practice. The Overview was
produced in 1997 as a Working Document, with a broadened Much depends on the outcomes we wish to achieve, whether we
scope: the integration of transport, land use and the environment. have the tools necessary to achieve them, and know how to use
After conducting a series of workshops in Australia and New them. The central question is the role governments, the private
Zealand, Austroads made the decision to proceed with (i) the sector and the community play in this integrating partnership. To
preparation of a Better Practice Guide and (ii) a revision of the what extent should cities be shaped by the market, what kind of
Working Document as a Resource Document. The Resource leadership should government provide, and what level of
Document was to remain an Overview, but provide the basis for intervention is deemed necessary and acceptable by the
the approach and ideas in the Guide. community? These questions are highlighted in the final chapter,
which stresses the importance of incentives and disincentives in
Integrated planning is a process, which centres on ‘corporate’ shaping the cities for tomorrow.
outcomes, not only for the whole of government, but also for an
urban region, local area or transport corridor. The Resource Finally, it will also be appreciated that the information and the
Document is structured around these outcomes in three areas of practice are continually evolving. There will be aspects which, in
application: regions, local areas and corridors. At each level, hindsight, should have been given greater weight and new
there are critical interactions between transport, land use and the perspectives will emerge in time. However, it is hoped that the
environment, and between stakeholders -government, the private Resource Document, together with the Better Practice Guide, will
sector, the community and the professions.The first four chapters contribute towards increased understanding and better practice.
focus on integrated planning as a process. The next nine
chapters examine the evidence for each of the three areas of Hans L Westerman AM
application, identify principles and suggest ways to achieve
greater integration. The last chapter puts it all together. November 1998
The topic is complex and the issues are wide-ranging. An

overview cannot encompass all these issues and provide the
degree of detail, which is appropriate in a textbook on integrated
planning. The overriding concern in developing the structure and
selecting the content is to provide material to support the
approaches developed in the Better Practice Guide. Although the
document is based on research, it is not a research monograph.
Its purpose is to provide practitioners with sufficient

Glossary of terms Impact - the effects of transport and traffic on adjoining land use and
quality of the environment
Internal stakeholders - those agencies with a responsibility for, or a

Access management - the process of controlling the interface role in, policy formulation and implementation.
between a traffic carriageway and the adjacent land, to provide
for adequate interaction between them, while protecting the utility Key regional centres - centres with a significant employment and
and amenity of both. commercial function, attracting a large number of visitors and
served by high-quality public transport and road access.
Accessibility profile- an account of a location’s proximity to public
transport, its accessibility to major roads, and its parking facilities Mobility profile - expresses the characteristics of businesses and
or limitations. The accessibility profile of a location is determined services in respect of their transport needs.
both by its infrastructure and by policies regarding the use of the
Precincts - areas with a cohesion and quality which allow activities
within them to function in an environment which has an intrinsic
Core/frame - the core represents the area of greatest pedestrian amenity and unifying quality. Precincts may be residential areas,
activity in a centre; the frame is the area surrounding the core commercial centres, campuses, institutions and many other land-
where there is a direct association with the core but a greater use associations.
vehicle orientation.
Traffic calming - the process of developing and implementing an
Corridors - comprises transport routes and the adjoining land and acceptable relationship between traffic and the local
development. environment, and setting priorities for different road and street
users.
Environmental traffic capacity - the limit to the impact of traffic (and,
by implication, the amount of traffic, the type and speed of Transit centres - centres built around, and integrated with, a station or
vehicles, and the behaviour of drivers) that is compatible with the major public transport node, comprising a mix of land uses with a
types and levels of environmental criteria appropriate for a given significant residential component.
type of area.
Type I corridors - primary transport routes and their environments,
External stakeholders - groups and individuals who are affected by where the through- transport function is dominant and adjoining
the outcome of proposals as users or as owners, occupiers and areas are planned, designed and managed to reduce or
community groups. eliminate friction and impact.
Friction - impedance to the transport function of the road; attributed to Type II corridors - secondary transport routes and their environments,
frontage-related activities or to road design and management. where both the transport function and frontage function are
important.

Chapter 1 Introduction •
managed together;
decisions are based on a consideration of all resources
(physical, human, economic and financial);
• actions of the public and private sector are

complementary and not in conflict;
• actions between different spheres of government and

between institutions/ agencies are designed to achieve
1.1 PURPOSE agreed outcomes;
The purpose of this Resource Document is to present an • objectives and programs of government are developed in
overview of the relationship between road, land use and consultation with the community, are understood and have
environmental planning. It explores the many interconnected broad support; and
issues which exist, and examines the scope and opportunities for
greater integration. The Resource Document provides the • different professional disciplines solve problems as teams.
rationale for the companion document: A Guide to Better
Practice: Integrating Land Use, Transport and the Environment. The central issue of this study is how greater integration in land
use, transport and environmental planning can be achieved.
This chapter explains the background to, and focus of, the
Resource Document. It identifies the purpose and scope of the
1.3 BACKGROUND
study, clarifies the approach taken and outlines the structure of
the report.
1.3.1 APPROACHES
1.2 A FOCUS ON INTEGRATION Land-use and transport planning
The focus of this study and the Better Practice Guide (hereafter The relationship between land use and transport planning has its
called the guide) is on integration. genesis in the 1950’s, when models were developed and applied
Integration implies a concern with the whole, agreement on in the USA. These models were used to predict the impact of
common outcomes, and a commitment to actions and targets to land-use changes on transport networks, based on growth in
achieve these outcomes. Integration is more than co-ordination, private vehicle ownership and demand for travel. These models
which still allows different outcomes to be pursued. have been used in all major Australian cities and towns (Black,
Greater integration can ensure that: 1975; Duhs and Beggs, 1977), and form the backbone of land
use/transport planning today.
• land use, transport and the environment are planned and

Despite considerable advances in modelling techniques and addressed. Some of the preliminary findings will be reviewed in
more recent computer-aided application, there are still many Chapter 2.
unknowns. Different models can produce vastly different results
(Webster and Paulley, 1990). This discrepancy is partly due to 1.3.2 RELEVANT DOCUMENTS
the fact that societies are complex and dynamic, and that most
models used are aggregate models, which do not reflect the Strategic Transportation Planning
significant differences in individual households. Models based on
travel behaviour of individual households and business One of the findings was the need for guidelines for integrated
enterprises perform better for smaller urban areas. However, all processes, and in 1996 another Austroads project was
models used for prediction face the problem of making commenced on Strategic Transportation Planning. A working
assumptions on social or technological changes and their impact group was formed, which produced a final draft Principles for
on travel behaviour. Strategic Planning - Transport planning in context (Austroads,
1998). Although prepared predominantly with a transpor t
There is extensive literature on the relationship between orientation, the principles outlined are equally relevant to
transport and land-use planning, both theoretical and empirical. strategic planning processes, involving land use and other
As this study is not a research project, but an overview with the infrastructure.
aim of improving planning practice, readers interested in the
theoretical background are referred to the literature (e.g. Roads in the Community
Hutchinson, 1974; Black, 1981; and Davidson, 1993).
In 1995, Austroads commissioned a series of consultant reports
Integrated transport planning on Roads in the Community - are they doing their job?, which
were published in 1997 (Austroads, 1997). The reports address
Austroads has been aware of the need for integrated planning, the role of roads in urban and non-urban areas. The project
and commissioned a survey in 1993 (Integrated Transport report examined the state of the services provided by the nation’s
Planning Survey, 1994). The report covered the integration of the roads, the impact of roads on the economic, social and
various transport modes, and the integration of transport goals environmental well-being of the community, and whether roads
with land use and community goals. The study found that, are properly fulfilling their role and meeting community needs.
although significant improvements could be made, the quality of The report identifies areas for better practice in the planning,
transport planning was generally high. design, operation and management of roads, and indicates the
means of integrating roads into the broader transport, urban and
The report was followed up with a series of workshops on regional environment.
Transport/Land-use Interaction held throughout Australia and
New Zealand in 1995. The purpose of the workshops was to Integrated Local Area Planning
identify the key issues considered important in practice, and to
gain a better understanding as to how those issues might be The impor tance of integrated planning was highlighted in

Integrated Local Area Planning (ILAP), developed jointly by the Sharing the Main Street
Australian Local Government Association (ALGA) and the
Commonwealth Government, to promote a ‘whole of government, Sharing the Main Street was a joint initiative taken by the Federal
whole of community’ approach to strategic planning and program Office of Road Safety and the NSW Roads and Traffic Authority,
management at the local level. The guidelines were produced and which led to the publication in 1993 of practical guidelines for the
published in 1994. Funds were provided under the Commonwealth integration of transport, land use and the environment in centres
Government’s Building Better Cities Program. An outline of the along secondary traffic routes with significant pedestrian activity.
approach is given in Chapter 10. The objectives are to improve safety for all road users, maintain
transport functions, enhance business activity and create a more
Building Better Cities Program attractive environment (RTA, 1993). Details are provided in
Chapter 12.
The Building Better Cities Program was a major initiative, funded
by the Australian Government during the period 1992–1995, to Shaping up
improve integration between the three spheres of government,
local communities and the private sector in the planning and The Queensland Government produced a Guide in 1998 to
implementation of urban and regional infrastructure projects. A integrate transport, land use and urban design techniques under
wide range of projects were funded in all States with the aim of the title Shaping Up - Shaping urban communities to reduce car
achieving practical results within a relatively short time frame. dependency in Queensland.
AMCORD The document covers alternatives to car travel, urban and

regional planning, transport corridors, business and activity
AMCORD was started as a joint initiative in 1987 between the centres, public transport interchanges and residential areas.
three levels of government and the housing development industry Concepts and practical applications are presented in a clear and
(Joint Venture for More Affordable Housing). Key objectives were: attractive format, and are generally consistent with the Better
improved integration between public agencies and the Practice Guide (Qld Government, 1998).
development industry; and the promotion of innovative approaches
to the planning, design and development of residential areas. The Overseas guidelines
first version was published in 1989 as AMCORD - the Australian
Model Code for Residential Development, and the final version The most relevant example overseas is Planning Policy
was published in 1995 as AMCORD - a Resource for Residential Guidance 13, Transport (PPG 13) in the United Kingdom (UK
Planning and Development. Department of Environment, 1994). It establishes regional
planning parameters for local planning, and guidelines for a
AMCORD focuses on the practical application of principles in range of matters. There are incentives in the form of grants for
integrating land use, transport and the environment in residential projects which comply with the guidelines.
areas. It is now used throughout Australia.

1.4 AUSTROADS PROJECT RM38 are an important element of urban design. Transport systems
operate in an environment which needs protection. Yet there are
1.4.1 GENESIS inevitable tensions between providing for additional traffic
associated with urban growth and change. This puts further
All these reports and activities reflect an increasing realisation pressure on the environment.
that transpor t, land use and the environment cannot be
separated, and that greater integration in planning is needed. 1.4.2 OVERVIEW AND GUIDE TO BETTER PRACTICE
The notion that roads are provided to serve a given land-use
structure and transpor t demand is giving way to It is in this context that Austroads commissioned the preparation
a broader view, in which the performance of the land-use and of an overview of integrated land use and transport planning in
transpor t structure is seen in a socio-economic and 1995. A draft report was completed by mid-1996, which identified
environmental context. In other words, the objectives of road and significant interactions, reviewed the state of knowledge of these
land-use planning are derived from goals for urban areas relationships, indicated a range of planning pr inciples,
as a whole. summarised issues requiring clarification, and presented a
preliminary framework for integrated planning.
The transport system provides accessibility for all sections of the
community. The transport system is composed of several types of The report was distributed to participants at eight workshops and
networks serving different transport modes. There are different discussed. The outcome of these discussions indicated broad
land-use activities associated with these transport modes. Some support for the preparation of a Better Practice Guide.
transport modes serve the accessibility needs of particular land
uses better than others. Thus, there is an important link between Austroads then commissioned the preparation of such a Guide,
land-use activity and transport accessibility. and the first draft was completed by mid-1997. This, too, was
discussed at a series of workshops in Australia and New Zealand
There are also important links between different transport and suggestions were made how to improve it.
modes. This is evident not only in the location and type of
interchanges between modes, but also where the transport The final stage involved the revision and completion of the
reservation accommodates several transport modes. Roads Overview and the Better Practice Guide as two interlinked
provide a much more complex service than just for private documents, with the aim of publishing them during the second
vehicles: they carry the bulk of public transport passengers and half of 1998.
goods, pedestrians and cyclists. As transport space is being
used more intensively, difficult issues arise in relation to priority 1.4.3 A BROAD CANVAS
of use, and these can only be resolved by an integrated In this overview, the focus is on the interactions, planning
approach. principles and conceptual aspects. The overview provides the
framework and rationale for the Guide. The focus of the Better
Transport routes give structure to urban areas and regions and Practice Guide is on processes and applications.

Planning and implementation cannot be divorced
Social
Some aspects of integration involve planning principles and

policies; others have to do with implementation: the role of
organisations, funding and processes. As planning and
FUTURE implementation cannot be divorced, the integration of transport,
EXISTING
Land use land-use and environmental planning requires fresh answers as
Transport
Structure & to how such integration can be achieved in the context of the
Environment value systems of people and organisations.
1.4.4 KEY ISSUES

Economic Environment
The Austroads workshops, discussions with practitioners, a
Figure 1-1 Integration requires holistic approaches literature review and practical experience indicate that there are
a number of key issues:
• There is a widespread perception that planners and

decision-makers are not delivering cities and towns with a
better relationship between transport, land use and the
Integration within a broad context environment;
There are many facets arising from a broader view of transport • Some sections in the community do not trust the agenda
and land use in an environmental context. The fundamental and those who prepare it;
question is: what are we tr ying to achieve with greater
integration? • There are significant changes in society; there is
increasing understanding about the impact of traffic on the
The answer to this question depends on the context. In this environment, which is leading to shifting priorities in the
report, the focus is on the relationship between transport, land- role of transport and preservation of the quality of the
use and environmental planning. However, this cannot be environment;
divorced from issues related to economic, financial and human
resources; the complex web of stakeholders with different • There is not only a greater acceptance of the need for
agendas; organisations with different objectives; and political sustainable development, but an ongoing need for
perceptions. efficiency, equity and livability. The issue is how these
needs can be combined;

• There is a large existing infrastructure of land use and Transport and land-use planning and the future of our
transport at the national, regional, metropolitan and local communities
levels, and change, therefore, can only be incremental and
gradual; Transport and land-use planning lies at the core of what we want
our environment to be: how we want to live, work, find
• Roads and land use in the community require redefinition; satisfaction, and how we can be protected from adverse effects
and of living in large communities. This is not a technical activity
alone - it is intertwined with the values in society and must
• The need to set priorities with participation of the interact with them. Planning also means that we hand over a built
stakeholders. environment to the next generation on which they can build
further without having to resort to painful and costly surgery. All
The essence of transport and land-use planning this requires understanding of complex relationships, sensible
processes, sensitive management, sound technical knowledge,
• Transport and land-use planning is about setting common inter-disciplinary skill, and excellence in communication.
goals and desired outcomes, and developing the
technical, legal, and administrative implementation tools to 1.4.5 SCOPE
achieve them;
An overarching study
• Transport and land-use planning is about understanding
how the current system works, how it is changing, and The original purpose of the report, as set out in the brief, was to:
whether and where intervention may be necessary,
including its relationship with different modes of transport • undertake an overarching exploration of road and land-
and the location of land-use activities; use planning, which may provide the basis for the
development of national guidelines later;
• Transport and land-use planning is concerned with the
physical expression of the socio/ economic systems in • serve as a resource document for people seeking more
regions, cities and communities; and information on integrated planning;
• Much transport and land-use planning is about adaptation • address all levels of government; and
of the system, and changes will generally be small and
incremental. • cover the areas of responsibility of road and planning
authorities.

Roads within the wider context of transport long-term consequences of alternative choices and how they will
satisfy community goals and objectives; and presenting the
Roads are a subset of transport and include the provision for information to decision-makers in an understandable and useful
private and commercial vehicles, road-based public transport, form.
pedestr ians and cyclists. The scope was subsequently
broadened to include all forms of land transport, excluding Land use and environmental planning
pipelines.
Land-use planning can be defined in narrow or broad terms. In
Transport and land use include the environment narrow terms, it can be described as the process of managing
the use of land, including the intensity of use and the type of
The relationship between transport and land use cannot be activities associated with its use. However, it can also be defined
divorced from the physical and human environment, and the as the process of managing the physical environment, including
report attempts to encompass this. land-use activity, environmental management and urban design.
It is this more embracing definition which has been used in this
From regions to sites report.
The report addresses the relationship between road planning Road planning
and land-use planning in regions, urban areas, local areas and
well defined sites. Road planning is a subset of transport planning, because it is
impossible to address the relationship between land use and
National and inter-regional relationships road planning, without considering it in the broader context of
land use and transport planning.
The repor t does not cover national and inter-regional
relationships. Road planning can be defined as the planning, design and
management of networks and links in such networks, with due
1.4.6 DEFINITIONS regard for the two-way interaction with other modes of transport.
It also includes aspects related to the use of roads, including
Transport planning accessibility, traffic management, road safety, traffic
noise,drainage and air quality. Road planning is not confined to
Transpor t planning can be defined as the process of ‘main roads’; it includes the entire range from major transport
understanding the relationship between the transport system routes to local roads and access streets.
(and the elements within it) and the economic, social and
physical environment in which it operates. The process involves:
establishing desired outcomes and priorities; assessing
opportunities and limitations for action; identifying the short and

Integrated planning
SETTING THE CONTEXT
Integrated planning can be defined as the process of planning Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4
transport, land use and the environment on the basis of common
goals, objectives and desired outcomes. REGIONAL LOCAL CORRIDOR
1.4.7 APPROACH
Interactions Chapter 5 Chapter 8 Chapter 11
Emphasis on ideas
Planning
The purpose of this overview report is not to provide a detailed Chapter 6 Chapter 9 Chapter 12
principles
description of the relationship between transport and land-use
planning. Although based on research and experience, the report
is not a research monograph nor a comprehensive statement of Processes Chapter 7 Chapter 10 Chapter 13
accumulated experience It is a report, which presents ideas for
new and innovative approaches. It makes brief statements
(sometimes provocative) with brief commentaries.
A consistent, but selective, approach CONCLUSION

Chapter 14
The content has a consistent structure, but is unavoidably
selective and subjective. The approach followed is to: Figure 1-2 Structure of the Resource Document
• identify the interactions between transport and land use,

and between transport and the environment;
• gain an understanding of the context in which these

• indicate how they could be used in the development of
interactions operate;
practical guidelines; and
• develop planning principles and review their application in
• identify an agenda for policy and process development.
practice;
• formulate a framework for integration;
• suggest ideas for greater integration;

The overview is based on the perception that effectiveness Integrated regional planning
is strongly correlated with spheres and levels of
responsibility Chapter 5: Regional interactions
There is a strong technical basis for integrated transport and Chapter 6: Regional planning principles
land-use planning, but, as will be explained in the document, the
division of responsibilities amongst different agencies and a lack Chapter 7: Towards greater regional integration
of tools for integrated implementation are major impediments. For
Integrated local planning
this reason, the topic is divided into three main levels of
responsibility: regional level, local level and corridors, where Chapter 8: Local interactions
responsibilities are shared between different spheres and levels
of government. The rationale for this approach will be explained Chapter 9: Local planning principles
in Chapter 2.
Chapter 10: Towards greater local integration
This distinction has shaped the structure of the document (figure
1-2). Integrated corridor planning
It should be emphasised that there are many interactions Chapter 11: Corridor interactions
between these levels. These will be identified throughout the
document and addressed in the final chapter. Chapter 12: Corridor planning principles
1.4.8 STRUCTURE Chapter 13: Towards greater corridor integration
Structure of the overview Chapter 14: Conclusion
Setting the context Index
Chapter 1: Introduction Literature
Chapter 2: Current approaches and issues
Chapter 3: Developing a framework
Chapter 4: People, processes and institutions

Figure 1-3 One of the guidelines from `Shaping up - A guide to
the better practice and integration of transport, land use and
urban design techniques’, prepared by the Queensland
Government (1998). The Guide makes a valuable and practical
contribution to integrated planning, and should be regarded as a
complementary document to the Better Practice Guide and this
Resource Document.

Chapter 2 Current approaches the early part of this century transformed cities, because of the
accessibility they provided. ‘New towns’ developed around
and issues stations and enabled people to travel further distances to work;
housing and employment became separated. Accessibility to
transport was the principal location criterion, and the radial
pattern of railways determined urban structure, form and density.
With the advent of the motor car, accessibility to railways and
tramways was no longer a constraint and a dispersed, low-
density settlement pattern evolved, which was superimposed on
2.1 INTRODUCTION
the traditional radial structure.
This chapter gives an overview of the context in which transport
The frenzy of rail construction was followed by a similar activity in
and land-use planning operates. It looks at transport, land use
the ’sixties and ’seventies in road constr uction. It was
and environmental planning in an historical perspective,
accompanied by major urban expansion and relocation of land
describes current approaches and interprets their effectiveness.
uses.
2.2 TRANSPORT, LAND USE AND Where people live, work, do business and engage in the myriad
ENVIRONMENTAL PLANNING IN PERSPECTIVE of other activities has always been based on accessibility. The
transport modes available determined the density, location and
2.2.1 THE DEVELOPMENT OF CITIES spacing of settlements. Walking distances, horse-driven
carriages and, later, rail were the determinants of urban form and
Cities and towns have always developed as entities, in which structure, until the motor car made dispersal of housing and
land use and transport were intricately interlinked. From earliest activities possible.
times, when people settled in communities, paths, tracks and
roads, however rough, have been essential to provide With continuing dispersed growth and increased availability and
accessibility, to foster social interaction and promote economic use of cars, congestion, delay, pollution and parking restrictions
activity. As settlements grew, the function of roads and land use became daily occurrences. Impact on the environment,
became more diverse. Some roads became more important for pedestrian safety, community cohesion, traffic noise and loss in
movement, with the transport mode changing over time, while property values are of increasing concern to the community.
other roads and streets provided mainly access to dwellings and Funds are no longer available to provide for the unrestrained
sites for a wide range of activities. The more accessible sites demand for car movement, and many communities are expecting
changed use, or were redeveloped, for more intensive use, governments to come up with solutions which reduce the impact
attracting more traffic and causing congestion. of traffic on their lives.
The development of railways in the last century and tramways in The use of the road space has also evolved. From early days,

roads and streets have provided a convenient location for utility Hall (1995): ‘Just as we wonder why people lived happily above
services and the parking of carriages. Streets and their frontages cesspits and consumed cholera-ridden water, so in 50 years’
were used for the exchange of goods and social interaction, time people will wonder why we were willing to expose ourselves
while roads and other spaces were used for ceremonial and to the perils of automobile pollution . . . We made a Faustian
festive occasions, and the setting for major public buildings. bargain with the car. Now the bill is coming in, but, like people
deranged, we do not know how to face the reality’.
These functions of roads are as valid today as they were in the
past. Good urban roads make cities and towns work better in Communities are asking whether the weight given to satisfy the
economic and social terms. They give structure and form, a ever-growing demand for vehicular travel should be at the
sense of place and direction, create opportunities for activity and expense of preserving the quality of their cities and towns. Is
social interaction, and provide access to sites and space for the providing more roads the answer? Can the demand for travel be
location of services. reduced? Can the growth of cities be curtailed? Can changes in
land use and density create more efficient and sustainable
However, cities and towns are not static entities: growth and cities? If so, how can it be achieved? Can better use be made of
change have put pressure on existing roads and the communities existing roads without causing environmental damage and
they serve. Roads, which provided access to local communities, severing communities? In short, how can cities and towns be
have become through-traffic routes. Main streets, with active adapted to accommodate the needs of the urban community for
retail and community functions and serving as seams in the movement and amenities? Or do we need to change the way we
community fabric, have become barriers. Higher speeds, live and move?
increased traffic volumes, heavy vehicles, traffic lights, parking
and loading restrictions are changing their original function. This overview report will explore these issues in later chapters,
but if we knew the answers to them, there is a further set of
Roads once distinguished for their urban design quality have questions. Do we have the financial resources and the
become channels for air and noise pollution, and advertising mechanisms for sustained implementation over the long period
avenues for passing traffic. A multiplicity of direction and necessary to adapt existing cities and towns? Which trade offs
advertising signs vie for attention, and overhead services are involved? ‘People want cars because they provide them with
conceal the landmarks and facades, which earlier provided a lifestyle and a degree of freedom they want’ ( Dr Graham
enjoyment, recognition and distinction. Pearman, Director of CSIRO Division of Atmospheric Research,
SMH 26.11.97). Could the values of the community change and
2.2.2 SOME PERTINENT QUESTIONS would they accept changes in lifestyle? Would they accept the
degree of intervention, which may be necessary to make
The integration of transpor t, land use and environmental progress towards a more sustainable and desired future?
planning has become much more than a technical issue. It
touches the heart of our communities and the lifestyle we choose
for the future. The dilemma we face is aptly summed up by Peter

2.2.3 A NATIONAL AGENDA It is this national agenda which has influenced the approach to
this Resource Document.
These and other questions have become of increasing
importance, as evidence of the impact of continuing urban 2.2.4 THE EVOLVING ROLE OF PLANNING
growth and regional development on the functioning and future
well-being of society is mounting. The current interest in The role of planning
sustainable development and reducing greenhouse emissions is
not a passing fad, but a reflection of a need for fundamental The role of planning is assisting government and the community
change. Application of the principles of sustainable development to articulate needs, identify interactions, suggest ways, in which
has become a matter of national and international concern, and needs can be met and decisions made, establish criteria for
greatly influences the approach to the development and development and monitor performance. Planning is an ongoing
adaptation of regions, cities and towns. process of setting objectives, exposing connections, presenting
alternatives and their likely consequences, and making choices
Although there has been an emphasis on ecologically about strategies, policies, projects and developments.
sustainable development, it is recognised that there are also It is the process of managing change of urban and regional
social, economic and financial dimensions to the concept of communities.
sustainability. They raise fundamental issues, such as: how to
manage demand and supply; how to deal with short and long- How transport planning evolved
term externalities and with intergenerational equity; how to
establish the trade offs between development and conservation; Transport planning evolved from anticipating transport demand
and which are priorities with limited resources. These issues are based on the type and distribution of land-use activities, and by
no longer academic: they go to the core of planning and the developing networks consisting of nodes and links, designed to
choices we make. accommodate it. Assumptions on transport demand were based
on a range of factors, such as car ownership and use, and
The integration of transpor t, land use and environmental changes in land-use patterns.
planning thus becomes a matter of collective concern. An
integrated approach is inevitable, because it is no longer possible In recent times, transport planning has become more responsive
to address these fundamental issues on a sector ial or to the concerns about the impact of traffic on the community. It
fragmented basis. There is growing acceptance of this approach. now includes measures to reduce the demand for transport and
For example, the objectives of the Tasmanian State Policies and shift travel by car to a range of transport modes. Roads are no
Projects Act 1993 have a specific focus on sustainable longer seen as traffic routes for private and commercial vehicles,
development, and integrated land-use and transport planning is but as multi-modal routes providing a wide range of transport
one of the cornerstones in policy development under the Act functions. Roads and streets are distinguished by function and in
(Tasmanian Department of Transport, undated, 1994?). the relationship with their environment. Traffic management to
facilitate flow on some routes is accompanied by traffic calming

in others. Transport planning is now recognised as part of a impacts of frontage land use for the first NAASRA Guidelines to
broader planning and environmental context. Traffic Engineering. More recently, these controls became more
refined (e.g. SEPP 11 in NSW), and investigations were carried
How land-use planning evolved out to better understand the relationship between roads and
adjoining land use (see Chapter 11).
Land-use planning has also broadened from a preoccupation
with allocating and controlling land use through zoning, to a The relationship between transport and the environment also
greater awareness of the social, economic and environmental evolved from Buchanan’s Traffic in Towns in the ’sixties, to local
aspects of land-use activities. There has been a shift from area traffic management (and now traffic calming) in the
prescriptive regulation to performance-based approaches in ’seventies. More recently, in Sharing the Main Street, it is
land-use control. Planning practice has embraced strategic proposed that the function of roads and streets is adapted to the
planning as an essential precursor to development and needs of the local environment. The requirements for
operational planning. Consideration of environmental factors has Environmental Impact Statements and Statements of
become a major component of land-use planning. Environmental Effects have reinforced the link between transport
and the environment.
How the relationship between them evolved
The convergence of transport and land-use planning
Land use was recognised as the starting point in transport
planning in the 1950s. It was realised that land use generated There is ample evidence that both transport and land-use
trips, the location of land-use activities influenced the trip planning not only have become more broadly based, but are also
distribution, and that the transport networks determined the converging. It is clear, that it is not a two- but a three-way
mode of travel. Mathematical models were developed for relationship, in which the environment is one of the three
planning purposes, and used extensively at metropolitan and cornerstones.
sub-regional levels. The fact that there was also a reverse
relationship - the accessibility which the transport networks A changing context
provided influenced land-use decisions - became accepted in the
’sixties, and models were developed to predict it (e.g. Lowry The context of transport and land-use planning has always
model). depended on:
The relationship between transport and land-use planning also • societal values;
operates at the micro level. The former NSW Department of Main
Roads investigated frontage land use along main roads as early • the performance of the land use and transport system;
as 1948. Access controls to protect main roads were introduced
in many States in the ’fifties, and are now being revisited. • perception of the problems associated with it;
Blunden, in 1966, developed the basis for controlling the traffic

• leadership in addressing the problems; However, there are also many aspects where the relationships are
unclear (e.g. the impact of telecommunications technology on
• desired outcomes and the degree of intervention the location, behaviour and trip making).
community and its government were willing to accept in
achieving them; and The development of models
• how the partnership with the private sector was viewed. Models have been developed to express some of these
interactions so that they can be used for investigation and policy
All these factors are continually changing, and the views on the development.
role planning should play today are different from those in the
past. These views are contingent on knowledge, public In relation to the interaction between land use and transport,
understanding and community values about priorities and trade- existing relationships are calibrated and used for predicting the
offs. Increased awareness of the changes in the planning context consequences of land use and network changes. Aggregated
and the expectation of the community to have a say, have led to models, which use census collectors’ districts or their aggregation
a significant shift towards public involvement in both transport into traffic zones, became widely used in the ’50s in the USA and
and land-use planning (see Chapter 4). ’60s in Australia. They have been used ever since, with increasing
degrees of refinement. Disaggregated models, which start at the
2.3 DEVELOPMENT OF INTEGRATED APPROACHES household level and take account of individual behaviour, were
also developed, but are not so widely used, other than for
2.3.1 PROGRESS TOWARDS INTEGRATED APPROACHES examining mode choice. The relationship between accessibility
and activity has also been expressed in model form, but is not yet
An expanding knowledge base widely used.
There has been considerable development in the understanding of Models have been developed for predicting traffic noise and motor
the relationships between transport, land use and the environment. vehicle emissions, and the impact of local area traffic
For example, the changes in household formation, residential management. In all these cases, computer technology has
development, the nature and location of employment, work considerably extended the scope for application.
practices and their consequences in travel demand are now well
understood (e.g. Austroads [Roads in the Community], 1997). However, there are other interactions, which have not been
developed to the point where they can be used for policy
Similarly, the role of goods movement and the association between development. This applies to areas such as the utilisation of
land use and freight are also better understood, and significant transport space for different transport modes and the relationship
advances are being made in knowledge about the environmental between transport corridors and adjoining land use (see Chapter
effects of transport (e.g. Hayashi et al. 1994). 11).

Increased awareness of the need for better management been a marked shift towards more integration in planning.
While understanding of the relationships in most of these areas However, there are many areas where further improvements
has developed, increased knowledge also underscores their are possible. One of these is an integrated approach towards
complexity and the increasing difficulty in managing cities and the planning and development of transport corridors.
towns through traditional and separate processes. The need for
integrated approaches is generally accepted, but the Requirements for greater exposure
complexity of managing the many issues is generally not
understood. In most land-use planning activity, there is a requirement for
There is still a widespread perception of ‘quick fixes’ in the public exhibition of draft planning instruments. In transport
community. It will become apparent in later chapters that there planning, requirements for the preparation and publication of
are few quick fixes, and more fundamental changes in direction Environmental Impact Statements came into force in the ’70s,
will be required. which allowed for public comment on the draft statement. In
some States, the problems associated with the project
Application emphasis of EIS led to the introduction of more broadly based
Strategic Impact and Environmental Effects Statements (or
Integrated approaches are currently being pursued at regional, similar) as precursors to the formulation of a project.
urban and local levels through strategic planning and a wide
range of policies and programs. All major cities have integrated This increased exposure does not necessar ily mean
strategies in some form. The degree, in which the interactions community participation. During the last few years there has
between transpor t, land use and the environment are been a notable shift towards more active participation of the
recognised, depends on when and how the plans were stakeholders in the process of plan and policy development.
prepared, and on the kind of objectives being pursued (e.g. The involvement of stakeholders has made planning more
Adelaide Vision 2020; SE Queensland, Integrated Transport accountable to public scrutiny and may, in the longer term, lead
Strategy). to a greater understanding of trade-offs and changes in values
(Brewer et al, 1993).
Integrated planning strategies at local levels are becoming
more common, since State Governments have introduced 2.3.2 COMMUNITY VIEWS AND EXPECTATIONS
statutory requirements or regulations, which require local
authorities to prepare strategic plans as a part of conventional Community concerns
planning control (e.g. Integrated Planning Act in
Queensland).The Commonwealth, through its Better Cities In respect of road planning, the community is concerned with
Program, ILAP, AMCORD and Regional Development Program, road safety, traffic calming, heavy vehicles on urban roads, road
stimulated integrated approaches towards the planning and improvement and maintenance, environmental impacts,
development of urban areas. As a result, there has recently especially traffic noise and air quality (NSW Roads and Traffic

Authority, 1994; NRMA, 1995; Robertson, 1995). People, who Community views on integrated land use and transport
may be affected by road proposals, are concerned about the planning
impact of traffic on their quality of life and about compensation
(Queensland Transport [Brisbane Inner Suburbs Transport An intensive program of community consultation was carried out
Study], 1995). In respect of land-use planning, people are by the NSW Department of Planning in connections with its
concerned about amenity, safety and security, and convenient proposed metropolitan strategy. The apparent lack of integration
access to services and facilities (AMCORD, 1995). between land-use planning and transport was the most-often
cited example of the failure of urban management (NSW
Community expectations Department of Urban Affairs and Planning [Cities for the 21st
Century], 1995). There was clearly cynicism about long-term
Community expectations are never homogeneous and they are government commitment, allegedly based on past failure to
always changing. One group of expectations is expressed in the sustain a long-term view in metropolitan planning (NSW
following extract from a far-reaching study in 1991: Department of Urban Affairs and Planning, 1995).
‘The urban community expects provision of road and transport Another major consultation program in connection with the
capacity to meet its operational “needs”, which may be less than Integrated Regional Transport Plan in SE Queensland found that,
its ultimate “wants”. Decisions on network development since the in relation to land-use and transport planning, closer links should
early ’70s have shown that road space cannot be provided to be established between residential areas, employment centres
meet all our wants and that we must be prepared to tolerate a and human services, which need to be supported by public
degree of congestion, associated with a “balanced” or more transpor t. The focus of planning should be around a
modest infrastructure. Locations of severe congestion are predetermined hierarchy of centres, and more attention should
expected to be “fixed” on a spot basis. At the same time, there is be paid to environmental health issues in planning transport
an expectation of free choice between private and public infrastructure (Consultation Report, Appendix to IRTP Report,
transport, and an expectation that all locations should be 1995).
accessible by private transport without excessive congestion,
and that on-street parking should be available free of charge 2.3.3 PROFESSIONAL VIEWS AND EXPECTATIONS
outside the main centres’ (NSW Roads and Traffic Authority
[Road Transport Future Directions], 1991). Austroads commissioned a survey of all Australian States and
Territories and New Zealand to identify (i) the key factors
There is also another group of expectations held by those who influencing the direction of transpor t planning, (ii) issues
believe that accessibility by public transport and other non-car impacting on agencies’ ability to deliver effective and relevant
based modes should be the starting point of integrated planning planning services, and (iii) where Austroads could contribute to
(see, for example, Transport planning is at the cross roads, an improvement in transport planning within Australia (Austroads,
Conservation Council, ACT, 1997). 1994). The findings were as follows.

Direction and priority setting • Sponsor a conference session on transport/land use
interactions.
• Develop principles and processes for integrated transport
studies and the development of transport strategies and • Review Austroads communication methods, and test their
policies. effectiveness in communicating with external groups and
policy makers.
• Review the feasibility of testing Australian planning
processes against world-best practice. In 1995 Austroads conducted a series of workshops in Australia
and New Zealand to ascertain the views of professional people
Co-ordination involved in road and land-use planning. The following summary
expresses their views:
• Identify ways of improving the understanding and
integration of transport-related planning between local Issues related to objectives and outcomes
government and transport authorities.
• Review of the purpose of road and land-use planning.
Evaluation
• Shift from outputs to outcomes; from single aspects to
• Develop mechanisms for use by member organisations on cumulative effects.
the integrated evaluation of strategies, programs and
projects. • Sustainable development and the need for holistic
approaches.
• Establish an Austroads transport modelling group to share
modelling expertise and identify national model Issues related to principles and planning policies
development priorities.
• Impacts of mega trends; the big changes, which will
Monitoring influence cities and the land use and movement within
them.
• Use knowledge of community needs, derived from
planning studies to provide input into the development of • The role of lifestyle in determining appropriate and
outcome-based performance measures. acceptable urban forms and transport systems.
• Differences between cities, within cities, towns and rural
Understanding and communication communities.
• Seek opportunities in professional and non-professional • Place of freight planning.

forums to discuss transport-related planning issues.

• Role of roads and the allocation of road space. • Making sure that the costs used in assessment and
evaluation are transparent; finding ways to include
Issues related to research and techniques monetary as well as non-monetary values in assessment
and evaluation.
• Data, information, consistency; information transfer.
• The need for processes to reflect different types of
• Increased understanding of relationships; the dynamics of planning.
change and limitations of prediction; the problem of
secondary and tertiary impacts. Issues related to management
• Land-use/transport models and consistency; how they • The philosophical approach to planning and management:
deal with long and short-term prediction; the scope and incremental, objective, evolutionary or visionary planning?
limitation of prediction; application of models in different Do we lead or follow?
situations.
• Role of planning; value of planning in the political context;
• Tools and performance indicators to measure and the need for intervention for effective integrated planning
evaluate outcomes. (as distinct from forecasting), but what is an acceptable
level and form of intervention?
• Increased understanding of conflict in organisational
structures and cultures; how groups with different • The influence of public and private sector decisions.
backgrounds interact and identify.
• The role of government and private sector.
Issues related to process • Understanding political cycles and horizons.
• Need for more integration between transport and planning • Who pays what? Public sector and/or private sector
processes; include multi-modal options. investment funding and influence on planning; user-pays
principle in transport systems; development contributions
• Recognition of the diverse interests of the stakeholders in land-use systems.
and the need for trade offs.
• Making infrastructure funding more transparent.
• The need to include multiple objectives in evaluation
processes. • Status of road funding vis-à-vis funding for other
infrastructure.

• Improving communication between and among planners,
decision-makers and the community.
• Consistency of regulations and legislation; eliminating
legislation which inhibits sensible solutions.
• Adopting an adequate time frame for evaluation.
• Resources and skills.
This list is a comprehensive outline of the scope, which the

Resource Document and the Better Practice Guide attempt to
cover. But how can it be given structure?
This is the topic for the next chapter.

Chapter 3 Developing between different levels of government.
a framework Co-ordination, but not integration
There are mechanisms for co-ordination and these are widely

used. Integration, however, goes much further. It involves
common objectives and specific programs (including funding)
designed to achieve them. Co-ordination alone does not
3.1 INTRODUCTION guarantee this. The growing interest in integrated transport
planning (e.g. Integrated Transpor t Strategy in Sydney,
This chapter presents an outline of a framework for integrated Melbourne, Perth, Auckland and Brisbane) is encouraging, but
planning. It starts with an interpretation of issues and values, the institutional emphasis so far appears to be more on co-
which influence the approach towards integrated planning. It then ordination of the diverse interests than on achieving integrated
identifies matters to be taken into account in developing a outcomes.
process for integrated planning. The final section examines the
requirements for a framework for the Better Practice Guide. It This may be changing. The Integrated Transport Strategy for the
highlights three sets of interactions between land use, transport SE Queensland region, for example, represents a significant step
and the environment, and three areas of application: regional forward. But even where outcomes are clearly identified and
areas, local areas and transport corridors. accepted, the level of transport management is not matched by
the level of land-use management. This is partly due to the fact
3.2 INTERPRETATION that land-use management is largely under the control of local
government and, par tly, because development is generally
3.2.1 BARRIERS TO INTEGRATED PLANNING ‘market led’. Clear political objectives, different organisational
structures and partnerships with the private sector may be
There is no single point of responsibility for transport and needed to achieve integrated land-use/transport outcomes.
land-use planning
A lack of clarity between levels of government
In transpor t planning, there are separate organisations
responsible for the planning of roads, rail, public transport and There is a lack of clarity about responsibilities for transport and
parking. In land-use planning, there are clear divisions of land-use planning between different levels of government. For
responsibility between State and local governments. There is example, parking is a major element in an integrated regional
generally no single agency responsible for integrated policies activity and accessibility policy, yet it is the responsibility of local
and outcomes. There is no single point for determining desired government. In adjoining inner northern suburbs in Sydney,
outcomes and measuring the performance to achieve them. This parking standards range from severe restraint to undue
applies to all spheres of government, and to the relationship generosity. ‘When the actions of one jurisdiction impact on

another [jurisdiction] or the public, there must be a process for transport and land-use planning. The 3–4 year cycle of elections,
coordination, planning and decision-making’ (Transportation combined with the annual budget process, is not conducive to
Policy Plan for Washington State, 1995). In order to achieve this, rational long-term planning and to a proper integration of
it will be necessary to ‘develop an institutional framework for transport and land-use functions.
transportation that ... facilitates inter jurisdictional and regional
coordination ... integrates land-use planning and transportation Funding is not integrated either
planning’.
Funding is a key issue. ‘There is little evidence of state initiatives
Who drives the tram? to integrate the allocation of funds across agencies in support of
development strategies. Some attempts have been made to co-
In the UK, integrated planning policies were introduced in 1994 ordinate agency initiatives but generally funds are allocated by
(UK Department of Environment/Transport [Planning Policy mode, with projects justified within an agency budget’ (Austroads
Guideline Note 13], 1994). The policy was designed to reduce [Integrated Transpor t Planning Survey], 1994). Funds for
the growth in length and number of motorised journeys, expenditure on land development and transport are divided
encourage alternative means of travel and reduce reliance on the between the public and private sector, while funds within the
private car (further information is provided in the Guide, Part C). transport arena are controlled by the body responsible for
The implementation of the policy depends on local government, providing and operating that infrastructure.
but the National Government provides the leadership and
incentives (for example, through targeted grants). It is difficult to shift the allocation of funds from one agency and
one level of government to another. Divided responsibilities
This does not mean it is a smooth ride. Studies show that there between the public and private sectors in respect of land use and
are different agendas, perceptions and priorities at the coal face. land development are a barrier to integrated funding, except in
In particular, the development industry resists policies, which are the case of joint ventures. Public transport fares are usually
seen as going against the ‘grain’ of the market (UK Department hypothecated, while only in some cases are road funds
of the Environment/Department of Transport, 1995). guaranteed by secured sources, such as fuel taxes (e.g. NSW
‘3x3’ programs, which are funded from fuel taxes).
It is interesting to note that the Departments of Transport and the
Environment have now been merged and that the new Lack of balance in the management of planning
Department is responsible to the Deputy Prime Minister. Greater
integration is seen as a key political issue. An appropriate balance needs to be reached between the
provision of major infrastructure (such as roads and railways)
Long-term versus short-term planning and general land-use changes, taking into account short and
long-term implications. Integrated planning between road,
In general, the short-term planning horizons of government tend transport, land use and environmental agencies is of paramount
to reinforce the institutional and funding problems of integrated importance to achieving such a balance in the management of

planning. It is a key issue in addressing matters related to safety, but insensitive to environmental concerns and mean in
sustainable development and reducing car dependence. respect of compensation.
There is a gap between policy development and application There is a mistrust amongst some community groups about
intentions: road authorities are seen to cater for traffic and private
Although a great deal of work has been done in the area of vehicles ‘because that is their charter’. Planning is dominated by
integrated land use and transport planning, there is a gap engineering considerations, it is argued, and not by the broader
between policy development and application. Policies and needs of the community. As a result, a proposal to consider
guidelines are used as instruments of change, but they do not improving a road link, such as a motorway in established areas,
necessarily lead to widespread application in practice. The often leads to trench warfare with local communities.
central question here is not what is to be achieved, but how it can
be done. The explanation offered for this lack of realisation is Simplistic community perceptions
often that it is the consequence of inadequate resources,
inadequate control of implementation and insufficient explanation There is a general awareness in the community about the impact
of the policies to those responsible for execution. of traffic on the environment, but little understanding of the
interactions. For example, there appears to be a high level of
However, this explanation may be inadequate. More fundamental public acceptance that public transport in the larger cities should
explanations are required for the lack of success in the be improved. There is also a widespread perception that funding
application of integrated land-use and transport policies (van der and education hold the key. However, funding and education
Heijden, 1995). alone are unlikely to achieve the results expected. There are
impor tant links with urban densities, urban structure and
Scepticism of delivering integrated planning lifestyles, which do not appear to be understood.
The community does not feel that decisions concerning land use Likewise, there is a perception that increasing the capacity of
and transport are integrated. There is scepticism in relation to roads will only attract more traffic. There is generally not an
road planning agencies and land-use planning agencies to appreciation of the many functions and roles of roads.
deliver integrated outcomes. This may be justified, as there are
constraints in controlling the land-use/transport system. For Recognition of constraints
example, land-use planning sets the parameters for private
development decisions, which, in turn, are based on market Just as there are simplistic perceptions about solutions, there are
conditions. also unrealistic notions about constraints. There is vast capital
investment in infrastructure and buildings in established urban
There is also scepticism as to the ability of planning by road areas. Much of it will remain in place for decades, if not for half a
authorities Road authorities are perceived to be good in road century or more. Infrastructure and land-use changes will
design and construction, fixing black spots and addressing road generally be incremental and small in scale, compared with the

existing investment. Much private investment is driven by market 15 Travel Blending for an example of such an approach).
forces and there are costs associated with intervention. This is However, the complexity of urban systems requires complex
not an argument for laissez-faire or narrow ‘realistic’ visions, but a system of urban management.
caution against adopting wish-lists without prospects of
implementation. 3.2.2 VALUES
The problem of complexity Much integrated planning has to do with values Special interest
groups, who want to see changes in urban systems, often claim
Cities are the most complex human systems, which exist and can that governments do not do enough. That claim may be justified,
be regarded as self-organising systems (Rooney, 1998). Rooney but fails to recognise that governments are constrained by the
describes the characteristics of a self-organising system. It: degree of community acceptance of the policies and
consequences involved. Thus there is a gap between what
• is open to its environment; governments realise is required, and what they believe they
actually can do. A shift in values is needed. Greater attention in
• can take up a spatio-temporal structure and maintain it in two-way communication and co-ownership in the development of
far from equilibrium conditions; land use and transport policies are required before there can be
widespread acceptance of them. Thorough analysis of complex
• can create or invent new ways of relating and behaving problems, maturing of policy approaches and presentation in a
(‘emergence’); and form where there can be informed debate should be precursors
before policies are decided (Woltjer, 1995).
• the numerous parts are interconnected in a non-linear
fashion by a complex network of feedback loops. Integrated planning must be rooted in the values of the
society
Rooney (and others) conclude that, given the complexity of such
systems, and the number of parts involved, there is no way to There is a critical need to establish where planning is headed in
establish casual relationships between them. ‘We have tended to modern politics and public decision making, and the way in which
operate from a mechanical model of the world rather than the agencies consult and communicate with the stakeholders.
recognising that we are dealing with a living (self-organising) Integrated land-use and transport planning cannot operate as the
system’. For example, ‘our attempts to change behaviour have exclusive territory of any agency; it must be rooted in the values
been based on a model of directing (or coercing) people by of society and interact with it. But these values cannot be taken
legislation or exhorting people to change without giving them the for granted, because the needs of society are continually
requisite information.’ changing and new trade-offs will be required.
There are approaches which provide people with feedback and

which can lead to behavioural changes (see the guide, Part C, R-

Collective learning and selective decision with the and accepted?
community
The balance between market-led and plan-led approaches
Planners, engineers and other urban professionals must be towards integration ultimately centres on values. On the one
aware of the changes which are occurring in cities and regions hand, there is political support for more market-led initiatives and
and understand how they affect land use, transport and the infrastructure investment with private funds, which support short-
environment. Yet they cannot leave it there. They must make range incremental planning. On the other hand, there is
them explicit to the stakeholders and decision-makers, and increasing community dissatisfaction, especially as cities become
involve them in finding solutions. larger, with the outcomes of incremental decisions. The impact of
traffic on local communities, new understandings of regional
Democracy ‘is as much about process as it is about outcomes. If disbenefits of market- driven urban structures and international
you want to be a leader you do have to make eye contact - all the pressures for more sustainable environments, suggest more
time’ (Max Walsh in the Sun Herald 3.3.1996). Leaders must intervention. However, little progress in these areas will be
come up with ideas how these interactions can be addressed, made, unless there is a shift in understanding and community
but present them as options (with their expected outcomes) to values.
the stakeholders. They must then involve the stakeholders in
defining longer-term strategies and priorities for shorter- term
action. They must identify the intervention necessary to pursue
the strategies and priorities, and gain community - and hence The philosophical basis of integrated planning
political - support for them. Scepticism and trench warfare can
then be replaced with strategic planning and transparent The philosophical basis of integrated land-use and
consultation. Where conflict remains - and there always will be - transport planning, therefore, is one in which the kind and
the final and political decision will have to be made by level of inter vention is derived from a collective
government. understanding of the issues involved, the constraints, the
options available and the consequences, and a political
Understanding and acceptance of trade-offs. judgment about the preferred course of action. Hence, the
process and the management of integrated planning are of
While simplistic notions and scepticism can be addressed by crucial importance. The technical basis and leadership
providing better information and using more appropriate must be provided by the land-use and transport planning
processes, a critical element in achieving greater integration agencies, but the objectives, desired outcomes and
depends on the recognition and acceptance of the trade-offs. acceptance of the application of the tools to achieve the
These could well include a need for changes in lifestyle and outcomes must come from community understanding and
behaviour, and changes in the way decisions are made in support, and, finally, from the political system.
relation to infrastructure and development investment. A critical
question is how much, and what kind of, intervention is needed

3.3 A FRAMEWORK Prerequisites for an outcomes-based process
FOR AN INTEGRATED PROCESS
The prerequisites for the process are:
3.3.1 PREREQUISITES
• defining desired outcomes;
This brief interpretation of the context suggests that there are
some important issues, which need to be taken into account in • establishing an appropriate institutional framework;
the development of a process for integrated planning .
• understanding the forces at work and their consequences;
An outcome-based process
• exploring with the stakeholders where intervention is
Integrated planning must enhance the opportunities for creating needed and accepted;
and adapting more sustainable regions, cities and towns, but
without the tools, political will and appropriate management • identifying the scope for intervention and the opportunities
structures not much will be achieved. This is recognised in the and constraints;
Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act 1991 in the
United States (ISTEA), which provides a useful set of reference • exploring options and their consequences with the
criteria for better policy and practice. They are: stakeholders;
• emphasis on a systems approach; • choosing solutions and priorities with the understanding
and acceptance of the tradeoffs involved;
• a holistic approach to planning;
• establishing the mechanisms for achieving agreed desired
• emphasis on flexibility; outcomes;
• emphasis on performance; • explaining and communicating the decisions in a manner

where they can be understood; and
• emphasis on quality of the urban environment and design;
• monitoring the actual outcomes and reviewing
• emphasis on public involvement; and performance.
• emphasis on outcome-based institutional structures. A process of practical benefit
The need for a holistic approach must be combined with a

process of practical benefit to potential users. While there is first

and foremost a need for a sound theoretical basis, the overriding A process, which recognises the roles of the public and
concern of this document and the Better Practice Guide is to private sectors
establish a practical process for problem-solving in integrated
planning. Integrated planning requires processes, which reconcile these
different interests and may involve strategic planning,
One of the key issues is an understanding of the real problem. development planning, project planning and development control.
Using an analogy with the fishing industry, Black et al. (1983) Depending on the status of these planning processes, the private
states the problem as follows: ‘There is, literally, a sea full of sector makes decisions on the location of land-use activities, the
transport-land use issues. At varying times and in different development of sites and the use of the transport system.
places, the public policy net is trawled across these issues. Only
some of them are of sufficient size to be enmeshed in the net for A process, which recognises the relationship between
consideration as transport-land use problems. Once on board, public sector agencies
the larger species are selected for further processing to bring out
their policy implications’. At that time there is a need ‘to Many authorities play a role in land-use, transpor t and
distinguish why transport–land use issues are different, to environmental planning, and at different levels of government.
appreciate how problems are tackled and processed; and to Their relationships with the community are also wide-ranging.
understand when and where problems occur over time and The process should capture these relationships. ‘Institution
space’. building’ is a crucial element in the process.
There are three major interactions in the sea of land use, A long-term view is essential
transport and environment issues. They will be identified in the
next section. There are limits to what can be done in the short term, and much
of what exists today will still be there in 20 years’ time. There is
An ongoing process an enormous investment in cities and towns and most changes
take place incrementally. However, this makes it all the more
The process should bring together an understanding of land use, important, that individual land-use and transport decisions are
transport and environment problems, when and where they occur made within the context of a longer-term integrated strategy, and
and their causes, the stakeholders affected, processes to not on the basis of short-term needs alone.
determine planning goals and objectives, policies and their
application, and management of implementation. There is an Different processes with different outputs
ongoing relationship between each of these components and the
framework should provide for continuing research, assessment, Project and strategic planning approaches have different time
review and adjustment. lines and often start at different points. Much road planning by
public authorities has been focussed on projects with specific
outputs, such as new roads, traffic management and road safety,

because that is their charter. Land-use planning also has a focus predict how they may change, discover which factors may be
on development, for example, development control, but more amenable to intervention and assess the consequences of
attention is given to broader goals and strategic outcomes. In different forms of intervention. The role of integrated planning
George Giannakodakis’s, derivation of the Kaufmann Model depends on such understanding of forces and impacts. Without
(Giannakodakis, 1996) the differences are represented in a this knowledge, it is difficult to develop effective strategies,
simplified way, with the typical project engineering approach to policies and plans.
planning starting at the left and the strategic planning approach
starting at the right. As will be noted in Chapters 5, 8 and 11 of this Resource
Document, there is much we do understand and where principles
Integration requires a model, which recognises that projects are of integrated planning can be applied. However, it has to be
the outcome of a strategic planning process (see figure 3-1). As acknowledged, that there will always be insufficient knowledge,
Giannakodakis (1996) points out, engineers tend to think from especially when addressing strategic and long-term issues.
left to right, planners from right to left. Effective integration Planning for the future operates in a situation of uncertainty, and
requires thinking in both directions, because (i) there is a need to tools exist for dealing with it (see for example, Tool R-16 in the
understand the scope and opportunities for projects, when Better Practice Guide). In situations of uncertainty, assumptions
preparing a strategy; and (ii) all projects require a context (an have to be made (and be made explicit), but this does not
‘umbrella’) established through strategic planning. prevent us from making decisions.
Outputs of strategic planning are policies, projects and programs, Information needs and resources
which are then carried forward through integrated development
and operation planning processes. The information needed is also linked to the kind of decision to
be made and the resources available. It is an important issue,
There are loops in such a process especially in integrated planning, where the interactions between
a wide range of aspects can be a data-hungry exercise. It is also
For example, the scope for intervention is often constrained by relevant in public consultation, where participants frequently
existing institutional structures and responsibilities. An outcome- desire more information at a stage, when it is not cost-effective to
based integrated system may require different funding and provide it or where data are simply not available. This issue will
organisational arrangements from the ones currently in be further discussed in Chapter 4.
operation. The exploration of changing such arrangements may
turn a constraint into an opportunity. 3.3.2 PROCESS REQUIREMENTS
Knowledge and understanding of the forces at work and Checklist

their consequences
Integrated planning is a process aimed at ‘whole of government’
An understanding is necessary in order to identify interactions, or ‘whole of society’ outcomes. The fundamental questions which

need to be addressed are:
(a) What do we seek to achieve and is there agreement

among the stakeholders (DESIRED OUTCOMES)?
(b) Are leadership, planning, control, resource application and

skills directed towards holistic outcomes
(MANAGEMENT)?
(c) Is our information base sufficient and do we have good

models for the measurement and prediction of change
(RESEARCH)?
(d) Do we involve the stakeholders in collective learning and

an exploration of options and trade-offs
(CONSULTATION)?
(e) Do we have shared objectives (OBJECTIVES)?
(f) Do we have common planning strategies and agreed Figure 3-1 Illustration of the two directional flow between project
principles reflecting the objectives (STRATEGIES)? and strategic planning (Gannakodakis, 1996)
(g) Are policies in place where they are needed (POLICIES)?
(h) Do we have the tools for interpreting and applying the

policies (TOOLS)? Steps towards integrated processes
(i) Are there agreed targets (TARGETS)? These fundamental questions can be addressed in a sequence
of steps towards integrated planning. They are not different from
(j) Do we explain and communicate the results of the above those followed in a conventional planning process, but are
activities in a manner, where they are understood and highlighted here, because they are especially important in
lead to changes in behaviour (COMMUNICATION)? integrated approaches.
(k) Do we have mechanisms in place for monitoring and There are eight steps which should be taken, to ensure there is
reviewing performance (PERFORMANCE REVIEW)? common ground and a process, which produces desired

outcomes and agreed outputs. These steps are.
1. problem definition;
2. institutional setting;
3. establishing integrated outcomes;
4. defining the scope;
5. setting the objectives;
6. selecting the tools;
7. determining required actions; and
8. monitoring and feedback.
Step 1 is a preliminary step. It identifies a problem and involves

seeking agreement with the agencies, whose participation is
essential.
Step 2 corresponds with (b) above; Step 3 and 4 with (a) and (d);
Step 5 with (e); Step 6 with (f), (g) and (h); Step 7 with (i); and
Step 8 with (j) and (k).
Figure 3-2 shows these steps in sequence, but there may be a

need to retrace some of the steps as new understanding is
gained, the agenda is changed or the goalposts are moved
during the process.
An overview of what is involved in each of the steps is given in

Chapter 4.
Figure 3-2 Steps in the process

3.4 A FRAMEWORK FOR ADDRESSING INTERACTIONS 3 the relationship between transport and the environment.
3.4.1 INTERACTIONS The three interactions have different applications in policy

development and all are relevant in planning practice.
Type of interactions
The relationship between activity and accessibility
The focus of this project is on ‘physical’ interactions between
transport, land use and the environment. However, they are the There are two dimensions to this relationship:
manifestation of many other interactions: e.g. interactions
between people and activity, business and economic conditions, • Land use creates travel demand;
taxation and financial regulations, cultural and social values, the
public and private sectors. • The transport system influences land-use location.
It would be a major task to trace all these interactions and The fact that land use creates travel demand is well understood.
examine how they influence the ebb and flow of life in cities. This Land-use activities produce and attract trips. These trips have an
task is beyond the scope of this project. A selection has been origin and destination and are distributed over the transport
made, based on experience, availability of material and a networks. How they are distributed depends on: available choices
judgment of what may be of practical significance. It is accepted, in transport mode and route (such as having access to a car);
that a different selection may be made by others. distance, time and cost of travel; and the impedance experienced
in the transport system. Impedance can take many forms:
Three sets of interactions congestion; frequency, convenience and security of public
transport services; connectivity within and between networks;
It is necessary to explore whether it is possible to identify some and parking availability and price. The characteristics and density
interactions, which are important for practical purposes. There is of the population, the nature of employment, the location of
a risk in doing this, as integration reflects a concern with the different activities, all have a bearing on the use of the transport
whole. However, this risk is reduced if it is accepted from the start system. Figure 3.3 is a simplified representation of the model.
that they are all interlinked.
The relationship is relevant at all levels, ranging from a regional
In the context of this overview, three sets of interactions can be level to a site. The knowledge at the site level is used to
distinguished: determine traffic generation and impacts of development
proposals on local networks (e.g. NSW Roads and Traffic
1 the relationship between activity and accessibility; Authority [Guide to Traffic Generating Developments], 1993).
2 the relationship between transport networks, modes and There is also another dimension in this relationship. The
the use of transport space; and transpor t system influences land-use location because it

provides a ‘surface’ of accessibility. There are different surfaces of interaction can take different forms.For example, the lack of
accessibility for each mode of transport. Accessibility is one of provision and the performance of one transport mode will affect
the most critical factors in investment decisions on land-use the others. Another example is the role of transport nodes in
location and density. Accessibility is measured not only in travel transferring people and goods from one mode to another. Some
time or cost, but also in availability and price of parking at points transport modes share the same transport space, and issues of
of destination. Figure 3-4 shows a simplified model of this compatibility and priority arise.
relationship.
Figure 3-4 Simplified accessibility and activity

(land-use location) model
Figure 3-3 Simplified demand and supply model
The relationship between transport and the environment
The relationship between transport networks, modes and People and goods movements are the outcome of land-use
the use of transport space transport interaction, and the relationship between traffic and the
environment has become an important issue in the planning and
There are different types of networks: networks for freight, public management of transport networks. Initially, understanding of
transport, vehicles, cyclists and pedestrians. Each network type this relationship led to the need to protect local communities from
has its own perfor mance characteristics and land-use the intrusion of through traffic, and the need to assess the impact
associations. Moreover, the networks also interact, and this of road proposals on the local environment.

In 1963, the innovative report ‘Traffic in Towns’ was published, 3.4.2 KEY ISSUES
which promoted the notion of environmental capacity: ‘within any AND HOW THEY SHAPE THE FRAMEWORK
urban area as it stands the establishment of environmental
standards automatically determines the accessibility, but the Key issues and areas of application
latter can be increased according to the amount of money that
can be spent on physical alterations’ (Buchanan, 1963). The three interactions are important in addressing issues where
integration is necessary and they occur at all levels of planning
More recently, concern about air and noise emissions, energy and spheres of government. Several options were explored in
consumption and exposure to risk (safety and the movement of developing a framework, which would be of practical value. The
hazardous goods) has led to a broadening of the discussion preferred option for the framework recognises the areas of
about the impact of traffic on the environment. The role of land application in which they are best addressed.
use and transport in the built environment, and the quality of it,
have become key issues of current concern. MACRO issues and goals
This relationship is relevant, where there are groups vulnerable Macro issues are issues affecting an entire region. Typical issues
to the impact of traffic, and restraints on traffic performance at the MACRO level are: urban structure and form densities,
apply. The situation arises on grounds of safety (e.g. school activity and accessibility, multi-use centres, transport mode,
crossings, hazardous goods movement), protection from traffic regional parking, freight transport, network development, regional
noise (e.g. trucks at night) and air quality, when pollution levels transport corridors, travel demand management, air quality and
exceed safety limits. energy.
Macro goals are sustainable regions, efficiency, equity and

livability.
MESO issues and goals
Meso issues are related to urban districts or country towns.

Typical meso issues are: transport mode and route choice; local
activity and accessibility; precincts and environmental protection;
local networks (including bus routes and cycleways);
interchanges; commuter parking; road safety; pedestrian-friendly
centres; traffic noise; mixed use zoning; and urban design and
character.
Figure 3-5 Simplified transport and environment model

Meso goals are sustainable communities, choice and diversity, dichotomy. Transport corridors (transport routes and their
convenience, amenity, and cost-effectiveness. environment) have regional and local dimensions and are linear
in form. Existing responsibilities are based on transport function
MICRO issues and goals and not on corridor outcomes.
Micro issues are related to small local areas. Typical issues are: The second exception is that there are issues which have
air quality, road safety, environmental capacity, vehicle speed, regional, as well as local, dimensions and strong links between
severance, site access, property values, streetscape, building them. An example is that of regional centres. Thus, there are
siting and design. areas of multiple application.
Micro goals are: integrated development and redevelopment,

while preserving and maintaining amenity, safety, health,
heritage, and property values.
Areas of application and responsibility
Many of these issues fit into a regional (or macro) or local (or
meso and micro) area of application. A few would benefit from a
national approach, but the national role in integrated planning in
Australia and New Zealand is limited at present. A framework,
which reflects a regional and local distinction is of practical value.
There are issues which cannot be resolved at the local level and
require a regional approach. There are other issues which
require a regional policy context, but can best be addressed at
the local level.
The distinction, in general, also fits the division of responsibility,

with State Government agencies and regional councils having a
major interest in regional aspects, and local government in local
aspects. This is impor tant, as analysis showed, that the
prospects of integrated planning are enhanced by relating Figure 3-6 Regional level
outcomes to levels of responsibility.
There are two exceptions. The first is that there is an outcome

area, which is not adequately addressed by a regional or local

3.4.3 THE RESULTING FRAMEWORK
The framework which results has the following structure:
• regional areas of application (Chapter 5–7);
• local areas of application (Chapter 8–10); and
• corridors (Chapter 11–13).
There are principles, approaches and techniques(called ‘tools’),

which address the issues for each of these areas of application.
In the case of areas of multiple application, a combination of
tools can be used. Figure 3-9 illustrates the relationship between
the three interactions and the areas of application. It also shows
Figure 3-7 Local level where the tools fit into the framework.
The relationship between different areas of application
It should be stressed that there are important connections

between these categories of the framework. For example,
integrated regional planning influences integrated planning at
local levels. The relationship between transport routes and
adjoining land use raises issues of regional, as well as local,
planning. All these connections are addressed, but within the
three primary areas of application.
How do the three interactions relate to the areas of

application?
As figure 3-9 shows, all three types of interaction apply to each

of the areas of application. For example, the relationship between
activity and accessibility addresses major structural issues at the
regional level (e.g. key regional centres) and parking standards at
Figure 3-8 Corridor level the local level.

The relationship between networks, transport modes and use of Content
the transpor t space appears, for example, as congestion
management at the regional level, and ‘Sharing the Main Street’ In Chapters 5–13 the framework has been applied, in order to
in the corridor area of application. identify significant issues, principles and processes. For each of
the three areas of application, there are three chapters. The first
The relationship between transport and the environment has chapter provides an overview of the interactions. The second
different dimensions at the regional level (e.g. regional air quality) chapter interprets the information and discusses principles and
from the one at the local level (e.g. traffic calming), and in the their application. The third chapter in each area of application
corridor area of application (e.g. traffic noise and maintaining identifies processes and actions towards greater integration.
community cohesion).
Figure 3-9 The framework of interactions,

areas of application, with examples of some of the tools
which can be used for integrated planning

Chapter 4 People, processes 4.2 INTEGRATED PLANNING AND PEOPLE
and institutions 4.2.1 WHY PEOPLE SHOULD BE INVOLVED
Defining stakeholder involvement
There are different definitions of consultation and involvement.

Communication can be defined as the process of giving
4.1 INTRODUCTION information - a one way activity. Consultation can be defined as
‘the process of securing the widest possible involvement and
In this chapter, the link between integrated planning, people and par ticipation from the community about planning for this
institutions will be explored. The process is of critical importance. community’ (Sinclair in Curthoys, 1992).
Here the objectives of the different groups and institutions are
channelled into common outcomes and the means of achieving In this study, consultation is defined as a form of two-way
them are determined. communication in an interactive process with the stakeholders.
The aim is to explore desired outcomes and the means of
There are three categories of stakeholders: achieving them. Effective consultation for integrated transport
and land-use planning starts from the recognition that the
• External stakeholders are groups and individuals, who development and implementation of proposals affecting the
are affected by the outputof proposals as users, owners, stakeholders is an interactive process.
occupiers and community groups.
Closed and open systems
• Internal stakeholders are those agencies, which have a
responsibility for, or a role in,policy formulation and It is useful to make a distinction between ‘closed’ and ‘open’
implementation. decision systems. Closed decisions are those where:
• Decision-makers are the client, the chief executive, the • there is consensus about goals;
elective representatives, the Minister or the government.
• the effects are almost entirely functional;
The relationship between integrated planning and external
stakeholders gives shape to the process and will be discussed • the measures of performance are few and quantifiable;
first. Next, the process to be used will be reviewed, and key
elements identified. The chapter concludes with some • the level of investment is relatively modest;
observations on institutional forms and their effectiveness in
integrated planning. • the decisions carry little risk;

• the lag between decision and start of operation is consultation are necessary in order to determine priorities and
relatively short; establish acceptable trade-offs.
• the search for alternatives is limited to hardware and Land-use planning has always been regarded as an open
programming; system
• the evaluation is simple; and Open decision systems often have long lead times and wide-
ranging external effect, and have to cope with conflicting values.
• the researcher, planner/engineer and decision-maker are All these conditions exist in land-use planning, and this is
perhaps the same person, or at least in the same reflected in the nature and content of public involvement.
organisation.
Integrated planning is an open system
Open decision systems are the direct opposite. The goals are
established through communication. There are values, Integrated planning may be seen by some professional people as
preferences and priorities, which differ between the stakeholders, a technical activity. It could be argued, for example, that there are
and these are uncovered through consultation. clear links between land use and transport demand; that it is a
technical activity, predicting the consequences and finding the
Transport planning as engineering decisions most cost-effective network solution by use of computer models.
It is true that integrated planning has a major technical content,
There was a perception in the ’70s that transport planning was a but it is not ‘value free’.
closed system and hence only required communication to inform.
The EIS procedure changed this approach, but not There may not be a consensus about goals, the perception of
fundamentally, as the EIS was seen as an add-on to ameliorate objectives to be achieved will vary with the stakeholders,
any adverse environmental impacts associated with a project. assumptions are made about behavioural responses at a future
Although this perception of engineering decisions has changed, date, the search for alternatives extends beyond traditional
there is still a view that there is a generally accepted body of boundaries, and the evaluation will depend on the value systems
principles, standards and techniques, and professionally-derived and preferences of stakeholders.
‘constants’, which are value-free.
The relationship between the public sector and the
However, there are no value-free decisions in transport planning. community
There will always be a judgment between desirability and
affordability. Methods of evaluation involve subjective judgments: The relationship between the public sector and the community in
the benefits often cannot be expressed in quantifiable terms. integrated planning is, therefore, highly relevant. The role of the
There are ‘externalities’: community perceptions and attitudes, public sector is to provide leadership, plan, organise and control.
which cannot simply be quantified. Two-way communication and Its primary interests are: efficiency, social justice, environmental

quality and livability. The community consists of a diverse group Different forms of community involvement
of stakeholders with similar general interests, but with different
priorities and interpretations of the goals. One approach is to develop a preferred solution with the
stakeholders. The ultimate decision still rests with the client, the
It may be possible to reach agreement with the stakeholders elected representatives, the chief executive or the Minister, but
about desired outcomes, but there will be different views about participants share a commitment to the outcome. Another
the means of achieving them. For example, a critical factor is approach is to develop options with the external stakeholders to
likely to be the degree of intervention, necessary to achieve the the point where there is a clear understanding of impacts and
desired outcomes. Targets may be set, which cannot be achieved how they affect the different stakeholders. Yet, there can be no
without incentives and disincentives. Acceptability of the use of expectation that the final decision will be the outcome preferred
such measures will vary in each State, Territory and local by the majority of participants.
government area, and will change over time.
The purpose of involving the external stakeholders should be
Sharing information made clear at the beginning of the process, as the final decision
will be a political one.
Stakeholders will make a contribution within the context of their
values and knowledge, but they also need to become aware of 4.2.2 CURRENT PUBLIC INVOLVEMENT
the forces at work, and how they interact. This means that
information must be given in a form, which is understandable. Consultation is now widely used
This is not a one-way street. There is often extensive knowledge
about local conditions and there will be varying perceptions, Most agencies responsible for transport and land-use planning
which influence the outcome. are now involved in consultation, but the purpose and techniques
used var y widely. There are statutor y requirements for
There will usually be different options in addressing the issues consultation in both transport and land-use planning, but they are
involved, and new solutions are likely to emerge, which would not not always the same.
have been found without stakeholder involvement. The
exploration of options and trade-offs should proceed together In transport planning, involving projects, draft environmental
with the stakeholders in a joint effort. The final decision becomes impact statements (EIS) must be prepared and made available to
then a common achievement, and understood, if not owned, by the wider community for comment, before a final statement is
all. The process of community involvement is examined in the completed.
Guide, Part D, Chapter 4.
There are no statutory requirements for consultation about
proposed transport policies or traffic management changes.
although many authorities communicate them to the people
affected.

In the case of land-use planning proposals, there usually is a (VicRoads Guidelines) is summarised in Part D of the Guide.
statutory requirement that plans be placed on exhibition for
comment. Most planning authorities engage in some form of In practice, the processes used can best be described as
two-way informal consultation during their preparation. experimental. As a result, there are successes and failures. The
interpretation of what is successful and what is a failure will
Public involvement by transport authorities depend on the perceptions of the stakeholder.
The views on public involvement by transport authorities vary Experience from the public authority viewpoint
and are changing. Perhaps a typical view (Unsworth, 1994) is
that the objectives are to: A community involvement benchmark study for the NSW Roads
and Traffic Authority (Environmental Affairs, 1996) found that:
• reduce the number of projects which blow up because of
public opposition; • the adoption of best practice in community involvement is
unlikely to lead to significant changes in the views of
• get the proposal right the first time, thus saving time, certain community members;
money and frustration by reducing or eliminating redesign
or other delays; • a degree of convergence between the values and
interests of the RTA and its key stakeholders does occur;
• improve the agency’s overall public image in terms of and
responsiveness, openness, and willingness to change;
and • project managers perceive that project outcomes are
improved.
• improve the public’s satisfaction with the final outcome.
Stakeholder perceptions
Processes are experimental
There are few sources of infor mation which involve a
There are presently no formal procedures for consultation in documentation of stakeholder expectations before, and
integrated planning and there is no consistency in approach. An perceptions after, a community involvement program.
Austroads document on strategic planning: Principles for Experience with controversial projects shows that there is often
Strategic Planning (Austroads, 1998) provides a basis for a greater satisfaction with the process than with the outcome.
consistent approach in strategic planning. Criticism may arise that the final decision does not reflect the
recommendations. There have been accusations of tokenism,
Many authorities have established guidelines for community community manipulation, predeter mined outcomes and
involvement (e.g. NSW Roads and Traffic Authority, 1993; defensive attitudes (e.g. Morison, 1995).
VicRoads, 1997; ACT Government, 1997) and one of these

In the author’s experience, most participants believe that they uses a set of criteria developed by the US Federal Transit
have contributed towards the outcome and have developed a Administration for evaluating the success of collaborative
sense of ownership of the final option adopted. In fact, the keys metropolitan or regional transport planning (1995) and adds the
to a positive experience are the motivation for, and execution of, methodology (see Table 4-1) and some indicators.
the process. Participants should experience consultation as a
collective exploration; not a professional ‘snow job’, or a ‘them Possible indicators
and us’ adversary type of communication.
• Length of cycle from ‘predicament’ to ‘political rest’;
4.2.3 CRITERIA FOR EFFECTIVENESS
• Clarity of group objectives;
Literature
• Stability of structures and procedures during process with
There is extensive literature on community consultation and clearly defined responsibilities;
communication in general (e.g. Briggs, 1992; Curthoys, 1992;
Loder and Bayly, 1991; Sarkissian et al., 1997), but the literature • Process measures, including actions implemented and
on consultation on transport and complex planning systems is timelines;
limited (Brewer, 1993; Hathaway, 1994; Khisty, 1994; Unsworth,
1994; Westerman, 1981). • Qualitative surveys, focus group discussion on issues of
consultation, and effectiveness of process and outcomes;
Parkin (1993) in Judging Plans and Projects: Analysis and Public and
Participation in the Evaluation Process proposes a step-by-step
process called ‘Case Judgment’ and illustrates its application to • Market research on community (and participants’
two examples (one related to road safety). The process understanding of issues and statistical analysis of data.
commences when alternatives have been defined in sufficient
detail. This makes it possible to identify the important attributes,
and determine a reasonable range of values for those attributes.
It then proceeds through a series of rigorous steps in which the
values of the stakeholder are scaled. This leads to a project
preference ordering after which the final judgment is made, in the
public interest, by government.
Criteria
There are no objective assessment methods for evaluating the

effectiveness of community involvement (Black, 1997). Black

CRITERIA MEASUREMENT Residual issues
Length of planning process Time in days
There is a wide diversity of stakeholders and interest in many
Cost of planning Dollars spent planning activities, but the nature and degree of interest in
consultation often depend on proximity in space (how close
Whether plan is challenged Observation people are to a proposed development), time available and fear
or uncertainty about adverse impact. For example, a proposal for
If challenged, Dollars spent a transport route will attract a direct and considerable interest by
what are the costs those along the route: those who stand to benefit are not clearly
identifiable and need to be encouraged to participate. Longer-
Quality of plan % project implemented term proposals, such as an integrated strategy, often do not
generate the intensive interest which short-term projects attract.
Stakeholders’ level of Qualitative surveys This problem (and a possible approach to deal with it) is
satisfaction with process discussed in Chapter 13.
Stakeholders’ level of Qualitative surveys Criteria for effectiveness should include whether there has been
satisfaction with content effective participation by all relevant stakeholders, and whether
there was a balance in their representation.
Impact on working Qualitative surveys
relationships (agency/public) 4.2.4 TECHNIQUES
Impact on agency’s Qualitative surveys Horses for courses

credibility
Community involvement and consultation must be tailored to the
Impact on staff’s morale Qualitative surveys task and the level of complexity. There are some techniques
and efficiency which have proved to be useful (e.g. Hathaway, 1994):
• Interactive workshops - Interactive workshops can be

very effective, provided there are several workshops with
Table 4-1 Criteria for evaluating effectiveness the same participants at various stages in the process.
of community Involvement The inputs and outputs of each workshop are clearly
defined. There are limits to the number of people
attending, if an effective environment for collective
exploration is to be created (in our experience about 60).
Workshops should be by invitation and the composition of

participants should reflect a wide range of interests. This community with an opportunity to learn and contribute.
is necessary to ensure the meetings are not dominated by
a particular group, and that opportunities for interaction • Public information/education campaigns - Campaigns
are created. may be developed to inform people of issues, options and
impacts, or actions they can take to contribute to the
• Task forces and focus groups - Task forces and focus solution of a problem. For example, a threat of shortage in
groups are a concentrated form of workshops, requiring a water supply capacity in Sydney in 1995 was reduced
greater commitment of time and effort by the participants. through a carefully managed information campaign.
Task forces may have a sharper focus, and there may be Ongoing efforts to encourage higher rates
several of them concentrating on one particular aspect of of vehicle occupancy or reduce the risk of accidents can
the problem. Interaction between task forces is important, lead to a shift in public attitudes and behaviour.
as they should not work in isolation from each other.
• Dispute resolution techniques - Experienced and
• Advisory committees - Advisory committees are useful independent facilitators and mediators can often help to
in complex projects. They can assist in the development of create a positive atmosphere for co-operation and
the process, in requesting information, making comments, problem solving. They can request information, which may
reviewing documents, and in suggesting forms of not have been offered by agencies, encourage people to
consultation with the wider community. Selection of the explain confusing statements without appearing to
members should be based on a representative range of challenge or disagree with the assertions, and ensure that
interests. people, who feel intimidated, get a fair hearing.
• Public meetings and forums - Public meetings can be a 4.3 INTEGRATED PLANNING PROCESSES
good way of soliciting ideas or imparting information, but
are of limited value in collective learning. One of the 4.3.1 PURPOSE AND ROLES
difficulties in organising such meetings, especially when
there are controversial issues, is that they may be Processes designed for stakeholder involvement
stacked. One should ensure that there is attendance of a
range of interests. It may be desirable to invite an Integrated planning centres around establishing and achieving
independent person to chair the meeting, and officials overall outcomes. Values and perceptions of the stakeholders are
should avoid defensive reactions to criticisms. Both an important input into the process. The purpose of involvement
officials and the community benefit from an atmosphere is to achieve integration between the public agencies and the
where people can be candid and open to ideas. stakeholders. Public involvement requires much more than
producing technical reports, glossy pamphlets or news releases
• Agency-initiated outreach - Shopfronts, hot lines and from the top down or in the form of surveys of public opinion,
mailing lists can be established to provide the wider market research or opportunities to comment from the grassroots
up.

To achieve integrated planning, there is a need and expectation Desired outcomes of the process should be defined
for interactive consultation, dialogue and collective learning. It
requires a partnership with the stakeholders. Stakeholder involvement should be focused, so that there are
clear outcomes of the process. This does not imply, that there
Partners are participants with comparable status. The experts should be consensus: there will be many occasions when
may have the technical expertise, but are not the custodians of fundamental differences remain. Other mechanisms may be
the values of society. Land-use and transport decisions are the required for conflict resolution, such as mediation, or a policy
outcome of collaboration between the stakeholders. decision by elected representatives. The process should give
credibility to the decisions and, in complex situations, political
Questions to be addressed decisions may be required at critical points during the process.
If this proposition is accepted, important questions arise: Different levels of involvement
• Which processes should be used for what purpose? There are different levels of issues and it is important to discern
them clearly in consultation: strategic issues (such as long-term
• Whom should be consulted? policies on land use and transport), development issues (e.g.
proposals for infill development or upgrading of a transport route
• At what level should consultation occur? through a local area), and construction and management issues
(e.g. proposals for the development of a site or parking
• Who does the consulting? restrictions along a major traffic route). At each level, there are
different stakeholders, participation processes and consultation
• How can conflict be resolved between community groups, techniques.
between community and the authorities responsible, and
between the different authorities involved? Involvement can also be linked to the level of complexity (e.g.
Unsworth, 1994) or to the intrinsic nature of the ‘system’ activity.
Stakeholders and their roles Generally, strategic issues tend to be more complex and require
more extensive forms of two-way consultation. With specific
A central feature of any planning process is to understand which projects, the system is more localised and clearly defined, and
stakeholders may be affected, what their interests and values more concentrated forms of consultation are necessary.
are, and how to involve them in the process. This may include
identification of the issues, setting the agenda and the way in Selection of the appropriate level of involvement is of crucial
which different stakeholders can contribute to an understanding importance. For example, treating the preparation of an EIS as a
of both the technical and non-technical dimensions of the issues. project in the absence of a strategic exploration is likely to be
counter-productive (Brewer, 1993).

consultation established;
• the brief limits the field of exploration;
• key stakeholders are not involved in the process (e.g. the

future generation, underprivileged groups, hard-core
objectors); and
• roles are not clearly defined (e.g. experts, departments,

consultants, facilitators).
4.3.2 ADDING VALUE
Key characteristics
Figure 4-1 Appropriate processes and means of implementation
will determine whether desired outcomes are actually achieved
The pur pose of consultation is to add value through an
interactive process Key characteristics of such a process are:
• Consensus about purpose and process. Agreement is

Conflict between regional and local interests
necessary on the purpose of consultation and the process
to be used at the start of a program. There should be an
There are situations when there are fundamental differences
understanding and acceptance of constraints and a
between regional and local interests. These are difficult to resolve
willingness to stay with the process.
through consultation. For details on the French approach in
relation to major transport corridors, see Chapter 13.
• Openness. The process should be open: preparedness to
explore new ideas, information to be available and
The problem of uncertainty
participation with an open mind.
Uncertainty in participation processes is a common feature
• Inclusiveness. The process should include the range of
because:
people whose interests are affected and those who can
make a substantive contribution. This does not mean
• the cause and effect relationship can often not easily be
decision making in a stadium; there are well-established
discerned;
techniques for involving selected individuals and groups,
and participation by a wide range of interests is essential
• the issues raised are inappropriate for the level of
for an effective process.

• Fairness. Mechanisms are needed to ensure that no 4.3.3 A SYSTEMS APPROACH
single group or individual dominates the process. Effective
management is needed to ensure that all groups and There are ‘soft’ and ‘hard’ systems
individuals have an equal opportunity to contribute.
There is an important distinction between hard and soft systems.
• Early involvement. The earlier a program is commenced, The hard system approach defines the objectives to be achieved
the greater are the prospects for successful outcomes. and then manages the system to achieve these objectives.
There are probably fewer preconceived ideas about However, the human activity is full of values and perceptions;
solutions, any community perceptions of tokenism can be there is no single testable account of human activity systems.
rebutted and the process can be conducted without undue The hard system tackles the question of how, but if the objectives
pressure. are themselves in question, the approach must be modified to
include the question of what as well (Khisty, 1994).
• Accessible information. Information is essential and
interactive. The process should be designed in such a way A soft system is a cyclical and interactive learning tool, with the
that participants will be kept informed of investigations and output consisting essentially of recognition, learning and insight,
other relevant matters at every stage of the process. For and accommodation among conflicting interests.
this reason, the process should be designed so that there
is sufficient time in each of the stages for information to be Planning and intervention
prepared.
Planning involves intervention. Planning is a conscious activity to
• Transparency. The whole process must be transparent. order things in space and time, which can operate only within a
Credibility depends on a genuine effort to collective given ‘intervention area’ or ‘action area’. The action area is
learning, without hidden agendas. defined by the inertia of existing development and by the ability
to change it. Change in the structure of cities and regions is slow:
• Collective exploration of options, impacts and trade-offs. it moves like syrup, and long-term planning is needed to ensure
The exploration of options and their consequences is a that individual actions add up to long-term integrated benefits.
central activity to enable participants at the end of the With a soft systems approach, it is possible to determine, where
process to arrive at preferred positions, including the intervention is possible and what trade-offs are involved.
trade-offs, which inevitably are involved.
Recognising constraints
• Personal contact. Identification and availability of an
individual can assist in humanising the process. Planning can, through advocacy, negotiation and legal changes,
modify the boundaries of this intervention area (that is, modify
the constraints), but the scope for it at a given point in time is
limited. There are always constraints, such as external economic

influences, the institutional framework (that is, the role, functions Six elements to structure a systems approach
and powers of the organisations - although that can be modified
too), and the political system. There are six elements which assist in structuring a soft systems
approach: customers, actors, transformation, the broader
Tools for soft systems community values, owners, and system constraints (Checkland,
1986). The ‘system’ is a concise description of a proposed
There are fundamental uncertainties about the future of society activity.
and about the interactions which underlie the land-use, transport
and environment system. There is a need for soft predictions and • Customers: who would be the victims or beneficiaries of
recognition of dangers in quantifying relationships (such as this system were it to exist?
travel-time savings) and projecting them into the future. There is
also uncertainty about our ability to manage such complex • Actors: who would carry out the activities of this system
systems (see Chapter 3). It is important that the stakeholders (i.e. agents who carry out the transformation)?
come to appreciate these factors. A soft approach for collective
exploration, using tools such as future and scenario analysis, • Transformation: what input is transferred into what output
qualitative cause–effect modelling and gaming, may be more by this system?
appropriate than hard approaches, such as cost-benefit
analyses. • Broad community values: is the system worth having,
because of broader community well-being?
Incremental nature of decision-making
• Ownership: who could abolish this system?
Much political decision-making is incremental, responding to
needs, as they occur, or are perceived as needs requiring action. • System constraints: what external constraints does this
If integrated planning is to be relevant, it must be attuned to the system take as given (e.g. resources, lack of hard data)?
incremental nature of decision-making. A systems approach
towards consultation and decision-making must be conscious of The system determines who should be involved
the forces of change, possible shifts in the planning context,
perceptions, priorities and the structure of power. The system description determines which participants should be
involved in the process. It will be different for a strategic policy
One of the possible implications is to stage the process, activity than for the implementation of a specific project. There
providing opportunities for political decisions at the end of each may be two or more interlinked systems: one system may focus
phase before proceeding with the next. on the activity of exploring options and trade-offs; another may
focus on providing inputs from different agencies and integrating
the implementation of outcomes within different agencies (see,
for example, the consultation structure for Integrated Regional

Transport Planning in Queensland, the Guide, Part B, Chapter 2). external and internal stakeholders. Consultants need to
understand the purpose of the process and their role in it, and be
Structuring the process able to engage in a constructive dialogue. An independent
consultant can also be used for mediation in situations, where
Structuring of the consultation process should take account of there is a conflict between stakeholders.
the interaction within and between ‘systems’. For example, for a
complex activity, there will be a need for an interactive process
with direct involvement of representatives of the different
stakeholders. This can be done, for example, through workshops
and/or a community advisory committee. This then represents
one activity system. However, policy issues or matters related to
the relationship between government instrumentalities may arise
during the exploration and at the end of the process, which
require another activity system. A steering panel, consisting of
representatives of these interests, will then be useful.
A valuable conceptual approach towards stakeholder

participation in the planning process with practical examples is
‘Planning Under Pressure: the Strategic Choice Approach’ by
Friend and Hickling (1987). The aim is to articulate the kinds of
dilemma which experienced decision-makers face in the course
of their work and the often intuitive judgements they make in
choosing their response. The emphasis is not just on strategic
planning, but on choosing in a strategic way to solve the
problems. It involves unravelling the many interactions which
exist, dealing with uncer tainties and working through a
sequential process, which leads to selective decisions.
The role of consultants
Often consultants are engaged to undertake the technical work. Figure 4-2 Choosing strategically
The question arises how they are placed in the organisational in a context of uncertainty
structure and what role they play in the process of exploration. In
the case of complex projects, it is usual to provide for a close
working arrangement which enables interaction with both the

Facilitation • Integrated planning cuts across individual agencies and
professions. The steps ensure there is a common ground.
If workshops are conducted as part of the process, the question
arises as to who should facilitate them. It is essential that the • There is a need for a sequence of steps, not only to
interactive process be conducted dispassionately and has determine desired outcomes, but also to ensure that these
credibility. The sponsoring agency is often perceived as a outcomes are achievable.
dominant stakeholder with an active interest, whereas the
consultant may be regarded as being too technically involved to • There are many tools for integrated planning, which
step back and listen to matters of value. Some technical should be understood and used as part of the process.
consultants have this ability - and this is recognised by the The steps show how this can be done.
stakeholders, but where there is doubt or where it is felt that the
process may be compromised, an independent facilitator may Eight steps
need to be called in.
In Chapter 3, eight steps were outlined:
The role of the project manager
1 Problem definition;
The role of the project manager is also important. His or her
primary concern should be with efficiency and outcomes of the 2 Institutional setting;
process and the flow of information to, and between, the system
activities. 3 Determining desired outcomes;
4.3.4 STEPS IN AN INTEGRATED PLANNING PROCESS 4 Defining the scope;
A need to highlight aspects to ensure integration 5 Setting objectives;
With a focus on integrated planning, the ends can provde 6 Selecting and developing the ‘tools’;
outcomes beyond what individual organisations can achieve. The
means of achieving them will depend on outputs from a wide 7 Determining actions and achievable targets; and
range of public and private agencies. The process for integrated
planning is essentially the same as for other kinds of planning 8 Monitoring outcomes.
(see Part D of the Guide: Chapters 1-3). Further, there is value in
highlighting aspects which are of special impor tance in In the sections which follow the relevance of each step in an
integrated planning and in the use of the Guide. There are three integrated planning process is summarised.
reasons:

Step 1 Problem definition participation can be invited, but this does not guarantee a
balanced representation. Personal contacts should be sought
Proper definition of the problem is of critical importance. The real and local networks contacted to ensure that groups affected will
problem may be different from an initial perception. Integrated have an opportunity to be represented.
planning requires taking an holistic view, and this may introduce
aspects beyond the traditional role of an organisation and the It also raises the question of how many places should be
expertise and experience of its staff. This step in the process may reserved for those who need to be there and those who respond
well prove to be a learning experience for the organisations to an invitation, when it is proposed to conduct workshops with a
involved. There is a need to understand the context of a problem limited number of places.
or issue, get a feel for what is needed to address it, and become
aware of the value systems and beliefs which impinge on the The kind of involvement depends entirely on each project but, for
problem and its possible solutions. The outcome will shape the the pur pose of a collective learning process, a series of
integrated planning process. workshops, task forces or focus groups will often be necessary. It
should be understood, that continuity of attendance is a key
Step 2 Institutional setting factor, if the process is to be effective.
The process of defining roles and responsibilities involves

clarifying the external and internal stakeholders, who should be
involved, their roles and contributions; and which agency or
individual has primary responsibility.
There must be a clear understanding at the outset what purpose

is to be served by consultation. From a management point of
view there will be a preference for an outcome-driven process
with consultation playing an important, but sub-ordinate role.
However, another view is that the central purpose of consultation
is information sharing, a collective exploration of desired
outcomes. Whichever purpose is chosen, it is essential that value
is added to any actions which may be contemplated.
Relevant groups and people with an interest need to be identified

and an assessment should be made as to how they should be
involved. Some groups can be readily identified, but there are
others where this is not the case. The purpose and scope of a Figure 4-3 Selecting the stakeholders
process can be advertised and expressions of interest in

The situation can arise where views are so entrenched that the proceeding, or whether a policy or political decision is required.
groups or individuals who do not accept the constraints or Another possibility is to proceed initially with alternative agendas,
believe that they will be compromised by participating in a which are subsequently explored and merged.
collective learning exercise will not participate. Although all
efforts should be made to persuade them and to ensure that they It is possible that changes in direction may be needed during the
receive a fair hearing, the process should not be hijacked by course of the process. This may arise in complex projects which
particular groups. However, there should be an open invitation to require an extended period to complete. However, this situation
join at any time and any information produced should be made should be avoided by more careful thought at the beginning, as
available to them. costs can escalate.
Step 3 Determining desired outcomes Step 4 Defining the scope
Integrated approaches are more demanding than single-purpose The previous step will have identified the need, purpose and
approaches, because there are often many interactions of priority for an integrated planning approach. The purpose of this
potential significance (institutional, physical, financial etc.). step is to determine the ‘area of application’. The concept of area
Priorities will be seen differently, and there are different ways in of application was explained in Chapter 3. Examples of possible
which they can be addressed. The purpose of this step is to areas of application are:
determine priority outcomes.
• a region, metropolitan area, local area, combination of
The detailed agenda will change and evolve as the process local areas, corridor, or the relationship between them;
enfolds. Still, at the beginning it is productive to seek agreement and
on fundamental issues, such as:
• physical, financial and/or regulatory areas of application.
• which relationships may be relevant; The scope can also include consideration of the
interactions which may be relevant: activity and
• which aspects are beyond the ability to plan and manage; accessibility; networks and the use of the transport space;
and transport and the quality of the environment.
• what position should be taken where the means of Step 5 Setting objectives
achieving desired outcomes impinge on community and
business values. The purpose of this step is to specify the objectives needed to
achieve them. These objectives provide the basis for the
Constraints should be explained, understood and accepted. If selection of strategies, policies and actions.
they are not accepted and alternatives are suggested, there is a
need to step back and review whether there is a basis for The output is a set of agreed long-ter m and shor t-ter m

objectives, with the long-ter m objectives providing clear The output of this step can take different forms:
directions, and the short- term objectives being:
• strategies;
• comprehensive;
• policies;
• specific;
• development plans and designs;
• achievable; and
• targets;
• measurable.
• institutional and procedural arrangements;
Step 6 Selecting and developing the ‘tools’
• statutory provisions; and
The ‘tools’ are measures to be used in achieving desired
outcomes. The tools can be described as principles, approaches • integrated programs, budgets or financial arrangements.
and techniques, to be used for the development of a strategy,
policy, project, or plan of operations. Step 8 Monitoring and review
A wide range of tools can be developed covering the three Without monitoring, there is no way to determine whether an
principal interactions. They can apply to one or several areas of integrated planning process was successful. Performance
application (regional, local, corridor or multiple areas). The Guide indicators are needed, which should be identified and agreed
identifies and describes 47 tools (see the Guide, Part B for an beforehand. There should also be agreement as to which
overview, and Part C for details). agency (or agencies) has the responsibility for monitoring, and
on mechanisms to review the data.
An understanding of the tools is important in integrated planning,
because they may be relevant, when exploring options. Post-facto monitoring is often neglected, but important, especially
in the case of complex planning projects, which take time to
Step 7 Determining required actions and achievable targets implement. Unexpected consequences may surface, which need
to be addressed. There is much to learn from the implementation
The purpose of this step is to ensure that the process leads to of innovative projects and this should be shared.
the same goalposts for all agencies involved, and that targets are
set which are practical and achievable. Selecting processes
These steps apply to all integrated planning processes and the

problems addressed will differ and the focus will vary. For

example, the agendas and desired outcomes may be related to planning process. Further information on Processes is included
strategic planning, development planning and operational in Part D of the Guide.
planning issues.
4.3.5 APPLICATION
• Strategic planning is a continuous and systematic
process, where organisations make decisions about Integrated planning is demanding
intended future outcomes, how outcomes are to be
accomplished, and how success is measured and The steps provide a systematic and practical way of approaching
evaluated (Blackerby, 1994). The same approach is integrated planning. The effectiveness of the process depends on
needed for integrated management of urban areas as a understanding the relationships between land use, transport and
whole and for major parts of them. For example, strategic the environment. As the following chapters show, many of these
planning is used to determine the need for a transport relationships are complex and the degree, to which they can be
route, its function and approximate location. Important influenced, usually depends on a package of measures. This can
outputs of a strategic planning process are targets and make heavy demands on the project team and the participants in
priorities, accompanied by action plans. the process.
• While key activities of strategic planning are to chart There are often misconceptions and simplistic perceptions about
directions and make selective commitments, causes and effects. An important purpose of collective learning is
development planning is a process which focuses on the to increase the understanding of stakeholders about the complex
achievement of development on the ground. Development relationships which exist, and the opportunities and constraints
planning is used to determine the precise location of a which influence them.
transport corridor, its reservation, provision for local
access, and the type and form of development alongside. A technical task
In an integrated development process, the development of
concepts, their financial and economic feasibility, and their The main activity in any process is to prepare information, which
impact on existing communities are all considered. will be needed, respond to the need for further information,
analyse and interpret it, and present it in a form in which it can
• Operational planning can mean many different things. In be understood. The process must be designed to allow sufficient
the context of this document, it includes detailed project time for these tasks, but if the period between meetings with the
design and construction, development control, traffic ` stakeholders is too long, continuity may be lost and interest
management and administrative procedures. wanes. The interaction between this technical work and
community participation requires a carefully prepared program,
These processes are linked. Development and operational to be determined up-front.
planning should be preceded by strategic planning; operational
planning, in some cases, should be preceded by a development

How much detail?
There will always be demands for more detail than can

reasonably be provided. Participants need to be made aware of
the constraints, yet consultants need to ensure that information
which is essential for effective exploration will be available. The
level of information also depends on the purpose and the
process. For example, a strategic planning process usually
involves a broader level of decision-making than a project
planning process. The information needs and level of accuracy of
this information for the preparation of a concept plan are less
than those for a complete feasibility study (see Figure 4-4).
The level of information also evolves during the process. It is

practically impossible and unnecessary to provide all information
for the initial assessment of a wide range of options. There
should be sufficient information to reduce the number of options.
Those that remain can be investigated in more detail.
Establishing the structure
In many integrated projects, there is a need for a steering

committee, which includes key representatives of the agencies,
making final recommendations to their political masters.
Figure 4-4 Type of project and accuracy of information
(Source: Maunsell, 1998)
The relationship between the political and management system
is important too. There is a need for two-way consultation, to
ensure that progress in collective learning with the stakeholders
Outcome of process
does not proceed in isolation, and that any critical issues arising
during the process can be clarified. Generally an arm’s length
The desired outcome of the process should not be confused with
relationship may be preferred, but there are examples where
the solution. The solution should not be prejudged, as this should
local and state politicians have been actively involved (or
depend entirely on the learning process. The desired outcome of
participated as observers) because of the local or political nature
the process could be an agreed solution, or a set of alternative
of the problem.
solutions, depending on preferences and priorities, and always
with a clear understanding of the trade-offs involved.

What will be done after the process? credibility will be established by the process, if conducted fairly,
and should be open and clearly understood.
There should be a commitment by sponsoring agencies at the
beginning of the process to make a decision, or to make a Key consultation principles
recommendation to the final decision-makers. Without such a
commitment, any community involvement programs thereafter In summary, useful key principles are (Potter, 1995):
will be treated with cynicism and not gain support.
• Focus on people’s values;
Stakeholders who participated in a consultation process should
be informed of the decisions made and be given an explanation • Ask the right questions;
why some suggestions were not accepted.
• Consult the right people;
Consultation programs have an expiry date
• Be honest about how much power you are sharing;
There have been many consultation programs which did not lead
to actions or policy decisions within a shor t time after the • Recognise people’s concerns;
program had been completed. People, who have been actively
and intensively involved over an extended period, often question • Create genuine dialogue between ‘non-experts’ and
the value of a consultation program with some justification. ‘experts’;
Consultation programs have an expiry date and, if there is no
commitment to implementation, the investment of effort should • Build on common ground; and
not be made.
• Work across boundaries.
The outcome of any program is not always predictable and there
may be sound reasons for deferring a decision. In that event, the 4.4 INTEGRATED PLANNING AND INSTITUTIONS
stakeholders should be informed of the reason. The risk of an
extended delay may be that new stakeholders appear, shifts in 4.4.1 AN EVOLVING RELATIONSHIP
values occur, and the outcome of a previous consultation
program are no longer shared. An evolutionary process with several strands
Leadership but with sensitivity For the pur pose of this document, the ter m ‘institutions’
embraces more than organisations and agencies involved in
Leadership is the key to effective integrated planning. There is a matters where integrated planning is necessary. It also includes
need for a firm handle on the process, yet sensitivity to the needs the regulatory, financial and administrative matters which are
and interests of all the stakeholders is essential. Confidence and associated with them. In the broadest sense the term means

governance. congestion management) and local issues (such as traffic
calming) by local authorities.
The development of institutional arrangements for integrated
planning is characterised by several strands: Integrating land use and transport regulation
• Regulation of land use, transport and the environment to It is of interest to observe whether there is a convergence
control development and transport; leading to greater integration. In the US, there is a plethora of
organisations with regulatory powers, yet the more innovative
• Changing roles of government agencies; States have developed regional organisations acting as an
umbrella for integrated regional and local policies and regulation
• Changing relationships between State, regional and local (e.g. Metro, Portland, Oregon). In the UK, Planning Policy
government; Guidance (e.g. PPG 13) establishes the parameters for
integrated planning at regional and local levels. In Queensland,
• Changing relationships within levels of government; and the very title of its new legislation, the ‘Integrated Planning Act’,
signifies a shift in focus.
• The creation of special bodies, with the specific purpose
of achieving integrated outcomes. In Australia, the principal for m of regulation is through
development plans. Although there is still a major emphasis on
Regulatory changes land-use management in such plans, some innovative Councils
have developed models which integrate transport, land use and
Regulations are introduced in response to a perceived need. The the environment (e.g. Shoalhaven Council, NSW).
regulation of land use has been in existence since the 1940s,
and control has been exercised by local authorities ever since. Changing roles of government agencies
However, the scope has broadened reflecting different objectives.
For example, the location of traffic generating land uses and There has always been a significant degree of co-ordination
preservation of the quality of the environment are now a normal between agencies. Task forces have been established to address
consideration. In some States, such as in NSW, the State specific issues which transcended the boundaries of individual
government has powers to determine regional land uses, agencies. More recently, there have been changes in roles to
develop regional plans with statutor y force, and make achieve greater integration. Some examples are:
environmental planning policies which have to be incorporated in
all local plans. • The strategic planning function of the NSW Roads and
Traffic Authority has been transferred to the Department of
The regulation of transport and traffic is also exercised at State Urban Affairs and Planning and the Department of
and local levels. In general. issues of State or regional Transport.
significance are managed by State authorities (such as

• In Victoria, the overall responsibility for integrating function to develop and operate public transpor t; the
transport infrastructure with land-use planning has been development and management of the regional road network is
moved from transport agencies to the Department of the responsibility of Transit New Zealand. In Portland (US), the
Infrastructure. regional functions are determined by a referendum of the people
living in the region.
• In the UK, the Department of Environment and
Department of Transport have merged, and are now under Four roles for State and regional authorities
the control of the Deputy Prime Minister.
State and regional authorities can:
Transfer of functions is not a new phenomenon. However, it is
significant that this has taken place to achieve greater integration (i) Provide leadership in good practice by promoting the
in policy. preparation and dissemination of guidelines;
Changing relationships between State, regional and local (ii) Establish regional planning requirements and ensure that
government they are carried through at the local level;
There have been many examples of changing roles between (iii) Ensure effective co-ordination with local planning in
different levels of government. In Melbourne, the Melbourne and adjoining local government areas; and
Metropolitan Board of Works, a creature of local government,
performed the role of the metropolitan planning authority, until it (iv) Resolve conflict between authorities, the community and
was abolished in the early ‘80s. The Cumberland County Council, the private sector, when they cannot be resolved locally.
also a creature of ‘greater local government’, established the first
regional planning scheme for Sydney. It, too, was abolished, Changing relationships within spheres of government
when its policies came in conflict with State Government
objectives. However, some greater local government bodies There are also changes within spheres of government to achieve
survived (e.g. in Tasmania) or have been created (e.g. Regional greater integration. At the local level, corporate management
Councils in New Zealand, and Regional Organisations of approaches, zero budget accounting, management executive
Councils in NSW). groups and strategic planning are some examples. At the State
level, the establishment of Departments of Infrastructure in
Whether regional bodies are a form of greater local government Victoria and New South Wales are examples of the search for
or State-sponsored special purpose bodies is immaterial for greater integration. Conversely, there are also examples of
integrated planning. The key issue is, whether they have the further fragmentation, such as the recent separation of the
functions and resources to address issues at the regional level, funding and development functions of Transit New Zealand.
and achieve integrated, and not single-function, outcomes. For
example, regional councils in New Zealand only have the

The creation of special bodies
Sometimes special bodies are created with the specific purpose

of achieving integrated outcomes. Examples are the development
corporations in New South Wales in areas where major changes
are intended. The prime example of a special purpose agency
was the now defunct National Capital Development Commission
in Canberra. It was specifically created to maximise the
opportunities for integration in the planning, development and
construction of Canberra as the National Capital.
4.4.2 EFFECTIVENESS
Which models are the most effective for integrated

approaches?
A literature search of the effectiveness of different models in

achieving integration was not undertaken. However, some
general observations can be made about the criteria for
effectiveness:
• Outcome-oriented - As Carolyn Stone points out (Roads in Figure 4-5 Example of an institutional model
the Community, 1997): ‘... there are significant differences
between bringing together various output agencies,
usually in a committee format, and bringing them together
in an outcome-oriented planning process to refine the • Key internal stakeholders’ participation - Where
outcomes, and to develop proposed strategies and actions implementation of key elements depends on action by
that may cut across institutional boundaries. The latter particular agencies, they should be part of the body
process begins to approximate a situation where agencies determining desired outcomes.
are primarily concerned about the "outcomes" rather than
the "products", which they might supply individually’. The • Consultative processes - External stakeholders need to be
question, whether the best institutional arrangements are involved, to make sure that the trade-offs are clearly
in place to pursue the objectives, which different agencies understood and a collective sense of ownership is
might agree on are desirable, seems unavoidable. developed.

• Outcome-based funding - This is in contrast to the project- performance. In addition, there are different levels of intervention,
based funding of traditional agencies. This practice may with regional and local agencies playing different roles.
still continue, but only within a funding program derived
from the agreed outcomes and action plans. There is a
separate issue, and not pursued here, whether this
involves a business approach (e.g. Transit New Zealand,
1997, Road Pricing options - a discussion document).
• Link with the power structure - Integrated planning will

require political backing and mechanisms to ensure that
there is consultation in formulating desired outcomes.
Figure 4-5 illustrates one possible relationship between
technical and political groups. An example is shown in the
Guide, Part B, Chapter 2.
• Clearly defined public profile - This is an issue which is

often overlooked, but important. There is a need to project
a sense of purpose, professionalism and achievement, to
ensure there is ongoing public and political support.
A co-operative or unitary system?
Freilich (1994) analysed models in the US and the UK for

integrated urban management. He believes that there are
different models, which are equally effective, provided there is
growth management legislation at the State level. This legislation
requires the establishment of regional goals and policies, but
leaves implementation to local jurisdictions. ‘By focusing on
different alternative solutions, which favour a range of interest
groups, they enable a consensus to develop around a co-
ordinated integrated approach’.
This may indeed be a model, but it does not ensure performance.

An outcome based model requires integrated programs, funding,
monitoring and ongoing management to report on and review

Chapter 5 Regional The interactions are complex and knowledge will always be
incomplete. There have been rapid advances in modelling, but
interactions this does not necessarily translate into effective actions. As
Parkin points out (Parkin, 1996), we are not only dealing with
complex technical systems, but also with political decision-
making and numerous actors and agendas. Integration,
therefore, involves not only the interaction between the physical
aspects of urban regions (and the planning principles involved),
5.1 INTRODUCTION but also between the physical, financial and political systems.
Chapters 5 to 7 focus on integrated regional planning and should Hence integrated planning cannot be divorced from the means of
be considered together. implementation.
The term ‘region’ is used here to describe the larger-scale Thus, an exploration of integrated planning involves three steps:
relationships within urban and non-urban regions. There is an
emphasis on urban regions, because the issues are complex; • Interactions (this Chapter 5).
rural regions are outside the scope of this study. It should be
noted, that relationships between regions are not discussed. • Planning principles (Chapter 6).
Regional transport and land-use planning have always been • Processes (Chapter 7).
connected, but there are significant differences in the factors
which influence the relationship between them. For example, the Chapter 5 is primarily focused on the exploration of physical
regional environment (especially issues related to sustainable interactions at the regional level. It is difficult to separate the
development and air quality) have become a major influence in interactions affecting planning, as they are all interlinked. In order
the development of regional policies and strategies. There is a to provide a basis for a potential policy structure, the issues have
need to better understand the many interactions which occur for been grouped into four sections:
the following reasons:
• Land use, transport and urbanisation (5.3);
• to develop planning principles; and
• Accessibility and activity (5.4);
• to test alternative strategies and actions.
• Transport and the environment (5.5); and
In order to test alternatives it is impor tant to model the
interactions. The likely consequences of integrated strategies and • Pricing and funding (5.6).
actions can then be predicted.

There may be argument about the selection of matters under a
particular heading. Clearly all elements should be understood
and considered together. There are numerous cross links
between them, and between the sections in this chapter and
other chapters. Unavoidably, there are overlaps.
5.2 INTERACTIONS
5.2.1 LAND USE AND TRANSPORT IN A BROAD CONTEXT
Transpor t and land use are the result of many social,

demographic and economic forces. Relationships are dynamic
and complex. Figure 5-1 shows some of the relationships
between social and economic factors, transport and land use
(Bjornland, 1995). Arrows indicate the direction of influence:
Any variable can be divided into several important sub-variables,

when an actual analysis is performed. Although some variables Figure 5-1 Transport and Society (after Bjornland,1995)
are not shown, such as the relationship between transport and
the environment, it is a useful illustration of land use and
transport in a whole-of-society context.
We can focus on some of these interactions and produce all

kinds of flow diagrams for a specific purpose. For example, figure
5-2 shows the impact of motorisation on urban structure and the
environment (Hayashi et al. 1994). However, it is one thing to
prepare a flow diagram showing interactions, it is another to have
the information to calibrate these relationships and use them for
policy development.

Figure 5-2 Impact of motorisation on urban structure (Hayashi,1994)

5.2.2 THREE SETS OF INTERACTIONS of these land-use activities has its own movement characteristics
associated with it. This demand for movement has a specific
The focus in this study is on the relationship between land use, pur pose - such as work, business, shopping, education,
transport and the environment, (which covers the centre left of recreation and social travel - and takes the form of trips,
figure 5-1 and all of figure 5-2). In Chapter 3 we identified three characterised by direction (origin and destination), time (peak,
sets of relationships which are impor tant for integrated off-peak), duration (travel time), mode choice (private vehicle,
approaches in regional planning: public transport, walking, cycling), route choice and cost of travel.
1 The relationship between activity and accessibility; The trips are made on transpor t networks - road, public
transport, cycle and pedestrian - representing the supply.
2 The relationship between transport networks, modes and
the use of transport space; and It is possible to predict (i) how changes in land use affect the
3 The relationship between transport and the environment. demand for travel; (ii) how this travel is distributed over the
networks; and (iii) how resulting traffic affects the operation of the
The interaction between these three produces transpor t system. A key element in the development of a
a fourth: costing and pricing - the relationship between the real transport policy, therefore, is the distribution of land use: the type
costs of transport and the extent to which this is reflected in of land use, the intensity of development, the characteristics of
location and travel decisions. the occupants and the nature of their travel needs.
Activity and accessibility Accessibility and land use
The first relationship has two aspects: The transport infrastructure determines the degree of access to
land in specific locations. Land-use zoning, prescribed in
(a) The relationship between development (or ‘land use’), planning instr uments, indicates the oppor tunities for
generating demand for movement (trips) and the transport development.
system representing the supply; and
Accessibility greatly influences development decisions within
(b) The relationship between accessibility, provided by a land-use zones. Decisions on the basis of accessibility may be
transport system, and the land-use decisions based upon made for the location of land subdivision, the development of
accessibility. offices, shopping centres, business parks, warehouses,
entertainment centres and other land-use activities.
The relationship between transport demand and supply
Location decisions, arising from changes in accessibility, take
Land is used for a variety of purposes, such as housing, offices, time to eventuate and are more difficult to predict, as they
shops, industries, warehouses, schools and other activities. Each depend on market and other factors. Such location decisions are

often made without full consideration of the cumulative of motor vehicles, the location of urban development (e.g. impact
consequences. Investment decisions on office or retail on regional air quality), the location of transport routes (e.g.
development in regional centres, for example, can lead to endangered species), the use of roads at some, or at all, times
pressures for upgrading access to these centres, which may be (e.g. heavy vehicles in residential streets) and the design of
costly to meet and cannot be dealt with in the shor t term. urban areas.
Location decisions on wholesale and distribution centres can
lead to a concentration of heavy truck movement and cause Pricing and funding
major changes in the balance between regional accessibility and
activity. It has been argued that the decisions people and businesses
make are based on costs and charges, which do not reflect the
Networks, modes and the use of transport space real cost of transport. If the full social and environmental costs of
transport were charged (for both public and private transport),
The relationship between networks, modes and the use of the the demand and supply equation would lead to different land-use
transport space is important for: decisions and travel behaviour (UK Royal Commission on
Environmental Pollution, 1997).
(i) achieving integration between different networks (e.g.
through and local networks); 5.2.3 MODELS
(ii) achieving integration between transport modes (e.g. Land use/transport models
interchanges);
There are many models which attempt to express these
(iii) allocating transport space to different transport modes relationships. Some have been around for more than 35 years,
(e.g. bus lanes, high- occupancy vehicles, cyclists); and and new ones are being added.
(iv) regulating the use of the transport space (e.g. through The basic land-use/transport interaction model is shown in
legal and financial means). Figure 3-3 (Chapter 3). It is called a four-step model because it
has four distinct stages: (i) trip generation, (ii) trip distribution, (iii)
Transport and the environment mode assignment and (iv) route assignment.
The modes of transport people and businesses choose, the These, and other similar, models estimate the number of people
routes they take and the amount of traffic they produce have a using each mode of travel between each pair of locations in a
bearing on the resources used (e.g. energy) and on the regional, study area asa function of the disutility of travel. They include
local and adjacent environment (e.g. air pollution, noise, through both monetary cost and travel time, the characteristics of the
traffic in local streets, severance of communities). Conversely, the travellers, such as income and car ownership, and the amount of
need to protect the environment may lead to restraints in the use activity at the origin and destination of each set of trips. The

model can be aggregate, which is dealing with groups, or infrastructure capacity on induced demand (UK Commission on
disaggregate, which is representing individuals. Trunk Roads, 1995).
The effects of congestion can be represented by assigning the Some models have environmental indicators added onto the end
trips to a network and comparing the flows with the capacity of of the model, by using suitable functions to convert the trip
the network, using feedback loops to achieve equilibrium patterns into environmental factors: air and noise emissions and
between the flows and the disutility of travel (Mackett, 1995). energy used. Many land uses, particularly industrial, produce
atmospheric pollution, and it is not difficult to convert, say,
The basic model is sequential: one step leads to the next. There employment in each sector in each zone to quantities of
are feedback loops, and iterative procedures, but the reality is emissions by applying appropriate factors. Energy use by
more complex. For example, the amount of activity, the number of industry can be calculated in a similar way. Hence, it is quite easy
people living or working or shopping in an area, is influenced by to calculate the total emissions produced and energy used by
the ease with which people can travel to it (can they park their various policy strategies, with an integrated transport and land
car and at what price?). In other words, there is a two-way use model (Mackett, 1995).
relationship between transport and land use. There are a number
of models which represent this two-way relationship (for further Models have been developed to predict a wide range of
details see International Study Group on Land-Use Transport environmental impacts (e.g. Kitamura et al., 1996). Taylor
Interaction [ISGLUTI] Webster et al., 1988). developed a framework which assesses the impact of transport
policies and adverse environmental impacts over a regional
Accessibility is cr itical in many land-use and transpor t study area (Taylor, 1996). Models were also developed to predict
interactions and this relationship is highlighted in Figure 3-4 air quality in the Sydney Region (MAQ, 1996).
(Chapter 3).
Requirements for integrated models
Transport and environment models
There is an ongoing search for integrated models which simulate
Interest in the interaction between transport and the environment the urban system (e.g. Kitamura, 1996; Mijamoto, 1996, Hayashi,
has been fuelled by the impact of motor vehicle travel on energy 1996, Mackett, 1995). Some of the requirements for such models
consumption and air pollution (Newton, 1997). In the US, the are:
Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 established air quality
conformity requirements for infrastructure investment. In the UK, • inclusion of socio-demographic changes, such as aging of
the Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution (1994) defined the population, women in the workforce, changes in
a number of objectives for a sustainable transport policy and set household structure, industry agreements leading to
a number of targets. It is difficult to determine whether standards different working hours;
and targets will be met, without having analytical methods to
evaluate the effect of land-use and transport policies and added • incorporating technological changes: new information

delivery systems, advanced communication systems in 5.3 LAND USE, TRANSPORT AND URBANISATION
transportation systems operation and management;
5.3.1 KEY AREAS
• inclusion of equity and distribution impacts on different
sections of the community; In this section, an overview will be given of the following key
aspects:
• dynamic and incremental changes, which recognise
changes in the land market; • land use and trip making;
• the impact of policy measures: e.g. transport policies • land-use location and trip distribution;
related to level of service, capacity, parking provision and
transport pricing, and land-use policies related to growth • land use and transport mode; and
management, activity concentrations and density;
• urban form and size.
• sensitivity to behavioural responses: for example, trip
chaining, substitution between in-home and out-of-home 5.3.2 LAND USE AND TRIP MAKING
activities, responses to demand and congestion
management; and Land uses produce and attract trips
• interactive capabilities, which allow planners and policy Households on residential land use produce trips. The number of
makers to explore the consequences of different courses these trips depends on household size, composition, income and
of action. car ownership. Households attract trips for personal services and
deliveries, construction and repairs, and waste collection.
This is a formidable specification and we will return to it in Businesses attract and produce trips by workers, visitors,
Chapters 7 and 14. Further advances in interactive models will deliveries and service providers. Trip attraction and production
undoubtedly be made, but in the meantime there is a need to rates have been determined in most cities and are used to
establish some fundamental principles and that can best be done forecast the number of trips associated with land use and
by examining the principal interactions sequentially. For this household changes (e.g. NSW Roads and Traffic Authority, 1983
reason, the sections that follow will address some of the - Guide to Traffic Generating Developments).
significant relationships (but by no means all), with the aim of
distilling principles for practical application. All these guides provide information about vehicle trip making
and some on expected transit trip making. Little information is
available on the link between land use and walking or cycling
trips. There is some information about the generation of goods
movement related to land use (Ogden, 1993), but much better

information is required before there is a basis for modelling and
management (Chapleau, 1995).
Changes in trip making rates
Changes in trip making rates occur as a result of population

changes (e.g. gentrification with fewer trips per household),
changes in economic conditions (e.g. greater vehicle ownership
leads to more trips per household), communication technology
(substitution of tr ips) and changes in work practices
(telecommuting - small office home office; participation of
members of the household in work; compressed work weeks).
In a study published by the Victorian Department of Business,

Industr y and Regional Development (1995), trends in
employment, work and society were analysed and the Figure 5-3 Goods movement (Chapleau, 1995)
implications for urban form assessed. It was found that in 1991,
23% of Australian jobs were part-time (compared with 9% in
1965) and it was estimated that 30% will be part-time by the year
2000. In the metropolitan areas of Sydney, Melbourne and
Adelaide only part-time jobs increased between 1987 and 1993, It is likely that other land-use activities, such as shopping,
whereas full-time jobs declined. banking and education, will be influenced by telecommunication.
It is not yet clear whether this will take the form of substitution of
Telecommuting trip making; and whether there will be compensation by other
trips to satisfy the continuing need for personal communication
One of the significant changes that has taken place is in and participation in society.
telecommuting. The US Department of Transport (1993) predicts
a penetration rate of between 5.2% and 10.4% of the total US Trip making and available opportunities
workforce telecommuting in some form or another by 2002, up
from an estimate of 1.6% in 1992 (Henscher in Roads in the Trip making is also influenced by the opportunities available.
Community, 1997). A pilot project in 1993/4 with RTA employees People make trips to destinations within travel distances, time
in Sydney found that teleworking significantly reduced travel by and costs that are considered reasonable for the transport mode
teleworkers, without a significant increase in overall travel by used. In areas where there are many opportunities within such
other household members. travel distances, time and costs, trip making is likely to be more
than in areas with few opportunities. The 1992 Housing and

Location Choice Survey in Melbourne and Sydney, undertaken of employment to outer suburban areas. Goods distribution
as part of the National Housing Strategy, showed how access centres have moved from inner to more accessible locations, and
difficulties were linked with income and location (National have become more dispersed (RTA, 1994; Ogden, 1993). As a
Housing Strategy, 1992). Fringe areas and low-income result, the role of the central business areas has changed with a
households came off worst. greater focus on specialisation and a higher order of facilities and
services. Residential and employment densities have declined,
Trip making also depends on the outcomes sought, how much and greater reliance is placed on the use of transport modes
people want these outcomes and the opportunities available, which provide access to destinations within reasonable travel
without a need for using motorised transport modes. There are time.
also differences in short and long-term elasticities in trip-making.
People often adjust in the long term, but are more reluctant to do Despite these shifts in the location of housing and employment,
so in the short term. However, techniques such as Travel imbalances exist. In Melbourne, there are more jobs than people
Blending can lead to significant changes in household behaviour in the workforce in the CBD and the reverse applies to all the
(see the Guide, Part C, Travel Blending). ‘rings of zones’ from the CBD (Brotchie, 1992). There are also
shifts in the location of employment categories. In Sydney,
5.3.3 LAND-USE LOCATION AND TRIP DISTRIBUTION employment in transport and storage, communications, finance,
property and business services, public administration and
Origin and destination recreation and personal ser vices declined with increasing
distance from the CBD dur ing the per iod 1981–1991;
The trips people make have an origin and destination. The employment in manufacturing, wholesale and retail trade and
distribution of trips depends on the distribution of land uses and community ser vices was relatively evenly spaced, with
the networks available, the pur pose of the tr ip and the manufacturing the strongest present in the middle and outer
impedance encountered. Impedance depends on time, distance rings of Sydney (NSW Depar tment of Urban Affairs and
and cost of travel and varies with the pur pose, time, Planning, 1995).
convenience, security and duration of the trip. People are willing
to travel longer distances to work than they are for daily shopping Impact of land-use change on networks
trips.
The changes in the distribution of trips has created considerable
Changes in land-use location pressures on existing networks. The dominant radial pattern of
movement has changed to a more dispersed and cross-
The location of land-use activities in urban regions have changed movement pattern. The dispersal of employment has placed a
significantly. As cities have become larger with urban expansion heavy burden on large numbers of workers in outer areas of
mostly taking place on the fringe, travel distances have become metropolitan regions, such as Sydney, and on road transport
longer. This trend has been offset, in part, by the movement of networks.
retailing and services to new regional centres and the movement

‘Long commuting times for workers in car dependent Increased non-work travel
employment zones (as well as for those in local and regional
centres) are commonplace. For most of these trips, the use of Although trips to and from work are still the most heavily peaked
private (or company) cars, overwhelmingly as single drivers, is a for all networks, the proportion of trips for other purposes and
necessity. Some workers work further away from home than is made at other times, especially at weekends, is increasing and
theoretically necessary, because they cannot reliably get to the congestion is now more severe on some routes used for social
nearest employment opportunities, or it takes longer to travel the and recreation trips than it is during the week.
shorter distance’. (NSW Department of Transport, 1997).
Changes in employment and housing location
Congestion has appeared in all suburban rings at peak periods,
and adaptation ranges from fixing black spots to the provision of The changes in the relationship between full-time and part-time
orbital links in the networks. jobs, noted in the previous section, also influence trip distribution.
The casualisation of employment tends to reinforce the
increasing dispersed nature of trip origins and destinations,
which ‘makes the efficient and effective operation of public
transport on a wide scale relatively difficult and encourages high
levels of car use.’ (NSW Department of Urban Affairs and
Planning, 1995).
As workers recognise that tenured employment is no longer the

norm, housing locations are selected for a variety of lifestyle
reasons and much less influenced by employment location.
Multiple work families also find it difficult to locate near work, if
there is more than one work location to consider (NSW
Department of Transport, 1997).
Exclusive zoning aggravates the problem
The zoning system regulates the type of uses that are

permissible in any one zone. Usually zones are separated by
land-use type, not by their performance. The exclusion of land-
use activities from defined zones, in order to protect the local
environment, has led to a monoculture of land use and greater
Figure 5-4 Land-use change leads to a different travel demand separation of trip origins and destinations. There is growing
interest in mixed use zoning, subject to performance-based

environmental safeguards (AMCORD, 1995), but this is not yet Mode split trends
widely accepted by the community.
The increasing suburbanisation and dispersal of housing and
There is no evidence yet that business is prepared to take up jobs has led to an increase in car travel. In the Greater Sydney
such opportunities, nor that mixed use development alone leads Region, for example, the modal split for car travel increased from
to a significant change in trip distribution (Frank and Pivo, 1994; 48 to 54 percent over the period from 1976 to 1991, while the
Johnston and Ceerla, 1995). However, when used in combination modal split for buses declined from 10 to 6 percent. The modal
with other measures, it may lead to reduced car usage (Moore split for train travel remained fairly stable (at 15 per cent). Fewer
and Thorsnes, 1994). people are travelling as passengers in private cars with the result
that occupancy rates for the journey to work have declined (NSW
5.3.4 LAND USE AND TRANSPORT MODE Department of Urban Affairs and Planning, 1995).
What makes people choose
The choice of mode depends on personal characteristics (such

as age, sex, income, physical ability and car availability), the
characteristics of the transport system (travel costs, times,
comfort, convenience and security), the type of trip (purpose,
urgency, length), conditions at the trip destination (ability and
cost of parking), conditions at points of transfer (waiting time,
safety and security) and the perception of the choices available
(information).
Mode split
The ‘mode split’ is an indication of the proportion of trips made by

car, public transport and other means and varies with trip
purpose and destination. In country towns, the proportion of trips
made by public transport are very low; people without access to
a car, use taxis, a bicycle or walk. Typically about 90 percent of
trips are made by car. Conversely, in large cities, the proportion
of trips made by car is less, especially to the CBD (with the
lowest proportion in Sydney - 15%) and public transport trips Figure 5- 5 Average commuting distances for various modes
account for 25 percent of all urban trips (Sydney). in Australian cities (CSIRO, 1995)

Travel distance and time facilitated access to and between sub-centres. A significant
proportion of trips (13.3 per cent) were made on foot (National
Average commuting distances vary by transport mode and Capital Development Commission, 1984). In 1991, 18% of all
destination. Travel distances do not vary greatly between the trips to the City Centre were made by public transport, whereas
main Australian cities (average of about 15 km), but there are the modal split to the town centres was 13% .
variations in travel distance between modes (Henscher in Roads
in the Community, 1997).
Commuting distance, travel time and transport mode greatly vary

with location. The mode split for cars in Melbourne ranges from
50 percent in the core to 80 percent in the fringe (National
Housing Strategy, 1992). The relative attractiveness and
effectiveness of public transport depends on concentration of
destinations and of trip routes. Public transport is much less
competitive for the average suburban trip, where origins and
destinations are dispersed (Brotchie, 1992).
Can planning influence the mode split?
Matching jobs and workforce has been a central feature in the

planning and development of Canberra. It leads to a sub-
centralised pattern of employment with a lower proportion of jobs
in the CBD. In conventional cities, there is less opportunity for Figure 5-6 Urban density (persons/ha) -
intervention in the property market and a more limited scope for Melbourne Based on Newman et al., 1996
implementing major employment location policies. Canberra was
planned on the basis of districts (or ‘new towns’) with a
population ranging from 70,000–100,000. The proportion of
district jobs taken up by residents of that district in 1981 ranged
from 21 percent in inner Canberra to over 60 per cent in outer The location of centres along major public transport routes does
areas (National Capital Development Commission, 1984). In have an influence on mode choice, provided parking policies are
1991, 29% of people worked in the same district. in place, which discourage commuter parking in these centres. In
Sydney, regional centres, such as Chatswood (which is located
This does not necessarily lead to a change in the modal split. along a railway line and has a substantial employment
The proportion of trips by public transport was less than 8 component), reach a mode split of up to 40 per cent (i.e. 40% are
percent, despite a routing and frequency of service which public transport trips). In centres in outer areas, such as Penrith,

also on a railway line, but without a strong employment base, the activities, but the level of reduction is not that significant.
mode split drops to 10 per cent. In Adelaide, the O Bahn busway, Increased density with local jobs provision will markedly
which runs from the CBD to the regional centre in Modbury, has decrease travel and emission levels. But creating opportunities
led to a patronage level about 53 percent higher on a daily basis alone is not enough; they have to be matched with the
than otherwise would exist (Chapman, 1992). characteristics of the workforce (Young and Scheyschow, 1994).
There is a need for caution on transferring these results to other Alternative forms of public transport
situations. Empirical evidence on the effect of regionally-oriented
measures, designed to modify travel demand and behaviour, Alternative forms of public transport, such as demand-responsive
remains too scattered and partial for effective use by policy public transport, may change the modal split by making public
makers (Deakin, 1990). Likewise, there are limits to the effects of transport more attractive without major infrastructure investment
improvements in public transport on their own. Young and and changing densities. The Dutch Government is considering
Scheyschow (1994) in a Melbourne study found that producing a major policy initiatives with this form of transport (Dutch Ministry
20 percent reduction in travel time, would result in a 3% increase of Transport, Press release, June, 1995). The argument is that it
in patronage. More drastic interventionist approaches may be can replace uneconomic routes with door-to-door service.
necessary to change travel behaviour.
Private cars provide their owners with many private mobility
Residential density and mode split benefits, including:
The influence of residential density on mode split has been, and • the convenience of travelling whenever they want;
still is, the subject of considerable debate (Brindle, 1992;
McLoughlin, 1991; Newman and Kenworthy, 1996). Newman • the flexibility of travelling wherever they want and the
arguesthat there is a direct link between urban density and mode ability to change destination easily; and
split, but the extent of influence may be overrated. Cervero found
that density, when related to transit routes, does influence the • comfort, privacy and the ability to travel alone or with
mode split. However, doubling of densities coupled with land use people of their choosing.
mixes are associated with increases in transit modal splits of less
than 10 per cent (Cervero, 1995). Brindle points out, that the The Personal Public Transport Concept involves (Glazebrook and
evidence is not conclusive and that density alone cannot Subramaniam, 1997):
consistently explain variations in travel characteristics.
• the introduction of new multi hire on-demand services
There is no disagreement that higher densities near major public provided by maxi taxis and taxi buses, with a fare
transport routes create greater choice in transport mode than low structure between that of taxis and scheduled bus
densities remote from major transit routes. Increasing density services;
provides an opportunity of decreasing travel to work and other

• the linking of all modes into a seamless integrated multi- PRT systems may be an appropriate response in suburban areas
modal system by connecting all vehicle fleets to one or where existing public transport services do not provide for cross
more control centres; trips. They are also likely to be suitable in high- income
communities, where wage rates are high and competing
• the provision of real-time information and booking transport systems expensive, and in areas where private car use
services; and is constrained.
• the use of smart cards and customer accounts to provide Multiple-occupancy vehicle lanes
an integrated fare collection and distribution system.
Multiple-occupancy vehicle lanes and other techniques have
been explored as a means of influencing travel demand and
mode choice (Webster, 1988; RTA, RTA [Future Directions],
1992). Preliminary evidence suggests that such techniques can
influence travel behaviour. However, there is limited elasticity for
the work trip (a shift of about 10–15 per cent, Verkeerskunde,
1989) and very little for other types of trips. Road pricing will be
reviewed in Section 5.6.
Goods movement and transport mode
An increasing proportion of vehicle traffic is goods movement.

Comments are often made that such movement should take
place by rail. This may be possible with containers, but the
commodities carried, in urban areas, are mostly bulk products
and manufactured goods (Henscher in Roads in the Community,
1997). Most goods movement is point-to-point pick up and
delivery and cannot be diverted to other modes (RTA, 1994).
5.3.5 URBAN STRUCTURE AND FORM
What determines urban structure and form?
In simple terms, urban structure is determined by the distribution

Figure 5-7 The niche for Personal Public Transport and the relationship of the dominant land uses and the networks
(Glazebrook, 1997) which serve them. The key land use elements are the distribution

of centres and other nodes of high levels of activity, the major ownership and outdoor lifestyle, has led to the spread of low-
open spaces and the location and density of residential areas. density suburbs on the fringes. As noted before, when cities
The two basic networks which determine urban structure are the become larger, new regional centres tend to emerge and mono-
road and rail systems. Both land use and transport systems are nucleated cities become poly-nucleated cities. Jobs have
influenced by the dominant land form. Together, they represent become dispersed and major changes have occurred in the use
the enduring structure of cities; they are slow to change and of the networks. The shift towards increased car travel has
adapt. significant environmental consequences in most cities and ‘the
evidence, that increased motorisation is unsustainable, is
Urban form is defined by the way in which these elements are compelling’ (Whitelegg, 1993).
arranged. Cities may be mono-nuclear or multi-nuclear in their
centres, networks may be linear, radial, a super grid or a Should densities be increased?
combination of the two. Most railway systems are radial, whereas
most road systems are a combination of radial and grid. This is a critical issue and the subject of much debate. There is a
Densities may be concentrated in specific locations or universally strongly held view that densities should be increased and cities
even. Most cities have higher densities in older areas located should become poly-nucleated, with nuclei along public transport
near the CBD, along railway routes and in areas of high amenity spines as they grow (Newman and Kenworthy, 1996; National
(such as Sydney Harbour), but fairly even densities elsewhere. Housing Strategy, 1992).
The influence of land form is a dominant factor in the way these
elements are arranged. Major open spaces and transpor t Moving jobs closer to people requires far less resources than that
corridors can also be significant form-giving elements. of moving people closer to jobs. Unless new dwellings are
located around job centres or on transit routes, they will merely
One of the main determinants of urban form is that of urban add to congestion, and hence to travel times and energy use
density and how it varies over the urban region, (Brotchie, 1992).
Changes in Australian cities Roy (1992) confirms that a poly-centric urban structure with sub-
centres is more energy efficient than a mono-centric city. But
The structure and form of Australian cities have changed. there is also scepticism whether medium density housing at
Railway systems have created radial corridors of relatively dense selected nodes will have much impact on overall urban
activity at all distances from the central area. The road system population densities (Black, 1994).
‘enabled low density infill activity, which watered down the
relevance of railway corridors’ (Henscher in Roads in the There is a risk of over-emphasising density as a panacea. Hall
Community, 1997). argues that ‘a major flaw [by focusing on density] ... is that
[people] fail to understand the nature of urban form and density.
Australian and New Zealand cities have increasingly become car They confuse density with form and ignore the critical factor of
dependent. This factor, together with a tradition of home urban structure as a key determinant in the journeys which

people wish to make.’ (Hall, 1990). Low density ‘growth per se can help to arrest the decline and make more efficient use of the
does not lead to ubiquitous congestion, provided the spatial existing physical and social infrastructure (including existing
distribution of growth is conducive to worktrip- economising public transport networks); and (ii) that higher densities in
behaviour by both firms and households’ (Gordon et al., 1991). developing areas can offer more affordable housing and greater
choice for a given expenditure on infrastructure. However, there
are commentators who question such policies on the grounds
that it might force people into a lifestyle they do not choose and
lead to the demise of backyard gardens and a loss of open
space (Troy, 1996).
There is further information in Chapter 8 on urban consolidation,

mixed use and travel.
Selective concentration along transit routes
Concentrating housing and jobs along growth corridors, built

around public transport spines, and with higher residential and
job densities near stations or stops, may offer one model of
urban structure and form which satisfies most criteria. It was the
basis of the Y-Plan for Canberra, conceived in 1967.
Selective concentration along transit routes is often seen as a

major factor of reshaping urban structure. This was investigated
by Cervero in relation to the Bay Area Rapid Transit System
(BART) in San Francisco (Cervero and Lands, 1997). It was
Figure 5-8 Urban structure and networks found that, in a larger regional context, BART has played a fairly
modest, though not inconsequential, role in shaping metropolitan
growth in the San Francisco Bay Area. Its impacts have been
highly localised and uneven, far from the uniform pattern of sub-
centring that planners had hoped for. Evidence suggests that
Urban consolidation BART has allowed downtown San Francisco to continue to grow
and maintain its primacy in the urban hierarchy.
In most large urban regions policies exist to encourage urban
consolidation. The basic argument is: (i) that the population in BART seems to have also played a role in the emergence of a
established urban areas has been declining; urban consolidation multi-centred metropolitan form, as was called for in the original

1956 plan. And yet, around most stations, few significant land-
use changes have occurred, often for market reasons (though, in
some instances, because of neighbourhood opposition). Perhaps
the biggest difference in station-area land uses, since the original
BART Impact Studies, has been the addition of a considerable
amount of multi-family housing within a quarter-mile ring of
suburban BART stations.
BART appears to have helped accomplish the original objective

of maintaining downtown San Francisco’s pre-eminence as the
region’s employment and commercial hub. Outside downtown
San Francisco, Oakland, and several suburban stations, however,
most employment and office growth over the past two decades
has turned its back on BART, and has oriented itself toward
freeway corridors instead. Far more office construction has
occurred in freeway-oriented suburbs than in BART-served ones.
ESD and urban form and structure
The final repor t of the Transpor t Working Group on ESD

principles, released in 1991 (Commonwealth of Australia, 1991),
made a number of recommendations related to urban structure
and form:
(i) urban consolidation with a range of housing types and

densities (rec 14);
(ii) suburban employment at public transport nodes (rec. 18);
(iii) locations for reduced travel demand and traffic-calming

measures (rec 18);
Figure 5-9 Canberra ‘Y-Plan’ is a deliberate strategy
(iv) urban public transport investment (rec. 20). to influence urban structure and one of the few
which have been implemented

These recommendations are echoed in the Draft Strategy for The real cost of a car-dominant mobility
ESD prepared for Austroads (ARRB, 1994). It contains
objectives, processes and initiatives designed to place road In a study for the World Bank, Kenworthy et al. (1997) analysed
planning, operations and training in a broader context. ESD ten indicators of transport efficiency on 37 global cities, together
strategies have also been developed by the professional bodies with seven broader indicators. They concluded that:
(Institution of Engineers, Australia and the Royal Australian
Planning Institute). • there appear to be no obvious gains in economic
efficiency from developing car dependence in cities,
It may be too easy to assume that there are single models of particularly as shown in US and Australian cities. There is
urban structure and form which provide solutions for ESD no relative gain in GRP per capita or in the percentage of
(Hayashi et al., 1994; Steiner, 1994; see also later in this section GRP spent on commuting; trip times to work are roughly
- accessibility and activity). Furthermore, if it was clear which the same everywhere; transit recovery is much worse and
structures and forms were the most sustainable, they may not road expenditure is higher.
necessarily be equitable. There may be conflict with powerful
economic interests or with established lifestyle and mobility • there are, on the other hand, significant losses in external
patterns of a larger part of the population (Wegener and costs due to car dependence, which have clear
Spiekermann, 1995, Richmond, 1996). implications for sustainability. There are much higher
levels of per capita car use, energy, emissions, and
The effect of urban form on travel may be smaller than is often transport deaths. These costs are still real and will work
suggested. The widely acclaimed UK planning policy PPG 13 their way through city economies. Also, the global agenda
(see Section 3), which aims to reduce the need for travel, may is focusing increasingly on sustainability. Thus, there is an
lead to only a 10–15 percent reduction in car travel under the obvious need to address these differences by overcoming
most favourable conditions. Brindle (1996) argues, that there is car dependence.
no simple ‘transport-urban form link’: ‘The urban form policies,
based on the presumption of a deterministic link between • car dependence - a combination of high car use, high
transport and land use, which are so enthusiastically embraced priority given to infrastructure for car use and low density,
by politicians and non-expert advisers alike . . . fail the three tests dispersed, and uniformly zoned land-use patterns -
of veracity, feasibility and acceptability . . . We need to establish continues to grow virtually unabated in US cities. However,
more useful planning concepts based on realistic decision much less growth in car dependence (and even some
processes - on what people do, rather than what the outcome reductions) is appearing in most other developed cities.
This change seems to be related to the process of re-
looks like. The jury on the "vital link" may still be out, but the
urbanisation.
defendant is not looking very good’.
• it is important to examine the causes of changes in car
dependence further (e.g. the influence of the new
information economy).

• European and wealthy Asian cities appear to have the alternatives on their own merits, whether they are new fuels,
most economically efficient and sustainable transport more efficient cars, less travel, more use of other modes and
systems. Regarding global sustainability, they will all have perhaps, in the very long run, changes in the patterns of
to perform better in terms of car use, which is still growing settlement.’ (Schipper, Deakin and Sperling, 1994).
in most of these cities.
Urbanisation, sub-urbanisation or re-urbanisation?
• Rail transit systems, compared to all other motorised
transport, appear to have the best energy efficiency and All the evidence shows that cities are very dynamic entities and
greatest ability to attract people out of cars. They are the subject to continuing change. Table 5-1 illustrates the forces and
most important factor in the recovery of transit operating outcomes for urban structure. After extensive suburbanisation,
costs, seem to be the catalyst for compact sub-centre forces are at work in large cities, which are now swinging cities
development and make a major contribution to towards ex-urbanisation and re-urbanisation. Planning is caught
sustainability on all indicators. Transforming cities towards up in these forces and a central question is whether, when and
efficiency in both economic and environmental terms how to intervene. This issue will be pursued in Chapters 6 and 7.
appears to need the development of good quality rail
systems.
• Non-motorised transport is highly significant in both

economic and environmental indicators. Cities, which
implement plans for improving the contribution of non-
motorised transport, are likely to see immediate and long-
term benefits.
Overall, the hypothesis that cities can reach a point where there
are diseconomies in too much car use, seems to have
substantial support from the data presented here. No data
contradicts it and all the direct and indirect costs support the idea
that excessive car use drains the economy of a city.
Urban structure and urban form will probably continue to be

dominated by cars, as long as they provide the convenience and
choice of individual mobility. Ultimately, the cost of using cars in
cities may not reflect the real cost. Schipper argues that ‘ unless
the marginal cost of using the car rises to close the gap between
private and social costs, it will be harder ... to promote

FORCES OUTCOME
Location of city URBANISATION

Range of services available
Standard of living
Job opportunities/ prospects
Market
Congestion SUBURBANISATION (I)
Environmental degradation
Rising standard of living
Mobility
Employment to suburbs SUBURBANISATION(II)
Large sites, modern buildings
Services to where people are
Decline population in inner areas
CBD stationary
Increased car travel
High cost of living EX-URBANISATION
Early retirement
Golden handshake
Poor quality of environment
Communication technology
Under-use of central facilities RE-URBANISATION
Desire to revitalise city
Cost of urban expansion
Affordability
Figure 5-10 Conceptual pattern of urbanisation cycle Table 5-1 Urbanisation processes
(based on Klaassen, 1981)

5.4 ACCESSIBILITY AND ACTIVITY Accessibility shapes regional activity: ‘location, location, location’
are the three principles which influence the development
5.4.1 ACCESSIBILITY, ACTIVITY AND URBAN STRUCTURE industry. However, it is a two-way relationship: activity also
generates a demand for accessibility. While it may be possible to
Accessibility and activity in context get a close fit between accessibility and activity in newly
developing areas, this is not necessarily the case after
Accessibility is the cornerstone of a functioning society. In this development has taken place, and both activity and accessibility
century, accessibility has been equated with accessibility by car change over time.
and vast expenditure has been incurred to provide for it. Many
commentators now ask whether the cumulative effects of Defining accessibility and mobility
planning for the efficient movement of the car, or ‘enhanced
automobility’, have led us astray. The term accessibility is widely used, yet often misunderstood. In
simple terms, accessibility can be defined as the possibility to
As Cervero puts it: ‘The supply-side/congestion-eliminating mind reach a location within an acceptable amount of time, money and
set of automobility planning has given rise to . . . urban sprawl, effort (Hilbers and Verroen, 1993). Accessibility is determined by
energy depletion, air and noise pollution, road fatalities, and the transport networks, their capacities and operating characteristics,
separation of people by class and race. In the industrialised and the costs and convenience of travel. Mobility does not equate
world, the automobile has become the defining technology of with accessibility; it reflects the travel needs and behaviour of
built environments. It sets the form and shape of cities. it dictates individuals and businesses. Land-use activities comprise many
the scale of streets, the relationship between buildings, the vast individuals and businesses and collectively represent the
amounts of land devoted to parking, and the pace at which transport demand.
people experience urban life. It dominates what were once
colourful streets shared by pedestrians, cyclists, trolleys, and the Different locations have different types and levels of accessibility;
community at large. And it segregates cultures old from young, these can be described as ‘accessibility profiles’. For example,
home from job and store, rich from poor’ (Cervero, 1997). there are accessibility profiles for vehicular access, public
transport access and access on foot, or by bicycle, for different
Cervero advocates that we should be planning for accessibility, locations within an urban area.
not automobility. Framing our objective as one of making cities
more accessible, inescapably leads to a different approach to Individuals and businesses have different mobility needs and
transport and land-use planning. Not only do our objectives these can be expressed by ‘mobility profiles’. Some businesses,
change, but so do our analytical methods, styles of planning, and such as wholesaling and distribution establishments are vehicle-
strategies. The difference between planning for automobility oriented; others, such as offices, are people-oriented, or both
versus planning for accessibility, Cer vero argues, is the vehicle and people-oriented, such as most forms of retailing.
difference between planning for movement versus planning for
people and places. Both accessibility and mobility profiles change. Accessibility

profiles can be changed by the provision of new roads and public • what is the scale of interaction with the location:
transport routes, by parking policies or traffic management. In neighbourhood, city, country?
some areas, accessibility for vehicles may be decreased, and
pedestrian accessibility increased because of an over-riding Six main groups of accessibility indicators (Hilbers and
need to improve local environmental quality. Mobility profiles can Verroen, 1993).
change with technology; for example, with improved
telecommunications. 1 Egress/access characteristics: distance or travel time
between location and a node of transport network. The
Accessibility as a policy tool criterion used (what is the maximum acceptable distance
to a transport node) can influence the results. It is a useful
Accessibility relates to three policy goals: stimulating growth, indicator if access to the network is the most important
influencing mode choice and safeguarding conditions for factor.
personal development (Hilbers and Verroen, 1993). It depends
which of these goals are being pursued and how accessibility is 2 Position in the network: focuses on connections
measured. The appropriate type of accessibility in policy (network links) from a node to other nodes, e.g. the
applications is made more clear if we know the dimensions: number of links connected to a node or average travel
distance/time to all the other nodes, using the network.
• from which perspective accessibility is measured: This is a useful indicator for comparing locations, where
individual or company, requirements of a transport system differences in the available connections are important.
or government targets?
3 Potential accessibility: the differences in the importance
• which type of activity in a location: housing, business, of the nodes, which can be reached (e.g. time contour
services? map, number of jobs or inhabitants which can be reached
within a given travel time by a certain mode; curve with the
• what kind of trips are involved: commuters, visitors, number of opportunities which can be reached as a
business travel, goods, social traffic? function of a given travel time; size of area within this
curve; average travel time per mode to all opportunities
• what are the target groups: car owners, non-car owners, within a fixed study area). A key question is: what is
elderly? acceptable travel time? It is a useful technique when
differences in travel time between different modes and
• which modes are involved: car, public transport, bike, locations are important.
walk?
4 Actual accessibility can be used to assess the
• what is the scale of location: building, neighbourhood, city, probability of interaction and is based on distance disutility
region? functions (trip models are based on this). The technique is

most appropriate when the goals to be achieved require a existed since early settlement, has become dominated by vehicle
change of travel behaviour, e.g. reduction of car use. accessibility. A hierarchical transport pattern also developed,
dominated by vehicle needs for movement and access. There is
5 Actual behaviour adds mode choice. The real mobility a relationship between these activity and road patterns,
per mode is measured, which indicates the revealed recognised in the planning of new areas, with high order activity
accessibility per mode. High use of public transport, for concentrations served by arterial routes and lower order activity
example, indicates a high level of service. The level of concentrations by sub-arterials and collector roads.
congestion caused by a high level of car use can also be
based on actual behaviour. However, such a vehicle-oriented approach does not provide
choice, does not meet the mobility profiles of all sections of the
6 Activity schemes: focus on means of realising daily community equitably, and has environmental consequences.
activities, desired by individuals. Here the implications of These consequences are no longer deemed acceptable and
the spatial distribution of facilities for the daily activities of pose increasing difficulties as cities grow and the demand for car
the individual can be analysed. It also provides an insight travel increases. There is a need for a balance between
into the mobility needs of people. The drawback is that functional efficiency, cost, convenience and environmental
data collection is resource-demanding. protection.
Activity can be measured by land use, floor space, employment, Accessibility, costs and travel distance
visitors and by development intensity measures.
In the search for a more appropr iate balance between
Accessibility, activity and urban structure accessibility and activity, various studies have been undertaken.
Changes in accessibility have been a major factor in the shaping Rice (1982) analysed the impact of urban structure (concentric,
of urban structure. The radial railway lines reinforced accessibility satellite, linear); activity distribution (concentrated, uniform,
to the CBD and led to higher density nodes along the routes. nucleated); connectivity (radial, radial/grid, grid); and mode
Vehicle accessibility transformed the structure to a dispersed (roads, public transport) on network utilisation, levels of service,
pattern of activity, restrained only by major land forms and the capital costs and operational costs. It was found that nucleated
ability to provide infrastructure. Drive-in regional centres activity distributions lead to higher transport investment costs.
developed at locations with a high level of vehicle access, and Radial corridors produced the greatest efficiency in transport
serve a catchment based on car accessibility. Main roads mode, and a uniform activity distribution provided minimal transit
became the location for activities seeking exposure to passing service for maximum use.
traffic. The seemingly inexhaustible supply of land enabled the
development of low-density cities and towns. Rice concluded that the multi-centred city produced the lowest
average trip length: this has been shown to be theoretically
The hierarchical pattern of central place activities, which has incorrect. Black found that the minimum mean trip length occurs

for a completely decentralised urban structure i.e. number of jobs Major activity centres as crunchpoints
equals number of residential workers in each zone, providing
travellers act to minimise distance in their behaviour (Black, • The problem of matching activity and accessibility is
1985). A more useful approach may be to examine this pronounced in major activity centres, such as regional and
relationship for different modes on transport. It may produce sub-regional centres, airports and locations, where major
different results. events are held.
Self-containment • Activity centres with multiple uses reduce the need for
making separate trips and provide better opportunities for
One of the key factors is the separation between workforce and providing alternative forms of accessibility (Frank and
jobs. The effect of this separation on network capacity was Pivo, 1994; Cervero, 1988).
studied by Klaassen (1990). Even if jobs are evenly distributed,
but the opportunities for local employment are not utilised, the • Activity centres can be located at points in the transport
effect is still a substantial reduction in network capacity needs. system where interchanging occurs. This offers
The impact is even more significant for public transport planning, opportunities for combining a high level of accessibility
because of the scheduling of services. The policy, which with a high level of activity. There are also practical
underpins the Y-Plan in the ACT, is based on this principle and considerations (e.g. grade separation, bus operations),
the results are evidence of its validity in practice. At peak hours, which require attention, before such solutions are
flows are two-directional. promoted.
Self-containment is often cited as a desirable aim. Experience in • Key elements in the planning and development of major
Canberra shows that, even under the most favourable conditions activity centres are the balance between car and public
(leasehold system, ability to influence employment and housing transport accessibility, activity mix and amount, parking
location, and rapid growth during the ’60s and ’70s), the degree and allocation of the road space within the centre.
of self-containment achieved is about 33% (1996 census data).
Activity centres are critical elements of urban structure. Activity
People will travel a certain amount no matter what distance changes are an intrinsic part of regional growth and change, but
(within prescribed limits), since certain needs cannot be provided shifts in the concentration of activities do not necessarily align
for at the local level. As levels of accessibility increase, the with the accessibility available. Cumulative decisions on activity
impact of accessibility enhancing policies will tend to decrease and accessibility are made by different agencies and sectors,
(Handy, 1994). and they are often not integrated. Severe congestion can be the
result and the remedial cost may be unacceptably high.

suburban locations. Although the degree of self-containment has
increased in outer areas, an increasing number of jobs
(destinations) are not well served by public transport. Increasing
numbers of residences (origins) are being developed in areas
remote from railway lines, with the result that an increasing
proportion of commuting trips do not align with public transport
routes and suburban centres. The impact of technology may have
a further major influence on the distribution of employment and
centres.
Figure 5-11 The location of the workforce and jobs

has a major influence on transport flows and system efficiency
(based on Klaassen, 1990)
5.4.2 THE SUB-CENTRALISATION

OF ACTIVITY AND ACCESSIBILITY
Increasing self-containment and not favouring public Transition from pre-industrial cottage industry with no commuting (C)
transport towards a single-centred city with radial mass transit (A), turning
back as employment disperses with commuting (D), moving towards
The significant shifts in employment activity have been analysed C and diverging telecommuting (D1), which is notionally moving
by Brotchie et al. (1995). In all the five mainland capital cities towards the post-industrial electronic cottage
studied, the proportion of the workforce in the city core has
reduced to an average of 30 percent of metropolitan Figure 5-12 Impact of employment shifts
employment. Consumer ser vices have located largely in (Brotchie et al., 1995)
suburban centres and distributive jobs have increased in

Brotchie et al. also analysed the changes in skills and found that retail components tend to lower trip rates. Vehicle trip rates are
white-collar workers are the most centrally located, while blue- reduced by 8 percent if there is a retail component.
collar workers are over-represented in outer suburbs. The most
specialised services with the highest incomes are locating in city The suburbanisation of employment has significant impact on
centres. travel behaviour everywhere. In Oslo, for example, relocation of
offices from a CBD to a suburban location increased car use of
This has important planning implications. In a study of Montreal, employees from 25 to 41%, while the use of public transport was
Gahnnoum and Rice found that the effect of employment reduced from 61% in the inner-city location to 46% in the
decentralisation is to significantly shorten the journey to work but suburban location, despite the new location being well served by
to increase the need for continued road investment (Ghannoum public transport (Hanssen, 1995).
and Rice, 1997). It has a negative impact on public transport
efficiency (see also NSW Department of Transport, 1997). Site density and parking supply affect vehicle trip rates
The impact of suburban activity developments Cervero also found that site density affects transit use. In the US,
a 10-storey office building has 4 percent more public transport
Suburban centres have developed in various forms: office usage than low- density offices. Higher rates of public transport
concentrations, mixed use developments, sub-city centres, usage are associated with higher rates of walking to work. There
business parks and large- scale office growth corridors. is also a relationship with residential density, but the link is not
Loukissas (1990) analysed these developments in the US and strong. The strongest association appears to be between density
examined their location, site, density, land-use mix, travel pattern, (the number of storeys) and public transport modal share.
transpor tation facilities and ser vices, mobility problems,
organisational characteristics, financial mechanisms and regional Size, density and tenancy characteristics appear to have greater
characteristics. It was found that the developments were not well influence than land-use mix in suburban employment settings.
served by arterials, transit or pedestrian facilities. Their design, Parking supply appears to have a relatively modest influence on
mix of use and low density made them very difficult to serve by commuting choices. Frank and Pivo (1994) found a dramatic
traditional forms of transit and their sole reliance on the private increase in the proportion of public transport trips as employment
car created congestion problems. densities increase to more than 180 persons per ha. In addition,
a significant decrease in the single occupant vehicles occurs at
Cervero (1991) looked at the relationship between land use and relatively low densities (between 50 and 125 employees per ha).
various indicators of travel demand for office buildings at
suburban activity centres in the US. Low densities, single uses,
small scales and plentiful parking tend to induce drive-alone car
usage in the suburbs for employment, residential, commercial
and institutional land uses. In general, plentiful parking and multi-
tenancy appear to induce vehicle work trips by car, while on-site

5.4.3 INTEGRATING ACTIVITY AND ACCESSIBILITY
Policy aims in the Netherlands
Policy initiatives in the Netherlands aim to match activity with

accessibility (‘the right business in the right place’). The aim of
the national strategy is to reduce hydrocarbon emissions from
road vehicles by 75% by 2010, deaths from road accidents by
50% and injuries by 40%, and to stabilise the impact of traffic
noise and CO2 emissions.
Two objectives play a vital role in current Dutch transportation

planning policies (Van der Horst and Verroen, 1995):
Figure 5-13 Activity centres
• guaranteeing the accessibility of the centres; and
• reducing the negative impacts of mobility on the

Integrated forms of activity and accessibility perform best environment.
Mode split will be low where there are few choices. Cervero An important strategy to achieve these objectives is the reduction
comments that Farsta, Vallingby near Stockholm, and of the growth in car traffic. This strategy is worked out in the
Scarborough outside Toronto are testaments of clustered, mixed- Second Transportation Structure Plan of the Dutch Government
use suburban workplaces, attracting well over half of the (1990). This plan presents a comprehensive package of policy
workforce on transit vehicles for journeys to work. His conclusion measures, such as pricing measures, the improvement of public
is that: ‘suburban workers and residents will opt for mass transit if transport, extending parking restrictions in central urban areas
a supportive land-use environment is provided, transit service is and land-use planning.
quick and efficient, and some limits are placed on automobile
usage, mainly in the form of restricted supplies of parking and Industrial plants, public facilities, offices for business or
relatively high vehicle ownership and usage fees’ (Cervero, government, all generate mobility of persons and goods. The
1991). amount of mobility generated and the use of different transport
modes depend heavily on the characteristics of these companies
and their locations. It is well-known that public transport use is
enhanced by locating employment in locations with limited
parking facilities near railway stations and other public transport
facilities.

Stimulating the development of these types of locations requires Typology of activity location by accessibility
a balanced policy. A promising and innovative land-use strategy
will exploit the differences between companies and use the The so-called ABC planning instrument is based on two
particular mobility they generate. Therefore, attention should be classifications: locations with respect to their multi-modal
paid to the large variation between companies with respect to accessibility characteristics (the accessibility profile of a
their potential use of public transport and the role of the car in location); and businesses according to their mobility
business travel and freight transport. Central locations with characteristics (the mobility profile of an activity).
excellent public transport facilities should be reserved mainly for
companies with high public transport potential. Companies with The national policy is to reduce avoidable use of car transport
low public transport potential, which are heavily dependent on and safeguard accessibility. It aims to achieve this by ensuring
road transport and business travel by car are better located near that businesses and services with a high public transport
motorway exits. potential are sited on locations which are easily accessible, or
which can be made easily accessible, to public transport (Type
A). Businesses with many employees in relation to site areas, a
large number of visitors and little business-related car usage and
goods transport, should be located there. Preference in such a
location should also be given to the siting of public services,
hospitals and large educational establishments.
Type B are locations with moderate labour and/or visitor intensity,

moderate car dependency and moderate dependency on road
haulage of goods.
Type C locations have a relatively low number of employees and

visitors and strongly depend on motorised transport for goods
and people. These, typically, are highway locations and should be
reserved for production and distribution companies.
Matching accessibility with mobility
A key feature of the policy is to match accessibility profiles of

locations with the mobility profiles of activities. The mobility
profile is an account of those properties of businesses and
Figure 5-14 ABC policy (based on van Huut, 1991) services, which are important to transport and traffic. They
should be determined for both people and goods. The mobility

profile is the counterpart of the accessibility profile. Their relation
to one another can be described as one of supply and demand.
Businesses with a certain mobility profile must be fitted into a
location with a matching accessibility profile. The mobility profile
is determined by the number of employees per surface unit;
number of visitors and/or clients; and the extent to which the
business is car-dependent.
Mobility characteristics
Business and other activities are given mobility profiles. Table 5-2
illustrates the concept (Amundson, 1995).
Mobility A B C Notes
characteristics
Work intensity 3 2 1 Measured as floorspace Figure 5-15 A-Location

(m2) per employee or
worker
Visitor intensity 3 2 1 Measured as floorspace

(m2) per visitor
Car dependence 1 2 3 Percentage of

employees/workers
needing a car for the job
Road freight 1 2 3 Level of importance

dependence
TABLE 5-2 Mobility characteristics
Figure 5-16 B Location

As an indicative measure, a density of one employee per unit of There is a willingness to debate the issue on a regional level, but
40m2 or less constitutes a high employment density, and that of there is not yet any willingness by local authorities to turn over
one per 100m2 constitutes a low density. The higher the responsibilities to the regional level. Local parking polices have
employment density, the greater the opportunities for public been developed in consultation with the local community. To
transport use. A visitor density is considered high when there is a impose a whole new layer of parking controls for regional and
daily stream of visitors forming a substantial part of the activities national objectives requires a new approach.
of the business: one visitor or more per 100m2. Shopping centres
are obvious examples. Car dependence for business is Implementation
expressed through the percentage of staff who need to use a car
in order to carry out company business. Dependence on haulage The ABC policy is implemented through provincial and local
facilities is also part of the mobility profile. government. A ‘whole-of-government’ approach, including funds,
laws and programs is needed to make the policy work.
Linked investment decisions Accessibility profiles are used as the basis for the location policy,
and var y according to location and city size. Once an
The philosophical basis of the policy is on ‘guided mobility and accessibility profile is established for a particular location, the
controlled accessibility (by investment and control)’. It is based question arises whether and how it should be improved. It may
on Cervero’s concept of accessibility, not automobility, planning. be done by investments (road and rail), adapting bus networks
Extensive consultation with business and industry is necessary. and time tables, changing parking arrangements and regulations.
This is linked to government investment and local government Thus, sites can be made suitable for businesses and services
control programs, and by government setting an example in the whose mobility profile qualifies them for that particular location.
location of its own activities. An integrated location and
accessibility policy is not the only means, ‘but a strategically While adaptation of the accessibility of centres takes time and
effective means of grasping the problem by the root through a interim arrangements may need to be made, with such a location
combined application of methods aimed at influencing the use of policy in place, there is a basis for an integrated infrastructure
space and the mobility geared towards it.’ (Van Huut, 1991) investment program in transport.
Regional parking policies Setting targets
Improving accessibility for alternative transport modes is one part The classification of A-, B- and C-locations in the Netherlands is
of the policy; restricting parking is another. However, this is not used in setting targets. For example, in order to reduce car use in
an easy task, because there are conflicting interests between commuter travel, a target of 20% is set for car use at A-locations
central, regional and local government, and between the public and 35% at B-locations (Van Huut, 1991). This means that the
and private sector. Some local governments are reluctant to use remaining 80% or 65% of the employees should at least have
parking policies as an instrument to reduce car-travel and one realistic alternative for using a car. The bicycle is considered
stimulate public transport (Van der Horst and Verroen; 1995). to be a realistic alternative for distances up to 5 kilometres.

Public transport becomes a realistic alternative when the travel addresses the problem of bulk goods shops located outside
time is not more than 50% longer than by car. The prediction of centres (SA Development Policy Advisory Committee, 1997; see
the percentage of employees with/without these alternatives for Guide, Par t C, R-4, Example). The Adelaide Draft Policy
car use is based on one version of the so-called actual proposes that ‘bulky goods’ shops be based on: retail
accessibility indicators, developed by INRO-TNO (Hilbers and showrooms; the types of goods that are sold; the large area
Verroen 1993). needed for handling storage and display; and direct vehicular
access. These criteria suggest a C location.
Plans based on these policies need to classify business and
services according to their mobility profiles. The plans are based The Draft Policy proposes that bulky goods be accommodated in
on an examination whether there is a match between zones which exclude normal shops and are located in the
accessibility and mobility and on the desired accessibility profiles following order of preference:
of centres. They must contain a package of measures designed
to make progress towards the desired accessibility/activity 1. in centres or on the edge of centres;
outcome.
2. in one of a limited number of areas zoned specifically for
The plans should also contain information about land distribution ‘bulky goods’; or
and acquisition. New planning policies and regulations may be
necessar y. Co-ordination and communication dur ing 3. outside centres only if proposals cannot locate in sites 1
implementation are also specified. Much consultation is needed or 2, and only if the criteria of other policies described
and timely and clear information is essential (see the Guide, Part here are met.
C, R-3, Example, and L-1).
5.5 TRANSPORT AND THE ENVIRONMENT
Out-of-centre shopping
5.5.1 A RANGE OF ISSUES
How do out-of-town centres fit into such a model? Retailing is
one of the most difficult uses to consider, especially bulk Transport and the environment in context
shopping. The Dutch have never allowed out-of-centre shopping
(and it is therefore not an issue with its ABC policy). The French The relationship between transport and the environment has
have now placed a moratorium on such developments because become a major issue, especially in large urban areas.
of their adverse effect on urban centres. In the UK guidelines Sustainable development has become part of our vocabulary and
have been issued, which make it difficult to develop them (see Agenda 21 has brought wider public involvement and greater
the Guide, Part C, R-4 Preferred locations: the sequential expectations of the planning system in many countries. The
approach). community has become concerned about road safety, air quality,
noise, amenity and other impacts of cars and trucks. One of the
In South Australia, a centres policy has been developed which key questions is whether the demand for using cars and trucks

can be reduced. Should limits be set on the level of vehicle meteorological conditions, urbanisation and motorisation. Recent
emissions created and can greater protection from impacts be studies in the Sydney Region have shown that there are areas
built into the urban environment? where development has a much greater impact on air quality
than in others (NSW Environment Protection Agency, 1995), and
In this section, the focus is on air quality because it is relevant at any further development in such areas should be avoided.
the regional level. Energy use is not addressed, athough it raises
similar issues as those associated with air quality. Road safety, Air pollution and health
amenity and other environmental concerns are addressed in
Chapters 8, 9 and 12. An assessment of the health costs of road vehicle emissions in
Australia, prepared for the National Road Transport Commission,
5.5.2 AIR QUALITY AND URBANISATION suggests that the air quality of Australian cities tends to be
relatively unpolluted compared with cities in the United States
How serious is the problem of air pollution in Australia? and Europe (Henscher in Roads in the Community, 1997).
However, recent studies suggest that air pollution is a major
In Australian cities, emissions from road transport represent health threat even at levels once thought to be safe, and that it
may affect the health of up to 40 percent of the population (SMH
• over half of all emissions of hydrocarbons and oxides of 27.5.1996).
nitrogen;
An important measure is the frequency in which acceptable
• almost 80% of carbon monoxide; and levels of exposure are exceeded. This varies from city to city, and
how often actual levels are exceeding safe levels. With this
• depending on the season, from 10–50% of fine airborne caveat, ‘the pollutants NOx, CO and SO2 do not currently, and
particles (Carruthers I., 1997), The Australian Perspective are not expected within the foreseeable future, to reach
- National Conference papers on Transport Strategies and unacceptable levels. Atmospheric lead levels have been
Solutions for Greater Sydney, NRMA Clean Air 2000). excessive, but with the reduction in use of leaded fuel, future
atmospheric lead concentrations for Melbourne are estimated to
In general, the concentration of common pollutants within the remain below the existing acceptable level of 1.5 mg/m3 as well
major urban airsheds are below the national guidelines and low as the proposed tighter level of 1.0 mg/m3. Ozone at levels
by world standards. The outlook is less rosy with respect to above the current one-hour standard of 0.12 ppm, which is the
photochemical smog or ‘ozone’ and in areas of rapid urban threshold for definite health risk, occurred in Sydney and
growth, such as western Sydney, motor vehicle emissions are, Melbourne an average of 3 days over the period 1989–1993. In
and are likely to remain, a major cause of concern. Victoria this rose to 17 days, when ozone exceeded the 0.08
ppm one-hour standard (the range of uncertain health risk)’
There are significant differences in air quality between cities. The (Henscher in Roads in the Community, 1996).
differences are caused by a combination of land form, climate,

The notion of ‘acceptable level of exposure’ is subject to change restricted zone; mandatory no-drive days.
as the results of further research become available. There are
fears that there is no safe level of air pollution, and there is • Land use/location strategies - Redirecting employment
mounting evidence that even low levels of airborne particles growth and housing development; increasing densities at
known as PM10 particles have serious health consequences regional centres; pedestrian-friendly design; jobs-housing
(SMH 27.5.1996). integration; reduced parking requirements; increased
housing density.
Global climate change and vehicle emissions
• Pricing strategies - Fuel tax increase; clean fuel
The transport sector is a major source of greenhouse gas incentives; highway toll policies; road pricing; transit
emissions and its share is increasing. There are three ways to subsidy or tax concession in lieu of free workplace
reduce greenhouse gases from the transport sector (Savouris, parking; parking charges in centres and suburbs;
1997): transportation development contributions.
• reduce vehicle kilometres travelled (VKT); Many of these aspects have been addressed in other sections.
• improve the efficiency of petrol driven cars; and Strategies to reduce the demand for using cars for travel
• reduce the carbon content of fuels and emissions. As Henscher points out, draconian measures would be required
to reduce the use of automobiles and trucks sufficiently in order
VKT Strategies to ‘solve’ environmental problems. The desired responses would
either have to be a switch to public transport and/or a reduction
There are four sets of strategies to influence the vehicle in travel. ‘If we observe that only 8% of all urban passenger
kilometres travelled (VKT) (Kim and Hanley, 1995): movements are by public transport, a very small switch away
from the automobile of say 1 percentage point is a 10 percent
• Mode choice strategies - Short-term transit improvements increase in public transport patronage. This is huge for public
(including the improvement of operations, reduction of transport, but is negligible for car use. The implications for public
headways, expanded feeder services, personal public transport investment, if it is to avoid a major capacity crisis, is a
transport, park and ride facilities); mid- and long-term sizeable cost outlay in public transport facilities at a level, which
transit improvements (including expanded rail systems); is unlikely to be affordable and hence suppor ted by any
reductions in fares; providing bicycle facilities and government in Australia, especially if it is a rail-based investment’
lanes/zones for common carriers. (Henscher in Roads in the Community, 1997).
• VKT reduction strategies - Ridesharing incentives; high-

occupancy vehicle lanes; telecommuting; CBD traffic

Travel demand strategies Technology
The impact of travel demand strategies on drive-alone behaviour The United States, in seeking to reduce emissions, is focusing on
was studied in the Los Angeles Metropolitan Area. The strategies technological improvements. Considerable progress has been
were classified as financial incentives (which included transit made, and there is potential for developing cleaner fuels and
subsidy, employee parking subsidy, carpool/vanpool subsidy), more effective inspection and maintenance programs. Zero
flexible work schedules (including flexible work hours, emissions is an achievable target in the long term (Savouris,
telecommuting program, compressed work week program), and 1997).
assistance programs (including employer-based matching
programs, guaranteed ride home). It was concluded that ‘A Underwood provides a useful overview of options and actions in
successful travel demand management strategy should be built Australia and New Zealand. He suggests the introduction of
around a core of financial incentives, regardless of the land use national average fuel consumption targets (6L/100km by the year
and urban design characteristics of a particular site’ (Cambridge 2005), a review of standards, and incentives to encourage the
Systematics 1994, 4-1). use of non-polluting fuels and engines (Underwood, 1996).
Effectiveness of transport control measures New developments in automotive engineering also offer
opportunities. Examples are the ‘hybrid vehicle’ and ‘ultra-light
Apogee Research (1994) reviewed the literature on transport vehicle’. Hybrid vehicles propel the vehicle with electric motors
control measures (TCMs) to identify their effectiveness in and store sufficient electric energy on-board to be released at
reducing regional emissions and concludes that pricing has the the time of special needs. The petrol engine, which generates the
strongest impact on reducing emissions of mobile sources. Land- electricity, can be much smaller and lighter, leading to a fuel
use planning, telecommuting and compressed work weeks saving of 50% and a reduction in emissions by 90%.
appear to have high potential to reduce the impact, although the
evidence on the latter is currently still speculative (Roads in the The ultra-light vehicle involves the replacement of steel with
Community, 1997). composite lightweight materials and other improvements. By
combining these two concepts a ‘hypercar’ has been developed
Another study identified the contribution different transport in the US with fuel consumption being reduced to 10–20% of
demand strategies make to a reduction in car trips (JNK & current consumption and air pollution to almost zero levels
Associates, Inc., 1995, Report prepared for the Department of (Pearman, 1997).
Environmental Quality, Oregon). Details are provided in the
Guide, Part C, R-14. Land-use strategies
The relationship between urbanisation, motorisation and the

environment nexus was studied by Hayashi et al. (1994).
Suburbanisation increases trip length and, if it occurs in a

sprawling manner, not enough transport infrastructure can be ways, may not be the real issue; it may be the price we have paid
provided to meet the transport demand. Consequently, there will for the bargain.
be more congestion and energy consumption. Hence, the supply
of transport infrastructure is a major factor influencing the The critical question is the balance between private accessibility
development pattern. Rail supply contributes to the development and the preservation of the quality of the environment. As the
in the areas surrounding the stations, but road development in evidence shows, the quality of the environment is at stake. The
general causes suburbanisation and ribbon development. real costs have not been taken into account and the pricing
However, it was also found that the price of petrol was a major mechanisms do not yet reflect them. Integrated approaches need
determinant: cheaper petrol encourages long-distance travel and to give greater weight to the environment than has been the case
housing location in remote areas. in the past.
It is claimed that cities with the highest public transport use

(particularly trams and trains) and high densities have the lowest
greenhouse gas emissions, because public transpor t and
particularly rail modes eliminate more car trips than a simple
door-to-door relationship (Newman in National Housing Strategy,
1992). Newman argues that cities built around public transport
should be less prone to air pollution. This is supported by
Pearman (1997), who adds that corridor development along
major public transport routes, from the air quality point of view,
performs better than both compact and dispersed development
(see also Newton, 1997).
5.5.3 PROSPECTS
Increasing significance of the quality of the environment
The relationship between land use, transport and environmental

planning has developed into something more than just a
technical issue. It touches the heart of our cities and the Figure 5-17 Income/petrol price ratio and petrol consumption
directions we choose for their future. The dilemma in which we (Based on French Hillary,1990)
are placed is aptly summed up by Peter Hall (Hall, 1995): ‘We
made a Faustian bargain with the car. Now the bill is coming in,
but, like people deranged, we do not know how to face the
reality’. And yet, the car, which has enriched our lives in many

The dilemma prepared to pay. The crucial question remains whether these
attitudes will be reflected in changed behaviour.
The dilemma is that expectations of sustainable approaches
have increased, while funding for transport infrastructure has 5.6 PRICING AND FUNDING
decreased.
5.6.1 INFRASTRUCTURE PRICING
Community perception
Infrastructure decisions are central issues
Apart from the incidence of air pollution and an exploration of the
range of strategies, it is also important to discover community Investment decisions on infrastructure are important for several
perception of pollution and what should be done about it. A reasons. There is increased competition for limited funds, and
survey undertaken by the NRMA (1995) in the greater Sydney priorities have to be set for the kind and location of infrastructure
Region showed that air pollution is perceived as the most in the shor t and long term. Should expenditure on public
important environmental issue, and that vehicle emissions are transport provision be increased relative to the provision of
seen as the major cause of air pollution. increased road capacity? Should parking provision and charges
be set at levels to encourage use of non-car based transport
It was also found that many people are waiting to be led to modes?
appropriate behaviour, but perceive their options as limited with
the use of their car. There is a segment of the community, which Increasing congestion on existing road systems require public
is ‘hungry to be motivated’ and wishes to undertake more authorities to make maximum use of the existing infrastructure. It
sensitive action to improve the environment, but there is also a has been proposed that pricing be used to regulate the use of
segment which does not wish to change its behaviour for the road and parking system and to give priority to different types
environmental purposes. of users at particular times. Assuming that the real costs and
benefits of providing and operating the transpor t system
The NRMA survey also provided information on what people (including par king) can be established (see UK Royal
consider to be the most realistic actions: walk on short trips Commission on Environmental pollution, 1997), would people’s
instead of driving (79%); drive more slowly/smoothly (68%); more choice of transport mode be influenced and lead to different land-
regular maintenance of car (64%); not drive in peak hours unless use investment decisions?
necessary (63%); share a ride (57%); take public transport during
day (44%); take public transport to work sometimes (34%); and Improving the competitive edge of public transport
take public transport in the evening (22%). The survey also found
that people are prepared to pay more, if air pollution could be Commenting on the experience in Canadian cities, Yencken
reduced. (1996) points out that the proportion of trips, made by public
transport in Canadian cities is higher than in Australia, and that
The survey did not establish how much more people were much of this is due to sensible infrastructure investment

decisions. He argues that the competitive performance of non-car developers for services and amenities, which need to be
based modes in Australian cities should be increased, that provided as a consequence of particular developments. Although
targets be set and tenders be invited for the provision of a significant contributions have been obtained in this way, the level
specified public transport service. However, there is no guarantee of contributions is not sufficient to cover all the costs of
that the carrot of an improved competitive edge will lead to infrastructure development (Barnes and Dollery, 1996).
substantial changes in the mode split. Despite the presence of a
sophisticated and integrated public transport system and high 5.6.2 ROAD PRICING
fuel costs in the Netherlands, car ownership and use are still
increasing (Munn and Patterson, 1996). Conceptual approaches to road pricing
Does the use of the infrastructure reflect the real costs? Road pricing can be based on different objectives:
In order to determine the real infrastructure costs, there is a need • cost recovery of provision and operation of road systems;
to take proper account of all the environmental and economic
externalities when assessing transport alternatives. • a source of revenue;
An attempt was made to address these externalities in a recent • reducing congestion; and
New Zealand study (NZ Ministry of Transport, 1996). Externalities
are those unpriced environmental effects associated with the • a form of transport demand management.
production, distribution and consumption of goods and services.
Social costs are defined as the sum of private costs and external The idea of cost recovery is based on an efficiency argument
costs. Private costs are costs borne by those engaged in the and stems from the need to relate the funding of roads (both
activity, for example, the costs of petrol and car maintenance. capital and operational costs) to their usage. The objectives to
The study produced estimates of the annual social costs of reduce congestion and manage travel demand are based on the
noise, local air quality, greenhouse gases and water quality. The view that roads can be used without having to pay a charge
report does caution that such estimates should not be used as which is directly related to the extent or time of use. Congestion
the sole determinant of policy because of the complexities and pricing is an extension of the ‘user pays’ principle and can be
uncertainties of estimating the value of externalities. used to reduce congestion and/or deflect transport demand to
other transport modes.
Do land-use location decisions reflect the real costs?
Cost recovery
In most States, the externalities associated with a proposed
development are considered as part of the approval system. In The NZ Land Pricing Study (1997): Options for the Future,
NSW, Section 94 of the Environmental Planning and Assessment Ministry of Transport looks at ways of charging for roads to better
Act empowers local authorities to extract contributions from reflect their true cost, and send more accurate price signals to

users and policy makers. It describes the ‘roading’ network as Norway) or fully automated electronic charging (such as in
having the characteristics of a ‘public good’, because it is difficult Norway and Portugal; Saleh and Bell, 1995).
with current technology to prevent non-paying users from using
roads. Once a road has been provided for one user it is available Four main charging systems can be distinguished:
for all. Public goods are often provided by governments, because
the private sector is unable to capture a sufficient financial return • cordon based with a fixed charge;
to supply them.
• time-based charging;
The study found that pricing a public good, like ‘roading’, is
extremely complex. Efficient allocation of the costs to users is • distance-based charging; and
difficult due to the number of different types of users (including
trucks, cars, pedestrians and cyclists) and the very long time • congestion-based charging, with charges depending on
period over which maintenance and investment activity is prevailing conditions.
undertaken. Roads are part of a network; investment in, or
charges on, one road will affect traffic flows and returns on other Fuel pricing as a tool
roads, and this has implications for pricing.
Cox (1996) argues that fuel pricing is a textbook case of market
The study presents five options for public discussion, including failure. Lower fuel prices in urban areas lead to higher amounts
the status quo, a business model and two commercial models. All of travel in urban areas despite traffic capacity being a major
models aim for efficiency in pricing (reflecting the true costs and constraint. The price of fuel is an important determinant of the
including external costs) and modal neutrality (i.e. a level playing amount of private and business travel. Fuel price plus the time
field between transport modes). Revenues are forecast for each cost of travel represents the perceived cost of travel. Hourly value
model and used as a basis for making judgments on the cut-offs of time spent in private travel is often based on 40% of average
for the benefit/cost ratio. For example, the status quo would only weekly earnings. The real cost of fuel is now half of what it was
be sufficient to support an on-going benefit/cost ratio cut-off of in the 1950s. Cox refers to proposals in the UK and Germany to
5.0. double the already high fuel prices over the next decade to
reduce the environmental impacts of road transport.
Congestion pricing systems
Cox suggests that internalising the social costs of road transport
Congestion pricing measures reflect the marginal social and (which in Australian urban areas is estimated at $7.3 billion per
environmental costs of congestion. Three main pricing measures year) would make travel in urban areas more expensive. It is
are considered: road pricing, parking pricing and public transport estimated that this would lead to higher registration costs and
fare structures. Road pricing measures have been proposed in a higher fuel prices in urban areas than in country areas. However,
number of forms. Most envisage charging to cross screen lines or it would have to be done at a national level in order to maintain
cordons, user paper licences (as in Singapore), toll gates (as in an equitable basis for competition between the States.

Assessment of charging systems 4. Payment in advance should be possible, although credit
facilities may also be permissible;
It has been argued that cordon-based charges are inflexible,
because the fixed charging points cannot readily be relocated if 5. The impact of the system upon individual road users
conditions change. It has also been suggested that they are should be accepted as fair;
inequitable, in imposing the same charge on long and short
journeys. It is claimed that they can be disruptive, by adding to 6. The method should be simple for road users to
congestion on the boundary routes immediately outside the understand;
cordon. A recent study in London has also shown that the
performance of cordon-based charging systems is very sensitive 7. Any equipment should possess a high degree of reliability;
to the detailed design of the cordon locations and the relative
charging levels (May et al., 1995). 8. It should be reasonably free from the possibility of fraud
and evasion, both deliberate and unintentional;
Time-based charging and congestion-based charging have been
advocated as being related most directly to vehicles’ 9. It should be capable of being applied, if necessary, to the
contributions to congestion. They also avoid the boundary whole country and to a vehicle population expected to rise
problems of cordon charging. The major concerns are that the to over 30 million in the UK;
charges would be unpredictable, and that they would encourage
unsafe driving. Distance charging would avoid these difficulties 10. The system should allow occasional users and visitors to
and is superficially the most attractive method. be equipped rapidly and at low cost;
The potential of these four charging systems to achieve benefits 11. The charge recording system should be designed both to
in terms of congestion relief and environmental protection were protect individual users’ privacy and to enable them to
assessed by May against a range of criteria:. These criteria were check the balance in their account and the validity of the
(May, 1995): charges levied; and
1. Charges should be closely related to the amount of use 12. The system should facilitate integration with other
made of the roads; technologies, and particularly those associated with driver
information systems.
2. It should be possible to vary prices for different areas,
times of day, week or year and classes of vehicle; It was found that, provided drivers respond in the same way to a
given charge levied by any of the systems, charging for time, and
3. Prices should be stable and readily ascertainable by road for time spent in congestion, are likely to be at least twice as
users before they embark upon a journey; effective as cordon and distance-based charging in reducing
congestion. The reason for this is clear: these two systems, and

particularly congestion charging, charge directly for the problem. New Zealand report points out, the technology and cost of
Further research into drivers’ response in real-time charging collecting charges in area of low traffic density, as is the case in
systems is thus urgently needed and has recently been initiated. New Zealand, may make it difficult to implement road pricing
policy. Assuming that the technology of charging becomes
Integrating signal control with congestion pricing feasible, there are also questions of privacy and equity.
May reports that congestion charging can achieve even greater Technology is becoming available (such as the ‘smart card’)
benefits when combined with signal control algorithms. This which removes concerns about ‘big brother watching you’. The
combination could roughly double the travel time savings equity issue may require more innovative solutions. One of the
achieved by congestion charging and fixed signal settings, even options could be the issuing of ‘credits’ to all motorists for the
without any reduction in total travel. This result arises because right to use private cars on road networks in congested areas.
the signal settings are able to reinforce the re-routeing effects of The credits could be traded (a concept similar to that of
charging. This offers a possible way of making road pricing more transferable pollution credits or development rights). However,
acceptable, since it should be possible to achieve the same there does not appear to be any discussion in the literature for
benefits at much lower charge levels, and with less need to such an idea. There are also practical problems with realistic
reduce overall car use (May, 1995). land-use pricing, especially taking account of longer-term and
strategic implications of land-use decisions.
Flexible charging systems
Road pricing will remain on the agenda
New systems are being developed which overcome the problems
of fixed charging and congestion at the cordon points. In a test Road pricing is likely to remain on the agenda, particularly in
project in Cambridge, the cordon was defined by microwave congested cities, because impact of the motor car on urban
beacons. The in-vehicle equipment measured the average speed environment is becoming more serious. The road infrastructure is
of the vehicle and deducted units from the driver’s smart card a finite resource and there is a need to rationalise its use. The
only, if the vehicle was in a congested area and contributed to notion of pricing may need to be extended to include the full
congestion (Blythe, 1995). impact of land-use decisions, as it is the combination of land use
and transport investment which determines the efficient use of
5.6.3 PROSPECTS limited resources.
Is realistic pricing an option? Political action is unlikely in the short term. There is first a need
for more comprehensive and reliable information on the real
Optimal pricing for roading has to be considered in conjunction costs of motoring and land-use decisions, and on the nexus
with available and potential technology for road user charging. between these decisions and sustainable urban forms and
Ideally, users should be charged according to the costs they structures. When this information is available, there is a need to
impose on the road system and the benefit they derive. As the gain public understanding and acceptance of the link between

them, and for public debate on options for intervention. through the road network to other locations. Thus, while it
is possible to solve local problems by adding to road
In any event, road pricing as a constraint should not be network capacity (for example, by building a by-pass,
considered in isolation, but be accompanied by measures which improving traffic signal control or perhaps through route
provide for alternative means of travel. The real issue is the guidance), this may well cause congestion to migrate to
balance between push and pull actions (‘sticks and carrots’). This other areas.
balance will vary between cities and depends on community
values and political perceptions. Access control and parking
Selective constraints on car use Access control and parking management measures have also
been trialled as a way of controlling demand. In a trial in
Bell (1995) believes that the best approach to resolving traffic Barcelona, a smart card based access system was used to
congestion problems will be to bring price and social marginal restrict access to certain residential areas of the city. The cards
cost into better alignment through a combination of demand lowered hydraulically activated barriers in the road. Such a
measures. Measures should be taken selectively to reduce the scheme received high levels of acceptance from the users
capacity of the road network in zones of high environmental (Blythe, 1996).
sensitivity, particularly residential areas and city centres. This
policy prescription is based on the following considerations (Bell, In another trial in Lisbon a dynamic parking booking, guidance
1995): and debiting system using a transponder-based system was
tested. Here access was limited to those drivers who were
• It is not possible to put a price on the quality of the successful in booking a parking place, predicted to be available
environment, as it has to do with the quality of life. at the time the driver was expected to arrive at the parking
Political pressures will result in progressively tightening garage. The system was fully dynamic and linked to a local
environmental standards and regulations, both in areas computer in order to obtain accurate link travel times and
where people live and work, and in the remaining areas of guidance information.
natural habitat. This implies increasing constraints on car
usage through selective reductions in road network Such urban management schemes, which do not rely on road-
capacity. As the cost to the environment in such use pricing as such are gaining in popularity. Stuttgart, for
environmentally sensitive areas is unquantifiable, traffic example, will introduce a package of measures including similar
restraint through pricing would not be appropriate, and ones to those described above, as a trial.
access should be on the basis of need rather than ability
or willingness to pay. Figure 5-18 illustrates a range of measures and possible
responses.
• Traffic induced by increases in either capacity or the
elasticity of relative demand in one location will spread

Figure 5-18 Possible responses to pricing systems
(based on Blythe,1996)

Chapter 6 Regional planning market forces, life styles and values.
principles The future of cities in a sustainability context may have to depend

on ‘more government intervention and subsequent changes in
individual behaviour and transport technology ... irrespective of
the road chosen, it will be a hard one to follow’ (Nijkamp et al,
1997).
6.1 INTRODUCTION It is beyond the scope of this project to determine the actions to
be taken and decisions to be made. That is a matter which needs
The purpose of this chapter is to identify guiding principles for debate in
integrated regional planning. It involves an interpretation of the a specific context and such a debate is important. However, what
material presented in Chapter 5 and also draws on practical is relevant for this report is to explore what options are available
experience. Many principles are already widely accepted, but and what directions seem worth pursuing.
there will be others where there are differences of view in
interpretation and the principles deduced from it. The approach followed in this chapter is to look for principles
which appear robust and capable of being applied in practice.
The dominant themes emerging from the overview are:
We will first consider goals and objectives, then identify regional
• the search for sustainable urban development; planning principles and conclude with an overview of issues
where there is need for clarification.
• the efficient functioning of cities as economic engines; and
6.2 GOALS AND OBJECTIVES
• the equitable development of cities as enduring and social
entities. 6.2.1 THE BASIS HAS CHANGED
There is general agreement on the need for sustainable, efficient The basis of regional land use and transpor t planning in
and equitable cities and towns. Much of the debate centres Australia’s urban regions has changed. This is evident in the
around what this means in terms of accessibility and mobility, objectives and approaches to regional planning (e.g, Black,
and how they are related to the quality of the urban environment. 1992; Clark on Hobart, Hutchings on Adelaide, Meyer on Sydney,
It is a debate about the role of private mobility, providing choices, and Conner on Canberra in Freestone [ed.], 1993).
quality of life and the management of scarce resources. There
is no shortage of ideas about what should be done. It is quite a From an emphasis on blueprints, there has been a progressive
different matter to determine what can actually be achieved, shift towards integrated processes. While there is a renewed
because this centres around the role of government in relation to interest in ‘visions’ and ‘missions’, there is an increasing

realisation that integrated forms of management and flexibility Social justice - promoting fairness and equality of
are needed to adapt to changing circumstances. There have also opportunity
been changes in the role of planning and the use of incentives
and disincentives. However, the funds for the incentives are In land-use planning terms, equity means a fairer distribution of
drying up, while the disincentives do little to cause a fundamental employment opportunities, adequate housing, urban services,
change in the structure and form of cities. community facilities and environmental quality; providing more
equality in access to employment, housing, education, health
6.2.2 CURRENT GOALS IN TRANSPORT services and recreation; and creating a range of lifestyle
AND LAND-USE PLANNING opportunities for all sectors of the community (C21C).
Recent proposals for the major cities are based on clearly In transpor t ter ms, equity means the need to provide
articulated goals. The goals for the Sydney region, for example, infrastructure and ser vices, which maintain transpor t
are: efficiency, social justice, quality and livability (NSW opportunities for all sectors of the community; and the need for
Department of Urban Affairs and Planning [1995],Cities in the any subsidy needs and arrangements to be transparent (ITS).
21st Century [C21C], and NSW Department of Transport [1995]
Integrated Transport Strategy [ITS]). Similar goals are set in other Environmental quality
recent studies (e.g. SE Queensland, Integrated Transport
Strategy, [1997]). In land-use planning terms, the goal of environmental quality
means implementing precautionar y policies to prevent
Efficiency - making best use of resources environmental degradation and conser ve the biology of
endangered species and ecosystems. It also means encouraging
In land-use planning terms, efficiency means making regions and minimum resource use and recycling within urban settlements,
cities more adaptable and competitive; creating an efficient through working towards self-sufficiency in terms of demands for
structure in the location of business employment, housing, urban waste, food energy, fuel and waste disposal. Furthermore, it
services and community facilities; and better management of means linking mechanisms for preventative environmental
development and the environment in regions and urban areas. protection and pollution control to integrated transport and land-
use planning policies (C21C).
In transport terms, efficiency means the need to ensure the
appropriate quality and type of transpor t resources and In transport terms, environmental quality means the need to
infrastructure, at reasonable cost to the community. It involves the improve accessibility, while minimising pollution; the need to
allocation of resources for the best possible use, consideration of improve energy efficiency; and the need to reduce the risk, which
social and environmental costs in investment appraisal, support the transport of goods and people pose to public health and to
of economic development by the transport system, and provision the physical environment (ITS).
of a sound basis for private sector involvement in transport
infrastructure development and service delivery (ITS).

Livability - enhancing the quality of life of existing infrastructure;
In land-use planning terms, livability means developing urban • halt any loss of land to transport infrastructure in areas of
forms, which provide security, identity, historical continuity, conservation, cultural, scenic or amenity value, unless the
cultural significance and healthy living (C21C). use of the land for that purpose has been shown to be the
best practicable environmental option;
In transport planning terms, livability is not clearly defined, but
would include user-friendly and safe travel, stations and stops, • reduce carbon dioxide emissions from transport;
healthy and visually attractive road environments, and clear
legibility of transport nodes and links (including land marks). • reduce substantially the demands which transport
infrastructure and the vehicle industry place on non-
6.2.3 A NEED FOR CLEAR OBJECTIVES renewable materials; and
The Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution in the UK • reduce noise nuisance from transport.
proposed specific objectives and targets to provide the basis for
a sustainable transpor t policy (UK Royal Commission, 6.3. PLANNING PRINCIPLES
1994).They are equally applicable to Australia and New Zealand:
6.3.1 CONTEXT
• ensure that an effective transport policy, at all levels of
government, is integrated with land- use policy and gives Cities clearly demonstrate the essential relationship between
priority to minimising the need for transport and increasing land use and transpor t. As Newman points out, people
the proportion of trips made by environmentally less throughout urban history have shown one characteristic, which
damaging modes; has shaped the nature of cities: they do not like to travel more
than half-an-hour to major urban destinations. He describes how
• achieve standards of air quality which will prevent damage the ‘walking city’ was succeeded by the ‘transit city’ in the
to human health and the environment; nineteenth century and the ‘automobile city’ after the second
world war (Newman and Kenworthy, 1996). The automobile city
• improve the quality of life, particularly in towns and cities, provided the freedom in space and time to live anywhere and get
by reducing the dominance of cars and lorries and quickly to all destinations regardless of location.
providing alternative means of access;
This freedom has now reached the stage where there are
• increase the proportions of personal travel and freight substantial environmental, economic and social costs. New
transport by environmentally less damaging modes, and approaches are needed. There is a global movement for local
to make the best use authorities to prepare ‘Local Agenda 21’ Plans, and many
countries now require such plans to be prepared. Key

issues are the need to reduce car dependence and aggregate are entering a ‘post-urban’ era; (ii) urban fringe growth
vehicle distances travelled (VTK). below a certain density (apparently around 35 persons per
hectare overall) is ‘sprawl’, and therefore bad;
Notwithstanding this, we need to recognise that automobility is expansion above that density is ‘consolidation’ and
firmly entrenched and there is a strong reluctance to give it up therefore good; (iii) urban villages will reduce car travel
(Har t and Spivak, 1993, The Elephant in the Bedroom: significantly.
Automobile Dependence and Denial). Issues about shifts from a
‘car city’ towards a different urban structure and form raise These ‘myths’ are not necessarily myths, but statements of faith
questions about lifestyle, market preferences and business (and, perhaps, hope), because the evidence is subject to
operations. With the enormous investment in urban infrastructure interpretation and misinterpretation. Some of the corollaries are
and land use, it will be difficult to make significant changes, at clearly simplistic and subjective, but until they are tested against
least in the short to intermediate term. objective criteria and rigorous performance criteria, there is no
conclusive evidence to suggest that they are right or wrong.
It is important that we understand the scope for planning in
influencing change. The basic argument is one between There will always be debate about the evidence. As Newman
objectivity/quantitativeness and subjectivity/qualitativeness, and points out (in relation to the Housing and Location Choice
the assumptions made about the ability to control land-use/ Survey), ‘The survey does not provide any information on the
transport interaction. Brindle sums up the ‘myths’ - as he calls it likely acceptance or otherwise of more compact housing
(Brindle, 1992): environments outside the experience of most Australians’
(National Housing Strategy, 1992). This may be an argument for
• There is a symbiosis between transport and land use with innovation and testing, but not necessarily for accepting the
the corollary that (i) cities can be manipulated to produce ‘myths’ as principles for planning.
significant travel efficiencies; (ii) low densities lead to car
dependence and car use leads to low densities; (iii) high There is also a problem of transferability: what may be a fact in
densities are needed to support public transport and one situation may be a myth in another. Much of the evidence
public transport induces high densities; (iv) low-density presented in Chapter 5 comes in this category.
development is not sustainable.
6.3.2 LAND USE, TRANSPORT AND URBANISATION
• Cities can be structured to maximise transport efficiency,
with the corollary that urban policy must be dominated by More compact urban development
the need to create the right conditions for minimising car
travel and maximise public transport travel. Greater integration between land use and transport may be
achieved by containment of growth. More compact cities take up
• Suburbs can be better designed, with the corollary that (i) less new land, make more effective use of new and existing land
existing suburbs are bad and are a thing of the past; we and infrastructure, improve access between jobs, housing and

services by locating these activities closer together, providing • create opportunities for influencing travel patterns from the
better transpor t links, and promoting equity in access start of development.
opportunities (NSW Department of Urban Affairs and Planning,
1995 [C21C]). Land-use structures reducing the demand for car-based
travel
Urban sprawl is seen as both a product and a cause of transport
inefficiency and the unsustainable burdens of the transport Moderating demand for car-based travel depends on many
system. Urban containment is seen as a part of the necessary factors, which are not directly related to land-use structure. There
antidote and a key in successfully integrating land use and are ways of adapting the structure of cities to reduce the need for
transport planning (NSW Department of Transport, 1995 [ITS]). travel, and options such as walking and cycling become feasible
(National Ecologically Sustainable Development Working Group
Growth areas and corridors on Transport, 1991). ‘Urban villages’ (Energy Victoria, 1996)
There should be a closer fit between job opportunities and the
Concentrating urban expansion into growth areas enables workforce. Multi-purpose centres, and the provision of more
greater efficiency in infrastructure provision (both physical and diverse local activities in living areas can all make a contribution.
social), contributes to the protection of productive urban land and
other resources, and creates opportunities for more sustainable Moderating traffic growth is another element on the agenda: car
patterns of movement. By integrating land use and transport in pooling, shor ter average jour neys, greater use of public
growth corridors, there are also opportunities for more efficient transport, and enhanced access to jobs, industries, shops and
public transport spines and urban forms, directing economic community facilities. This may be achieved with measures, such
growth, providing arterial routes for freight movement and as planning transport for the 24-hour needs of people and freight
protecting natural resources at the flanks (National Capital rather than peak demand, by promoting alternatives such as
Development Commission, 1984). telecommuting, by road pricing and legislative means, designed
to encourage shifts in transport mode.
Growth corridors are also the preferred model for minimising air
pollution, but this needs to be verified in specific cases, because Making alternative means of travel more attractive
regional air sheds and movements vary between regions.
Making alternative means of travel more attractive is a robust
Integrated approaches can: planning principle for environmental, social and economic
reasons. Increasing choice in transport mode, which makes
• contribute towards the development of a land-use and alternative modes of transport more attractive and less costly
network structure with a degree of choice in transport than motor vehicle travel, and as convenient for certain types of
mode and time of travel, which is not achieved in movement as the motor vehicle, requires a major effort in
dispersed development; and restructuring cities. Restructuring cities will not be achievable in
the short term. However, there are alternatives without major

restructuring by the development of demand-responsive public
transport systems (such as Personal Public Transport).
Reducing car dependency for journeys to work is desirable,

because it can contribute towards easing congestion and the
associated physical, social and environmental costs. A large
proportion of jobs are not located in centres accessible by public
transport, but are widely spread out or located in industrial areas
and special sites, not serviced by direct or convenient public
transport routes. Application of the principle implies a much
greater effort to fit employment to public transport and vice versa
(see Section 6.3.3). Preparation and implementation of commuter
plans should also be on the agenda of public and private
agencies.
A shift towards moving people and freight, not vehicles, is another

appropriate principle to move towards more sustainable cities and
regions. It opens up questions about network planning, the use of
arterial roads for public transport and freight, and the priority to be
given to them (see Chapter 12). It also affects the location and
operation of freight producing and handling establishments.
Road and street networks can be developed and managed to

encourage the efficiency of bus operation and walking or cycling
as alternative modes (see Chapter 9).
Selective concentration of housing and employment Figure 6-1 Urban village (Energy Victoria, 1996)
More compact urban forms can be created through a variety of

planning provisions, in which land use, density and accessibility
are related elements. Mixed-use zoning and multiple-use sites
provide opportunities for substitution of private car travel with
other transport modes. Gross densities do not affect accessibility
by the motor car (for those with access to a vehicle), but are
particularly relevant in the provision of public transport.

Opportunities to provide cost-effective and convenient public
transport are increased when gross residential densities are at
least 20 dwellings per HA (Pushkarev and Zupan 1977, Newman
et al. 1992). With urban housing provided at these densities, new
routes can be provided to ser vice urban housing areas
developed, away from existing public transport routes. The
concentration of employment in major centres or ‘key centres’
(Queensland Government, 1994) served by regional public
transport routes and local networks increases accessibility to
jobs by public transport.
Sub-centralisation with a high degree of self-containment
As cities become larger, the provision of regional sub- Figure 6-2 Selective concentration of housing and employment
centralisation can offer opportunities for choice and diversity
without dependence on long travel journeys to the CBD and
adding to congestion in inner areas. Sub-centralisation can take
the form of ‘edge cities’ or ‘cities within cities’.
This principle needs to be put into perspective. A high level of A hierarchy of accessible and multi-purpose centres
balance between housing and jobs creates an opportunity for
ready access to employment, but does not guarantee self- Centres perform important roles in the regional and urban
containment or reduced external commuting (Cervero, 1996). In structure, allowing functions of different hierarchical orders to be
Canberra, where this principle was applied, about one third of performed conveniently and effectively. They will perform
people work in the same district. There are always qualitative efficiently only, if local centres are well located and larger centres
mismatches, such as between worker earnings and housing are limited in number. The hierarchy of catchments can be
prices, skill and promotion prospects, and working households. related to the mode and level of accessibility they need (See
However, without a balance in jobs and housing, the opportunity Section 6.3.3). There is a synergy from concentrating a wide
to work close to home does not exist. Sub-centralisation, range of activities. Multi-purpose centres also make better use of
therefore, is an important principle. It creates opportunities for the transport infrastructure.
providing choices in transport mode, whereas dispersal of
housing and jobs reinforces car dependency.

Orbital routes are difficult to create, and road authorities are
looking at upgrading of existing roads in preference to the
development of new corridors through established areas. Orbital
routes should be planned as multi-modal corridors (see below)
and provide express public transport links between regional
centres.
Figure 6-3 Multi-use centres - a concentration

of varied and accessible activity
Multi-modal orbital routes and land use
The shift of employment and housing towards intermediate and

outer areas has changed the traditional radial pattern of
movement towards the centre, and highlights the need for cross Figure 6-4 Land-use changes during the last decades
routes, particularly for long-distance freight and business travel. have led to changes in trip distribution
The provision of orbital routes can help relieve the pressure on and a need for orbital routes
inner areas and many cities have developed them or are in the
process of doing so, and care is required to avoid inducing urban
sprawl.

Use road-based infrastructure for public transport Better use of underdeveloped sites
Road-based infrastructure in developing areas should be Urban consolidation can be defined as using less land for the
planned for public transport to operate at sufficiently high service same amount of development. It is the process of making more
levels to form a realistic alternative to car use. Buses should have intensive use of all urban land. Initially, the thrust of urban
priority at intersections. Local bus routes should not be located consolidation was to accommodate more residents in existing
on major arterials, as there is a land- use conflict between urban areas, where the infrastructure had become under-
people-oriented transpor t corridors and vehicle-oriented utilised, because of declining household size and population. It is
transport corridors (See Chapters 11 and 12). now realised that the principle should also be used in urbanising
areas.
Busways
Urban consolidation makes more effective use of costly
Busways can be used to improve the speed, frequency, reliability infrastructure, increases choice in housing and access, and
and comfort of public transport by initiating various bus priority provides a better integration between land use and transport
measures, in the form of bus lanes and special traffic signal (Westerman in Freestone [ed], 1993). A major element in urban
procedures. The ultimate bus priority plan is a busway rapid consolidation is to redevelop under-used sites with ‘infill’ urban
transit system, in which totally exclusive rights of way with on-line housing (AMCORD, 1995).
stations are provided for the use of the bus service. Such a plan
has been developed for Brisbane (McCormick Rankin, 1995),
and is linked with a land-use policy designed to maximise the Better use of existing networks
accessibility potential at bus stations and stops.
It is becoming increasingly difficult to develop new arterial roads
Routes for freight and economic activities in established areas. Every effort should be made to protect
existing road corridors from development, which reduces their
Provision for freight is a key principle. Most goods movement effectiveness. Making better use of existing networks means
within urban areas is, and will continue to be, by road. The reconsidering the priorities given to different road users on
economic functioning of urban regions depends on goods particular routes, and at particular times. For example, priority
movement by road. This demand is increasing. In Brisbane, for may be given to road-based public transport, taxis and trucks; to
example, commercial traffic accounts for more than 15% of total regional instead of local traffic; to movement instead of parking
regional trips. Freight movements are expected to double in the and access. Travel demand management, congestion
next twenty years (Queensland Government, 1995). Rapid management and road pricing are on the agenda. Some of the
expansion of new economic activities, like tourism, place extra implications are considered in Chapters 11 and 12.
demands on key sections of the road network.

Intelligent transport systems As shown in Section 5.4.1, accessibility needs descriptions,
before it can be used for policy purposes. Cervero gives an
A key element in making better use of existing networks is to important dimension, but there are others: e.g. accessibility by
provide adequate information on existing use. Intelligent public transport or other transport mode; and accessibility for
transport systems (ITS) involves the application of advanced different groups of people. In the context of this overview,
information collection, processing and communications, sensing accessibility means the possibility to reach a location within an
and control technologies. ITS can be used to direct traffic through acceptable amount of time, money and effort. The value we place
optimal design and operation, and assist travellers to make the on time (money and effort) depends on the quality of the
best decision why, when and where to travel, through the destination when we arrive.
provision of information. This decision can be based on such
factors as: where parking is available, where there are delays, Multi-purpose centres as key centres of activity
which public transport services are available and what is the best
route to take. Multi-purpose centres provide a people-place for a diverse range
of needs, available during the day, at night and at weekends, a
ITS can assist in the reduction of traffic congestion and location for specialised services and activities and a focus for
inconvenience to the different road users, and help to reduce fuel transport networks. Multi-purpose centres, especially regional,
consumption, traffic noise and emissions (Rose, 1996). town and district centres, enable people to visit centres for
different purposes and combine these purposes with a single trip
6.3.3 RELATING ACTIVITY TO ACCESSIBILITY (i.e. ‘linked trips’, such as post office, bank, shops). By providing
a range of facilities and services, trip making can be reduced and
How do we regard accessibility? convenience increased.
Cervero (1997) sums up one side of the argument: ‘Enhancing Multi-function centres also provide a synergy, which increases
automobility is and has been the dominant paradigm guiding their vitality and viability. They become places where time is well
transportation investments throughout the industrialised world spent. By concentrating shopping, personal ser vices,
much of this century. Accessibility, in contrast, is about creating employment, offices of public agencies, leisure and
places that reduce the need to travel and, in so doing, help entertainment, health and educational institutions, centres can
conserve resources, protect the environment, and promote social come to life dur ing the day and at night. Mixed-use
justice. John Whitelegg maintains that what most distinguishes developments, including housing above shops, further adds to
the contrasting paradigms of transport planning is how they treat activity in a centre, and provides residents with walking access to
one of our most treasured resources, time. Planning of the the services and facilities they need.
automobile city focuses on saving time. Planning for the
accessible city, on other hand, focuses on time well spent’. As there are nodes of activity in urban areas, so should centres
also be ‘accessibility nodes’, accessible by a wide range of
transport modes and inter-connected. This makes it possible for

people to travel to work by public transport, even if they do not Integrate activity and accessibility
live in the primary catchment area, or transfer to other routes at
clearly recognised points in the urban structure. Decisions on individual transport-generating developments in
activity centres have a cumulative effect, and are often unrelated
Locate employment generating development according to to the access capacity of such centres and plans to increase it. In
accessibility criteria some centres, the point has been reached where the cost to
increase access road and parking capacity has become
More intensive use should be encouraged on the basis of prohibitive and further traffic generating development may have
existing road and public transport accessibility. The Dutch to be cur tailed. There are also environmental traffic
location policy (the ‘ABC policy’ see Chapter 5) involves the considerations (see Chapter 8).
identification of locations according to their accessibility profile.
• ‘A’ locations have optimum public transport and slow traffic

connections. Only labour intensive activities (e.g. offices)
are permitted to use such sites (figure 6.5).
• ‘B’ locations are located at the intersections of public

transport lines and also near urban link roads or motorway
exits. Such sites may be used for activities offering a
combination of office space and production units.
• ‘C’ locations with optimum road connections are reserved

for businesses which depend entirely on road transport
(Van Huut, 1991; Amundson, 1995).
Improve public transport
Major activity centres should be located where they serve their

catchments and are accessible by all modes of transport. As
such centres become larger, regional road accessibility becomes
constrained, while the quality of the centres is impaired by the
presence of large numbers of moving and stationary vehicles. A Figure 6-5 Land use activity location by accessibility type
deliberate policy to improve public transport is required.

Integrated transit-oriented development intended destination greatly influences the decision to make the
trip by car. The purpose of this tool is to reduce traffic congestion,
A key element of the compact city is the planning of forms of make better use of the public transport infrastructure, ease
development, where higher density housing and employment is pressure on parking intrusion and reduce the environmental
integrated with centres and high-capacity public transport impact of road transport.
systems, such as the development of regional and district
centres or urban nodes, ‘transit-oriented developments’, or ‘urban Regional parking policies are needed in all areas, where parking
villages’. Locations near railway stations, tram- and bus-stops supply has a major impact on regional accessibility and the
should be given priority for urban consolidation. High density quality of the environment. For example, regional parking policies
housing within walking distance of railway stations and bus- and may be needed in central areas and inner residential suburbs,
tram-stops may reduce the dependence on car travel, especially because of their influence on congestion and impairment of the
if a number of other design measures are incorporated (Cervero local environment. They are also needed at locations or times,
and Kockelman, 1997 - see Chapter 8 for further information). where there is a high demand for parking (such as special
events).
Provision of transport interchanges.
Regional parking policies can also be used to direct vehicles to
The location of transport interchanges should be carefully preferred locations, such as outer suburban stations. In this way,
considered. Interchanges should be linked with major activity an alternative is provided for travellers to city centres, inner areas
centres, because of a convergence of accessibility and the or special events by intercepting their cars before they reach
potential synergy this provides. However, there is an important congested areas. Park and ride interchanges at outer stations
caveat: there should be little or no commuter parking at these and bus interchanges can help to achieve this.
points. Priority in the use of the road access capacity should be
given to public transport, business travel, goods movement and Transport pricing could be an element of an accessibility
for people in cars, who want to visit the centre. Park-and-ride policy
facilities are better located at stations or stops with low levels of
activity, but with good levels of public transport service. It may well be that an outcome of an integrated road and land-
use plan is to make better use of existing roads than to create
Airport and railway terminals are important nodes and require new ones. Congestion acts as a control on the use of the car and
special attention as ‘articulation points’ (Rodrigue, 1995). the time and route of travel, but it is also wasteful, frustrating and
questionable on environmental grounds.
Regional parking policies should be linked with an
accessibility policy It is debatable whether people should have an expectation of free
access to a scarce commodity such as parking and road space,
Regional parking management is an important element in a and free choice in the selection of time of access to the
regional accessibility policy. The ability to park one’s car at the infrastructure. Hence, pricing requires adequate knowledge

about full costs, technical capability to apply it, a hedge to protect industr y, and warehousing. ‘While there may have been
households, who would be disadvantaged on equity grounds, the perceived environmental reasons for doing this, it is important to
availability of alternative means of transport and community realise that the separation of complementary industrial activities,
acceptance. which results from this policy has the effect of building into cities
the need for massive and sustained freight flows. Planning which
Pricing has the potential as a tool to manage the use of the aims to integrate, rather than separate, complementary activities
infrastructure and the kind and level of accessibility desired, but may therefore have economic and environmental benefits’
requires a shift in community values. (Henscher in Roads in the Community, 1997).
6.3.4 TRANSPORT AND THE ENVIRONMENT
Growth areas and environmental values
An essential step in the development of regional strategies is an

inventory of constraints arising from environmental factors, such
as water quality, rural production, landscape quality and air
quality. This is not elaborated here as it is well understood and
applied in practice. A good recent example is the regional growth
strategy for Auckland (Auckland Regional Council, 1997).
Protect regional environments
In cities where air quality has become, or is likely to become, a

Figure 6-6 Regional parking policies major issue, a range of measures will need to be considered.
Many of those have already been identified in previous sections,
but perhaps the most important strategy is to avoid urban
expansion into areas where emissions are trapped, because of
micro climatic and topographic conditions, or where air pollution
Freight handling requires special attention drifts to established urban areas (such as in Sydney). Models
have been developed to predict the consequences of urban
The development of freight centres, which generate a large development in specific areas (MAQ, 1996). Urban development
number of truck trips has not received the attention it deserves. may need to be discouraged in regional locations, and this has
Furthermore, freight distribution has increased, because of land- implications for the level and kind of accessibility to be provided
use planning policies to separate different types of activity: there.
residential, retailing, light industry, heavy industry, extracting

Protection of urban centres and living areas are discussed in twentieth century. Cities may be turning into much looser units,
Chapter 8. Environmental protection along transport routes is with a greater dependence on technology and the car for
reviewed in Chapter 11. information and physical movement’ Banister, 1994).
Minimise freight transport intrusion How much consolidation is desirable?
There are several principles here: More compact cities may be a necessity, but there are also
voices pointing to the change in lifestyle it requires and they
• Industrial and distribution centres should be located close question whether urban consolidation is desirable. ‘Look at the
to ports and freight terminals and to regional truck routes; wealth and income of most of those who promote consolidation
and discover how many dwellings they have, where and how big
• Major freight routes and hazardous goods movement their dwellings are, where and how long they take their vacations,
should be confined to designated corridors; whether they own a car and howoften they use public transport’
(Troy, 1996). Stretton believes that the detached house mentality
• Land uses along such routes should be compatible with is so Australian and entrenched that people will do anything to
such movements. Schools, hospitals and centres should retain it. He argues that Australians can afford it and increasing
not be located there; the costs of infrastructure to force people into urban
consolidation is inequitable (Stretton 1991).
• Goods distribution within precincts should be subservient
to the needs for safety and environmental protection; and We need to ask the question: what is an appropriate mix of
higher and lower densities?
• Commercial deliveries should be limited to night times in
areas where pedestrian amenity would be affected during How much consolidation is achievable?
the day.
Housing consumers are interested in choice in housing, location,
6.4 ISSUES REQUIRING CLARIFICATION price and lifestyle. The composition of the population is changing
with an increasing proportion of older and single households.
6.4.1 ISSUES RELATED TO PRINCIPLES Their housing demands are different, and higher density living
may suit some of them. However, a large propor tion of
Urban structure and form households still values a detached house and the lifestyle that
goes with it. The development industry is impeded by bottlenecks
There are divergent views on the impact of technology on in obtaining approvals for the development of sites for medium or
structure and form. ‘Traditional city structures may not be higher density housing in established areas. Local councils are
appropriate for the new forms of working, leisure, social and anxious to protect the interests and concerns of their ratepayers.
shopping activities which are becoming dominant in the late

An important question is what should be done when sites with What accessibility for what size of centre?
potential for consolidation are exhausted.
Many integrated land-use and transport strategies envisage
Transport integration in fringe areas multi-modal and multi-functional centres. Decisions on land use
and development are made by local authorities, but decisions on
Is it feasible to provide a balanced transport infrastructure in transport supply are made by different State authorities. There
fringe areas? The issues are: whether densities are sufficient and are few cross-government land-use/traffic management plans
street networks adequate to provide a convenient and cost- and little integration in implementation. In some centres a stage
effective public transport system; and whether such a system has been reached where further development can probably
would lead to a change in behaviour. Sub-centralisation of occur only if all the additional transport demands are met by
activities is essential, but this is not practical in the case of public transport (e.g. Chatswood, Bondi Junction, NSW). How
industry, sites for bulk goods centres and sites for large can greater integration between activity and accessibility be
institutions. Should public transport accessibility be excluded and achieved?
the focus be on commuter plans instead?
Conflicting priorities for commuter parking
Is it feasible to manage employment location?
Should commuter parking be encouraged or permitted, when
Land-use change occurs incrementally. Employers seek sites, cars are parked all day in residential streets (e.g. North Sydney)
which are accessible without concern about the cumulative or compete with parking space required for the functioning of a
impact of their decisions. Governments are keen to attract multi-modal centre (e.g. Hornsby)?
employment, often at any price, and are reluctant to intervene
with the risk that the enterprise may be located in another city or How practical is a regional parking policy?
State. The Commonwealth and State Governments have an
opportunity to sub-centralise some of their activities to regional A regional parking policy may be a key element in transport
or key centres and some offices have been deliberately moved management, but parking controls are usually part of local
from the CBD to such locations (e.g. Australian Taxation Office). planning instruments. Local authorities are under intense
However, this practice is uneven and not widespread, as pressure from local business interests and local communities to
departments tend to resist relocation. provide and control parking, and are unlikely to accept regionally
imposed parking controls. Understanding and co-operation are
More information is required on the kind of incentives and clearly necessary, but where does the leadership and funding
disincentives needed to channel employment location to areas come from?
where they suppor t an integrated land-use and transpor t
strategy.

Finding a balance between the need to provide regional Is the present carrot and stick approach adequate to get the
traffic or local environmental protection in inner urban areas desired results?
This is an important issue, especially in inner urban areas of Continuation of current policies and practices raises fundamental
Australian cities. Although average speeds are low, accident questions: community concern about congestion, access, delay
rates are high, environmental impacts are large, while local (a concern for one set of stakeholders) and unacceptable impact
communities show increasing resistance to these impacts and to (a concern for another set of stakeholders). Is there a need for
any proposals to facilitate traffic flow. more intervention, how would that work and how acceptable
would it be?
How significant is network development and management in
land-use planning decisions? Is it feasible to change the balance between sticks and
carrots?
This is a key question, with only partial answers. There is
integration in the development of major new releases on the It is argued that demand and supply management is no more
fringes of cities such as Sydney and Melbourne, but there is very than a theoretical concept, because it requires sticks, such as
little evidence in established areas. road pricing - which are unpopular, require an understanding of
full costs and the market, and are difficult to apply - and carrots,
Accessibility has many dimensions: accessibility for whom, such as much better public transport before the demand for it
where, when and for what purpose (Hilbers and Verroen, 1993). exist, which the community cannot afford.
These dimensions need to be determined, not only by economic
criteria, but also based on land-use, social and environmental There are no quick fixes
criteria, and be refelcted policies. This could be done by
developing different policies, depending on what is desirable in Much of our urban environment is well established and
terms of transport efficiency, land development, social justice and adaptation will be a long-drawn out, on-going process. Integrated
environmental protection. In some areas, accessibility by road strategies can make a difference, but outcomes will be
(including road-based public transport) needs to be increased, incremental and often slow to take effect, especially at the
but in others it may be decreased. How can a shift from network regional level. Key issues at the regional level are how to adapt
management to accessibility management be achieved? urban regions to provide for growth and change while moving
towards more sustainable and equitable cities, and how to
Activity management instead of land-use zoning? manage accessibility and activity. The UK Planning Policy
Guidelines (PPG13) and the Dutch ABC policy are steps in this
Land-use zoning sets limits to private development but does not direction, but they will take time to become effective and the
promote levels of activity in time and place. How can a shift from consequences, even under the most favourable conditions, may
land use zoning to activity management be achieved? not be spectacular.

More fundamental approaches, such as realistic pricing, viewpoint of the transport industry;
integrated funding and integrated land assembly and
redevelopment, may be required. However, more information and • new policies on compact cities and sustainable ways of
major shifts in community values are necessary before such living;
approaches will become matters for practical policy application.
• virtual reality solutions for a highly mobile society;
6.4.2 ISSUES RELATED TO RESEARCH
• learning requirements in the new information society and
Need for fundamental research the emerging social gaps;
There is an ongoing need for fundamental research which • solutions to financing problems of network links;
captures the dynamic changes in regional systems. A list of
interesting topics (in a European context) is provided by Nijkamp • evaluation of established traffic reducing policies, and in-
and van Geethuizen (1997). Some of these are: depth analysis of counteracting forces (in case of failure)
and side-effects;
• the influence of the socio-economic composition
(lifestyles) of cities on the generation of trips; • design of integrative approaches in transport policy,
including interdisciplinary work with contributions from
• quality of urban living areas and travel behaviour in leisure professions, investigation of relevant choice of
time; alternatives, and participation of major stakeholders from
the beginning;
• new patterns of suburbanization (living and working) and
commuting distances over time; • short-distance cities, compact cities or self-sufficient
suburbs;
• congestion and self-adjustment among commuters and
service companies; • short-distance regions, regionalisation of production and
consumption or focused specialization;
• technology push of new transport technology in the
context of an overall economic development policy; • integrated product chain management (goods) and its
requirements in terms of spatial organization;
• strategic behaviour of the transport industry in preventing
the introduction of (to them) unfavourable environmental • perceptions and attitudes in new forms of transport of
measures; persons and goods (new modes, fast speed);
• support for new sophisticated transport modes from the • intelligent transport flows of goods and persons, within the

framework of new management, and operations driven by there is a need to review, whether they are adequate for
commercial interests; and integrated and on-going management.
• new opportunities offered by sophisticated communication 6.4.3 CONCLUDING COMMENT

technologies.
There is much that we do not know and, by the time we do,
The impact of technology on land use and transport conditions will have changed and new issues will have arisen.
The current concern about sustainable development and the
The incidence and impact of telecommuting is one example, search for new patterns is important and relevant. But there will
where monitoring is obviously desirable. However, there are other also be new factors, such as the impact of technological change
areas for research, such as changes in the location ,which may lead to different land uses, trip making behaviour,
characteristics of activities, in transpor t user information and the use of the transport networks.
technology (modes, routes, congestion, air pollution), and travel
behaviour, in business operations, and electronic charging Clearly, integration between land use and transport is a very
(Taylor in Roads in the Community, 1996). significant aim, but what is to be achieved and how it will be done
will always depend on incomplete understanding. As Brindle
Micro-simulation points out: ‘We must acknowledge that we will be wrong a
significant proportion of the time’ (Brindle, 1992). The most
Most urban models are directed towards macro-modelling, using appropriate response is to combine rationality with inventiveness;
aggregated data. Micro-simulation can offer valuable insights, to look for robust principles, and to be prepared to change as
because they are based on individual behaviour and can be new understanding is gained.
linked to geographic information systems (GIS). Micro-simulation
is not new, but not firmly established, because of presumed large 6.5 TOOLS FOR THE APPLICATION
data requirements. GIS can be used to generate a disaggregate OF THESE PRINCIPLES AND APPROACHES
spatial data base (Wegener and Spiekermann, 1995; Stopher,
1996) and is a potentially valuable tool for evaluation and The principles and approaches lead to the tools, which are
communication. described in the Guide (BPG). It should be noted that some of
the tools are also applicable to local and corridor areas of
The development and maintenance of urban and regional application. Conversely, some of the tools in these areas of
data banks application are also relevant in a regional planning context (such
as road pricing which appears under Corridors).
Integrated land and transport planning requires data sets, which
can be used to observe trends, calibrate models, prepare
forecasts and monitor performance of an integrated management
system. In most cities, data banks exist for some aspects, but

TOPIC INTENT BPG
Urban structure and form An urban structure and form which increase the potential for sustainable and R-1
economic development.
Urban density To limit the sprawl of cities and protect agricultural land. R-2
The right activity in the right To encourage the location of activities according to mobility needs and the R-3
location accessibility provided by the infrastructure and so link private investment in
development to public investment in infrastructure.
A hierarchy of multi-purpose To encourage the development of new centres and adapt existing centres as R-4
centres interconnected and multi-activity centres accessible by a wide range of
transport modes.
Key regional and transit centres To facilitate the development of selected centres as key regional centres and R-5
transit centres.
Public transport and land-use To develop land-use structures which create opportunities for convenient, cost- R-6
effective and efficient travel, and public transport systems which suit different
types of land use environments.
Freight movement and land use To integrate the location of freight handling areas and freight movement routes. R-7
Road systems and land use To ensure that planning of road systems takes full account of land use (and the R-8
converse) at all stages and levels.
Integrated development areas To encourage the development and application of mechanisms to achieve R-9
whole of government outcomes for areas of new urban development and major
redevelopment.
Table 6-1 Regional tools and their intent continued next page

Integrating investment To develop and apply mechanisms for effective implementation of policies, R-10
plans and projects, based on ‘partnership’ between the public and private
sectors.
Air quality and traffic noise To develop, update and apply standards and targets related to air and noise R-11
exposure.
Regional parking policies To influence transport demand in order to reduce traffic congestion, make R-12
better use of the public transport infrastructure and reduce parking intrusion by
commuters in residential areas.
Travel demand management To minimise the need to expand the road system, prevent further congestion, R-13
reduce air pollution, conserve scarce resources and increase use of non-car
based transport modes.
Commuter planning To encourage changes in travel to work by the preparation and implementation R-14
of commuter plans at sites with a significant number of employees.
Travel blending To encourage and facilitate a shift in travel behaviour. R-15
Keeping options open To ensure that the land-use and transport infrastructure evolves in a manner R-16
which does not foreclose options for future generations.
Table 6-1 Regional tools and their intent continued from previous page

Chapter 7 Towards regional The chapter concludes with an outline of an agenda for regional
integration.
integration 7.2 DESIRED OUTCOMES
7.2.1 FOCUS ON OUTCOMES NOT OUTPUTS
In the previous chapter, a range of principles and approaches

were reviewed. However, before applying them in a specific
7.1 INTRODUCTION context, there is a need to clarify goals and desired outcomes.
Examples of desired outcomes at the regional level are:
In this chapter the emphasis shifts from information about
interactions and planning principles to their application. • regional and urban structures, which create opportunities
for sustainable development;
The NRMA developed a ‘Framework for reform’ as part of its
Clean Air 2000 Project (NRMA, 1996). It suggests a model which • strategies for urban growth and change, which make best
is a useful starting point and consists of four elements: (i) policy; use of existing physical, economic and social
(ii) process; (iii) perception; and (iv) provision. In the case of the infrastructure and which limit pressures on land, air and
NRMA project, the objective had already been determined: clean water resources;
air. In our model, determining what it is we want to achieve (i.e.
desired outcomes) must be included. • increased choice in mode of travel and reduction of car-
based travel;
Hence the structure of this chapter consists of the following
elements: • the development and utilisation of networks, which
promote accessibility to economic and social activities,
• goals and desired outcomes; provide for efficient movement of people (including road-
based public transport) and goods, yet take full account of
• policy development; the need for environmental protection;
• process development, including stakeholder participation • the development of a hierarchy of centres, with the right
and perception; and kind of accessibility and the right mix of land use;
• institutional development, provision and funding. • urban villages and transit communities, based on, and
around, public transport; and

• better use of roads, public transport and parking, and in a • Preference to make better use of existing links, rather than
manner which reflects regional goals of efficiency, construction of new ones.
environmental protection and equity.
SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
7.2.2 VISION STATEMENTS
• Use of transport modes and infrastructure to support
Vision and mission statements are often used today as a means socio-economic development.
of expressing desired outcomes. The following is an example of a
regional vision statement. • Balancing the availability and use of transport modes and
services, with the social return of these modes.
URBANISATION
• Taking into account the effect in the use and procurement
• The timely provision for transport and traffic in areas of such modes and services on the budget.
where urbanisation is considered desirable.
• Careful use of those modes, where the costs are in
• The development of housing, employment and service principle charged to the users.
centres is linked with the existing infrastructure,
particularly that of public transport. • Adequate availability of opportunities for transport of
persons and goods to and from centres of economic
• The need for movement is limited by adjusting and activity.
integrating housing areas and employment and service
centres. SAFETY
• Economical use of space, with expansion of the • Traffic safety is given a central place in all urban
infrastructure only, if the transport system as a whole is development and focused on those groups, which run a
incapable of meeting the increased transport demand in a relatively high risk of accident.
reasonable and responsible manner.
• The number of traffic accident victims, in absolute as well
• Infrastructure networks in a course network of main roads as relative terms, is decreased, with special attention to
and railways. the most vulnerable groups such as children, the aged,
unemployed, pedestrians, and cyclists.
• Promotion of the use of environmentally acceptable
transport modes with a relatively low transport space • Further separation of through and local traffic, with
usage, e.g. bicycle and public transport. vehicular traffic subservient in residential and commercial
areas.

• Particular attention is paid to the safety and freedom of ENERGY AND RESOURCES
movement of pedestrians, cyclists, children and the aged.
• Greater effectiveness in energy and resources used for
• High priority is given to a systematic attack on areas with transport.
accident concentrations.
• Reduction in energy use of transport by reducing transport
• A shift from risk avoidance to risk management, needs and the promotion of energy-efficient modes.
encouraging the use of transport modes other than the
private car. • Preference to infrastructure, which minimises energy use.
ENVIRONMENT • Preparation and periodic adjustment of a program for

energy conservation in transport.
• Prevention and mitigation of the adverse affect of urban
development and transport on the natural environment: • Preparation of a contingency plan for essential transport
land, water, air, flora and fauna. of persons and goods in the event of increasing scarcity
and cost of liquid fuel energy.
• Proper consideration of other land uses such as
areas for water supply, forestry and agriculture. • Use of alternative energy sources for transport, and
alternative techniques for energy conservation in
• Reduction in noise exposure in existing situations and transport.
avoiding it in new situations.
EQUITY
• The use and parking of vehicles in residential and
commercial areas in a manner which does not harm the • Provision for the effective use of public transport by
environmental quality of these areas. disadvantaged people.
• Urban development is located and traffic is managed in • Adequate opportunities for access, particularly by public
order to reduce environmental pollution as much as transport, to centres of socio-cultural and economic
possible. activity.
• Protection of the built and natural environment from • Equity issues associated with the implementation of
accidents caused by the movement of dangerous goods. integrated land-use and transport policies are addressed.

Visions have expiry dates should be effected.
Visions may make us feel good, but there is a presumption of 7.3.2 AREAS FOR POLICY DEVELOPMENT
divine insight into the future which no experienced land-use or
transport planner would want to claim. We need visions, but we A focus on key areas
have had them before and whose vision do we believe anyway?
Visions of a grand urban blueprint ignore the incremental and Three important areas of application for integrated policies were
seemingly chaotic nature of the urban development process and identified in Chapter 6:
assume a degree of control, which is not realistic.
1 the relationship between activity and accessibility;
7.3 POLICY DEVELOPMENT
2 networks, transport modes and transport space; and
7.3.1 POLICIES NEED TO SUIT THE CONTEXT
3 transport and the environment.
There are different contexts
Most strategic approaches towards integrated regional planning
The application of the principles identified in Chapter 6 depends are likely to encompass them. They should lead to policies
entirely on what people want to achieve and the room there is to regarding regional structure and form, urban nodes and centres,
manoeuvre (the ‘strategic action space’). The action space is relationship between jobs and workforce, major transport and
determined by the opportunities and constraints which apply in a utilities infrastructure, the delineation of transport corridors and
particular context. Some of these constraints will be hard to precincts, and the reservation for (and allocation of) transport
change. Others can be overcome: e.g. the lack of common goals, space to different transport modes.
the limited charter of organisations, lack of communication or
inadequate involvement of the stakeholders. For example, the NRMA’s Framework for Refor m (1996)
identifies critical policy issues in relation to air quality. They
Constraints also arise from a limited understanding of options concern:
and trade-offs, and of the processes to explore them.
• the contradiction and accountability of public decisions,
Policies need to be developed locally requiring common policy objectives; integration of local
planning with regional policy context; more holistic
Neither the Guide, nor this Resource Document, can be assessment of costs and benefits; and monitoring
prescriptive. They present ideas and options, but it will depend on mechanisms;
priorities and perceptions in each of the States as to which policy
fields of integrated planning should be included in a policy • access to low-density and dispersed employment zones;
statement, which targets should be set and how implementation

• providing incentives for achieving better transport Testing of alternative land-use, transport and environment
outcomes; and policies
• greater public participation in the development of policy It is important to be aware of the range of policies available,
outcomes. when consideration is given to alternative ways of addressing a
problem, and to test them before making a decision. Integrated
The report cites the importance of access to employment planning involves an exploration of alternative directions for the
opportunities in outer areas as an example of areas where future development of regional structure and form.
integrated policies can increase choice and reduce dependence
on access to a car. It suggests that some level of accountability It is possible to make quite different assumptions about the
should be incorporated in the process of employment and ranking of objectives, and different tools can be used. There are
commercial land development. It also refers to examples of policy also different institutional arrangements for integrated
contradictions, such as providing a company car or parking implementation. For example, the land use/transport structure
spaces, instead of tax disincentives for businesses to provide and policies will be different if the objective of sustainable
public transport subsidies in salary packages. development is given priority, compared with, say, least
expenditure of public funds (Westerman, 1980). Different
7.3.3 APPROACHES TOWARDS POLICY DEVELOPMENT combinations of carrots and sticks (incentives and disincentives)
are then required.
Risk management
Cumulative approaches versus threshold approaches
As the future is so uncertain, risk management becomes
essential and should influence policy development. Risk Cumulative approaches start from the existing urban system and
management aims to avoid locking future generations into a explore policies which will guide growth and change over time
vision which may be superseded, and yet needs to provide a They represent an incremental view of planning and
sound basis for decisions. development. Threshold approaches look for discontinuities,
events which can fundamentally change the urban system (such
A realistic and conceptually sound approach to risk management as the location of a new airport). Policy exploration could
is to scan a range of alternative visions or ‘futures’ and then to encompass both approaches.
find the common elements. These could become robust
commitments for the time being. In this way, options are retained Existing policies may need revisiting
for future communities and decision-makers. This leads to
dynamic and flexible planning: ‘statesmen, in mastering Policies have been developed in Australia and New Zealand for
immediate circumstances must leave room for the imponderables many aspects of regional development, such as road safety,
of history’ (Kissinger, 1985). For further information on this topic traffic noise protection and air quality. However, each of these
see the Guide Part C- R15. policy fields may need to be revisited within

a transport and land-use planning context and be placed within 7.3.4 INTERVENTION
an integrated policy framework. A start has been made in such
an approach towards integrated planning (e.g. South East A multiplicity of decision-makers
Queensland).
Society functions by activities in numerous locations and through
Responsibilities should be identified for planning, implementation their communication links. Governments make decisions where
(including funding), consultation, assessment and evaluation, their own activities are located and have policies to regulate, in
monitoring and review. Objectives, performance criteria and varying degrees, the location of non-government activities.
indicative, acceptable outcomes can be developed for each Governments also make decisions on the provision of much of
policy field as guidelines for practical application. Guidelines the transport infrastructure and regulate, to varying extent, the
should focus on objectives and outcomes, and not on standards. use of the transport system.
Development of a model policy framework Individuals, households and private enterprises decide where to
locate and how and when to use the transport system. The
When the key strategies have been defined, an integrated policy cumulative effect of these decisions affects the community, some
framework can be developed for State and regional transport and of them beneficial and some detrimental, while the impacts are
planning authorities. Action areas or policy fields can then be not equally distributed in space and time.
determined for each strategy. An example of an integrated policy
statement is the UK Planning Policy Guideline Note 13. This A difficult, but critical, factor in integrated policy development is
Guideline, issued in 1994, was prepared jointly by the the degree and form of intervention to achieve desired outcomes.
Department of Environment and the Department of Transport for
use by local authorities. Further details are provided in Chapter The roles of the public and private sector
10.
The public and private sector have different policy objectives. A
Setting targets key policy question for governments is whether urban planning
and management should be based on a plan-led approach, a
Policies should be linked with the setting of targets. The Brisbane market led approach, or an approach based on partnership
City Council (1995) developed a traffic reduction strategy for between the public and private sectors. There will be different
Brisbane - ‘Travel Smart’ (for further details see Chapter 9), responses in different situations and they will also vary with time.
which includes targets for traffic reduction: car trips from 75% in
1992 to 60% in 2011; public transport trips from 8.5% to 17%; There are options; this is implicit in the different approaches
and cycling from 1.5% to 8%. It is a useful technique, provided followed in Australian States and Territories and New Zealand.
the targets are achievable with the measures adopted. There are different models overseas. The British model,
Processes need to be developed which ensure that progress is encapsulated in Planning Policy Guidance (PPG) 13, provides
monitored and targets reviewed in the light of the results. strong public sector leadership at the regional level and guidance

at the local level. The Dutch model is based on strong national the impact of new development and traffic on the ratepayers;
leadership, information sharing and co-operative partnerships communities are becoming troubled by the environmental impact
between the public and private sectors. The State of Oregon (US) of traffic on health, safety and amenity; there is a growing
has determined ‘Rules’ on environmental protection, which emphasis on strategic planning as a means of linking long-term
require compliance by all sectors. objectives to short-term priorities.
What intervention (if any) is acceptable? 7.4.2 EXAMPLES OF INTEGRATED PROCESSES
While the NRMA Clean Air 2000 (1996) document refers to The shift towards integrated processes in the United States
incentives, there may also be a need for disincentives. Desired
outcomes may require a degree of intervention, which need The Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act of 1991
testing. Finding the balance between sticks and carrots, or push (ISTEA) in the US was a landmark piece of legislation. It
and pull influences, is a difficult task, especially in large cities. It recognises the changing development patterns, the economic
is an issue which will become increasingly significant, if policies and cultural diversity of metropolitan areas, and the need to
towards more sustainable development become more urgent and consider a wide range of mobility and accessibility needs. It also
trade-offs have to be made. This aspect is further explored in includes linkages to the achievement of fuel consumption and air
Chapter 14. quality objectives. A key feature of ISTEA is the requirement for
metropolitan planning organisations, in co-operation with the
7.4 PROCESS DEVELOPMENT States and key transportation providers, to develop integrated
transportation plans and programs for metropolitan areas.
7.4.1 THE NEED FOR BETTER PROCESSES
The metropolitan planning process, set out in ISTEA,
The Commonwealth Government took a broad interest in the emphasises the link between improved planning and better
processes and application of integrated planning and decisions, and provides the tools for comprehensive planning. It
development of cities and regions (Better Cities Program, 1992; includes six major elements which, together, will ensure a
AMCORD, 1995; Integrated Local Area Planning, 1993; planning process producing integrated investment decisions. The
Australian Urban and Regional Development Review, 1995). process is expected to result in safe and efficient mobility and
accessibility, and in protection of the human and natural
State Governments have become aware that the agencies under environments (www.cei.net/~jerf/highways/istea.html).
their control are not necessarily working towards common
objectives and are looking for new ways to achieve desired Outputs of the process
outcomes (e.g. Departments of Infrastructure in Victoria and
NSW). Outputs of the ISTEA planning process are the Transportation
Plan and the Transportation Improvement Program (TIP). There
Local governments are becoming increasingly concerned about are six major elements in the process:

1 A proactive and inclusive public involvement process; 5 Development of financial plans for implementing the
transportation plan and TIP; and
2 Consideration of 15 specific planning factors to ensure
that the transportation planning process reflects a variety 6 Assurance that the transportation plan and urban plan
of issues and considers other concerns, such as land-use conform to the State implementation Plan (SIP) pursuant
planning, energy conservation, and environmental to the standards of the Air Quality Act.
management; these factors come under three headings:
These requirements apply to local, metropolitan, and State
• mobility and access for people and goods agencies involved in metropolitan transportation planning and
program development.
• system performance and preservation
The approach in SE Queensland
• environment and quality of life;
The integrated strategic planning process for the SE Queensland
3 As part of plan development, major investment studies are region is a new approach to transport planning. It:
conducted to address significant transportation problems
in a corridor or sub-area, which might involve the use of • involves co-operation between all stakeholders and
Federal funds; extensive consultation;
4 Development and implementation of management • balances the future needs for all modes in one process;
systems including:
• covers public transport, freight, general motor traffic, non-
• intermodal management system motorised transport (i.e. walking and cycling), and travel
demand management; and
• congestion management system
• ensures that land use and transport planning support
• public transit facilities management system each other (see the Guide, Part B, Chapter 2 for details).
• pavement management system 7.4.3 TRADE-OFFS AND PUBLIC INVOLVEMENT
• bridge management system There is a need for innovative processes
• safety management system; Processes and consultation are addressed in Chapter 4.

However, there are some aspects which are particularly relevant
at the regional level.

There is still a view in the community that public authorities are • a procedure, which assigns precise roles to players; and
pursuing their own objectives and are out of touch with the
community. This may be a misconception, because there are • the issues involved in expert opinions.
many examples of active public involvement at the regional level
(e.g. Auckland Regional Planning Strategy, 1997). Plainly, there A critical aspect in this process is the sharing of
are people and groups with different agendas and priorities, who information.
are dissatisfied with the decisions that are being made. The
reality is that there are no simple solutions at the regional level The NRMA report (1997) highlights these points:
and that there are complex trade-offs in any decision.
• Ensuring that all planning and infrastructure decision-
Innovative processes are required which enable the community making processes incorporate a practical assessment of
collectively to become involved in the problems, the search for all costs and benefits at all spatial levels (e.g. local,
solutions and the need for making trade-offs to achieve particular regional, metropolitan, national);
outcomes.
• Ensuring improved transparency, community participation
Seeking consensus in, and access to, planning and infrastructure processes.
The process used should be directed towards consensus The repor t suggests the introduction of checklists and
building, negotiation and mediation. ‘The way in which ‘community service agreements’, by which government agencies
consultation should develop will only be clear once the debate involved in policy development, planning, implementation and
shifts from techniques for consultation to the fundamental monitoring periodically report on how a scheme is meeting the
reasons for undertaking consultation in the first place’ (Stone in original objectives and goals. The report also stresses the
Roads in the Community, 1997). importance of setting targets, which would then provide a basis
for annual audits and public accountability.
Conflicts emerge from (Dotson et al., 1989): (i) differences in
what people believe to be important (values); (ii) differences in The form of communication is important
what people would like to see result from particular decisions
(interests); (iii) different perceptions about what is likely to Alternative futures and the trade-offs involved need to be
happen in the future; and (iv) different views about the correct presented in a clear and understandable form so that the
processes for making policy decisions. Experience has shown community will be enabled to make well-informed comments.
the need for careful attention to four aspects:
A simple checklist
• the difficulty of finding common ground;
A useful checklist is to consider whether the following aspects
• a procedure, which defines possible arguments; are incorporated in processes for integrated planning:

• Stakeholder involvement in identifying issues; making decisions. Strategic road planning may depend on land-
use decisions over which the road planning authority has no
• Defining objectives and desired outcomes; control.
• Incrementalism and/or threshold approach; In the last few years, the interest in more integrated and
outcome-based forms of management as a means of focusing
• Exploration of alternative land-use, transport and objectives and identifying trade-offs has grown (SA Department
environment options and impacts; of Environment and Planning, 1992; NSW Department of Urban
Affairs and Planning, 1995, Better Cities Program). The
• Selecting a preferred plan and trade-offs involved; and establishment of Departments of Infrastructure in Victoria and
New South Wales underscores this trend.
• Establishing priorities and actions.
7.5 INSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
7.5.1 RELATIONSHIPS
Contextual relationships
The link between integrated planning and decision-making at the

regional level is tenuous. Apart from uncertainties about the
technical aspects of this relationship and differences of view
about desired outcomes, there are major obstacles in
organisation and management. The management of the
integrated land use and transport goes to the heart of the central
questions: whether it is managed at all, who sets the agenda (if
there is one), what is on the agenda, what level of intervention is
politically acceptable, and what tools (sticks, carrots or both)
should be used.
The relationship between planning and decision-making
The relationship between planning and decision-making is a Figure 7-1 Desirable relationship between policies
major issue. Planning is ineffective when the responsibility for and plans at different levels
planning is not linked directly to the bodies responsible for

The relationship between public authorities Organisational culture
There are different authorities responsible for regional transport The prevailing arrangement of government functions is partly a
and land-use planning. Co-ordination between State and regional result of the way in which the
authorities is increasing, and there is a growing acceptance of professions have classified themselves and distinguished
the need for greater integration. But the management of this themselves from one another. Accordingly, government agencies
integration, including the setting and monitoring of targets, still with one-dimensional functional responsibilities have
has some way to go. conventionally employed a narrow band of specialists to perform
their tasks. In the area of roads, ‘this has meant that
Integration between agencies at different levels is essential for organisations have been dominated, professionally, by specialists
effective urban planning. In very general terms, higher levels of with expertise in public works, particularly engineers. In other
government determine the broad parameters and standards, and areas the prevalence of expertise in one specialty is equally
leave it to lower levels to work within them. But where is the evident, vide the professional composition of most planning
dividing line? Regional planning parameters are needed for departments’ (Stone in Roads in the Community, 1997).
integrated urban management, because regional activity and
regional accessibility are intertwined. It is often not clear which 7.5.2 OUTCOME-BASED MANAGEMENT
agency is responsible for implementation.
Outcome-based integrated management
In the case of key regional centres, for example, should regional
transport management be undertaken by a regional agency and Outcome-based integrated management requires:
land-use control by a local agency? The issue of responsibility is
of critical importance in integrated management, and is reflected • outcome-based leadership;
in the structure of the Guide.
• outcome-based funding; and
Citing Stone: One of the main factors, which actively work
against the development of integrated and appropriate outcomes • outcome-based regulation.
is that ‘Not only is there a hierarchy of players, but the
boundaries of responsibility are blurred and poorly coordinated. Leadership
Thus, one often sees actions at one level of government negated
by inconsistent policy decisions at another. This policy boundary Leadership is essential for integrated planning, but it is also one
problem is par ticularly apparent with respect to land-use of the vexed problems. State road authorities are often in
planning at the State/Local Government level’ (J. West, 1995, powerful positions, because of the funds allocated to them; State
personal communication)’ (Stone in Roads in the Community, planning authorities administer legislation with very limited funds
1997). and their planning role in relation to other State and local
government authorities varies widely. Much depends on the

nature of the political system and the perception of the a separation of the operators from the regulators’ (Stone in
government of the day. Roads in the Community, 1997).
The issue of leadership also arises where there are matters of The balance between focusing on means and ends
both regional and local significance. Leadership for the key
‘events’ in large urban areas should come from regional levels, There are at least three models of State government agencies:
and regional plans should identify what they are.
1 Supply agencies providing services and facilities (such as
Outcome-based funding road authorities);
Funds are usually allocated for specific purposes within the 2 Regulating agencies (e.g. traffic management or
function of the respective authority. There is argument about the development control); and
extent to which expenditure on ‘externalities’ (such as environ
mental protection in the case of roads) can be justified. ‘Each of 3 Co-ordinating agencies focusing on outcomes (such as
the agencies responsible for the provision of transport services in transport and planning agencies).
NSW focuses on its individual core business and their charters
require them to be responsible and accountable for the The advantages of the first and second type of agency are that
commercial component of their activities. In these circumstances there will be technical exper tise in specific areas and
investment decisions are generally limited to options which are accountability in clear areas of responsibility. The disadvantages
within the agency’s ability to control. Modal alternatives are either are that they are often short on interdisciplinary skills and are not
not canvassed or not fully considered’ (NSW Department of able (and not required) to take a holistic view. The advantages of
Transport, 1995). Integrated funding approaches towards land- the third model are that they are able to bring to bear an
use and transport projects is almost wholly confined to specially overarching view, but they may be short on specialised expertise
created bodies or projects. and may not be close to local issues. The first and second model
tend to focus on means, the second on ends. Effective integration
Stone, in the context of achieving integrated transport planning, of planning requires a model which can focus on both ends
argues that ‘the funders should be responsible for achieving (outcomes) and means (outputs).
outcomes and therefore should be instrumental in setting policy
and influencing decision making, i.e. in "planning". Operational Outcome-based regulation
planning, as distinct from strategic planning, should continue to
reside with the providers. The idea of separating operators from While funding is one form of control, regulation is another. This is
regulators complements the notion of a funder/provider split. In important in land-use planning and traffic management, where
fact, the idea of separating funders from providers may more the private sector and users of the system are the principal
accurately be described in terms of a three way split — a actors. Again, there are hierarchical systems of control, and, if
separation of funders from providers and, amongst the providers, they are performance-based, there are means of identifying

targets without a need for specifying how these targets should be Funds available under this program are channelled through
met. This method of control is becoming common in NSW, where metropolitan planning organisations, which are designated in
the State planning authority sets medium- density housing urban areas with populations of over 50,000. The role of these
targets for local authorities and expects local authorities to adapt organisation is, inter alia, to develop long-term (20 year) plans
its control mechanisms to achieving those. determining the mix of transport projects best suited to meet the
region’s needs.
7.5.3 INSTITUTIONAL MODELS
This is a useful model which could be enhanced if the
Models for arranging planning, funding and implementation management of land use is included in such long-term plans.
The arrangement of functions is examined in the Australian Special purpose bodies

Urban and Regional Development Review’s ‘Timetabling for
tomorrow: An agenda for public transport in Australia’. It is Outcome-based funding in the context of integrated transport
argued that the linking of planning and funding, separate from and land-use planning is more complex, as land-use planning
implementation, ‘allows the planning agencies to fund new (i.e. the location of activities and protecting the environment) is
transport providers or seek new approaches to implementation if mostly regulatory. A selective and more pro-active role of land-
the implementing organisations are not performing. In particular, use planning authorities involves more than regulation. It could
such an approach allows the planning agencies to be neutral as actively promote development, for example, through joint
to which mode should be used and to select the most ventures, development corporations, and land assembly and
appropriate for a particular transport task, rather than leaving release programs with performance conditions. Funding can then
effective planning in the hands of a single-mode agency’ be a powerful tool in achieving desired accessibility and activity
(Australian Urban and Regional Development Review, 1995). It outcomes in selected locations. Such a model has been used for
should be noted that ‘mode neutrality’ is enhanced, in each State, areas, where integrated transpor t and land-use planning
by the practice to have one Minister for Transport. outcomes by a predetermined date are essential (e.g. Olympic
site, Homebush Bay, Sydney). Extending the model to key
In the US, a Surface Transpor tation Program has been centres or urban release areas is an option wor thy of
established, under which both roads and transit projects can be consideration.
funded (Australian Urban and Regional Development Review,
1995). Section 133(d)2 of ISTEA also sets aside 10% of Surface Special-purpose bodies can be created with clear responsibilities
Transportation Program funds for ‘transportation enhancement for integrated planning and development, and accountability to
activities’, which means ‘provision of facilities for pedestrians and Parliament (e.g. Land Commissions, Housing Trusts,
bicycles’, as well as a number of other activities relating, for Development Corporations).
example, to landscaping, beautification, preservation and
environmental mitigation (Califor nia Depar tment of
Transportation, 1993).

Integration and organisational reform planning agencies and to the Government (NSW Department of
Urban Affairs and Planning, 1995).
The fundamental problem is that there are many organisations
with responsibilities for managing parts of the system. There may 7.6 AN AGENDA FOR INTEGRATED
be a need to review the role of these organisations. There was REGIONAL PLANNING
much debate in the 1960s about the establishment of a form of
regional government and metropolitan planning authorities. 7.6.1 UNPRECEDENTED CHALLENGES
Australia is already seen by many to be over-governed and the
idea may no longer be attractive. However, situations could arise Many urban regions are faced with major challenges. There are
where an organisational review is oppor tune and new conflicting pressures: e.g. population growth, economic growth,
organisational structures would be appropriate. environmental consequences of urban development, the need for
more sustainable approaches, increasing environmental
There may also be opportunities to create closer links between expectations, and constraints in public expenditure. There are
the instruments of government and the executive (such as Urban people who believe that our future quality of life is at stake, and
Development Committees of the Cabinet). Such arrangements that in order to preserve it, adjustments may be needed in our
can help to settle differences in priorities and programs between lifestyle and priorities.
the different road and land-use authorities and departments. In
SA, the Planning Review recommended that the responsibility for In order to respond to these challenges, new approaches are
ongoing revision be given to the Department of Premier and needed. We need to: (i) improve our understanding of how the
Cabinet (SA Planning Review, 1992). In NSW, a ‘whole of urban system works (Chapter 5); (ii) develop robust principles to
government’ approach applied to all major public investment guide future development (Chapter 6); and (iii) establish the
projects and a Cabinet-level body oversees all major planning policies, processes and institutional arrangements to apply them
decision for Sydney (SMH, 20.5.1996). (Chapter 7).
Monitoring bodies This is a demanding specification: it needs to recognise:
To exercise effective control, there is a need for measuring • the values of the community;
performance of actual against desired outcomes and for
reviewing targets in the light of actual performance. Integrated • the operation of the market; and
planning, monitoring and review should be linked.
• the way government manages aspects of land use,
A central policy and monitoring unit can develop integrated transport and the environment through its institutions,
policies, develop priorities, set the parameters of action plans legal powers and regulations, and resource allocation
and monitor performance. The policy unit may seek the advice of mechanisms.
a representative body, report to the transport and land-use

Key issues for greater integration at the regional level can now be R8 Developing techniques and policies for balancing the need
summarised: for accessibility and environmental protection in all areas;
and
7.6.2 DEVELOPING AND APPLYING REGIONAL POLICIES
R9 Travel demand management policies.
R1 Achieving regional and urban structures which are less
dependent on the motor car than they are at present; 7.6.3 DEVELOPING AND
APPLYING INTEGRATED PROCESSES
R2 Clarifying the scope for, and application of, policies which
integrate activity and accessibility; R10 Improving and reviewing the performance of prediction
models;
R3 Developing land-use and transport policies, which
promote accessibility to regional economic activities, R11 Developing guidelines and procedures for stakeholder
provide for the location of goods distribution centres and participation in strategic, development and operational
the movement of goods, while taking full account of the planning;
need for local environmental protection;
R12 Developing procedures for integrated planning in key
R4 Identifying regional public transport systems and areas (e.g. regional centres, road-based land use
associating people- generating activities along public activities, public transport-based activities, commuter
transport routes; parking);
R5 Identifying essential road-based regional land-use R13 Developing procedures for defining corridors for regional
activities and developing location policies for road-based movement and precincts for environmental protection in
activities; urban areas; and
R6 Identifying key elements of land-use/transport structure R14 Establishing procedures for resolving conflict between
and developing integrated planning policies for their regional and local interests.
location in relation to each other: e.g. employment and
housing location/densities, regional centres and regional 7.6.4 DEVELOPING AND APPLYING FORMS
parking; OF INTEGRATED MANAGEMENT
R7 Assessing and evaluating the land use- and transport- R15 Establishing mechanisms defining common objectives and
related environmental consequences of making cities desired outcomes with the stakeholders, and for resolving
more compact; conflict;

R16 Establishing mechanisms for agreed planning processes;
R17 Establishing mechanisms for integrated funding;
R18 Developing guidelines to establish monitoring units;
R19 Establishing guidelines for proactive communication; and
R20 Establishing and maintaining integrated regional data

banks (land use, transport and environment).

Chapter 8 Local interactions • between roads and streets and the buildings and spaces
along them; and
• between regional and local land-use and transport

requirements: the issue of how regional needs can be
satisfied in a manner which is compatible with local
objectives and desired outcomes.
8.1 INTRODUCTION Local transport planning and local land-use planning have always
been connected, but this is often not expressed in the plans and
Chapters 8 to 10 focus on integrated local planning. Chapter 8 is policies which are produced. Usually, traffic generation aspects
an overview of local interactions. Chapter 9 interprets this are considered when development proposals are made, but the
material and formulates local principles. Chapter 10 addresses transport consequences of land-use zoning are rarely assessed.
the application of these principles in practice.
Development control plans are prepared with a focus on land use
The term ‘local’ is used to describe the relationships at the local and the preservation of the built and natural environment; yet
community level. This may be a country town, a local government separate plans are prepared for road hierarchies, which take little
area within an urban area without a regional function, or account of adjoining land uses. This is starting to change, largely
urbanised parts of a shire in a predominantly rural area. because of increased interest in cor porate management,
integrated local area planning and strategic planning.
Chapter 8 is primarily focused on the exploration of physical
interactions. There are several important interactions: There are interactions, not only between the physical aspects of
urban communities, but also in the way the market, financial and
• between development (or ‘land use’) generating demand regulatory systems influence the built environment. Community
for movement (trips) and the transport system attitudes and local politics are always present, and one has to
representing the supply; incorporate them in the process.
• between accessibility provided by a local transport system In order to provide a basis for identifying planning principles at
and the land-use decisions based upon it; the local level, issues related to integration have been grouped
into three sections:
• between the use of the transport system and the
environment in which it operates: the need to provide (1) Local land use, travel and transport (8.2);
roads for movement and also to protect the local
community from the impact of traffic; (2) Accessibility and activity (8.3); and

(3) Transport and the environment (8.4). • there is a substantial difference in the travel time to work
and services, depending on the mode of transport used,
This grouping is similar to that used in Chapter 5 for regional with the private car being more convenient for travel to
planning (with the omission of pricing and funding). The services; and
emphasis is on local aspects of these interactions, but the line
between regional and local aspects is not easy to draw and there • people relying on public transport in outer suburbs face
are inevitable overlaps. significant difficulties.
8.2 LOCAL LAND USE AND TRANSPORT Household type, life cycle and transport behaviour
8.2.1 KEY AREAS Research into the relationship between household type, life cycle
and travel behaviour shows that lifestyle is most important in
In this section an overview will be given of three key areas: decisions about residential location. Lifestyle decreases in order
of importance with decisions on activity patterns, destination for
• Local land use and travel patterns; recreation trips, car type, car ownership, and mode to work
(Salomon, 1980).
• Urban consolidation, mixed use and travel; and
It is known that different types of households have different travel
• Suburbanisation and transport mode. patterns. However, the research does not identify the spatial
aspects of travel and does not consider the density or
8.2.2 LOCAL LAND USE AND TRAVEL PATTERNS characteristics of neighbourhoods where householders live,
when considering the travel patterns (Steiner, 1994). Steiner
Population and household distribution and transport demand The adds: ‘Further research is needed to sort out the importance of
dynamics of population and household change are well the pattern of travel based on socio-economic characteristics,
understood (National Housing Strategy, 1992), and there is a mix of land uses, density and other location factors’.
basic understanding as to how they affect transport demand
(National Housing Strategy [Housing and Location Choice Transport modes, travel patterns and densities
Survey], 1992). The survey found that:
Steiner also reports on the literature related to residential density
• there is considerable diversity in the kinds of households and travel patterns. Studies which claim that high-density
in different urban zones; development leads to less dependence on the car and higher
rates of commuting to work by walking or using public transport
• reliance on car travel to work and services increases with ‘use aggregate data’ and ‘fail to separate out several factors
distance from the CBD, while public transport use drops; associated with high-density residential areas ... ‘Thus density
could be seen as a proxy for these other unmeasured variables’.

Similar cr iticisms are expressed by Br indle under the Francisco Bay Area households. Households in newer suburban
controversial title ‘Lies, Damned Lies and "Automobile communities use vehicles more often (86% of 11 trips per day),
Dependence"’ (Brindle, 1994). compared with traditional communities (64% of 9 trips per day).
Households in traditional communities rely more on alternative
modes of transport. Community design and urban form ‘have a
significant influence on trip behaviour’ (Friedman et al., 1994).
The authors caution planners in interpreting these results, as the

traditional communities evolved over six or more decades, and
the type of infrastructure available (e.g. BART) should be taken
into account. In addition, it is possible that the composition and
characteristics of households may be the real cause for the
difference and not the design. The question whether trip
generation is affected by different land-use patterns and
densities requires further research (Ryan and McNally, 1995).
This issue has since been explored by Cervero (1996) in his

research of traditional neighbourhoods and commuting in the
San Francisco Bay Area, He suggests that the distinction
between traditional neighbourhoods laid out originally around
transit stations and more recent car-based neighbourhood
patter ns does influence commuting behaviour. Transit
neighbourhoods, by and large, averaged higher transit, walking,
bicycle modal shares and generation rates than their automobile
Figure 8-1 Transport modes, threshold distances counterparts.
and trip lengths
The research also suggests that densities have a proportionally
greater effect on inducing transit usage than car-oriented
neighbourhoods. At 25 dwellings per HA, transit neighbourhoods’
share of work trips by transit is 2–3% greater than in car
Land-use patterns, travel and densities neighbourhoods; at 75 dwellings per HA, there are 13.5% more
transit commuters than in car-based neighbourhoods (see Figure
The effect of neo-traditional neighbourhood design on travel 8-2).
characteristics was investigated by Friedman and others. The
analysis used data from a 1980 regional travel survey of San It should not be concluded that commuting behaviour is

fundamentally different in transit-oriented than car-oriented Households, land-use activities and accessibility
neighbourhoods. ‘Indeed, in the case of all "transit"
neighbourhoods, the drive-alone automobile captured twice as Little is known about the relationship between land-use location
many commuter trips, and in most instances five times as many and household travel patterns. Household members have both
commuters, as did transit or walking/bicycling. In short, the individual and common needs that are met through travel.
automobile still reigns supreme in the neighbourhoods defined as Household members have the ability to defer or advance the
transit-oriented. True, the automobile plays a less dominant role times of certain types of travel, and schedule trips to make trip
in the transit neighbourhoods studied, but it is dominant chains instead of making a large number of single trips. The
nonetheless. It may very well be that the form of a region as a ability to link trips cuts household travel by an estimated 15–22
whole has a role, if not greater, in influencing modal choice than per cent relative to trips for the same purpose (Ewing et al.,
the design or layout of particular neighbourhoods’ (Cervero, 1994). The flexibility of the car makes it all possible. Ewing found
1996). that car pooling with members of the same household
represented 30 per cent of all trips in Palm Beach County,
Florida; whereas car pooling with other households was 11 per
cent, and then only for trips to and from work.
Although density, mixed use and a central location all appear to

depress vehicular travel, vehicle hours’ travel did not reflect
accessibility to the extent one might expect. ‘Urbanites drive a lot
whether they need to or not, and sprawl dwellers can reduce this
amount of driving through careful trip scheduling. Communities
should concentrate facilities and services in activity centres; the
more sprawling the area, the more important this becomes, for,
through activity centres, linked accessibility to activities can be
minimised, even as direct accessibility falls off’ (Ewing et al.,
1994).
Women’s travel needs
In a study of women’s travel needs, Dowling and Gollner (1997)

found that
figure 8-2 Work trips by transit related to density • The need for many women to juggle family and work
and neighbourhood type responsibilities and meet timetables meant that the car
was frequently defined as being a necessity;

• The car was found to be just as important to women not in evening peak-hour vehicle trips for a defined unit of land use
paid work; days at home with children were often just as (e.g. dwelling, gross floor area, site area). The extent to which
complex as those juggling work schedules; these rates vary with different forms of development and location,
if indeed they do vary, is less known. For example, it was found
• Spending time on public transport was accorded a very that residents in areas with poor accessibility do not compensate
low priority; by taking fewer trips, whereas residents in areas with good
accessibility do not take advantage of this fact by taking more
• Factors such as individualism, independence, parenting, trips (Handy, 1994).
time pressures, ‘busyness’, safety concerns and personal
fitness influenced travel choices; and Land use and parking
• The public transport mode share for women in Sydney fell Parking requirements for specific land uses are also provided in
from 14.1% in 1981 to 11.1% in 1991, while men’s use of guidelines (e.g. NSW RTA, 1983). However, the guidelines
public transport fell much less markedly (from 10.6% to generally do not take account of differences in accessibility by
9.9% of trips) over the same period. transport mode and location. There are no data which link land
use with trip-making by transport mode. Some local authorities
Security is important. A survey undertaken by the London restrict the provision of parking as part of a development in order
Research Centre found that the increase in the number of cars to restrain the use of the car in selected areas (e.g. North
on London’s roads between 1981 and 1991 was entirely due to Sydney). AMCORD suggests linking the provision of on-site
women making more trips. One reason why women prefer the parking in residential areas to proximity to railway stations
car to the bus and underground is their fear of crime or assault. (AMCORD, 1995).
Yet statistically men are more likely to be attacked than women
(New Scientist, 4/7/1998). 8.2.3 URBAN CONSOLIDATION, MIXED USE AND TRAVEL
Land use and traffic generation Do mixed use and density influence travel behaviour?
Most planning and road authorities have guidelines for land-use Much existing zoning practice is based on the separation of land
traffic generation (e.g. NSW RTA Guidelines for Traffic uses. It is often assumed that land-use mix and the intensity of
Generating Developments, 1983– ). They are based on original development have a measurable impact on travel behaviour.
research and are updated for specific land-use categories from Frank and Pivo (1994) examine the evidence. They cite previous
time to time. The guidelines stress that they are not to be used as research, which suggests that:
rigid standards, and the assumptions on which they are based
are clearly indicated. • density has a significant impact on mode choice
(Pushkarev and Zupan, 1976);
Traffic generation is usually expressed in rates of daily and

• as density increases, households with one or more communities’ or transit centres.
vehicles produce fewer trips, whereas zero-car
households experience an increase in trip production
(Deutchman and Juschik, 1968);
• mixing of uses at the employment trip end reduces travel

demand (Cervero, 1988).
They tested these assertions and found that both density and
land use mix are indeed related to mode choice, but that
population densities need to be greater than 33 persons per ha
or 17–22 dwellings per gross ha for changes in mode choice to
be detected. In other words, the relationships are relatively weak,
unless densities are very high (figure 8-3).
The findings of a demonstration project in Portland (Cambridge

Systematics, 1992) support the proposition that high density has
the potential to reduce car travel, but that the gains are relatively
small: transit share for work trips is increased from 11.3 to 13.1% Figure 8-3 Average population density and mode choice
with a bus transit way and to 16.4% with rail. However, the (based on Frank and Pivo, 1994)
consultants questioned the transferability of behavioural data
(such as walking to stations in San Francisco on which this study
was based, compared with Portland where it rains and is colder
in winter) to other cities.
Increased land-use mix and densities at origin and Urban consolidation may not lead to a proportional increase
destination reduces vehicle trips in vehicle travel
Although the effects may be relatively small, mixed use and Urban consolidation does not mean that there is a proportional
density do seem to matter in certain locations. Frank and Pivo increase in vehicle travel. Black reviewed data on the relationship
found that there is a reduction in single-occupant vehicle travel between higher-density housing and transport in Australian
and an increase in transit and walking when the level of land use cities. It shows that increased density does not change the total
mix at the trip origins and destinations is increased. Walking trips trips people make, but that the proportion of public transport trips
were the most sensitive to increased population densities (Frank and walking/cycling increases (see figure 8-4). Based on US
and Pivo, 1994). This is an argument in suppor t of ‘station data, the mean rate is 9.6 vehicle trips per dwelling for a

detached family dwelling and 5.9 vehicle trips for townhouses
(Black, 1994).
Higher-density development puts destinations closer together,

making it possible for residents to walk to activities in an
acceptable amount of time. If the residential area has a mix of
local services, people may also be more likely to walk to them
(Hanson and Hanson, 1982). Higher densities improve bus route
efficiency and a better level of service can be provided (figure 8-
5).
Figure 8-5 Bus route efficiency and density
Choices are determined by a combination of factors
Density alone is not as important in influencing travel behaviour

as is often thought. A range of factors is involved. Cervero and
Kockelman (1997) found that the intensity factor had a fairly
Figure 8-4 Transport mode and urban marginal impact on travel demand. Land-use diversity also had a
consolidation; total travel demand is increased, modest impact on travel demand, though, where it was
but the proportion of vehicle trips is reduced (indicative) significant, its influences were a bit stronger than that of density.
This is consistent with the findings of Frank and Pivo (1994) and
Cervero (1996).

The dimension of walking quality was generally moderately People will always travel, but the mode they choose depends
associated with travel demand. Design elements of the built on opportunity
environment, not density, seemed to be particularly relevant in
decisions to walk in the case of non-work trips. Residents in areas with poor accessibility do not compensate by
taking fewer trips, whereas residents in areas with good
Higher densities, diverse land uses, and pedestrian-friendly accessibility do not take advantage by making more trips. This
designs, Cervero believes, must co-exist to a certain degree if suggests that there is an average number of trips residents
meaningful transportation benefits are to accrue. ‘Having nice make, regardless of the distance they must travel (Handy, 1994).
sidewalks, attractive landscaping, and other pedestrian amenities However there is a difference in mode of travel. Policies directed
in a low-density, residential-only neighbourhood is unlikely to towards providing high levels of local accessibility may result in
prompt many residents to walk to shops and stores. However, the less car trips than would otherwise be the case. Higher densities
synergy of the 3Ds ( i.e. density, diversity and design) in create opportunities for higher levels of accessibility.
combination is likely to yield more appreciable impacts’.
There are trade-offs but research is scant
Are density and housing proxies for other variables?
Is compact development enough to change behaviour? Wesbord
Steiner (1994) questions whether people will want to move to et al. (1980) found that no reduction in car travel time or bus
higher-density areas and, when they do, whether they will travel time could compete with the preference of households with
change their travel patterns. She also questions whether there children for single-family detached housing. But the study did not
will be more congestion and lower speeds if they do not change consider trade-offs with two-worker households nor non-work
their travel patterns. After reviewing the literature, she suspects locations, such as schools. There is little evidence of research
that density is used as a proxy of other unmeasured variables about the trade-offs people make and how they vary during the
such as differences in income, household size, lifestyle life cycle (Steiner, 1994).
characteristics and other land-use characteristics.
Does the community want to be consolidated?
Brindle (1994) has expressed similar concerns. He believes that
socio-economic status and role-related variables contribute Troy bemoans the loss of backyard trees and vegetable gardens,
significantly to an explanation of the dimensions of individuals’ and is concerned that smaller lots and narrower streets reduces
complex travel-activity patterns. Certain types of households may the open space, which people need. Fewer trees and green
be more likely to live in high- density areas and these households space would increase pollution and water run-off, and reduce air
may also exhibit travel patterns different from those of other quality. He is also concerned about equity: ‘Those who can afford
types of households. Higher-income singles, couples and elderly it will continue to buy the space they need, whereas lower-
people may choose to live in high-density areas, because of the income households will be forced . . . into lower-standard housing
lifestyle they provide. Low-income households may double up in with lower-standard provision for recreation’ (Troy, 1996).
one housing unit because separate units may not be affordable.

8.2.4 SUBURBANISATION AND TRANSPORT MODE Some decentralisation to out-of-centre employment zones has
involved ‘high tech’ activity, due to the perception that it is semi-
Much urban growth continues in the form of suburbanisation. This industrial. This type of activity is little different from office activity
raises important issues for integrated local planning. In this sub- (e.g. ‘call centres’). In turn, this has provided the rationale for
section, the focus is on the relationship between sub- locating, often on quite isolated tracts of land, a range of office
urbanisation and transport mode. and administrative activities, such as banks and publishing
houses (NSW Department of Transport, 1997).
Employment decentralisation
A built-in car-dependency
Suburbanisation commenced with residential development. It
was followed by decentralisation of retail and service activities At present about half the jobs in the Sydney region are not
from the city core, along with further residential suburbanisation. located in concentrated areas (defined in the metropolitan
And yet most economic activity was still concentrated in local or strategy as including employment corridors, employment
regional centres. Out-of-centre employment zones encouraged concentrations in the middle to outer suburbs and outer suburban
by exclusive zoning became most evident in the next stage of area concentrations). The dispersal of employment has placed a
suburbanisation, which began to gain momentum in the 1960s. heavy burden on a large numbers of workers in metropolitan
Economic activity continued to grow in local and particularly regions, such as Sydney. Long commuting times for workers in
regional centres, but there was also a widespread distribution of car-dependent employment zones (as well as for those in local
jobs away from established centres. In the 1920s over 50% of and regional centres) are commonplace. High levels of
jobs were located in the central core of Sydney. In 1991, the congestion throughout the metropolitan region contribute to a
proportion was 20% (NSW Department of Transport, 1997). time-consuming, tiring and frustrating experience.
The growth of out-of centre employment For most of these trips, the use of private (or company) cars,
overwhelmingly with single drivers, is a necessity. Some workers
Some of this dispersal has been in the for m of retail work further away from home than is theoretically necessary,
suburbanisation - regional shopping centres, provided on because they cannot reliably get to the nearest employment
‘greenfield’ sites rather than as additions to existing shopping opportunities, or it takes longer to travel the shorter distance
centres. There has also been an extensive shift in industrial or (NSW Department of Transport, 1997).
warehousing activity. Businesses have relocated from congested
inner suburban sites and with high property values, on land in Can the trend be reversed?
outer areas zoned for such pur pose. The growth of
containerisation and trucking, as the principal means of freight Many of the jobs in ‘suburban concentrations’ are not in centres
transport, encouraged this dispersal (Rimmer and Black, 1982), serviced by public transport. Although ‘the greatest effect is likely
and sometimes industry has been able to take advantage of to be achieved by focusing on areas where many jobs are
actual or prospective industry linkages in the process. concentrated and improving transport services’, the strategy

aims ‘to reduce car dependency by workers in all areas’ (NSW (NSW Department of Transport, 1997).
Department of Planning, 1995).
Most recent State Government policy on employment location in

NSW continues to seek the concentrations of economic activity
in areas which are more conducive to public transpor t
development. In this, it relies on the active co-operation of local
government and a reversal of past market trends.
The zoning system is not an instrument to create people places.

It is a tool for land-use management, and not designed to give
form and character to employment centres.
Control of the siting and design of buildings has contributed to

the ‘placelessness’ of many out-of-centre industrial areas. Design
standards have generally been directed to ensuring capacity for
large vehicle movements, parking, fire safety and other functional
requirements for the operation of industry. Current standards are
appropriate in many cases, but their application has precluded
consideration of other outcomes, such as the character and
quality of the place.
More important, in the context of this overview, is the fact that the
location of such car dependent employment zones, and their
generally vast scale, have been antithetical to what is required for
the supply of public transport to these areas (NSW Department
of Transport, 1997).
Furthermore, governments (at all levels) are structured around

responsibilities for specific outputs (focusing on the means to
achieve outcomes), not around responsibilities for the outcomes.
Typically, in local government, no person or group is responsible
for the planning and investment in a given geographical area,
and there is no one whose performance can be measured in Figure 8-6 Indicative mobility profiles by land-use type
terms of whether the intended outcomes have been achieved

8.3 ACTIVITY AND ACCESSIBILITY mobility profiles of households and businesses and be
accessible to them. Policies for the location of activities and the
8.3.1 THE LINK BETWEEN ACTIVITY AND ACCESSIBILITY provision of accessibility should, therefore, be linked to the
mobility profiles of the community and businesses served.
Accessibility is a measure of the transport supply
Mobility characteristics are not static, and flexibility is required
Accessibility in general terms can be defined as the possibility to (see, for example, Brotchie, 1995, for the impact of technological
reach a location within an acceptable amount of time, money and change).
effort (Hilbers and Verroen, 1993). Accessibility is determined by
transport networks, their capacities and operating characteristics, Matching accessibility and activity is a key issue
and the costs and convenience of travel. Many factors influence
cost and convenience: for example, travel time, the location of A central issue in integrating transport and land use is the
stops and stations, parking provision at the destination and the matching of activity with accessibility. This goal applies to all
need to change transport mode between origin and destination. types of activity, but in different ways. Centres of people activity
The term accessibility is widely used, but often misunderstood require a different mix of accessibility than goods distribution
(see Chapter 5 for further details). centres. A distinction can be made between people generating
activities, vehicle generating activity and areas with activities
Mobility is an indicator of the demand for travel which require both people and vehicle accessibility.
Mobility is a reflection of the characteristics of individuals, Relating activity and accessibility

households and businesses to satisfy their needs for movement,
and represents the demand for travel. Each household has its Centres of people activity, such as town centres, require people
own characteristics, depending on matters such as car access, and the most cost-effective way of achieving this is by
ownership, car use, household composition, age and income, public transport, walking and multi-occupancy vehicles. However,
and activity patterns of members of the household. Businesses, to create a critical mass for the provision of efficient and
too, have their individual needs and mobility ‘profiles’. This is convenient public transport, people centres need to have
illustrated in the activity profiles diagram (figure 8-6). sufficient intensity and diversity of activities.
Activities, collectively, represent the transport demand Centres of vehicle activity, such as goods distribution centres,
require vehicle access and accessibility by regional goods
Both accessibility and mobility are influenced by the type and transport routes is the most efficient. There is no need to provide
location of land-use activities and vice versa. Employment, regular public transport, but there should be alternatives. These
shops, facilities, ser vices and dwellings generate trips. are discussed in Chapter 9.
Collectively, these activities represent the transport demand. The
distribution (or location) of these activities must be related to the

Integrating activity and accessibility Multi-purpose centres
Integrating activity and accessibility presents a major institutional Regional, town and district centres are major elements in urban
challenge, because the access infrastructure is generally structure and key areas for integrated planning. Multi-purpose
provided by public authorities and the development of activities is centres can contribute to efficient travel patterns and create
largely determined by market demand. There is a need for an opportunities for more sustainable forms of travel (see Chapter
accessibility policy, as well as an activity policy. A partnership 5). Critical issues are their potential for generating employment
between the public and private sectors is necessary, if integration and attracting trips for a wide range of purposes, during the day,
is to be effective. This is the basis of the Dutch ABC policy at night, during the week and weekends.
(VROM, 1995). The policy is used to identify locations for
activities with different accessibility and mobility characteristics, Employment profile
and to make decisions on investment in public transport and
roads improvements. A useful indication of the function of major urban centres is
obtained by their employment profile. A study of centres in
8.3.2 ACTIVITY CENTRES Sydney (NSW Department of Urban Affairs and Planning, 1995)
shows that there are significant differences between the Sydney
A hierarchy of centres CBD and the secondary centres, but that the employment
profiles of secondary centres are quite similar. Secondary
Most planning strategies and schemes provide for a hierarchy of centres in the context of this paper are regional centres, but
centres. This hierarchy is based on levels of exclude the Sydney and Parramatta CBD. The major differences
convenience/comparison type of retailing and services, and between the CBD and secondar y centres are the lower
accessibility to the area served. The model generally accords proportion of wholesale and retail in the latter, and the higher
with market preferences and community behaviour. proportion of financial and business services in the Sydney CBD.
While planning objectives and market preferences are often Significant employment nodes
aligned, there are always tensions. This is illustrated by
proposals for free-standing drive-in shopping centres, for single The Sydney study also showed that secondary centres are
purpose developments, which generate significant numbers of important employment nodes. Employment ranges from 15,000
employees and/or visitors, and for ‘out-of town’ large-scale to 30,000. Of those in the workforce living within five kilometres
commercial activities. Many, but by no means all, of these of a centre, between 30 and 50 percent work within that centre.
developments are located ‘out-of-centre’ because of difficulties of
securing sites at the right size or price. Transport mode and mode split
Despite the common feature of a location with railway access,

there are substantial differences in transport mode to the

centres. In Sydney, about 75 percent of all work trips to the CBD Wagga Wagga, for example, is an inland country town with a
are made by public transport, but for secondary centres it ranges population of 52,000 and a regional catchment of about 110,000
from 40 pecent for high-density centres along railway lines with people. The retail floorspace was recently expanded and now
major office components, such as Chatswood, to 10 percent in has a total retail floor space of about 100,000 sq m (1997) and
outer areas, such as Penrith. 100,000 sq m of floor space in other central place activities in the
CBD. The centre generates about 15,000 trips during a weekday
One explanation of this difference in the mode split is that with a mode split of 2 percent for public transport. The maximum
employment catchment areas of secondary centres become parking demand is 2,600 vehicles on a weekday, of which 1,000
more localised with increased distance from the CBD. Private are on-street parking spaces. The number of pedestrians in the
transport is more convenient than public transport for travel to core between 1230–1330 (Thursday) is about 4,500 (1995)
work. (Westerman Consultants, 1996).
Activity and travel demand in urban centres Significance of railway access
All urban centres provide major retail, personal and business Good public transport access is a key feature of urban centres. In
facilities and services, but the provision of employment can vary Sydney, all secondary centres are located at rail nodes and rail
greatly. It is useful to get an insight into the level of activity and travel plays a dominant role (NSW Department of Urban Affairs
travel characteristics of centres. and Planning (1995). The extent of this influence is strongly
correlated with the function of the centre as an employment
Chatswood, for example, is an inner regional centre in Sydney node. Centres with more than 35% of jobs in the Census’s
along a railway line. It serves a local area and region with a industry categories of finance, property and business services,
population of about 100,000 and 250,000 respectively and has a and public administration had a modal split with 25% or more
major regional office component. The total retail space (NLA) is trips by rail (1991).
200,000 sq m (1995) and office space is 260,000 sq m. The total
workforce is 19,000. The centre generates 35,000 trips during a
weekday and 45,000 trips on Saturdays. The proportion of public
transport trips for offices is 45 percent and 30–35 percent for
retail. The maximum parking demand is 10,600 vehicles on a
weekday, of which 2,800 are on-street parking spaces. The
number of pedestr ians in the core between 1230–1330
(Thursday) is about 8,000 (1995).
Activity and travel demand in country town centres
It is of interest to compare urban centres with town centres.

the capacity of the transport system, and when the accumulation
of moving and parked vehicles affects the quality of the
environment.
A recent study identifies the following attributes of a regional

centre (Queensland Government [SEQ Regional Centres] 1995):
• retail centre of greater than 50,000 sq m with full-line

department store;
• large number of higher order speciality stores;
• significant amount of office space;
• servicing catchments of over 150,000 persons;
• regional scale community facilities, including hospital,

medical services, higher education, library, cultural centre;
• wide range of entertainment facilities, such as cinemas,

restaurants, hotels;
Figure 8-7 Employment profiles of regional centres • accommodation facilities to house tourists, visitors,
seminars and conferences;
• significant employment centre;
• ‘people place’, embodying an environment and

Attributes of regional centres atmosphere which reflects the aspirations and
expectations of the regional community;
The importance of the relationship between accessibility and
activity increases with the order of the centre in the hierarchy. • service trades and other less intensive commercial
Land-use activities must be accessible to the people and activities, such as car sales and service, retail showrooms
businesses who work there, visit them or pick up and deliver and business services;
goods. Problems arise when the development of activity outstrips

• open space environment for recreation; These sets of planning cannot be considered in isolation, as
there are links between them.
• full representation of financial, insurance and professional
services; and At each level, issues of accessibility and activity arise
• government representation, including local government The relationship between Haccessibility and activity varies with
and essential services. each level.
Urban regional centres have a multi-mode access infrastructure,

comprising:
• good access to the CBD;
• regional public transport;
• local public transport to the area served;
• well-developed arterial road system;
• car parking facilities for employees and visitors;
• pedestrian and cycle paths from adjoining areas; and
• facilities for delivery of goods.
Three levels of consideration for integrated planning
There are three types of accessibility: regional, local and internal

(or ‘core/frame’ - see Section 8.4 for an explanation). Corridor
aspects are addressed in Chapter 12.
Regional and local accessibility are concerned with ‘getting there’

and internal accessibility focuses on ‘getting around’ (Sydney City Figure 8-8 Three levels
Council, 1995). The distinction between regional and local
reflects the different impacts on the community.

Regional issues: activity - the type and total amount of factors to be considered when determining the environmental
development in the centre, development intensity, mobility traffic capacity (Hallam, 1994). Guidelines also exist for
profiles of each of the different land-use types, land-use considering and addressing the impact of traffic noise (RTA,
composition - single or multi-use centres, and the cumulative 1991; RTA, 1996).
effect of activity on transport demand; accessibility - regional
networks including nodes and links, the balance in the provision Useful information on techniques but little on policy
of accessibility by transport mode and the mode split, demand
management - including parking provision and the management There is extensive literature on reducing the impact of traffic on
of accessibility, and the cumulative effect of accessibility on the local environment (e.g. Brindle, 1992; Taylor, 1993;
mobility patterns. bibliography prepared for the North Sydney Traffic Strategy,
1993). There are guidelines on traffic calming (e.g. Devon County
Local issues: activity - the impact of regional traffic on local Council, 1993), and on the techniques used and their
communities, the concept of core and frame, structure of the effectiveness (e.g. Federal Office of Road Safety, 1993). In
centre, the location, density and disposition of activities in general, the literature is focused on techniques and processes
relation to each other; accessibility - interchanges and bus ways; for application to specific areas.
off-street and on-street parking; service access and circulation.
There is less material on policy. Questions remain such as the
Core issues: activity - pedestrian frontage activity, day and night, relationship between regional and local accessibility, and how
internally-oriented developments and external activity, pedestrian trade-offs are determined; what is the connection between re-
spaces, townscape and urban design; accessibility - pedestrian urbanisation of inner suburbs and travel impact; is there an
access, vehicle access, on-street parking and site access, time objective measure to determine an acceptable level of vehicle
and space-based restr ictions, malls or shared space activity before amenity starts to break down; what degree of
management of the road space. vehicle restraint is practicable; are there particular forms of
development, which are more or less acceptable in inner urban
8.4 TRANSPORT AND THE ENVIRONMENT residential areas? The literature does not yet appear to throw
light on these questions.
8.4.1 REDUCING THE IMPACT OF TRAFFIC ON THE LOCAL
ENVIRONMENT The notion of environmental capacity
Traffic and impact on local environment The most relevant aspect is the concept of environmental traffic
capacity, where attempts have been made to quantify the
The impact of traffic on the local environment is addressed in relationship between traffic and the local environment. The notion
several publications (e.g. NSW RTA Guidelines for Traffic of environmental capacity was first proposed in Buchanan et al.,
Generating Developments, 1983–; AMCORD, 1995). Key factors Traffic in Towns (1963). Residential streets should not provide
are the impact on amenity and safety. Guidelines exist on the relief routes for the main traffic system. Priority should be given

to environmental protection by defining ‘environmental areas’ and • pedestrian safety.
setting limits on the amount and performance of traffic within
them. These impact criteria are influenced by:
Definition of environmental traffic capacity • Street characteristics: width of reservation and

carriageway, number of lanes, gradient, road surface
The term environmental capacity has since been widened to conditions;
include a range of other matters, unrelated to traffic. For this
reason, the term environmental traffic capacity is used here. It • Traffic characteristics: traffic volume, traffic composition (in
can be defined as: particular, the proportion of heavy vehicles), vehicle
speed; and
‘the traffic volume (for a given land use), which is compatible with
specified types and levels of environmental criteria’ (Gilbert, • Built environment: distance from carriageway, nature of
1988) or ‘the maximum number of vehicles which should be intervening surfaces, type and design of building, type of
permitted to pass through a given environmental situation over occupation (e.g. relative sensitivity to traffic impact).
time and under prevailing environmental conditions. The capacity
should not normally be exceeded, without changing one or more
conditions that prevail’ (Sharpe and Maxman, 1972).
Which criteria determine environmental capacity?
There have been a number of studies to determine which criteria

dominate for transport-related environmental problems in such
an environment (Sharpe and Maxman, 1972; Appleyard, 1981;
Holdsworth and Singleton, 1979; Coady, 1982; Department of
Transport, UK, 1983; Singleton and Twiney, 1985; Gilbert, 1988;
Song, Black and Dunne, 1993; Stapleton and Hallam, 1993). The
general consensus is that the principal impact (and hence
‘performance’ criteria) for residential areas are:
• traffic noise;
• air pollution; Figure 8-9 Environmental Areas

(Traffic in Towns, 1963)
• crossing delay;

What are acceptable environmental impacts? Criterion level Type of criterion
Attempts have been made to quantify the impacts for each of Noise Pedes- Visual Total
these criteria or a combination of them (Kommunalverband trian intrusion
Ruhrgebiet, 1986; Gilbert, 1988; Song, Black and Dunne, 1993),
and to establish objective measures for determining acceptable Most 28 5 67 100
conditions. However, the weight given to each of these criteria is restrictive
intrinsically subjective and will depend on local conditions and
perceptions. Community surveys and involvement can be used to Middle 48 30 22 100
give them a sharper edge (Sharpe and Maxman, 1972). level
The use of composite measures Least 25 53 32 100

restrictive
Assuming that the relative weights have been determined, a
composite measure can be used to relate the traffic function to
the environmental traffic capacity. A measure often used is the Table 8-1 Comparing alternatives
V/EC, in which V is the existing or assigned traffic volumes and
EC the environmental (traffic) capacity (Gilbert, 1988). It is true
that noise impact and crossability are also influenced by traffic The notion of different levels of restriction is useful where there is
speed; hence several composite measures may need to be used a need to distinguish different types of road environments. For
to examine the consequences of different combinations. example, a high level of restriction is appropriate in access
streets, a median level for local collector streets in precincts, and
The factors which influence the environmental traffic capacity can a low level of restriction for corridors. However, there is still an
be modified and the consequences can be assessed using the unresolved issue: the setting of these criteria levels in both
same weights. This is useful when comparing alternative land- absolute terms, and in relation to the level of other environmental
use and transport policies. For example, Gilbert (1988) analysed criteria (Gilbert, 1988).
the proportion of network length, where the environmental
capacity would be limited by three different criteria, using three Studies of this kind can establish where the environmental traffic
different levels of restriction (Table 8-1; the numbers are capacity is exceeded and which links are likely to be more
percentages). affected than others.
Similar techniques can be used to show the effect of traffic

growth and redistribution on air quality or noise impact. In the
Nether lands, local author ities are required to prepare
environment maps which show the relative exposure of roads

and streets to traffic noise and air pollution (e.g. The Hague City decreased fuel consumption, but that an aggressive use of speed
Council, 1990). Streets with problems or assets can be identified, humps, with their sharp acceleration and deceleration speed
and opportunities for remedial measures can be explored. profiles, cause an increase in fuel consumption. Lower speed
limits have the propensity to reduce fuel consumption and
Environmental capacity as a tool emissions, compared with equivalent 60 km/h limited streets with
physical speed control devices.
In established suburbs, there are limitations, which do not occur
in developing suburbs and, even in established suburbs, the Karachlis examined the acoustical attributes of speed humps and
concept of environmental traffic capacity is of practical benefit. slow points (Karachlis et al., 1996). Generally, each of the
devices produced similar effects, because of changes in
• For road design, the concept can be used to determine vehicle/traffic behaviour at these points. At low traffic flow rates,
cross-sections and alignments which ensure acceptable individual noise is the primary source of noise impact on nearby
traffic volumes and driver behaviour. dwellings. The noise level is lowest at the device (with lower
speeds), and highest when drivers accelerate after the device. At
• The practical application in traffic management can be to somewhat higher traffic flows, the primary noise impact is
determine which routes are preferable for concentrating associated with traffic flow, composition and speed, and the
local traffic, where intersections and pedestrian crossings effect of the device in noise reduction is small.
should be located, and what type they should be.
8.4.2 TRANSPORT AND THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT
• With land-use management, activities which are
incompatible with traffic flow can be restricted along Roads and streets
designated routes, where traffic movement must
predominate. The distinction between roads and streets (roads for major traffic
routes, streets for access and local movement) is particularly
• With development control, the relationship between the important in inner suburbs. Many streets have become roads and
road and development can determine set backs, fences need to be reclaimed. Roads have a different urban design
and walls or other design features to increase the relationship with the adjoining built environment than streets.
environmental capacity, under given traffic conditions. There is extensive literature about the elements and design of
the residential streetscape (e.g. AMCORD 95), and overseas
Impact of traffic calming devices material on the broader relationship between the built
environment for different types of roads and streets (e.g. Baler
There have been a number of studies to assess and evaluate the and Schnull, 1986).
impact of traffic calming devices. Zilto and Taylor (1996)
examined the effect of speed profiles and vehicle fuel
consumption. They found that reduction in vehicle speed

A dynamic relationship community, which is often missing in modern suburbs, and
propose designs which aim at mixing land uses, and getting
The dynamic experience of travelling along roads and street is people out of their cars and onto the streets. A grid pattern is
important. The most notable contribution to the subject is that of often favoured because it provides connectivity and flexibility. It is
Lynch (e.g. Lynch, 1960 [The Image of the City], and 1974 [The claimed that such patterns, inter alia, would reduce car use, but
View from the Road]). Although somewhat dated, the concepts do they?
are still relevant today. The type of road user is also important
because the dynamic experience varies, whether one is a Crane (1996) investigated this question. He concluded that
pedestrian, cyclist, car driver, passenger, or bus passenger. transportation benefits of neo-traditional designs are likely to be
overstated. There is little conclusive evidence that ‘new suburban’
Liveable streets planning influences travel behaviour in any way other than
shortening the average trip ... Although most neo-traditional
There are other aspects equally relevant to the integration developments probably have traffic benefits, these are more
between transport planning and the built environment, such as likely to be due to features that calm traffic and cluster
heritage areas, street width in relation to built form, building destinations within walking distance than to the collateral benefits
height and set-backs, footpaths and verges, kerbing, activities of a grid-like subdivision form ... The fact that a grid, by itself, may
along the frontage, on-street and off-street parking, entrance well cause more traffic problems than it resolves has slipped
drives, walls and fences, street lighting, trees, advertising and between the cracks.
overhead services. Safety and security are also highly significant.
All these are important for the different users, residents and This must not be interpreted as a dismissal of the objectives of
businesses along roads and streets. the New Urbanism. Indeed, there is a need for ongoing
innovation, and there are neo-traditional principles, which are
They are addressed in AMCORD in relation to residential streets supported by evidence. However, there is equally a need for
(see also Robertson, 1997). A useful set of Street Design performance testing so that the veracity of claims can be clearly
Guidelines, Creating Livable Street, was developed for Portland established.
(Metro, 1997). It addresses residential, as well as activity streets.
An interesting application of the categorisation of residential Road space, its use and design
streets is provided in the Environmental Plan for South Sydney
(1996). For major traffic routes, the design guidelines by the City There is a considerable amount of material related to the design
of Waverley in Victoria (1992) are of interest (see Chapter 11). of local networks for the different transport modes and how they
can be integrated in residential areas (AMCORD, 1995). There is
Does neo-traditional planning offer new insights? no such literature for activity centres and other major land use
categories. Metro (1995) in Portland developed an indicative
Those advocating neo-traditional planning (the ‘New classification, which is referred to in the Guide (see also figure 8-
Urbanism’)emphasise the need to re-establish the sense of 11).

Core and frame in centres
A distinction can be made between the core and frame of a

centre. The core can be identified as the area of greatest
pedestrian activity. The frame can be defined as the area
surrounding the core, where there is a direct association with the
core, but with greater vehicle orientation.
The core/frame concept provides a basis for resolving potential

conflicts between different users, and ensures that an attractive
and safe environment is created in both the core and frame. In
large centres, there may be several cores and frame-like areas,
with different types and association of land uses.
Vehicle restriction zones and area licensing schemes can be

introduced to manage the amount of vehicle traffic in the core (for
an analysis of the impact of the Area Licensing Scheme in
Singapore see Olszewski P et al., 1995).
Establishing a pedestrian friendly environment - a key

feature in core planning
Centres must be attractively designed places, where people want

to come, and not places where they have to come on sufferance.
As centres grow and competition for available road space
intensifies, priorities for the use of this space must be re-
assessed and pedestrians should receive first consideration.
Vehicle speed is an important factor in that environment.
Figure 8-10 Core and frame in centres

Figure 8- 11 Typical urban road design
(Source: Creating Livable Streets, Metro, 1997)

Chapter 9 Local planning The relationship between accessibility and activity is critical, at
both the local and regional level. There are different kinds and
principles modes of transport, and each mode has a set of land-use
activities associated with it. The composition, size and location of
centres, for example, should determine the mix and level of
accessibility to be provided.
The notion of linking people-generating activities with people-

9.1 INTRODUCTION carrying transport modes is only one part of the equation. The
economic development of cities also depends on efficient goods
The purpose of this chapter is to identify guiding principles for distribution, and vehicle generating land uses require a location,
integrated local planning. It involves an interpretation of the which is highly accessible to vehicle routes.
material presented in Chapter 8 and also draws on practical
experience. Many principles are already widely accepted, but The third theme, and one of particular importance at the local
there will be others where there are differences in interpretation. level, is the relationship between transport and the environment.
There is a need to reduce the impact of traffic, increase safety
Three main themes emerge from the overview in Chapter 8: and amenity and create precincts, where traffic is subservient.
• the issue of urbanisation and suburbanisation; The central issue in all these themes is that of finding ways to
selectively and progressively make changes which lead to more
• accessibility to centres and the kind and level of activity sustainable communities in the longer term. The selection of
within them; principles is based on the premise that such principles should be
robust and capable of being applied in practice.
• creating safe and attractive precincts, where vehicle traffic
is subservient. In this chapter, we will first provide an overview of goals and
objectives, then identify local principles and conclude with some
Principles related to urbanisation and suburbanisation centre issues where there is a need for clarification.
around the creation and adaptation of development patterns, in
which the need for travel by car is reduced and there are choices The principles are grouped under three headings:
in transport mode. The evidence indicates that powerful forces
are at work, and that includes the convenience and security of • land use, transport and urbanisation;
the car - if not for travel to work, then certainly for many other trip
purposes. • relating activity to accessibility; and
• transport and the environment.

9.2. GOALS AND OBJECTIVES evident in many examples of contemporary planning. For
example:
9.2.1 CURRENT GOALS AND OBJECTIVES
• protecting resources, such as conserving water, energy
The basis of local transport and land-use planning and productive agricultural land;
Deterministic planning, market demand planning, exclusive • increasing residential densities to facilitate the provision
zoning and prescriptive development control are still in and use of transport modes other than the motor car;
widespread use. However, there are also discernible shifts
towards strategic planning, and to more flexible planning and • paying more attention to road safety and transport noise
development control. This represents a change from protection; and
departmental outputs to whole-of-government objectives and
desired outcomes (e.g. Salisbury Council, 1994; North Sydney • refusing developments which lead to unacceptable
Council, 1995). increases in traffic, and noise and air pollution.
Current objectives The search for more sustainable environments
Common objectives in local planning revolve around accessibility, One of the main objectives in current planning is to create
convenience, safety, amenity and cost-effectiveness. Desired environmentally friendly and socially sustainable communities in
outcomes relate to density, diversity, cost-effective use of the greenfield situations, and to work towards more sustainable
transport infrastructure, integrated forms of development, in environments in established areas. This thinking is leading to
which there is a balance between movement and environmental new approaches towards transport and land-use planning (e.g.
protection, and encouragement of choice in transport mode and AMCORD, 1995; Loder & Bayly [Greenhouse Neighbourhood
housing. There is considerable similarity in objectives and Project], 1993; National Capital Planning Authority [Ecological
perceived desired outcomes in local planning. What this means Community Design, Jerrabomberra, ACT], 1994; South
in practical terms, and how it is expressed in principles and Australian Housing Trust [Urban Village, New Haven, Adelaide],
strategies, can vary greatly. 1995).
Increased influence of environmental objectives Pedestrians and cyclists
The conventional path is to determine land use first, and then to To date, the car has dominated both objectives and outcomes,
devise a transport network to accommodate the trips generated but there is a growing realisation that more pedestrian-friendly
by the land-use activities. Nowadays, environmental environments and routes need to be created. Other groups, such
considerations are increasingly brought to bear to prevent as cyclists and disabled people, also deserve more recognition.
undesired results and to determine desired outcomes first. This is One of the desired outcomes is to create better connections for

walking and cycling to schools, transport stops, local centres of between people’s needs for accessibility, mobility, environmental
activity and adjoining areas. protection and quality within a context of financial responsibility.
Urban design 9.2.2 ACTION SPACE
Much planning in the past has focused on land use and transport Action space
in a two-dimensional context. Increased concern about the three-
dimensional outcomes has led to a greater interest in the quality In simple terms, transport and land-use planning at the local level
of the built environment. Objectives now encompass urban operate in an ‘action space’ determined by three ‘anchor points’:
design, especially in regard to the relationship between buildings accessibility, activity and environment. Transport planning is
and spaces, roads and streets, and the people and activities concerned with providing accessibility through the development
within them. and management of networks. Land-use planning is concerned
with the location of activities. The type and degree of accessibility
Development costs and infrastructure influence the location of activities, while the relationship between
land uses influences the form and nature of accessibility needed.
Efficiency and equity in the provision of the physical and social
infrastructure in new communities (Brigg, 1994) require much up- Local residents demand protection of their environment. This
front consideration of costs, timing, thresholds and responsibility need influences both the location and management of networks
for its provision (e.g. the requirement in NSW for a development and the location of activities, which generate traffic. Hence,
contribution plan). The management of existing assets and the accessibility and activity location are tempered by the protection
need for maintenance and upgrading in established areas is also of the environment. Conversely, the environment of transport
attracting increasing attention, especially in older, established routes also creates opportunities for land-use activities and
areas. urban design. All actions are constrained by available resources,
market pressures, attitudes and perceptions, and behaviour.
Convergence
In a greenfield situation, the action space is influenced by land
The practical result of the growing interest in the environmental for ms, drainage, infrastructure development and mar ket
quality, urban design and infrastructure of local areas is the preferences. In an established urban environment, it is
convergence of land-use, transport and environmental planning. determined by pressures for redevelopment and change, and for
Local transport planning in the past has been pre-occupied with conservation and amelioration. In both contexts, there are
networks, traffic flows and road safety, whereas much local land- different ways in which the action space can be planned and
use planning has been focused on land-use zoning and amenity. managed.
This is changing and there is a growing understanding and
acceptance of the need to plan and develop local areas as Many of the principles described are well established and used in
integrated communities, in which there is a greater balance the current action space. They are mentioned only briefly.

However, there are others, which are not yet part of current increased. A higher level of public transport can be provided.
practice. More details are provided in that case.
Relating employment and services to housing location
Changes in types of employment and technology offer potential

for location closer to workforce (e.g. home offices and
telecommuting). Local employment should be encouraged by
removing zoning impediments, subject to environmental
safeguards.
Planning for mixed uses within residential areas and local

centres creates an opportunity to reduce the distance of trips and
dependence on the motor car (AMCORD 1995, Practice Note
PND 8). As shown in Chapter 8, mixed use areas should be
grouped as local trip destinations.
Encouraging centres with multiple land use
Land-use activities should be linked to reduce the need for

separate trips and moderate the cumulative traffic and parking
generated. Multi-use centres also offer residents a sense of
Figure 9-1 Action space in context community and civic awareness (Ryan, 1995). Priority should be
given to short-term parking. Provision for, and the management
of, commuter parking should be linked to the provision of
alternative transport modes.
9.3 PLANNING PRINCIPLES
Priority for public transport
9.3.1 LOCAL LAND USE AND TRANSPORT
In most suburban areas, the majority of commuter trips are
between dispersed suburban origins and destinations. This
More compact communities
makes it difficult to shift them to conventional public transport
systems. In Ottawa–Carleton, policies and programs have been
Compact communities can reduce the distance of travel, without
introduced with targets for the mode split for public transport
reducing diversity and choice. Much local travel is on local roads
(Bonsall, 1995). Suburban busways have been provided and
and, in more compact communities, activities are closer together
policies are in place for the location of higher density
and opportunities for walking and cycling for some trips are

development within 400 metres walking distance from an existing Link development standards to cost-effectiveness and
or proposed transit stop. Development costs are charged against affordability
all new residential and commercial construction. In many
instances modal split targets are already being achieved. Similar Development standards for road reservations, road design and
policies (‘Travel Smart’) are pursued in Brisbane (Soorley, 1995). lots have often been in excess of what they need to be on
functional, safety and amenity grounds. Integrated development
One of the most interesting recent applications is the integrated allows such standards to be replaced by more flexible,
busway system in Curitiba, the capital of the State of Parana in performance-based approaches (e.g. AMCORD 95).
Brazil, with a population of 2.1 million (1990). Express routes are
linked with local routes through a system of interchanges and a Planning for diversity and choice
single fare allows passengers to transfer. The details were
designed for speed and simplicity: special raised tube bus stops, Changes in household composition and types, such as an ageing
where passengers pay their fare in advance, speed boarding and population, lead to changes in housing needs and travel
extra wide doors have cut travel times by a third (Rabinovitch, demands. This has implications for the planning and design of
1996). local areas which are often not recognised. Although people’s
housing needs change, there should be opportunities for those
Encourage personal public transport who want to stay in the same locality. Changing travel demands
should not disadvantage those who no longer use a car. For this
Personal public transport can play an important role in providing reason, ease of access to public transport and personal public
for cross movements in areas where the public transport network transport is necessary for all housing areas, even when initial
is radially structured. Permeability in street networks is desirable. demand is low.
Increase opportunities for non-motorised modes Making better use of what exists
Opportunities for local mixed uses, with access for pedestrians Many existing roads need not be major traffic routes for the
and cyclists, should be provided. Routes should be direct, with exclusive use of cars. They can often be converted to make them
suitable grades, attractive and safe. useful to pedestrians, cyclists and public transport. In activity
centres, kerbside parking can be modified to create more
Recognise the needs of special groups pedestrian space, and internal roads can be adapted for sharing
with pedestrians and cyclists (see Chapter 12).
All precinct environments should be capable of adaptation for
use by mobility-impaired people, children and aged people. Their
needs should be reflected in housing location, safety and design
of transport facilities.

9.3.2 RELATING ACTIVITY AND ACCESSIBILITY • provide high-quality public transport;
Zoning based on mobility characteristics and accessibility, • provide interchanges between all modes except cars; and
not on land use alone
• make them memorable and attractive.
Relating activity to accessibility leads to a new form of zoning, or
an ‘overlay’ type of zoning. Zoning would not be based on the
type of land use in the first instance, but on performance. This
performance can be expressed in the mobility characteristics of
different land-use types. They determine the type of accessibility
associated with such development (for an explanation of the
difference between mobility and accessibility see Chapter 5).
Conversely, the accessibility available, and the type of

environment desired in a particular location, should determine
the mobility characteristics of land uses, which are appropriate
for it. The principle leads to a distinction between people-
generating land uses (or activities) and vehicle-generating
activities. For example, vehicle-oriented zoning should be
confined to locations where vehicle accessibility can be provided
without impairment of the local environment.
People-oriented activity locations
Centres typically are people-generating activities. Accessibility

zoning aims to:
• concentrate people-generating activities into regional,

district and transit centres; Figure 9-2 Relationship between density,
employment and accessibility
• turn these centres into multi-use centres with employment,
a wide range of facilities and services, higher density
housing on top and adjacent;
• make them people places, which are pedestrian friendly;

Incentives and disincentives centres as people centres. The second step is to plan and design
them in a way which enables them to function if, and when, there
The achievement of people-oriented centres involves a careful are restrictions on vehicular movement at some stage in the
mix of incentives and disincentives. Depending on specific future.
conditions, there may be a need to:
Vehicle-oriented locations
• discourage all-day parking;
People-oriented locations need to be complemented by vehicle-
• introduce pricing policies for parking; oriented locations. They are needed for activities such as
warehouses, goods yards, service establishments, bulk retail
• encourage government action to move parts of their activities etc. They require a location near major roads and
offices to such centres; should be zoned for that purpose. There is no need to provide
public transport, but companies could be required to prepare and
• discourage the development of freestanding single operate commuter plans for their employees.
purpose centres;
Mixed locations
• use special measures and incentives to assemble and
dispose of sites to make them available for the right Many areas require both people and vehicle access, but they
activities of the right size and at the right price and time. could be planned and developed to create choice. This does not
This may require incentives and clear conditions on the necessarily change the mode split, at least in the short term, but
type of development for such sites; it provides options which would otherwise not exist. Creating
options is a good investment. As congestion sets in, or when
• closely integrate management of activity and accessibility there is need for more intervention, such as parking pricing,
to ensure a close fit between improvements in people and businesses are not locked into an inflexible situation.
infrastructure and development;
Relating density, accessibility and transport to each other
• have transferable development rights to ensure equity
between property owners; and New suburban areas should have densities sufficient to provide a
convenient public transpor t ser vice. Cost-effective and
• increase expenditure to create memorable places which convenient public transport generally requires neighbourhood
become attractive to the market for investment. residential densities of at least 15–20 dwellings per hectare
(Frank and Pivo, 1994). Unless there are special reasons for
Some of these measures will be difficult to introduce, except in departing from this principle, areas with a high level of public
CBD locations. The first step is to encourage development transport accessibility should be permitted to be developed at
proposals which contribute to the creation and adaptation of higher densities than those with a low level of public transport

accessibility. Transit-friendly locations, in particular, justify higher accessibility policies, giving priority to pedestrians, cyclists and
densities (see the Guide Part C L-2). public transport in some locations and some routes, and giving
priority to vehicles in others. Measures to discourage through-
traffic should not make it more difficult for pedestrians and
cyclists to travel to centres, facilities and public transport stops.
Accessibility to stations and transport stops
Making maximum use of existing or proposed public transport

infrastructure requires an accessibility policy. Planning of new
urban areas is usually based on this principle, but a retrofit of
established areas is important too. Hawthorn (1993) recognised
the need for it in its Strategy Plan, which identifies public
transport accessibility as a basis for future development.
Guidelines to improve pedestrian and cyclist access to stations

and transport stops have been prepared for Brisbane (Prince,
1996). The types of development covered include:
• major centres;
• transport corridors;
• major interchanges;
Figure 9-3 Activity/accessibility zoning
• urban fabric;
• residential areas;
Accessibility policies for land-use activities and transport • local centres;

networks
• local interchanges;
Cars use roads and streets, but pedestrians, cyclists and public
transport services need them too. The location of land uses and • individual sites;
the development of local networks should be based on

• public transport stops; and Much needs to be done before cycling is an attractive,
convenient and safe alternative, especially for people in the
• buildings. middle to older age groups. A survey in 1996, which asked the
question what people enjoyed most about cycling in the city, drew
Interchanges the response that it was the ‘thrill of surviving the trip’ (Lafond,
1996).
Some stations act as interchanges between different transport
modes or routes. They may be linked to bus routes and other Bus routes
transport modes. Interchange planning and design are important.
It should be easy for all travellers to transfer (e.g. ramps or Bus route planning also requires care, especially in new
escalators). Timed transfer, in which bus timetables are matched residential areas. Neighbourhood design should give priority to
with rail timetables, reduces the need for waiting, and ‘train and bus route planning (see Technical Bulletin 19, NSW Department
bus taxis’ (as exist in the Netherlands) ensure a seamless of Planning, 1989).
connection from and to home.
9.3.3 TRANSPORT AND THE ENVIRONMENT
Pedestrians
Corridors for movement, precincts for protection
Planning accessibility for pedestrians should be based on an
understanding of the kind of pedestrians, which will use The relationship between roads for the movement of vehicles and
pedestrian ways, how many there are and what they need. For adjoining environments differs from that between streets
example, the needs of shoppers, mothers with prams, school providing for access to property. A key aspect in land-use and
children, aged and disabled people are all different. Pedestrian transport planning is to create ‘precincts’ or ‘neighbourhoods’,
connectivity, weather protection, gradients, safety, security and which provide for access to properties, internal circulation and a
amenity need to be considered in a systematic way. high level of environmental protection, while ‘corridors’ serve as
through traffic routes. Chapters 11 and 12 address the
Cyclists relationship between roads and adjoining land use in corridors.
Adequate links are needed between precincts, but not planned to
The needs of cyclists should be understood before provision is attract significant levels of through traffic. Centres and living
made for them (See Austroads, Guide to Traffic Engineering areas can be planned as precincts. Large institutions, such as
Practice, Part 14, Bicycles, 1993). In residential areas, there may hospitals and universities, also benefit from planning them as
not be a need for separate cycleways, except at points where precincts.
there is potential conflict with vehicles - such as near schools -
(AMCORD, 1995). However, separate provision should be made
for cyclists along traffic routes, where vehicle speeds are high.

Core and frame areas
The distinction between a core and frame area is a useful

principle. The core area is intended for intensive pedestrian
activity and the frame for vehicle- and pedestrian-oriented land
uses. The distinction should be reflected in the structure or
concept plan.
No through traffic
Through traffic conflicts with the functioning and environmental

quality of a centre, and should not penetrate the core nor the
frame. A bypass route is usually essential. In larger centres, the
bypass route should be planned as a ring route, providing
opportunities for drivers to avoid the centre and to exit onto roads
leading into the frame. Where this is not possible, areas of
Figure 9-4 Corridors and Precincts conflict need to be identified and special measures put in place.
Low vehicle speeds
Vehicle speeds should reflect the pedestrian dominance of the

core. In the frame, there will be considerable friction between
access and circulation movements, and vehicle speeds should
be moderated.
URBAN CENTRES AS PRECINCTS
The relationship between the core and public transport
Pedestrian-friendly activity centres
Public transport accessibility to the core is essential in all major
The balance between accessibility and the quality of the street urban centres, and designated priority routes should be
environment within activity centres is often lacking. Parking is incorporated in any structure or development plans. The manner
frequently inadequate, and searching for a parking space adds to in which public transport is integrated with the centre, depends
congestion and frustration. The pedestrian environment suffers on the local context. There are advantages of linking
from the dominance of cars and the priority given to them. interchanges with core activities, but there are also practical
issues, such as the concentration of bus priority routes in an area
of pedestrian dominance and the undesirability of bus storage in

a prime location. For these reasons, bus or tram routes should Setting accessibility priorities
have stops close to, but not necessarily within the core (unless
there is grade separation), and bus lay-over spaces should be Accessibility priorities should be set for different parts of the
provided elsewhere. centre. For example, the order of priority in the planning of the
core may be:
1 Pedestrians
2 Public transport
3 Delivery vehicles
4 Off-street visitor car parking
5 Roads for access and circulation
6 Limited on-street parking
In the frame, different priorities may be set.
Vehicle restriction zone
Vehicle restriction zones in areas, or at times, of high pedestrian

activity may be appropriate. In some cities, zones are created,
where vehicles only are allowed with permits (e.g. Singapore). In
others, vehicle access is permitted only at certain times of the
day or excluded at particular times of the week.
Planning for pedestrian or vehicle orientation
Figure 9-5 Speed zones for core and frame Centres should be planned and adapted around different types
and forms of accessibility. The land-use plan addresses the
location, density and association of different land-use activities,
including below, at ground and above ground levels. Activities
such as offices which do not require the carrying of heavy

merchandise should be given greater preference in areas of high
public transport accessibility than supermarkets. Areas of high
car accessibility, such as service trades, should be zoned for
vehicle-oriented uses. Development densities should be based
on pedestrian or vehicle accessibility (and sometimes both).
Access routes and circulation
The concentration of pedestrian activity in the core and the

location of vehicle-oriented uses in the frame has implications for
local network planning. Within the frame, a series of
interconnected, but indirect, traffic routes should be provided for
access to sites and parking areas, and for movement in between.
A circulation plan must be developed in parallel and integrated
with an environmental and land-use plan for the centre (e.g.
Camberwell Junction, 1992; Gungahlin Town Centre, ACT, 1995).
Location, design and management of off-street parking
Off-street parking areas should be provided in the frame, but not

in the core. Congestion on circulation routes and within parking
areas can occur, because of searching for a space. Integrated
provision and management, combined with electronic information
systems in large centres, can significantly reduce unnecessary
movement and frustration. Special attention should be given to
the design of off-street parking areas and structures. They are
often not user-friendly and attractive, and their size and design
can be daunting, especially for older people.
Figure 9-6 Priority in road use

(based on Glazebrook 1995)

Major pedestrian and bicycle routes Environmental protection of adjoining areas
Major routes, coming from stops and stations, off-street parking Three situations need to be addressed:
areas and other pedestrian generating activities, should be
clearly identified, as they have a considerable influence in the • Intrusion of frame-type uses in adjoining residential areas.
planning of the core and frame. Issues to be considered include: Tight zoning may be necessary to prevent this from
happening (e.g. North Sydney).
• when are they used;
• All-day parking. Resident parking schemes may be
• what conflicts are encountered; required to control this, but there is an associated cost
with policing and administration.
• how can such conflicts be addressed;
• Traffic on roads providing access to the centre. Traffic
• can weather protection be provided; calming in the adjoining area may be essential and routes,
which have to remain, should be subject to environmental
• can active frontage be provided; adaptation (see Chapter 12).
• is pedestrian lighting adequate; and Amenity and convenience
• are there obstacles for physically disadvantaged people. Within the core, issues of safety, security, amenity, and
convenience are essential elements for the creation of a
A focus on reducing the potential for conflict pedestrian-friendly environment.
Site access for service vehicles and access for emergency • Safety requires an environment where the conflict
vehicles will be necessary in the core. There will be many between vehicles and pedestrians is minimised. Security
existing centres where some vehicle activity in the core cannot concerns the personal safety of pedestrians and the
be avoided. It may even be desirable, for example, at night, when protection of property.
pedestrian activity is light and vehicle accessibility increases
security. Thus, the principle is not necessarily to ban cars, but to • Amenity can mean many things: comfort and weather
create an environment where vehicle speeds are low. protection, noise protection, light and shade, sense of
space, opportunity for social interaction, streetscape -
including appearance, landscaping, signs, lighting and
urban design.

• Convenience concerns the provision of clear and direct removes both circulation traffic and parking and can generally be
routes from public transport stops and stations, and from justified only for short sections. Service vehicles are permitted
parking areas. It also involves having an arrangement of but only at prescribed times. Some notable examples are Rundle
land-use activities in the core, which avoids the need for Street, Adelaide; Hay Street, Perth; Pitt Street, Sydney; Queen
long walking distances, parcel carrying and climbing Street, Brisbane; Bourke Street, Melbourne where trams operate
stairways. in the mall, and Elizabeth Street, Hobar t. However, less
successful malls are often deserted after shopping hours and
In the frame, activities and circulation routes should be arranged invite vandalism. Strict policing may be necessary. Some malls in
for people and parcel pick-up locations. the US have been converted back to access streets as a result of
offensive and criminal activities, and a loss in trade. A time-based
Efficient functioning of the core restriction (i.e. no vehiclesat times of peak pedestrian activity)
may be an appropriate compromise.
Efficiency is important for business operation, including access
for servicing businesses, taxis, public transport and emergency Sharing the road space is another option
vehicles, and access for repair and maintenance. Frontage
access for on- street parking will be important in smaller town Another option is to permit moving and parked vehicles, provided
centres. It becomes less critical as centres grow, provided traffic volumes and vehicle speed are restrained. The road space
alternative parking is provided within 100–150 metres walking should then be designed so that driver behaviour respects the
distance from the ‘Main Street’. presence of pedestrians and cyclists, and pedestrians can cross
safely. For further details see Chapter 12.
Space or time-based exclusion of certain kinds of vehicles
Transit malls
Assuming that through traffic has been addressed and is not an
issue, there are three vehicular functions to be considered: Transit malls are another form of road space allocation.
circulation traffic, parking and public transport routes. Circulation Footpaths can be widened and all vehicles, except buses or
traffic is local traffic associated with access to sites, parking trams, taxis and emergency services are excluded. Vehicle
areas and the provision of access services such as taxis. If this speeds should still be restrained and bus frequency should be at
traffic is excluded, alternative routes and site access must be a level where pedestrian safety and amenity are not impaired.
available. If on-street parking in an established centre is excluded The question of compatibility between large vehicles and a
or restricted to certain times, there will be an impact on business, predominantly pedestr ian environment should also be
especially in smaller centres. addressed. This problem could be reduced with the use of
smaller buses(‘greenways’).
Pedestrian malls can play a role
The conversion of existing shopping streets into pedestrian malls

pedestrian routes and spaces should be opened up and replaced
by active frontage to the public domain.
Some land uses, such as supermarkets, generate large volumes

of pedestrians and vehicles. Where they are located in the core,
there should be both a pedestrian and a vehicle ‘address’.
The quality of the centre depends on the quality of urban

design
The principles described provide an appropriate land-use and

transport context for a centre, which can function successfully,
and is safe and convenient. However, by themselves they do not
create a place which is attractive and make people want to come
there. This requires attention to urban and landscape design, a
theme which gives the centre a distinction. It will have a focus,
variety and interest at different times of the day and at night.
LIVING AREAS AS PRECINCTS
Protecting local environments
Figure 9-7 Road space allocation - long term Local environments need to be protected from through traffic and
the impact of traffic. New neighbourhoods should be largely free
of through traffic, incorporating traffic calming schemes, public
transport access, cycle routes and modal interchanges. In
established communities, especially in inner urban areas,
Care is needed with large commercial complexes integrated redevelopment should be considered to progressively
reduce the impact of transport barriers and facilitate the creation
Many centres contain shopping or mixed development complexes of viable communities.
with internal malls, which often are air-conditioned. Pedestrian
concentration is internalised and the layout results in businesses Applying AMCORD principles
turning their back to roads and public spaces. Internal malls may
be closed after hours and opportunities for after-hour pedestrian The principles, set out in AMCORD (1995) - A National Resource
use of the public spaces may be diminished. Blank walls facing Document for Residential Design, were developed with the aim

of integrating transport, land use and the environment in vehicles, and crossing pedestrians and cyclists should be
residential areas. They have been incorporated into a set of carefully managed (see Chapter 12). If the regional function of
principles by the NSW Department of Transport (1997). roads becomes more dominant, friction may need to be reduced
and this may lead to fewer junctions providing access to and from
The NSW document has three elements: adjoining precincts. However, fewer junctions may mean that
some local streets carry more traffic than is desirable and this
• Neighbourhood design; could affect bus routes. There is interdependency here, which
requires careful consideration.
• Feeder routes (major movement networks); and
• Local movement networks.
The principles use the performance approach developed for

AMCORD. With this approach there are no specific rules or
standards, but objectives and a set of performance criteria, which
plans and proposals have to meet.
Defining precincts and corridors
There are trade-offs to be considered in defining precincts. A

larger precinct or neighbourhood may be more self-contained
(with its own school, community and commercial facilities) than
a smaller precinct, but dwellings in the large precinct will have
less direct access to the external road network than those in the
smaller precinct. Traffic volumes and noise on local streets may
also increase. With a greater number of smaller precincts, on the
other hand, there will be more links between them and the
external road system. This reduces the efficiency of the road
corridors in carrying through traffic.
Relating the planning of precincts to the spacing and type of

junctions along corridors
Figure 9-8 Corridors and precincts
For corridors, the movement function is dominant and the friction
caused by frequent intersections, entrance drives, parked

Connectivity between adjoining areas Traffic calming should be an integral part in all precincts
Residential precincts should be connected to public transport Traffic calming can be described in broad or local terms (Brindle,
stops, schools, shops, local employment and playing areas by 1991). In local terms, traffic calming can be defined as ‘the
pedestrian and cycle routes, which are safe and direct. They results of actions to restrain traffic speed and lessen traffic
should not be severed from adjoining areas by major transport impacts at the local level, where traffic volumes, levels of service
barriers, and safe connections across such barriers should be and network capacity are not an issue’ (FORS, 1993). In broad
provided. However, there are no standards or guidelines. terms, it can encompass a wide range of measures, including
those designed to reduce the need for car travel, and to
Streets and roads should not exceed their environmental encourage the use of other transport modes. Traffic calming is
capacity. not confined to residential areas and should also be actively
pursued in local and town centres.
Environmental traffic capacity (see Chapter 8 for a definition) is
difficult to quantify in absolute terms. The capacity is determined Restructuring of established urban areas
by:
Restructuring involves a comprehensive and integrated
• Street characteristics: width of reservation and approach, in which both the existing road or street system and
carriageway, number of lanes, gradient, road surface the land-use structure are modified. It may involve:
conditions;
• creating a precinct in an area currently exposed to through
• Traffic characteristics: traffic volume, traffic composition traffic;
(in particular, the proportion of heavy vehicles), vehicle
speed; and • priority for public transport with special links for exclusive
use as a bus or tramway;
• Built environment: distance from carriageway, nature of
intervening surfaces, type and design of building, type of • selective infill and redevelopment of redundant industrial
occupation (e.g. relative sensitivity to traffic impact). land for more intensive residential and mixed use
development;
All these factors can be modified. As the perception of what
constitutes an acceptable balance between them varies, the • the allocation of the existing road space to a range of uses
environmental traffic capacity of a residential area depends on for circulation and access; and
local conditions. Application of the principles of AMCORD, which
sets limits on traffic volumes and vehicle speed in residential • an integrated urban design of the streetscape (van der
streets, can be a useful starting point. Mark and Droog, 1985. Metro, 1997).

This approach can be applied in areas where there is pressure
for change and scope for integrated forms of implementation
(e.g. Subiaco, Perth; City West, Sydney).
New design approaches
A focus on more sustainable environments can lead to new

approaches towards energy conservation, recycling, drainage,
non-motorised access, more linked spaces and fewer streets,
and different approaches to building set-backs. One of the most
notable recent examples is New Haven Village, Port Adelaide
(figure 9-9; SA Housing Trust, 1995).
Pedestrian safety and noise protection
Residential areas and local centres should not be exposed to

traffic noise, and should be safe for all street users. Instead of Figure 9-9 Innovation in street design
treating symptoms, the planning approach should be to avoid the (New Haven, Adelaide)
problem through up-front planning. This should address the
location of activities which generate, or are sensitive to, vehicular
traffic. It should also address the design and management of the
road network to ensure that residential streets do not attract
traffic and vehicle speeds, where noise and safety become
issues of concern. Distinguishing different types of local streets
Such a systems approach leads to the setting of performance Streets must provide access to properties and local vehicular
conditions for roads and streets. For example, dwellings should movement. They should meet requirements for drainage, utilities,
not be exposed to traffic volumes in excess of 55 d(B)A at the bus routes, pedestrian and cycle systems, and streetscape.
facade and at a lower level if traffic routes are used by trucks at Some streets will of necessity have to carry more traffic than
night. Pedestrians and cyclists should be able to cross residential others, because they provide links to the major road network, or
streets safely and without delay. are bus routes. However, the majority of streets in a network
should have low levels of vehicle traffic (i.e. 3,000 vpd or less).
AMCORD 1995 makes a functional distinction between two

levels of streets:

• access street; and designed to provide adequate protection for its residents (see
Chapter 12). This applies, in particular, to exposure to traffic
• collector street. noise and air pollution.
Streets of different classification should look different so that the The classification of streets and their performance
driver learns to recognise the type of street he/she is travelling in.
Legibility of the street network reduces confusion, enhances AMCORD proposes a basic classification of access streets and
amenity and safety, and facilitates marketing of land and housing. collector streets and identifies acceptable performance solutions
for different types of streets. In access streets the target speed is
Street design and urban design are linked 40 km/h, but in access places it is 15 km/h. In collector streets
the target speed is 50 km/h but 20 km/h at designated pedestrian
Elements to be considered include: crossings. There is a view that the speeds in some access
streets may be too high if children use them to play and there are
• function and width; aged residents.
• design for safety; AMCORD also proposes ‘acceptable solutions’ for dealing with
traffic noise in precincts, on-street parking, bus routes (on
• access and verge; collector streets only), frontage access to collectors (only forward
movements where traffic volumes exceed 3,000 vpd), street
• on-street parking; reservation and carriageway width.
• streetscape; 9.4 ISSUES REQUIRING CLARIFICATION

• building set-back and height; 9.4.1 ISSUES RELATED TO PRINCIPLES
• acoustic privacy; Many of the principles are already well established. Issues which
arise have more to do with the application of the principle than
• fences and walls, and the location; and the principle itself. The process in determining and achieving
desired outcomes may then be more critical than the formulation
• design of garages. of principles.
Housing along traffic routes need protection Conflict between development and conservation
Where housing is provided along traffic routes, environmental The issue of implementation is very relevant in the case of urban
performance standards should ensure that such housing is consolidation. The transition of established areas is often difficult

to manage and many local authorities, often against the advice of will occur eventually and the street function and traffic
their officers, are refusing development proposals, which then performance are likely to change. There is an argument that all
have to be decided by appeal bodies. A major aspect in such streets should have an inbuilt flexibility to adapt, and that street
appeals is the community’s concern about the impact of traffic. reservations should not be based on traffic volumes expected in
the short term.
The notion of accessibility zoning, linked to the concept of
environmental traffic capacity, can provide a new approach to How much connectivity should be provided within and
such concerns, although this approach needs to be further between precincts?
developed and tested.
There is a view that a street hierarchy should be used in which a
Traffic calming - overspill effects lower street connects only with a higher-order street, if it is no
more than two levels above it (for example an access place or
There is also a potential conflict between traffic calming of cul-de-sac is not connected to a major collector). Yet there is
precincts (with traffic diverted from streets to major roads) and another opinion, that the conventional street hierarchy is obsolete
improving the performance of urban arterials in established and connectivity should be encouraged (without attracting
suburbs (with fewer connections to local streets). This problem is through traffic). From this viewpoint, grid-type layouts are
occurring in inner suburbs. It touches on the hierarchy of acceptable (again), but with traffic calming measures built in, and
street/road functions at the local areas versus the hierarchy at the tree/branch-type of layouts should be discouraged
regional levels, and the priority given to each. Techniques and (Calthorpe, 1993).
processes for addressing this conflict need to be developed (see
the Guide Part B Chapter 2, Example). Should some collector streets be planned as activity
streets?
How much space in a residential precinct should be devoted
to streets and traffic? The conventional argument is that ribbon development creates
pedestrian/vehicle conflict, and that activity should be confined
Many people are concerned about the dominance of the motor with clearly identified pedestrian crossings. Another view is that
car in the urban environment. There are design alternatives, some collector streets should be developed as urban streets,
which reduce the amount of space for streets or for vehicles in modelled on pre-motorised days. Traffic volumes could be as
streets. Indeed, in some older suburbs, the street space is often high as 8,000 vpd, provided street design would keep vehicle
much less than current standards require, yet the streets appear speeds within limits determined by the street environment.
to function well. In new areas, where the street space, and However, such traffic volumes can create traffic noise at a level
especially on-street parking for visitors, has been reduced, there inappropriate for dwellings with conventional set-backs and
have been adverse community reactions. designs.
Street reservations endure (almost) for ever, but redevelopment

Should ‘integrator arterials’ be encouraged? the Department of Planning. Yet another view is that the use of
the cul-de-sac should be continued, provided there is
The notion of ‘integrator arterials’ is based on the premise that connectivity for pedestrians and cyclists between them.
there are many roads in inner urban areas with considerable
traffic, public transport, thriving frontage and high levels of 9.4.2 ISSUES RELATED TO RESEARCH
pedestrian activity. It is argued that such a mix is desirable, as it
represents urban vitality, and that pedestrian safety can be The state of knowledge varies greatly
ensured by appropriate traffic management and design (RTA,
1995). While the concept may be appropriate for secondary Studies have been conducted relating to pedestrian safety, traffic
traffic routes (FORS, 1993), it can also be argued that the noise, accessibility to stations, and traffic calming. However,
proponents overlook the evidence of vehicle emissions on health, there are also many areas where principles have been
and that the notion is inappropriate for major traffic routes with developed, without supporting research. New knowledge is
volumes in excess of 15,000–20,000 vpd, even without exposing needed in specific areas, such as the cumulative impact of urban
dwellings. consolidation, and the integrated planning of centres. There is as
yet no research agenda for integrated local land-use and
Is it feasible to introduce performance-based zoning for transport planning.
mixed use in living areas?
The information base needs updating
The introduction of non-residential activities may reduce travel
distance and encourage use of transport modes other than cars. AMCORD is perhaps the most comprehensive and recent of
Communities object on traffic grounds, but the application of documents, which bear on integrated planning at the local level.
performance standards may overcome such objections. The There is also documentation on the integrated planning of main
substantial question which remains is whether small businesses streets (FORS [Sharing the Main Street], 1993), which was
and selective industry would choose to locate there. There will be recently reviewed (RTA, 1998).
development conditions which are likely to constrain future
expansion, and the market for such sites may be small. There are many areas where guidelines exist, but which have not
been updated for some time. This applies, for example, to some
Is the cul-de-sac a dead end? of AUSTROADS Guidelines related to Traffic Engineering
Practice.
The cul-de-sac or access place is viewed by some as a traffic-
free haven, a place with identity and a most cost-effective Further development of disaggregated models
solution in land development terms. Others see the cul-de-sac as
a dead end, because it does not provide for connectivity - Disaggregated models include household type variables and
something, which they believe a social environment requires. In data derived from household diaries and interviews. The
Victoria, the provision of cul-de-sacs is actively discouraged by disaggregated approach uncovers important details, which

cannot be obtained from aggregated models. The basic premise 9.5 TOOLS FOR THE APPLICATION
is that trip making of a member of a household must be related to OF THESE PRINCIPLES AND APPROACHES
the household activity pattern. Within the household, people may
be substitute their destination, the time they travel, or who makes The principles and approaches lead to the tools, which are
the trip or uses the car in the household. Changing the transport described in the Guide (BPG). It should be noted that some of
or land-use opportunities can change the trip patterns of the the tools are also applicable to regional and corridor areas of
household. application. Conversely, some of the tools in these areas of
application are also relevant in a local planning context (such as
A distinction can be made between objective and subjective A hierarchy of centres, which appears under Regional tools).
situations. Objective situations are situations where options are
determined by transport supply and by the constraints and
opportunities of the individual in the household. Subjective
situations are situations where people’s values and attitudes
come into play.
The application of the disaggregated land-use and transport

models is especially important for local planning (see for example
Taylor, 1995). Travel blending, a technique designed to change
people’s travel behaviour (see the Guide Part C-R15), has
potential as a source of information for the development of
models.
Figure 9-10 Shared road space in core

TOPIC INTENT BPG
Activity/accessibility zoning To zone areas for activities according to mobility and accessibility, and to link private investment in the development L-1
of land-use activities with public investment in transport infrastructure.
Transit-friendly land use To influence the location, type and intensity of land use particularly around stations; facilitate inter-modal transfer; L-2
and improve the quality of the public environment.
Increasing choices in To develop and adapt transport and land-use structures to increase access to, and choices in, modes of transport. L-3
transport
Increasing choices in land To increase opportunities for multiple trip-making and for reducing the need for car-based travel. L-4
use
Cycle networks and land use To increase opportunities for using bicycles through integrated planning and management of land use and transport. L-5
Pedestrians and land use To facilitate and encourage walking as a significant transport mode. L-6
Parking standards and To encourage the development of parking standards and management, which reflect not only the needs for transport L-7
management efficiency and convenience, but also the broader implications for accessibility, land-use efficiency and amenity.
Corridors and precincts To protect local environments from through traffic and facilitate the performance of major transport routes in catering L-8
for through movement.
Centres as precincts To create and adapt centres as precincts where pedestrian safety and amenity are paramount. L-9
Residential precincts To adapt existing residential areas as precincts and create new precincts which are safe, convenient, with a high L-10
level of amenity and accessibility by non-car based modes.
Traffic calming To reduce the incidence and impact of traffic on the environment. L-11
Safety To increase safety of all road users through more integrated planning and management. L-12
Visibility To ensure that proper attention is given to visibility of pedestrians, cyclists and vehicles. L-13
Incentives and contributions To encourage preferred development and to exact contributions where infrastructure enhancement is necessary. L-14
Performance- based To encourage the development of land use and traffic management with a focus on desired outcomes instead of L-15
development control being prescriptive.
Table 9-1 Local tools and their intent

Chapter 10 Towards local • understanding the values of the community in exploring
options for future development;
integration • working with the stakeholders in determining which
outcomes are to be achieved in both the short and long
term.
• developing management techniques which deliver

10.1 INTRODUCTION integrated outcomes.
In this chapter the emphasis shifts from information about local Application of the principles identified in Chapter 9 depends
interactions and planning principles to their application. entirely on the local ‘strategic action space’ (for an explanation of
this term, see Chapter 7). Some constraints will be hard to
Many local areas are faced with major challenges. They vary change, but there are many others which can be overcome: e.g.
depending on location, especially between inner and outer areas. the lack of common goals, the limited charter of organisations,
In all cases there are conflicting pressures between development lack of communication or inadequate involvement of the
(or redevelopment) and conservation, the role of transport in stakeholders.
providing accessibility, while protecting the quality of the local
environment at all times. It is generally accepted that urban In this chapter, core issues are:
development needs to be more sustainable. However, there is
limited understanding of what we need to do, other than recycling • establishing goals and desired outcomes;
of household wastes.
• policy development;
In other words, there is a gap between what may be seen as
desired outcomes and what is required to achieve them. The link • process development; and
between planning principles and implementation involves more
than preparing plans. It involves: • institutional development.
• gaining an understanding of how the market works, and 10.2 DESIRED OUTCOMES
what may be needed to influence it;
10.2.1 FOCUS ON OUTCOMES NOT OUTPUTS
• developing appropriate policies;
Examples of possible desired outcomes at the local level are:
• using processes which involve the community in collective
learning about their changing environment;

• a local urban structure with opportunities recreation, employment and education throughout the day, week
for sustainable development; and year.
• integration between local land use and transport to The diversity of activity will reflect the harmonious mix of uses
maximise accessibility; that lend vitality to the neighbourhood’s strong residential core,
without disturbing its quiet residential streets. Neighbourhood
• local transport networks, which offer choice in transport footpaths, walkways and bikeways form a pleasant system of
mode, and convenient and safe access; tree-lined streets, which link the neighbourhood residential areas
to nearby shopping, schools, jobs and the surrounding city.
• allocation and regulation of the available transport space, Transit service has been improved, including the development of
according to specific priorities for different transport a nor ther n light rail transit line, which ser ves the Eliot
modes; Neighbourhood.
• precincts for environmental protection and enhancement; Eliot will maintain and build upon its strong sense of history by
preser ving histor ic str uctures and emphasising the
• pedestrian-friendly and safe environments in centres and neighbourhood’s historic character. Attractive ornamental lighting
living areas containing mutually supporting activities; and standards, which complement the historic quality of the district,
have been installed at key locations, and utilities are moved
• transport corridors and facilities, which enhance, rather underground in some areas. Much of the Eliot neighbourhood is
than detract from, the local environment. included within historic design zones, which require design
review to ensure that development is compatible with the
10.2.2 VISION STATEMENTS neighbourhood historic character. Public improvements will be
designed to respect and add to the historic quality of the
Vision and mission statements are often used today as a means neighbourhood.
of expressing desired outcomes. The following is an example of a
local vision statement. It was prepared for Eliot, a neighbourhood Those residing in Eliot will continue to be both ethnically and
in Portland, Oregon (City Oil Portland, 1993). economically diverse. Employment of neighbourhood residents
will be high as will their confidence and ambition. Residents of
Eliot Neighbourhood, Portland Eliot will be untroubled by major problems, which are external to
their individual lives. Many will find time and interest to participate
In the future, Eliot will be a neighbourhood of individuals and in grassroots organisations, innovation and experimentation. As a
families who share a sense of community. They will enjoy living in community, Eliot’s residents will know how to have a good time
Eliot and will feel that it is a good place to put down roots and a and find occasion for celebrations and other events, which bring
secure place to live, work and enjoy life. Eliot will also be a lively them together.
and active neighbourhood, providing a setting for commerce,

10.2.3 SETTING GOALS Reconciling local and regional interests
A need for consensus State Authorities are also stakeholders. They have an interest in
regional aspects, obser vance of general standards and
The vision statement provides an entry to a statement of goals. processes, and conflict resolution.
The entire local community are stakeholders and should be
involved. Integrated planning depends on common objectives The relationship between local and regional (or State) interests,
and desired outcomes. Policy development then can follow. and between adjoining local areas, is also undergoing change
and varies between States. Local government will continue to be
There should be agreement on the problems which need to be responsible for local land use and transport planning, but
addressed (including those associated with growth and change), regional interests should be equally recognised. The manner in
the future of the local community, the balance between which these relationships are handled is of great importance to
development and environmental protection, the role of public ensure an outcome of benefit to all participants. This aspect is
authorities and the private sector, resources available, and discussed in Chapter 4.
priorities. Together they define the local action space for
integrated planning. 10.3 POLICY DEVELOPMENT
The NSW Local Government and Shires Association (1996) in its 10.3.1 POLICIES TO SUIT THE LOCAL CONTEXT
Policy Statement suggests that all planning and infrastructure
decisions should have regard to the following goals: Policies should be determined locally
• achieving economic and environmental sustainability; The previous chapter identified a wide range of principles which
can be used for local policy development. The goal statement
• social justice; and the priorities developed with the stakeholders will indicate
which policy fields of integrated planning should be included in a
• equitable access to housing and employment; policy statement, what scope there is for their application, which
targets should be set, and how implementation should be
• quality of life issues; and effected.
• local and regional planning objectives. Three areas for policy development
The goals statement should include policies on urban growth Within the framework of integrated planning, three areas of policy
management, planning and funding of infrastructure, land use development are:
and transport interaction, and sustainable development.
1 the relationship between activity and accessibility;

2 networks, transport modes and transport space; and • pedestrian-friendly centres and streets;
3 transport and the environment. • protection from air and noise emissions;
Under (1), policies should be considered for: • reducing energy consumption; and
• the location and density of housing areas; • minimising exposure to risk - design and management for
safety.
• the nature and distribution of employment;
10.3.2 APPROACHES TOWARDS POLICY DEVELOPMENT
• the location of people and vehicle-generating activities;
The structure of a policy framework
• the relationship between accessibility and activity - the
location, composition, accessibility and integrated A policy framework can be defined as the relationship between
development of centres. objectives, strategies, policy fields (or ‘elements’), performance
criteria (i.e. matters to be considered) and acceptable outcomes,
Under (2) policies could relate to: agencies responsible and the level at which they operate (figure
10-1).
• performance characteristics of networks, including
frontage access; In the following examples, it is assumed that there are no
regional or adjoining area interests.
• land-use associations with each type of network, including
access to them; • Examples of strategies: developing a sustainable
community; relating densities, land use and transport to
• the relationship between different networks, including the accessibility and environmental protection; integrating
transfer of people and goods from one mode to another; roads and streets with the built environment.
and
• Examples of policy fields or elements: transport
• allocation of the transport space to different transport accessibility and residential density; business parks;
modes and parking; establishing precincts and traffic calming; pedestrian and
cycle networks.
Under (3) the kind of policies to be considered include:
• Examples of performance criteria (i.e. matters to be taken
• protection of local communities from the intrusion of into account): parking provision; design for pedestrian
through traffic; safety; exposure to traffic noise.

• Examples of acceptable outcomes (i.e. quantitative and
qualitative guidelines): number of parking spaces for UK Planning Policy Guidance Note No. 13
retirement villages; street design which meets the target
speeds for each street type and ensures appropriate drive Purpose: to reduce the need for travel through land use
behaviour required along particular sections; an and transport planning.
acceptable noise exposure level inside a dwelling.
By working from basic planning principles through to
Develop guidelines for policy fields or elements methodology for developing and applying land-use and
transport policies, it offers a step-by-step approach for local
Policy development can take the form of a comprehensive set of authorities to follow. It is supported by case studies.
guidelines, such as AMCORD, 1995; UK Planning Policy
Guideline 13 (Transport) in the UK. Structure of document
Guidelines already exist in many areas; for example: • Introduction;
• land-use trip generation (e.g. RTA, NSW); • Planning principles: strategic planning, local planning,
transport;
• road safety (e.g. RTA, NSW);
• Principles into practice: taking stock, developing
• safe routes to schools (VicRoads; RTA, NSW); policies, development planning, transport planning,
development control, promoting awareness;
• access to public transport stations (DOT, Qld);
• Planning framework: regional planning, structure
• residential development (AMCORD); planning, planning in urban areas, planning in rural
areas;
• protection from traffic noise (e.g. VicRoads; RTA, NSW);
• Location of development: housing, employment, freight,
• development along arterial roads (e.g. DOT, SA); retail, leisure tourism and recreation, public facilities,
housing at neighbourhood scale;
• local area traffic management (Austroads);
• Transport measures: car planning, pedestrians, cycling,
• bicycle planning (Austroads); traffic management, public transport, park-and-ride.
• sharing the Main Street (Federal Office of Road Safety

and RTA); and

• hazardous goods movement (DUAP, NSW). the Commonwealth Government, was completed under the
Building Better Cities Program in 1994, and provided a stimulus
An inventory should be prepared of which guidelines are for the application of integrated processes by local authorities.
available. A review should then be undertaken to determine
whether further guidelines may be useful and how they could be The ILAP process
prepared.
ILAP approach emphasises:
Use a standard format for guidelines
• the need for partnership between the three spheres of
The usefulness of guidelines is enhanced by adopting a format government, local communities and the private sector to
common to all. It reduces confusion, adds rigour and provides a work towards establishing and achieving shared objectives
consistent basis for application. One of the possible approaches for enhancing local well-being;
is that of performance-based policies (see the Guide, Part C-
L-15). • the need for the public sector to improve its performance,
ensuring that its various activities are effectively integrated
Integrated guidelines and directed towards enhancing well-being of local
communities and their environments; and
Integration of transpor t and land-use planning requires
exploration how guidelines for different policy fields can be • the need for Local Government to play a leadership role in
combined. For example, there may be opportunities for ‘Transit- bringing about more effective strategic planning and
oriented development’ and ‘Urban villages’ in new areas and on integration at the local or regional level.
large infill sites. In such cases, pedestrian accessibility to public
transport stops and stations, land use, roads and streets, ILAP suggests a generalised model to achieve a shared
housing layout and urban design should be conceived and commitment and partnership, ongoing arrangements for co-
developed as a whole. There is information on such approaches operation and review, and a link into council corporate planning
in the Guide, e.g. Part C - L-2, Transit-friendly land use. and management. The process is comprehensive and can be
used for all kinds of planning issues (for details, see AMCORD,
10.4 PROCESS DEVELOPMENT Practice note PNP 1).
10.4.1 RECENT APPROACHES Integrated processes for area strategies and complex
development projects
Development of integrated planning processes
The now defunct Building Better Cities Program was based on
The Integrated Local Area Planning (ILAP) project, a joint agreement with State and Local Authorities on specific objectives
undertaking by the Australian Local Government Association and and outcomes upfront, and a commitment by all parties, including

the private sector, to a process of planning and implementation. • effective corporate planning and management within the
Various management models were tested and evaluated in a responsible Council; and
series of workshops in 1995. However, the results have not been
published. • ongoing arrangements for inter-agency co-operation and
review of outcomes.
10.4.2 TYPES OF PROCESSES
Three process interactions
(i) The relationship between types of planning: strategic,

development, project and operational planning; product vs
outcome planning; and proactive and reactive planning;
(ii) The relationship between the stakeholders in the planning

process: who are the stakeholders and how are they
involved, the community as users and respondents to
impacts;
(iii) The relationship between long-term and short-term

planning and management: the issue here is how to deal
with uncertainty.
These interactions are addressed in Chapter 4.
Support mechanisms are needed
ILAP identifies four mechanisms to provide a suppor tive

framework for integrated planning and facilitate the achievement
of desired results. These are:
• shared commitment and partnership amongst key

stakeholders;
Figure 10-1 ILAP Model
• adequate opportunities for community consultation and
involvement, including the private sector;

A need for interdisciplinary skill • outcome-based regulation.
Integrated transport and land-use planning at the local level These and other aspects of integrated management are
requires close collaboration between transport and land-use discussed in Chapter 7 and not repeated here.
planners, who traditionally tended to act independently.
Engineers and transport planners produced road plans without Better information sharing
indicating land use, and planners produced multi-coloured land-
use zoning plans in which the roads were left blank. In the Infor mal infor mation sharing takes place between State
preparation of such plans, the testing of the transpor t transport, road and planning authorities on matters affecting local
consequences of proposed land uses are rarely used, yet the transport and land-use planning, and it also occurs between
techniques for testing are well established. State and local authorities. However, there could be greater
integration of the numerous guidelines and procedures, which
Best practice exist. There is a need for an over view within a common
conceptual framework. Such an overview would also identify
A program entitled ‘Integrated Environmental Management, Best where there are gaps and overlaps, where consolidation is
Practice’ and administered by the (previous) Commonwealth desirable and further guidelines are needed.
Department of the Environment, Sport and Territories, aimed to
change processes in local government. Eight Councils were Now the time has come to prepare inventories of State guidelines
involved in case studies in 1995 (http://www.erin.gov.au/). and procedures, showing how they are related to each other,
where additional guidelines should be prepared and which
The program required an integrative and co-operative approach agencies should be involved in their preparation.
towards improving all aspects of an organisation’s activities and
operations. ‘Best Practice’, in ter ms of environmental Resources
management, involved the adoption of a number of interrelated
principles in bringing about a sustainable locality Integrated local transport and land-use planning is an evolving
area of expertise. It differs greatly from the development of the
10.5 INTEGRATED MANAGEMENT early land-use/ transpor t models and is still undergoing
development with the links to geographic information systems.
Outcome-based integrated management Further training of local government engineers and planners in
the technical application of integrated planning is needed.
Outcome-based integrated management requires:
• outcome-based leadership;
• outcome-based funding; and

10.6 AN AGENDA FOR Example of initiating a local air quality management plan
INTEGRATED LOCAL PLANNING (LAQMP)
Source: Sydney Regional Organisation of Councils, 1996.
10.6.1 CHALLENGES
A LAQMP should be seen as an integral part of the Council’s
Concer ns about greenhouse emissions and sustainable Corporate Plan and budget program and as a key Council
development, and technological and social changes are responsibility. Once a Council has assessed the nature and
continually redefining the nature of the action space. There are extent of differing pollutant sources, and the significance of local
changes in community perceptions, values and priorities, leading air quality problem areas, it is then in a position to prepare
to an expectation of different outcomes in the planning of local policies to guide its approach to managing them.
environments.
Council’s policy position should be presented as a general
The challenge for integrated planning in greenfields areas is to statement of principle and intent, followed by specific statements
establish development patterns, which provide accessibility, and objectives for the Local Air Quality Management Plan.
location and environmental protection. In established areas the
challenge is to adapt them to changes in accessibility, activity A hierarchy of statements can be developed that provide
and increasing demands for environmental protection. progressively detailed information regarding:
Much depends on the acceptance of planning principles and • what Council sees as the problem;
policies, and agreement on the means used in implementation.
There will be different packages of incentives and disincentives, • Council’s role;
and they may affect stakeholders differently. In some areas, there
will be a need for proactive planning, and this implies proactive • Council’s strategic intent to tackle the problem;
implementation. This may be a cornerstone or a stumbling block.
This important issue will be discussed in Chapter 14. • the approach Council intends to adopt;
Key issues for greater integration at the local level can now be • the basis or principles behind such an approach;
summarised.
• the target areas to be focused upon;
• objectives to be pursued within the target areas; and
• operational performance goals.

MODEL POLICY STATEMENT L3 Identifying potential public transport- based local land-use
activities and developing siting and access policies for
To achieve an ecologically sustainable and effectively managed them;
airshed which provides the people of Sydney with air of
consistently good quality. L4 Establishing criteria for identifying precincts for
environmental protection and corridors for movement;
To develop and implement policies which address both local and
regional air pollution sources; and which will effectively improve L5 Reviewing the concept of environmental traffic capacity for
air quality in the airshed for all the people of metropolitan application in inner urban areas and centres, where
Sydney, now and in the future. further development is contemplated or more pedestrian-
friendly environments should be created;
Land use and Transport Planning
L6 Developing a code of practice consisting of strategies
• Policy A. To minimise vehicle emissions by reducing the policy objectives, policy fields (or ‘elements’), performance
frequency and length of trips generated and using land- criteria (i.e. matters to be considered) and desired
use planning techniques to address the problems of urban outcomes as a model for local application;
sprawl.
L7 Making an inventory of current guidelines, reviewing their
• Policy B. To reduce vehicle emissions by encouraging approach and content, and deciding where further
increased use of public transport, bicycles and walking as guidelines are needed;
modes of transportation.
L8 Developing a common format for guidelines;
• Policy C. To limit the loss of vegetation
and provide for the planting of additional appropriate L9 Introducing performance-based approaches in guidelines;
vegetation to reduce the impact of air pollution. and
10.6.2 DEVELOPING AND APPLYING LOCAL POLICIES L10 Investigating the application of disaggregated models in
integrated local area planning.
L1 Achieving local land-use and transport structures which
reduce the distance of private travel and are less 10.6.3 DEVELOPING AND APPLYING
dependent on the motor car than they are at present; INTEGRATED PROCESSES
L2 Identifying essential road-based local land-use activities L11 Developing and applying processes for stakeholder
and developing location policies; involvement and collective learning;

L12 Applying the principles and approaches of Integrated
Local Area Planning (ILAP); and
L13 Developing interdisciplinary skill in using these processes.
10.6.4 DEVELOPING AND APPLYING

FORMS OF INTEGRATED MANAGEMENT
L14 Establishing proactive and co-operative mechanisms for

integrated development and management of key areas
planning (such as centres); and
L15 Improving information sharing and communication skills.

Chapter 11 Corridor planning is complex, because of the many factors to be
considered and the wide range of agencies involved. Significant
interactions factors are the role of the stakeholders and the processes for
their involvement.
An exploration of integrated corridor planning involves three

steps:
11.1 INTRODUCTION • Corridor interactions (this Chapter 11);
Chapters 11 to 13 focus on corridors and should be considered • Corridor planning principles (Chapter 12); and
together. The term ‘corridors’ is used here to describe transport
routes and nearby land uses, when there is a direct functional or • Towards a framework for integrated planning(Chapter 13).
environmental relationship between them. Hence the boundaries
of a corridor are not confined to the road reservation, but extend This chapter is primarily focused on physical interactions. The
over a distance, where there is a functional relationship or issues considered have been grouped into four sections:
impact.
1 Friction: the relationship between frontage development
There are major corridors, normally associated with regional and movement function (11.3);
transport routes, and corridors related to secondary, and
generally more local, networks. These are described as ‘Type I’ 2 Impact: the relationship between the movement function
corridors and ‘Type II’ corridors respectively. and the adjoining environment (11.4);
The planning of major corridors has both a regional and local 3 Utilisation of transport space: the relationship between
context. At the regional level, the functions of a major road, its transport modes and the management of the transport
traffic performance, and its impact on regional accessibility and space (11.5); and
environment quality are determined. At the local level there may
be significant consequences in local accessibility, land-use 4 Corridors and the built environment (11.6).
activity and the quality of the local environment. There is a need
to consider every aspect. The planning of less important traffic
routes may be confined to a local area or adjoining local areas,
without the need for an assessment of the regional context.
The scope for integrated corridor planning extends from research

and policy development to planning and implementation. Corridor

11.2 CORRIDOR FUNCTIONS the local environment and adjoining development affects the
AND THE ENVIRONMENT performance of the road corridors. There are also complex
technical and procedural dimensions to be considered.
11.2.1 ISSUES
The purpose of this section is an attempt to unravel some, but by
Pressures on regional road systems no means all, of the interactions and explore whether and where
there may be opportunities for improvement. Although the
Regional growth and restructuring of employment and housing in primary focus is on urban corridors, many of the principles and
cities have put pressure on existing transport routes. Advanced processes also apply to corridors in rural regions.
traffic management techniques are applied to make maximum
use of them, but there clearly are limits to extracting more from Issues related to secondary road systems
existing urban networks. Additional links to arterial networks have
been constructed in most cities, but proposals for a major Conflicts also occur between transpor t functions and the
upgrading of existing roads and the building of new roads in environment of secondary road systems. Congestion on regional
established areas often face strong local opposition. One of the routes often leads to increased use of secondary routes. There
critical aspects in all these situations is the relationship between may be scope for traffic calming in some cases, yet there are
the transport function of the road and the protection of the many routes, with issues related to safety, amenity and frontage
adjoining environment. function, which are not addressed in an integrated way. The road
hierarchy is a useful tool, but does not reflect some of these
In looking for alternatives in dealing with the pressures on critical interactions.
existing networks, road and planning authorities have been
revisiting congestion management (SA Transport Policy Unit, A wide diversity of interests
1995), examining travel demand management and road pricing
(NSW Integrated Transpor t Strategy, 1995) and reviewing There are many stakeholders with an interest in arterial roads
priorities in the use of arterial roads (NSW Road Network and their environments. Transport authorities build and manage
Strategy, 1995). The relationship between arterial roads and their roads to provide the regional community with the accessibility it
environment has generally been confined to satisfying the needs for its economic and social development. They tend to
requirements and procedures for an EIS. stress the benefits of reduced congestion and increased safety.
Transport operators and other road users are concerned about
This is a project dominated approach, after a strategic decision delays and low travel speeds. Bus operators are impeded by
on a road has been made. Environmental issues, associated with illegal parking at bus stops and difficulties exiting bus bays. Local
the project, are seen as matters for amelioration. Little attention communities perceive the roads as a barrier to community life,
has been given to integrated approaches in the planning and affecting the safety of children and aged people, in particular.
development of roads and their environments as corridors from Adjoining residents complain about traffic noise, vibration and air
the beginning. Yet it is a close relationship, because traffic affects quality. Residential proper ty values are affected. Small

businesses along major traffic routes are concerned about and Decreasing Traffic, Airport Motorway Action Committee,
restrictions placed on on-street parking. Brisbane, 1995). Adjoining land owners worr y about
compensation, not only for land and property, but also for
environmental impacts. There is uncertainty about the amount of
compensation and the time it takes to settle.
A political issue
Many corridor proposals become controversial and this

influences political perceptions (e.g. Gold Coast Motorway). In
the UK, the Liberal Democrat policy advocates ‘a new approach
to road building, ensuring that no major motorway or major trunk
road investment should go ahead, unless it can be
demonstrated, that alternative transport provision cannot meet
the need at lower economic and environmental cost’ (UK Liberal
Democrat Party, 1994, Agenda for Sustainability). In the US the
ISTEA legislation requires the consideration of alternatives (see
7.4.2).
11.2.2 TYPES OF INTERACTIONS
There is a need for a systematic approach

Figure 11-1 Figure 11-2
Width and built environment Traffic function
Roads in communities throughout histor y have acted as
relationships vary and road environment vary
channels for movement of pedestrians, vehicles and other kinds
of transport, as places for social interaction and economic
activity. As settlements developed, the function of roads became
more diverse and the impact of traffic on the adjoining
Strong local opposition to change environment increased. The planning response was to
differentiate roads with different functions and introduce road
Local communities often object to proposals for a new arterial hierarchies reflecting such a differentiation. There were some
road or upgrading of an existing road. They challenge road attempts to relate land uses to a particular road function, to
authorities on the grounds that the changes proposed are control traffic generating uses along designated roads and to
destructive, will only attract more traffic and do not address the develop guidelines for the environmental impact of major roads.
problem at the source (e.g. More for Less: Increasing Choices However, a systematic and conceptual approach towards road

development, the activities alongside, the impact of traffic on the becomes significant.
environment and urban design relationships has not yet been
developed. Three types of interactions
Functional and environmental relationships For convenience we distinguish three sets of interactions:
Roads are used for carrying goods and private vehicles, public • interactions affecting planning;
transport, cyclists, pedestrians or for carrying a combination of
transport modes. They can have primarily a movement function, • interactions affecting process interactions; and
an access function or a combination of both.
• management interactions.
With urban and regional arterials, the movement function is
dominant. The road environment must be adapted to ensure, that Planning, the processes used and the way in which they are
the movement function is not impaired and that any adverse managed, all depend on the context. What are the objectives,
impact of traffic and traffic management on adjoining land use is desired outcomes, expectations of delivery, and how do they
minimised. change? Interactions affecting processes and management are
discussed in Chapter 13.
On the other end of the scale, there are local streets where the
access function and the amenity of the street environment are 11.2.3 INTERACTIONS AFFECTING PLANNING
dominant and the traffic function is subservient.
Movement, access or both?
In between these extremes are the district and local roads,
where both the movement and frontage function are important. Many roads provide for movement and access, but they may not
be compatible when the traffic function increases. Studies show
In all cases, there is a relationship between the road function, that highways with good access management and appropriately
traffic, the way it is managed, and adjoining development. located traffic signals, can carry 25–30 percent more traffic than
Adjoining development has a land-use function and urban design highways with uncontrolled access and randomly placed traffic
relationship with the road. Some land uses are dependent on the signals (Brindle, 1995).
traffic function of roads and are compatible with a particular type
of road, while others do not. Roads also provide an access function for adjoining land uses,
and traffic management designed to increase traffic performance
When a road function or land use changes, the relationship affects these land uses. For example, the introduction of parking
changes too and these are often matters of community concern. restrictions and clearways affect business activity, and restricting
Questions about objectives, outcomes and implementation arise, access from side streets affect local circulation and access. The
and hence the process, in which these changes are managed, spacing and control of intersections can have a major impact on

local networks, pedestrian activity and access to bus stops. stopping on-street to load/unload, visual distraction,
obtrusive advertising); (ii) road design and management
Major routes for traffic movement produces noise and air factors (e.g. intersection spacing, traffic signals, turning
pollution, which affect adjoining properties. Amelioration of the movements, speed controls); and (iii)traffic composition
impact of traffic noise is difficult to achieve when there is frontage and conditions.
access and there are access drives.
• Impact can be defined as the effects of roads and traffic
Direct vehicular access to individual sites may be controlled on adjoining land use and quality of the environment, such
along arterial roads, but does not deal with various forms of non- as air pollution, traffic noise, run-off and water quality.
vehicular access and building orientation. There may also be impacts related to the safety of
crossing pedestrians, cyclists and vehicles entering and
What are the road and land-use functions? exiting driveways, and impacts related to on-street
parking, loading and delivery. Urban arterials may also
Roads can have a variety of functions. They may be major become barriers between local communities.
through traffic routes or local streets; routes for trucks and
express public transport; or roads providing access to activity • Interdependent associations are land-use/traffic
centres. They may be used by moving and parked vehicles, associations, such as service stations and businesses,
pedestrians and cyclists. All these functions are reflected in the depending on vehicle access. Signs and advertising to
allocation of the road space. Land use along roads can also have passing traffic also come in this category.
a variety of functions. Some generate trips by trucks, business
and private vehicles, others attract or produce pedestrians trips, Transport space utilisation
and still others attract both vehicles and pedestrians.
Everywhere traffic volumes are growing, yet the transport
Friction, impact and associated land uses infrastructure - especially roads - is not infinitely extendable. In
the United Kingdom, new major urban road proposals are not
In order to develop an appropriate model to embrace the considered at present. The central issues are how to allocate the
relationship between roads and adjoining development, it is transport space to different user groups, how to make the most
useful to distinguish friction, impact and interdependent effective use of the existing networks and how to manage
associations: different categories of transport corridors in space and time.
• Friction can be defined as the impedance of the traffic Transport routes and the built environment
performance of the road and can be attributed to: (i)
frontage related activities (e.g. vehicles parking or double- Roads are a major element in urban design. There is an
parked, pedestrians crossing, jaywalking, vehicles important relationship between roads and the built and natural
entering access drives, buses stopping, delivery vehicles environment. There are visual relationships, such as building

siting, scale and design, and landscape elements, which define a consists of road reservations. Most States have developed
road and provide visual clues about one’s location along a route. management guidelines, which are now being integrated with
There are also other design elements, which bear on the amenity Land Care programs (e.g. NSW Roads and Traffic Authority
of roads and their environment. [Roadside Environment Strategic Plan], 1995)
An integrated view on roads and their environments provides an 11.2.4 CORRIDOR TYPES
opportunity to study the relationship between the character and
function of a road and the type and scale of buildings alongside There is a wide range of road/environment combinations
and at the end of it. We associate the great cities of the world
with their roads, streets, avenues, boulevards, public places, and There are many sub-types of ar terial roads: freeways,
the buildings flanking roads and ter minating vistas. Most expressways, urban and rural arterials and local roads. They all
Australian cities have distinguished examples of roads and their have major transport functions, but there are differences in road
environments as major elements in urban design: Macquarie reservation and design, frontage access and traffic management.
Street in Sydney, Collins Street in Melbourne, Queen Street in Likewise, there are many different types of road environments:
Brisbane, North Terrace in Adelaide, Georges Terrace in Perth, predominantly rural with or without controlled access; urbanising
Anzac Parade in Canberra, and Davey Street in Hobart. areas, where a road exists and development is about to be
commenced; and established areas, where development exists.
The importance of the urban design potential of roads and their
environments is often overlooked today. Roads are upgraded or There are land uses which generate pedestrian activity; others
their function may change, but there are no corresponding which generate vehicle activity; and some which generate both.
policies to change the type, scale and design of development Buildings may be set back or have been constructed right up to
adjoining them, when sites are redeveloped. the property boundary. Roads may be severely constrained in
many inner and intermediate suburbs and along the main streets
Transport routes and the natural environment in country towns.
Increased awareness of the values which the roadside has to The traffic function may increase or change - for example, the
offer has created community interest in the development and proportion of heavy vehicles may increase. Traffic management
management of roads and adjoining land within the road reserve. measures may be introduced to improve flow, but they affect
This interest is expressed in recognising ecological values, existing businesses along the frontage. Land-use changes also
occur because of market forces, and conditions may emerge
such as vegetation, both indigenous and exotic, wildlife, water which produce more friction and expose more people to traffic
and soil conservation, and social values such as scenic quality, noise and air pollution.
cultural and natural heritage resources and economic values,
such as transport and stock routes. Road reservations are a
major land resource: about 5 per cent of the land area in NSW

There are numerous interactions From road hierarchy to road environment classification A more
appropriate model would be one to embrace the associations
Generally there is an uneasy relationship between roads and between land use, traffic and the environment A simple
their environments. Where corridors for major roads are created, classification of roads and streets and their environments
problems of access limitations and severance arise. Where consists of:
corridors exist, the road function and land uses alongside them
are frequently incompatible. For example, approximately 90 • Type I road environments: major traffic routes, where
percent of all complaints about traffic noise received by the NSW friction should be reduced and the land-use environment
Roads and Traffic Authority are received from residents living on must be, or must be made to be, compatible with the
roads carrying 30,000 vpd and a high proportion of trucks at transport function of the road. Arterial roads are part of
night (NSW Roads and Traffic Authority, 1995). Surveys have this category.
shown that traffic noise may affect some people’s health and that
residents have to rearrange their activities within the home • Type II road environments: traffic routes, such as sub-
. arterial roads and major collector streets, where friction
Evidence on the adverse impact of air pollution, associated with and impact need to be managed to achieve desired
major traffic routes on community health, is also accumulating. outcomes. For example in shopping strings, both land-use
Schools, hospitals and other major intensive activities often exist frontage and traffic performance may require adaptation,
along, or within close proximity of corridors, which carry heavy in order to create a safer and more attractive pedestrian
traffic and hazardous goods. In the case of new corridors, the environment. ‘Integrator arterials’ also come in this
presence of endangered species, koala habitats, aboriginal and category.
heritage sites and drainage are amongst the many factors which
may affect their location. • Type III road environments: local streets, where the
environment is dominant and the traffic subservient.
The present road hierarchy model does not adequately Friction is purposely introduced to reduce traffic volumes
address these interactions and vehicle speed and ensure protection of the adjoining
environment. Type III road environments are found in
The present road hierarchy model, which is widely used and residential and other precincts, and are considered in
simple to apply, does not address the fundamental interactions Chapters 8 and 9.
between road function, land use and the quality of the
environment. One of the first efforts towards more integrated Different situations for each type of road environment ]
approaches was the road/amenity classification developed in
Victoria (Loder and Bayly, 1980). This approach recognised the There are many situations:
sensitivity of the road environment, as well as the traffic service
requirements, traffic volumes, road widths and the multi-modal (i) corridors which have urban development alongside;
use of the roads.

(ii) corridors, where there is no urban development yet;
(iii) there is no corridor and no urban development, but a new

corridor is to be established; and
(iv) there is no corridor, but there is urban development and a

new one has to be established.
In all these situations, issues of friction, impact and

interdependent associations will arise, but the processes to be
used will vary, according to the circumstances.
Figure 11-4 Movement, access or both?
How the interactions change
The balance between friction and impact within a corridor is not

static. Frontage development may occur along an existing
corridor and may increase friction. The traffic function of a
corridor may increase (with intersection improvements or more
vehicles using the road) or it may change (with the designation of
Figure 11-3 Road/environment categories and balance
truck routes or the use for express public transport). Traffic
between movement and access
management, such as the introduction of bus priority lanes, will
also change the balance.

possible for a road to vary from a Type II corridor to a Type I
corridor; for example, the Main Street of a country town may be
classified as a Main Road, but is a Type II corridor through the
centre, and a Type I corridor outside. If it is necessary for the
transpor t function to be dominant, then a bypass may be
required, or the road environment may have to be changed.
11.2.4 REGIONAL INTERACTIONS
Impact of corridor improvement on regional development
Numerous projects consider regional interactions, but the results

Figure 11-5 Regional interactions are project-specific and it is difficult to extract generic principles
from them. There is little evidence of research. Biehl found that
corridor improvements have strong impacts on regional
development only, when they result in removing a bottle-neck
(Biehl, 1986).
Different combinations of frontage and movement functions The impact of infrastructure investment on accessibility has to
incorporate more than distance, speed, or time. It should also
Some centres, straddling transport routes, are large and extend consider how it affects the amount of production consumed in the
along the frontage. Others are small, serving mainly local transmission of goods from one place to another (Vickerman,
communities and passing trade. The traffic function will vary too, 1994).
with some mainly catering for through traffic and others with
through traffic in peak periods, and local traffic in off-peak Impact of a bypass on trade
conditions. There are different planning responses, but a key
factor is whether the corridor is a Type I, Type II or Type III road Since 1980, a total of 14 towns and villages have been bypassed
environment, as that indicates which function should be as part of the upgrading of the Hume Highway in NSW. Little is
dominant. yet known about the economic impact on the communities
affected. In a study of one of the larger towns, Goulburn, NSW, it
When does a Type II become a Type I corridor? was found that there has not been a significant loss of
employment: 58 jobs were lost, half of which were casuals. Many
Corridor types are not directly associated with a particular class more businesses had reduced the hours worked, rather than lay
of roads. The type of corridor is determined by the relationship off staff. There was a reduction of about 5 percent in the value of
between the transport function and the road environment. It is the retail trade (Parolin and Garner, 1995).

The use of accessibility indicators Cause Possible effects
Maps, using weighted accessibility indicators and represented in Traffic generation Additional vehicles
three-dimensional form for different types of improvement, are an Mix of local and through traffic
Greater cross flows
effective way of communicating the differences to stakeholders More frequent intersections
(Vickerman, 1994). Additional turning movements
11.3 FRICTION Parking generation Searching movement

Reduced speed
Loss of kerb lane for movement
Cause and effects Reduced capacity in lane
next to kerb lane
Friction may be caused by road design, traffic controls, traffic Access movement to
conditions and roadside factors. The causes and possible effects and from properties
Increased accident risk
of friction related to frontage activities is summarised in Table
11.1 . Loading/unloading Backing onto the road/traffic
Parking and double parking
See also under parking generation
Pedestrian generation Crossing facilities

Speed and volume reduction
Increased conflict with vehicles
and accident potential
Local bus stops As for pedestrian generation

Access drives Accident potential
Reduction in kerb lane speed
Visual distraction, advertisements, Reduction in speed

display windows, sign proliferation Reduced driver attention
to road and traffic conditions
and increased risk potential
TABLE 11.1: Friction: Cause and Possible Effects
Figure 11-6 Friction

The accident of history LAND- Jay Jay Pedestrians Total
USE TYPE crossers +legal on footpath pedestrians
/ hr / m2 crossers / hr / m2 / hr / m2
Frontage and transport functions in most existing corridors have floor / hr / m2 floor floor
developed over a long time, with the result that there is a space floor space space
cumulative mixture of land use and traffic with varying degrees of space
conflict. A study of 11.7 km of arterial road frontage in Sydney
provides an insight into this conflict (Black et al., 1988). Some of Car retail 2.93 5.12 7.88 13.00
the findings of this study and others, undertaken by Black and
Westerman, are summarised below. Large retail 2.21 4.85 8.82 13.66
Pedestrian activity and land use Small retail 4.29 14.04 35.77 49.81
Information was obtained about land use, pedestrian activity, Offices 1.55 4.25 8.01 12.27
parking, access drives, set-backs and density. Table 11.2
indicates the relationship between land uses and pedestrian Factory 1.13 1.43 3.61 5.04
activity. Schools and small retail land uses were the main
problem areas. Wholesale 0.34 0.50 6.89 7.39
The pedestrian/vehicle conflict is a key issue School 5.92 8.88 7.10 15.98
Frontage land use generates vehicles and pedestrians. Research

carried out during the period from 1984 to 1990, covering Main Average 2.85 8.88 12.51 20.69
Streets in country towns and sub-arterials - typically Type II
corridors - found that frontage functions had a considerable
bearing on the pedestrian/vehicle conflict (Westerman, 1991).
• Pedestrians’ priorities TABLE 11.2 Pedestrian activity and land-use frontage
Pedestrians express the quality of a Main Street in terms of

safety, ease of movement, comfort - to dawdle, browse, sit and
relax -, connectivity, weather protection, areas for relaxation,
security and a clean environment. Pedestrian safety is their
primary concern.

• Pedestrian safety is closely linked with age Crossing pedestrians
Overseas data shows that of all pedestrian accidents involving • Jay ‘runners’ are an important indicator of exposure to risk
death, 25% are children under the age of 15, and 40% are
people over the age of 65. Pedestrian exposure to risk could be expressed in a very simple
way: the proportion of jay crossers that are ‘jay runners’. The
• Pedestrian safety also has much to do with visibility term jay running means ‘random crossing while running’. It
occurs when people want to cross, but cannot do it unless they
The relationship is not always obvious. For instance, 75% of run, and is an excellent indicator of risk-taking. When more than
pedestrian accidents occur on straight sections of road. It has 6 percent of jay crossers are jay runners, alarm bells should start
been found that pedestrians underestimate vehicle speeds above to ring. In one street in Subiaco, Perth, the proportion was found
50 km/h, and expect that they are more visible to a driver than to be as high as 23% (Sinclair Knight Merz, 1994).
they really are, especially at night.
• Pedestrian exposure provides a useful tool
A useful way to look at pedestrian safety is to study pedestrian

exposure, which provides a measure of risk in pedestrian-vehicle
conflict. Pedestrian exposure can be considered for the type of
land-use activities that occur in a corridor, day of the week, time
of day, number of traffic lanes pedestrians have to cross, traffic
function and characteristics of the road, block length, intersection
configuration, and magnets of pedestrian activity (e.g. schools
and parks). Pedestrian exposure is the greatest on roads with an
important traffic function and a strong frontage function (e.g. sub-
arterial shopping strings, the main street of country towns).
• Pedestrians tend to choose the shortest path irrespective

of traffic conditions
In one typical suburban shopping centre in Sydney, there were

13 mid-block accidents involving pedestrians in a two-year Figure 11-7 Associations for Type II Corridors
period. There were traffic lights on both sides of the centre less
than 200 metres apart, but they were not used. Pedestrians tend
to choose the shortest path, unless traffic conditions prevent it.

• Crossing ability is important for pedestrians Pedestrian behaviour and land use
Crossing ability is a central feature in planning for pedestrians, Commercial land uses, especially the small retail and office
where there are vehicles. It depends on the existence and groups, are the greatest generators of jaywalking and on-street
location of controlled crossings, the type of crosser (aged people parking activity. The greater the floorspace in shopping frontage
need more time), the type of crossing, the distance to be development abutting a road, the greater the amount of
crossed, vehicle speed, and gap distribution. Intersection- pedestrian traffic generated. The number of pedestrians who
controlled crossing may conflict with turning movements. jaywalked and crossed the street legally was found to be
significantly affected by the location of car parks, bus stops and
• Medians allow crossing to proceed in stages railway stations; and large traffic volumes were found to have a
negative influence on the percentage of pedestrians who would
The average walking speed is 1.4 m/s, compared with a fast walk cross the street. With higher traffic speeds, the proportion of jay
of 2.1 m/s and a slow walk (aged persons) of 0.5 m/s. A median runners increases.
allows crossing to proceed in two stages. This is especially
important, when there are older people, who need more time to Pedestrian perceptions and behaviour
cross.
Hine (1996) used in-depth interviews and combined them with
• Jay crossing needs gaps the use of a specially edited videotape in the interviews to gain
an insight how pedestrians across the three age-groups perceive
A pedestrian crossing at normal speed needs 2.5 seconds to traffic conditions, and how this affects their decisions about
cross a 3.5m lane. Gaps between successive vehicles need to be crossing (Hine, 1996).
longer than 4 seconds, in order to cross safely at such a speed,
and more if there is a high proportion of slow crossers. With It was found that pedestrian travel experiences were largely
vehicle speeds of 40 km/h and traffic volumes of less than 800 focused around crossing activity. For all age-groups, especially
vph per lane, there would normally be sufficient gaps for the elderly, pedestrian crossing facilities were seen as an
pedestrians crossing one lane at normal crossing speed. important component of route planning. Data also indicated that
However, few roads have one lane and crossability is drastically in different traffic conditions different crossing behaviours and
reduced if there are more lanes and no median, where crossing strategies were chosen. Amongst the elder ly,
pedestrians can pause for a gap in the opposing traffic stream. particularly those with health-related mobility handicaps, reliance
Traffic volumes and/or vehicle speeds must then be reduced. on crossing facilities in all but light traffic conditions was a key
Signals at intersections can help to create gaps - this may not feature. Children were also more prepared to use crossing
occur with roundabouts. facilities. If accompanied by an adult, they were more likely to
cross at informal locations.
The elderly and children in the study were more likely to be

intimidated by all levels of traffic, apart from periods of light traffic Accidents and land use
flow levels. As a result, pedestrian trips and activities were
avoided at busy periods during the day, when traffic flows were Accident levels involving only vehicles are lower where there are
found to be intimidating. Rescheduling and avoidance of crossing factory and residential uses (Black et al., 1988). Most vehicular
the road was a common strategy. accidents occur near hotels, hospitals, schools, open space and
wholesaling land uses. Accidents involving pedestrians are
Young adults. by comparison, were prepared to be more flexible relatively more frequent when related to hospitals, hotels and
in their crossing activity, choosing to adopt behaviours based on open space.
gap selection, often waiting in the middle of the road, and aiming
for the minimisation of delays, while waiting to cross the road. Vehicle speed and frontage activity
Vehicle speed is a key factor for pedestrian safety Pedestrians, parking manoeuvres, bus stops and access drives
affect average vehicular speeds. Pedestrian activity (jaywalkers
• Pedestrian accidents and speed are linked and legal crossers) impedes traffic performance only, when it
occurs in relatively high concentrations, such as retail and
At speeds of less than 24km/h, there are only slight injuries to commercial strips. Only when the number of parking movements
pedestrians in the case of an accident. Injuries are moderate exceeds 30 per hour along a 100m section is there a discernible
where speeds are between 24km/h and 39km/h, and serious reduction in the average vehicular speeds of traffic in the
between 39km/h and 52km/h. Fatalities start to occur with adjacent through lane.
speeds in excess of 52km/h. It is not surprising that aged people
are uncomfortable with speeds in excess of 25 km/h. Traffic speeds were found to be a function of land-use intensity
and type, not the number of access drives. Low- density
• Peripheral vision and stopping distance are linked with dwellings had the largest concentration of access drives, but
vehicle speed caused the least friction to the traffic flow, while retail strip
shopping (i.e. shopping strings), had the smallest concentration
The ability to avoid an accident, involving a pedestrian, depends of access drives, but caused the greatest degree of friction to the
on driver attention, response time and condition of the vehicle. traffic flow (Black et al., 1988).
Vehicle speed is important here for two reasons. At a low speed,
the driver’s peripheral vision is increased. He/she can take in Pedestrian densities and vehicle flow
much more of what happens in the street space, and the vehicle
can be stopped in a much shorter distance at lower than at In some cases, a negative correlation was found between vehicle
higher speeds. densities and pedestrian densities (i.e. vehicle densities
decrease when pedestrian densities increase). When sufficient
volumes of pedestrians are jaywalking, the speed and volume of
traffic can be significantly affected, to the point where the road

space becomes a pedestr ian- dominated environment. Site access and land use
Conversely, the average speed has a direct influence on crossing
behaviour. A survey of rear and side access properties showed that one
third of properties along arterial roads in built-up areas of the
There is a negative correlation between the occupancy of the Sydney Metropolitan area do not have any vehicular access. This
road space for a given time by crossers and the average vehicle applies in particular to small retailing, and some factories and
speed. The number of vehicles and pedestr ians on the warehouses. There is a correlation between the extent and
carriageway during a particular period can be relatively high if the amount of frontage access/exit delay (Black 1988). Table 11.3
average speed is 20km/h or less. A higher level of conflict gives information on access drives (Black et al., 1988).
between jaywalkers and vehicular traffic seems to be accepted, if
traffic speeds remain low, but this tolerance declines rapidly as The table shows that 7 per cent of land-use activities in the
speeds increase (Black et al., 1988). survey area (11km of arterial roads in established areas) have
access from the front and not from the rear, and 6 per cent have
Medians no front or rear access drives. Although the table does not
indicate it, most housing sites rely on frontage access.
Medians are important for pedestrian crossing; they allow the
crossing to proceed in two stages. Although the evidence is not Building siting and densities
conclusive, it would seem that a design speed in shopping
streets without a median str ip of up to 25km/h may be • Building set-backs
acceptable, whereas in areas with a median strip the speed can
be somewhat higher (i.e. 35km/h), if some jaywalking is There are also historical reasons for building set-backs along
accepted. existing corridors. Table 11.4 gives some indication of building
set-backs for different land uses along ar terial roads in
On-street parking established areas in Sydney (Black et al., 1988). The table shows
that average set-backs are small, considering their exposure to
On-street parking delays between 16 and 26 per cent of all traffic noise.
vehicles on arterial roads. The average parking manoeuvre in the
case of parallel parking takes about 8 seconds, but parking takes
three times as long as unparking. Forward entry parking times
average around 5 seconds per manoeuvre, while rear entry
parking times vary between 12 and 23 seconds per manoeuvre.
With frequent manoeuvres, traffic speeds can decrease to about
20 km/h (Black et al., 1988).

LAND-USE Front Rear Front None Total
TYPE & rear only only
% % % % %
Car retail 71 11 16 2 100

Large retail 35 51 8 6 100
Small retail 3 78 2 17 100
Offices 10 78 9 3 100
Factory 84 15 0 1 100
Warehouse 12 83 0 5 100
Hotel 40 16 0 44 100
Drive-in/ 16 84 0 0 100
take-away
Vacant 18 57 5 20 100
Average 40 47 7 6 100
TABLE 11.3 Access drives by land-use type
Figure 11-8 Indicative pedestrian activity by land use

(period 1130–1230, weekday; source: Black et al., 1988)
LAND-USE TYPE Average set back (m) Site density
Car retail 0.80 1.08

Large retail 0.53 1.20
Small retail 0.06 1.18
Offices 1.69 1.71
Factory/ 0.89 1.22
warehouse
LD Residential 3.27
MD Residential 4.84
TABLE 11.4 Set-back and site density by land-use type

• Site densities can vary greatly.
Table 11-4 supports the proposition that set-backs and site There is generally a symbiosis between land uses adjoining a
densities are unrelated to the function of the road and are the road, and traffic. However, when the land-use activity increases,
outcome of past planning controls, market opportunities and the impediments for through traffic increase and the symbiosis
cumulative development decisions. starts to break down. Friction is caused by frequent intersections,
turning movements, parking manoeuvring, delivery of goods,
Commercial centres are a problem crossing pedestrians (many of whom are jaywalking), and other
factors. If the friction becomes high, traffic speeds decrease,
These results together show that commercial centres are a major congestion occurs and frequent delays will be experienced.
source of conflict. There are historical reasons: they were central
to, and accessible from, surrounding houses; trams or other
forms of public transport picked passengers up in front; and
business ser ved, and depended on, passing traffic. The
replacement of trams by buses improved traffic flow, but the
increase in road capacity was soon absorbed by increased
traffic. Measures were introduced to improve traffic performance,
which increased the speed and volume of traffic.
Many centres continue to thrive, even though environmental

conditions decline with increased traffic noise, there are
difficulties in parking and vehicular access to abutting properties,
and increasing hazards for crossing pedestrians, This can be
attributed to the fact that they serve local needs (and some
passing traffic), are accessible (provided there is off-street
parking), are highly visible to a large daily flow of people, have a
recognisable ‘address’, and benefit from proximity to each other.
A frontage on a busy road provides an opportunity to be seen,
and an incubation for new small businesses.
Situations of conflict with different degrees of severity Figure 11-9 Impact
A study of Sydney’s Main Roads identified 70 commercial

centres with high levels of pedestrian and vehicle activity
(Westerman et al., 1990). The degree of severity of the conflict

Impact Possible cause 11.4 IMPACT
Noise and air emissions Traffic volumes
Vehicle speed Cause and effects
Traffic composition
Traffic management Impact on the road environment may be caused by road design,
Road geometry and surface traffic controls and traffic conditions. The causes and possible
Exposure to risk Hazardous goods movement
effects of impacts related to frontage activities in urban areas is
summarised in Table 11.5.
Run-off and water quality Traffic and composition
Road design and construction Traffic noise
Impaired access Clearways
Parking controls
Traffic noise affects adjoining development, unless noise
Medians protection barriers are built. Yet even with such barriers, levels
Turning bans may be reached which place restrictions on development. Noise
standards have been established in most States, and Austroads
Loading/unloading problems S-lanes is working with the States on the development of national
Parking controls
guidelines. There are land-use and design implications for new
Business viability Parking controls development (e.g. NSW Roads and Traffic Authority [Options for
controlling road traffic noise], 1994; SA Department of Transport
[Housing along arterial roads], 1993?).
Pedestrian and cyclist crossing, Traffic volumes
severance Traffic speed
No dedicated provision
Some local authorities have codes to enforce noise protection
measures in new developments along existing arterial roads (e.g.
Accidents and conflict, Traffic speed Hornsby Council). Acceptable traffic noise exposure levels along
perceived danger Traffic composition arterial roads need to take account of day and night ambient
Road location and geometry levels for land uses with different noise sensitivity (NSW Roads
Traffic management
and Traffic Authority, 1992).
Local accessibility, Intersection spacing
and local traffic calming Turning provision Where there is pedestrian activity along the road, conversation
Side street access restrictions becomes difficult when noise levels reach 70 dB(A) - which may
occur with traffic volumes exceeding 13,000 vpd.
Bus operation Parking
Mixed traffic
Truck routes
TABLE 11.5: Impact and Possible Cause Truck routes have a range of impacts: high noise levels with

trucks breaking and accelerating, especially at night, air pollution, Land-use sensitivity
and crossability. There do not appear to be any guidelines for
land uses and the siting and design of buildings along truck The symbiosis between road users and land-use activities has
routes. Some States have developed strategies for the location of varying tolerance limits for different land uses. Some activities,
such routes (e.g. NSW Road Freight Strategy, 1993). especially those dependent on the passing traffic such as service
stations and take-away establishments, are not seriously affected
The impact of traffic noise and the potential for mitigation by increasing traffic volumes. They may actually thrive on it,
provided there is easy access. Establishments which are partly
Looking at impact, there is a well-established link between noise dependent on the passing trade, such as delicatessens,
emission, vehicle type, speed and traffic volumes. Noise newsagents and chemists or specialised retail outlets, are
exposure guidelines incorporate these variables and are in sensitive to the availability of frontage parking. The symbiosis
widespread use. In new corridors, noise protection screens, full breaks down when frontage parking is curtailed or removed for
mounds, half mounds (e.g. Robina, Qld), service roads, and traffic management reasons.
siting buildings further away can be used to reduce the impact.
Of course, this is difficult to achieve along existing traffic routes in For all other frontage activities there are limits which they can
established areas, where the reservation may be narrow, and endure. Activities which depend on attracting pedestrians are
where properties have frontage access. vulnerable because pedestrians are sensitive to traffic speed,
traffic noise and air pollution. These impacts are particularly
Building siting and design techniques can be used to reduce obnoxious when the kerb-side parking lane is used for traffic
noise impact (e.g. VicRoads, 1997). They may be appropriate for during clearway conditions. Road users also vary in their
well- designed medium density housing along transport routes response: through traffic is much more sensitive to friction than
(and there are good and bad examples in most Australian cities). local traffic, and peak-hour traffic is more sensitive to friction than
In the case of low-density housing, the use of outdoor space may off-peak through traffic.
be restricted, and double glazing forces the residents to use air-
conditioning at all times. The impact of air pollution
Interactive sound information systems Problems associated with air pollution along road corridors have
become very significant in some large cities overseas. In
Transportation improvement typically involves increased levels of Australian cities they are generally confined to local pockets.
noise. These impacts can be predicted, but are not easily However, recent research suggests that the problems are more
understood if they are in the form of tables and reports. Dubbink serious and more widespread. Standards exist for most
et al. (1995) developed a computer-based Interactive Sound pollutants; in NSW, the Environment Protection Authority has air
Infor mation System, which shows in pictor ial for m the quality goals for acid gases, suspended matter, total suspended
consequences of different approaches towards mitigation particulates, lead, carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, ozone, and
(Dubbink et al., 1995). sulphur dioxide (NSW Roads and Traffic Authority [Air Quality

Plan], 1995). Air quality also depends on vehicle characteristics,
flow conditions and distance (Daines, 1970; South Coast Air-
Quality Management District, 1980).
Information on how these pollutants affect adjoining land use,

and how conditions are modified by topography and micro-
climatic conditions, is impor tant for impact management.
Research being undertaken by the EPA and RTA in New South
Wales over a three-year period is expected to contribute to the
development of Australian guidelines. There are guidelines in the
Netherlands for acceptable levels of nitrogen dioxide and carbon
monoxide on the footpath, which are exceeded when traffic
volumes are greater than 5,000 vpd and 12,000 vpd respectively
(Verkeersmilieukaart Den Haag, 1990).
Pedestrian safety
Pedestrian safety is directly linked with vehicle speed. When

there is intensive pedestrian activity along both sides of a major
traffic route, people will jaywalk and jay run across the road. The
severity of accidents increases with increased vehicle speeds
and traffic volumes.
Consequences of increased traffic volumes and speed
When traffic volumes and speed increase, the quality of the road Figure 11-10 Jay running/crossing (midday).
environment is impaired. This ‘impact’ manifests itself in When the ratio exceeds 10%, alarm bells should start to ring
increased pedestrian/vehicle conflict, parking difficulties,
excessive traffic noise, air pollution, and loss of trade. At the
extreme end of the scale, a commercial centre may split apart in
two independently functioning centres. Severance
Severance can occur when new corridors are created or existing

roads are upgraded. They may be property and/or community
severance. A community can be defined as a ‘social,

demographic and territorial activity, which has characteristic of S-lanes in a suburban centre in Sydney showed that
patterns of multiple services/facilities, solidarity, collective action businesses relying on passing trade did not survive (Blinkhorn,
and modes of social inter-relationships’ (Finsterbusch, 1986). 1989). Some roadside businesses are working on very small
Community links are hierarchical: most daily interactions are in margins, and even changes in parking restrictions can make the
close proximity of residential areas, and less frequent links difference between survival or demise.
extend beyond the local area.
There are three concerns: the location of local uses which attract
pedestrian/cycle and vehicle movements; the possible severing
of the links (which may be pedestrian/cycle and vehicular links)
to these land uses by the corridor; possible changes in local
circulation patterns and the possible environmental and social
consequences of such changes.
Access restraint
Access restraints arise from traffic management (such as

clearways and turning bans), the construction of medians, legal
restrictions, or increases in traffic volumes and vehicle speeds.
The issue whether access controls are appropriate, and in which

circumstances, was examined by Brindle (1996) as part of a
review for the Victorian Government. There is a view that access-
controlled roads turn their backs to the community, and the Figure 11-11 Frontage access exit delay
review examined aspects of safety, traffic service, surveillance, Source: (Black et al.,1988)
personal security, and connections to local street networks.
Brindle concludes that access management has not been
misguided, but that more flexible approaches to find design
solutions can help to reconcile different objectives (Brindle,
1996). Exposure to risk
Business and parking Exposure to risk can be a factor if roads are used for the carriage
of dangerous or hazardous materials. Places of assembly, such
Business activity and parking restraints are linked. A `before and as hospitals, schools and community centres are inappropriate
after’ study of the anticipated and actual effect of the introduction along such routes (see, for example, NSW Department of

Planning [Route Selection Guidelines for Land Use and inappropriate along major arterial routes because they attract
Environmental Safety Planning for Hazardous Materials - Road pedestrians who have to cross the road. Express bus stops
Transport Considerations], 1994). Exposure to risk can also be a should be located where signal controls for pedestrians exist and
factor along arterial roads, when there are no special provisions where they do not impede the traffic flow.
for pedestrian crossing at bus stops.
11.5 TRANSPORT SPACE USE
Crossability and safety
Increasing relevance
Crossability and safety are not only an issue of friction, but also
of impact. They are linked to the issue of severance, considered Traffic volumes are growing, yet the transport infrastructure -
above. The crossing ability depends on the existence and especially roads - cannot be extended forever. The consequence
location of controlled crossings, the type of crosser, the distance must be to split up the road space into user groups, i.e. assign
to be crossed, vehicle speed and gap distribution, and the priorities, and subsequently implement management control.
presence, or absence, of a median.
‘Whoever makes the claim today of applying technological
Indicators of sensitivity progress to maintain mobility and still conserve resources, fulfil
human needs and protect the environment must be capable of
There are no composite measures of impact sensitivity, but thinking in systems and offering system solutions’ (Bahm,
Singleton made an attempt by measuring the environmental undated).
sensitivity of arterial road frontages. Key variables used were
difficulty of access, pedestrian safety, and noise sensitivity Relationships with the use of the road space
(Singleton, 1985).
Corridor issues are linked with the use, width and design of the
Interdependent associations road space. For example, the road in the corridor:
It is accepted that there are certain land-use activities serving, or • may be used for heavy vehicles and act as a truck route
being dependent on, the movement function. Service stations (e.g. more than 15% of all vehicles and trucks at night);
and motels are prime examples of such interdependent
associations. Siting and design guidelines can be developed. For • it may serve as express bus routes and high- occupancy
example, sites should be of sufficient size for movement into and vehicle routes;
out of the site in a forward direction only. A location should be
selected with gaps in the traffic stream for entering and exiting • it may provide for a mix of regional and local traffic;
(e.g. downstream of signal controlled intersections).
• it may serve as access routes to adjoining properties and
Bus stops are another example. Generally, local bus stops are provide on-street parking; and

• it may serve as a cycle route; and have pedestrians along In the case of commercial traffic, it has to be determined whether
them. service enterprises and commercial businesses can still exist in
the city without cars and vans. In Berlin, the percentage of
Except perhaps in new situations, where space may be available commercial traffic on workdays between 9.00a.m and 3.00p.m. is
for all these functions (such as with service roads), the more over 70%. Giving priority to these trips between commuter traffic
likely case will be that there are conflicting priorities. peaks prevents businesses shifting to outlying districts which are
not threatened by traffic congestion. Bahm argues that
Setting priorities in inner urban areas encouraging businesses to stay by giving priority to their needs
could reduce the risk of further urban sprawl encroaching into the
Today, all cities face the problem of setting priorities, but there is surrounding areas. However, not all commercial transport is
little substantive information on the methodology used in distributional traffic: about 40% of long-distance commercial
determining them (if, indeed, there is one). Bahm (undated) vehicles transporting full cargoes have a single destination in the
outlines an approach for the road space in the inner urban areas city (in Berlin).
of Berlin (figure 11-10). The first priority is for public transport.
Second place goes to commercial and freight traffic: traffic The third level of priority (again, in Berlin) is given to local
composed of delivery vehicles, trucks and cars driven for residential traffic, thereby maintaining the variety of urban space
business purposes. utilisation - and this means also the provision of residential car
parking space in that district. Last on the list is commuter traffic,
which must be subjected to the greatest restrictions, because of
the lack of road space. This will probably also affect shopping
and leisure traffic. Parking in the public road space in the city
centre, and approaches, may have to be curtailed or prohibited
altogether.
In an integrated urban transport system, pedestrian and cycle

traffic should also be promoted. About 28% of car trips are less
than 3.4 kilometres in length (Berlin). These trips are good
candidates for transfer to other means of transport.
Transport technology
With a view to the 21st century, there are likely to be many

Figure 11-12 Priority given to specific traffic categories technologies which could make traffic more environmentally
on inner urban roads (Bahm, undated) compatible, safer and more economical. This will also influence
the road space utilisation. Technologies include:

• More advanced public transport systems. Small, medium- Intelligent transport systems
sized and large low-floor articulated buses to cater for
different capacity requirements, with different types of Roughly speaking, there are three customer groups (Bahm,
propulsion, i.e. diesel, electricity, dual-mode and undated):
hydrogen. They can travel normally in the road space or in
bus lanes or, to avoid bottlenecks, can be employed as 1. Private and public fleet operators, such as taxi operators,
guided buses - a space-saving, precise and safe shipping agencies, police authorities, transport authorities,
technology. This would provide a system, composed of a service agencies and businesses, are most interested in being
wide variety of modules, with the advantage that it is able to carry out their scheduling and logistics in accordance with
cheap to install, quick to put into operation and simple to current traffic conditions (e.g. congestion). They stand to benefit
run (Bahm, undated). from more efficient service and a reduction of stress in daily
operations.
• More environmentally-friendly cars. The car is still
expected to bear the main burden of passenger transport. 2. Individual traffic participants (both private and public) have
However, there are prospects of new designs (e.g. hybrid, a need for up-to-the-minute information on traffic and parking
electric and fuel cell powered vehicles), which reduce the conditions, as well as recommendations for the appropriate
impact on non-renewable resources and greenhouse transport mode. These are to be made accessible through a wide
emissions to a fraction of previous levels. variety of communication systems available to the general public.
They will save money and travelling time, while achieving more
• Special vehicles for urban traffic - small, designed for efficient and more flexible transport scheduling in response to the
moderate speeds and short distances, but with enough current traffic situation.
space to store shopping - may soon be introduced. New
utilisation and ownership concepts may reduce the 3. Transit authorities can more effectively fulfil responsibilities
number of cars in urban traffic drastically, and increase for transport control. Political decision-making can be carried out
their level of occupancy noticeably (Bahm, undated). on a basis of centralised data collection, using up-to-date and
uniformly derived information. This affords them a greater degree
• Information and route guidance systems will make trips of planning quality and a broader bedrock for political yield.
safer and more efficient. Decision-making is more objective and more transparent through
the use of a broader planning basis.
• Intelligent traffic management system. The focal point of
the intelligent traffic management system is a Information on technologies and approaches can be found in the
comprehensive, up-to-the-minute depiction of transport Guide, Part C.
conditions.

Integrated corridor traffic management used, comprising conceptual issues, case studies and strategies
(Gambard, 1996).
In the Twin Cities metropolitan area (US), where congestion
levels are expected to double by the year 2010, a project is The specific issues being investigated include:
underway to address these concerns [Taylor et al., 1996). The
purpose of the project is threefold: • road pricing and tolling mechanisms;
1 to integrate freeway and arterial traffic operations and • toll as a financial leverage tool;
traffic control through the application of a ramp metering
system, by determining the impact of ramp metering on • road demand characteristics and elasticity (toll sensitivity);
arterial roads and traffic signals;
• strategies for demand and traffic management;
2 to improve traffic conditions on the arterials by using
adaptive control devices to enhance traffic flow on these • overall socio-economic impact of tolling and TDM
roadways, thereby servicing short trips on local roads; and strategies;
3 to divert traffic away from freeway incidents in order to • definition and operability of the ‘Essential Road Users’
reduce congestion, and to preclude the possibility of concept;
secondary incidents. Additional objectives include
expanding the current freeway surveillance and • models for the assessment of TDM strategies; and
communications network to include the arterial roadway
system. This will provide real-time corridor information to • issues and policy options concerning road pricing and
motorists, and facilitate the cooperative management tolling.
among multiple agencies of a congested corridor.
11.6 CORRIDORS AND THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT
Tolls and road pricing
Each road environment has its own design relationship.
Within the European Programme for Research and Development
on the transport sector, a new project (the Eurotoll Project) aims Major roads and railways are the backbone of the transport
to make an in-depth investigation into road mobility factors, and system. Roads and their environments are two important links in
the effects of road pricing and tolling strategies. The goals are to our mental maps. They should provide information as to where
reduce congestion, increase network efficiency, improve safety, we are and give us clues about decisions we need to make, such
reduce pollution, optimise modal shift, and to raise as: where to find our destination; where to turn; or at which stop
finance/capacity. An integrated approach of road demand and to get off the bus.
effects of tolls in a combined interurban and suburban context is

The view from the road Existing records and assessment methods were used for noise,
air pollution and traffic safety, but new inventories were
The importance of the way we view the road as we travel on it, necessary for the assessment of landscape problems. The
with its dynamic images of paths, edges, nodes and landmarks, ‘landscape’ value is assessed in terms of visual landscape,
is as valid today as it was in 1960 when it was first raised (Lynch, natural environment and cultural heritage. It covers both urban
1960). However, it is rarely a conscious element in corridor and rural environments. So far about 10% of the national roads
design because until now roads and their environments have has been covered.
usually been developed separately, and with different time
frames.
Scale and design related to type of corridor
In Type II corridors, especially in active centres along the road,

the scale and design of buildings and design of the road space
should be far more focused on pedestrians and lower vehicle
speeds. Building line set-backs, continuity in weather protection,
pedestrian lighting, pavement cafes and street furniture are all
part of the street setting. In small-scale road environments, the
streetscape is an even more important factor. Better practice
requires that the design of the road space, and the siting and
design of buildings, should be an integral element.
Design for safety
An approach has been developed in Norway to reduce

environmental and traffic safety problems along the existing road
network. Four factors are assessed: noise, air pollution,
‘landscape’, and traffic safety. The method involves clarifying the
problem level (condition) of each aspect, correlating them and
selecting sections of the road network for environmental
improvement, and assessing relevant measures, their costs and
effects (Grendstad, 1997).

Chapter 12 Corridor planning different set of issues, such as the priority to be given to specific
categories of transport users and the use of techniques to
principles manage the transport space.
4 The fourth theme is the relationship between the design of

the transport space and the adjoining built environment.
The approach in this chapter

12.1 INTRODUCTION
All above mentioned issues are interlinked The most useful way
Four main themes emerge from an over view of corridor in which to address the principles involved is to group them
interactions: according to the type of road environment situation. There are
general principles which apply to all of them, but there are also
1 The first theme is concerned with the interaction between significant differences.
activity and accessibility. There are three levels of interaction:
regional, local and ‘adjacent’ levels. Most of the regional and local planning principles affecting
corridor planning have already been discussed in chapters 6 and
At the regional level, there are important strategic issues related 9 respectively. In this chapter, the focus is on adjacent
to the purpose of the corridor and the regional land-use functions interactions and the principles are grouped under three
it ser ves, and the transpor t modes the corr idor is to headings:
accommodate.
• principles applying to corridors in general;
At the local level, development issues arise, such as the location
of the corridor, links with the local networks, and the provision of • principles applying to Type I corridors; and
cross connections between adjoining local areas.
• principles applying to Type II corridors.
At the adjacent level, the relationship between the transport and
frontage functions is of fundamental importance.
2 The second theme is the interaction between transport

function and the environment. Here, too, there are regional, local
and frontage dimensions.
3 The third theme is the use of the transport space and the
interaction between different transport modes. This raises a

12.2. GOAL AND OBJECTIVES There are also two process objectives:
12.2.1 CURRENT GOALS AND OBJECTIVES • to involve all sections of the community
in the preparation of the plan; and
Current goals and objectives are not well articulated
• to prepare an integrated plan. which is affordable and
Transport goals are clear: they are related to transport efficiency, acceptable to the local community.
safety and cost-effectiveness. Road environment goals are
generally less clear. There is a need to justify a proposal with These will be discussed in Chapter 13.
regard to biophysical, economic and social considerations and
the principles of ecologically sustainable development (e.g. as 12.2.2 ACTION SPACE
required under EIS legislation). However, these are process-
related objectives, not goals. There are goals for specific aspects, Action space
such as noise protection and air quality, but examples of
integrated goals or objectives for corridors as transport routes Transport and land-use planning at the corridor level operate in
and their environments have not been found. an ‘action space’, deter mined by three ‘anchor points’:
accessibility, activity and environment (see Chapter 9, figure 9-1).
Sharing the Main Street Transport planning is concerned with providing accessibility and
mobility through the development and management of transport
There is one exception: Sharing the Main Street (FORS, 1993) routes. Land-use planning is concerned with the location of land-
does contain a set of integrated objectives, but they only apply to use activities, environmental protection and the built environment
‘Type II’ corridors in shopping strings. They are: adjoining transport routes.
• to reduce conflict between pedestrians, cyclists and Divided responsibilities

vehicles and increase the safety of all road users;
Responsibilities for the management of corridors are divided
• to provide for through traffic, local traffic and parking between different State and local authorities. Planning of regional
needs; roads and regional traffic management are generally a State
Road responsibility. The responsibilities for planning of sub-
• to maintain and significantly enhance the economic regional and district roads may be shared between State and
performance of the commercial and retail functions of this local authorities. The planning and management of adjoining land
section of the centre; and uses are normally a local government responsibility.
• to improve the quality of the road environment for both

pedestrians and traffic users.

Different agendas Need for greater integration
Road planning has been preoccupied with providing transport The need for greater integration in planning is paramount. Much
capacity and improving traffic flow, while land-use planning has road planning and land-use planning for corridors is undertaken
focused on land-use zoning, without taking full account of the separately. This is especially true for Type I corridors, where the
impact of traffic on the road environment. Little attention has roads are usually the responsibility of State authorities, while
been given so far to the friction which may be caused by local land use is the responsibility of the local planning
adjoining land uses. There are many local planning schemes with departments. Road hierarchies are in widespread use, but little
commercial zoning strips (including active retailing) and account is taken of land use, except in new urban areas.
residential zoning without special provisions for major traffic Environmental impact statements have forced a focus on
routes. environmental aspects of road proposals, but are not required
when establishing road hierarchies or changes in traffic
Land-use policies adopted along a corridor (if they exist) can management.
change from one local authority to the next. Table 12.1 shows the
lack of consistency in local government controls on land use Road planning for corridors proceeds from network strategies,
along arterial roads in Sydney. The information is not up to date priorities for network improvement and route function, to route
but does signify the differences which occur (Black et al., 1988). location studies, then to project design and finally construction.
However, land-use planning is based on area planning, not on
route planning, and zoning plans generally do not address land
use along corridors. Hence, land use in road environment
LOCAL Front Rear Load- On-site Pedest- corridors has so far been neglected.
GOVERN- access access ing parkng rian
MENT activity Initiatives towards greater integration
Many road authorities have been aware of the importance of the

N. Sydney Y Y Y Y N relationship between traffic function and adjoining land use. The
Willoughby Y Y Y Y N (then) Department of Main Roads of NSW made an inventory of
Lane Cove Y N N Y N land use along main roads in Sydney as early as 1948, well
Marrickville Y N Y Y N before the first regional plan for Sydney was produced. The
Leichhardt N N N Y N Melbour ne and Metropolitan Board of Works made a
Ashfield N N Y Y N comprehensive study of frontage development in 1979 and
developed preliminary guidelines, but with the demise of the
MMBW appear not to have been followed up. In Victoria, the
Department of Infrastructure and VicRoads are now undertaking
Table 12.1 Arterial frontage controls (1987) a review of arterial access controls.

Some integrated approaches do exist. Victoria has a Streetwise will be explored in Chapter 13.
program which focuses on housing on inner urban arterial roads,
and South Australia has guidelines on housing along arterial
roads. In Tasmania, there is a Draft State Policy for Sustainable
Development - Roads which includes the provision for ‘Road
Zones’. Operational guidelines under this policy have been
established which take account of a number of friction and
impact aspects (Tasmanian Department of Transport, undated).
Sharing the Main Street (FORS, 1993) addresses the
environmental adaptation of shopping centres along busy traffic
routes.
Scope for integrated planning
Social changes, changes in perceptions, values and priorities

relating to the use of resources, and technological change are
continually re-defining the nature of the action space. This is
especially true for corridors. Figure 12 - 1 Road/environment categories
The action space for integrated corridor planning is influenced by

the degree of intervention which the community is willing to
accept and the market is able to accommodate. It is also
influenced by the application of new technology, such as
intelligent information systems. Hence the scope is circumscribed
by community values, preferences and behaviour, by market
trends, technology, industr y practices and development
techniques. There are misconceptions about the nature of
change and what integrated planning can achieve. Much
depends on the acceptance of planning principles and policies
adopted, and the level of agreement on the means used in
implementation. There may be a need for incentives and for
disincentives, and they will affect stakeholders differently.
However, the greatest challenge is the development of integrated Figure 12-2 Integrated planning should be based on friction
management and institutional arrangements This critical issue and impact management

12.3 PLANNING PRINCIPLES managed in an integrated manner. There is a fundamental
difference between Type I and Type II corridors. The aim with
12.3.1 PRINCIPLES APPLYING TO CORRIDORS IN GENERAL Type I corridors is to reduce both friction and impact; with Type II
corridors, the aim is to reduce impact and accept friction in areas
Classification of road environments where it is needed.
A classification of roads and their environments offers an Make maximum use of existing corridors, but not without
integrated approach towards the management of road and land- adaptation
use associations, environmental impacts and urban design.
There are options. The road/amenity classification (Loder and Movement routes are difficult to establish. They often disrupt
Bayly, 1980) and the ‘urban street classification’ (NSW Roads existing land-use activities and local access and movement
and Traffic Authority, 1996) are some examples. The latter patter ns, and have social and environmental impacts.
proposes a classification for existing urban streets with heavy Communities, particularly those affected in established urban
traffic, and is based on: (i) residential activity (especially because areas, often see a new route as a threat and will oppose plans
of night-time requirements); (ii) pedestrian activity requiring for new routes by any means possible. From a transport point of
various levels of design and amenity for pedestrians; (iii) view it is important to extract maximum use of existing roads, but
vehicular activity concentrating on the safety of vehicular access this should not be done, unless there is an integrated approach
and traffic flow; and (iv) no-activity interface - the ideal for safe towards the road environment, and adaptation is par t of the
vehicular movement. Each class has its own amenity, safety and process.
convenience issues.
All corridors are potentially multi-functional
In this chapter, the classification of Type I and Type II road
environments (see Chapter 11 for a description) is adopted The need for a new corridor, or for increasing the capacity in an
because of its simplicity and value for practical application. existing corridor, will be identified in strategic regional or local
plans. All Type I and Type II corridors should be conceived as
Type I and II road environments treated as corridors routes for the movement of people and goods; and for Type I
corridors this should include their potential use for express bus
A corridor approach involves considering the transport function routes. Further, performance objectives and criteria should be
and the adjoining environment together at all stages of planning, established to ensure that different transpor t modes are
development, construction and management. compatible.
Corridor planning based on friction and impact management It should also be understood that each transport mode has
distinct land-use associations and ‘the right transport mode in the
There is a need for a corridor approach, in which friction, impact right corridor’ must be linked with existing and future land use.
and interdependent associations are planned, developed and For example, a people-moving transport mode should be located

in a people-generating transport corridor, and heavy vehicle relationships at all stages of planning and implementation;
movement should be associated with vehicle-generating land
uses. • there are many different situations, requiring different
approaches to integrated planning and management;
Driver recognition of the type of road environment situation
• it provides the basis for planning transport networks in
Drivers should be able to recognise the relationship between the new areas and can be used to identify problems, solutions
road and the environment and respond to it. This can be and priorities in established areas; and
achieved by a range of measures: road design, traffic
management, frontage development and building design. There • it helps to clarify what type of corridor is to be achieved in
is a dynamic relationship between moving vehicles and changing the longer term and the kind of changes in transport
road environments, and it can be used to provide orientation and function and/or in adjoining development, which will be
a sense of direction. Points of decision can enhance the road required.
with attractive signs and landmarks.
Categorisation is one of the tools in the Guide and further details
The scale and form of development should be related to the can be found in Part C, C-1.
road function
12.3.2 PRINCIPLES RELATED TO TYPE I CORRIDORS
It is clear that urban design of the road, the buildings and other
elements of corridors should be considered together. This can The movement function should be dominant
include: building set-backs, building heights, selected landmark
and corner buildings, building form, mass and bulk, building Type I corridors are the backbone of urban areas and facilitating
exteriors, design for noise protection, car park set-backs, the efficient performance of the movement function is the primary
signage, fencing, landscape enhancement, utilities and traffic objective. Efficiency requires minimum friction. So too, efficient
control devices, street furniture and accessories. performance cannot be divorced from the regional, local and
adjoining impact of the corridor. The costs and benefits of
Categorisation of transport corridors minimising impact should be an integral part of corridor planning,
development and management.
Categorisation of transport routes as ‘corridors’ is useful,
because: REGIONAL LEVEL
• there are different types of transport routes with a different Recognition that there are different situations
relationship to adjoining land;
There are different planning situations, and the policy, process
• it shifts the focus from transport routes to these and institutional approach may be different for each of them.

There are at least six basically different road environment Corridors as potential multi-modal routes
situations:
Type I corridors should be conceived as routes for the regional
• new corridor through an area without significant urban movement of people and goods and this should include their
development; potential use by express public transpor t (subject to the
comments made later). Where long-distance cycle routes are
• new corridor through an area with significant urban provided, separate paths should be provided in corridors where
development, but where a road reservation exists; vehicle speeds are high. Pedestrian routes should generally not
be located along regional corridors for reasons of safety and
• new corridor through an established urban area and no health.
reservation exists;
Categorisation of existing corridors
• existing major traffic route without significant urban
development alongside; Inventories should be made of existing Type I corridors so that
problems can be identified. The road environment situations
• existing major traffic route with development alongside; should be assessed by developing performance criteria and
and applying them. Regional criteria should be related to regional
performance (such as regional accessibility, transport capacity
• existing traffic route with development alongside and and off-peak vehicle speed). Local criteria should be related to
proposals to upgrade its traffic function. local relationships (such as the impact on local traffic and bus
routes). For adjacent criteria, see the Guide, Part C - C-2.
The need for a Type I corridor and its intended transport function
should be based on regional studies and an integrated regional Based on such an assessment, the need for adaptation and the
planning strategy covering land-use, transpor t and the nature of it can be categorised and priorities be determined. The
environment. For policy, process and institutional approaches, categorisation can also be used for comparing proposals for new
see Chapter 13. corridors with the alternative of upgrading existing ones.
Regional land use and accessibility LOCAL LEVEL
Type I corridors provide regional accessibility and any changes in Transport function and local accessibility
capacity, use and performance will have land-use consequences.
These should be integrated with other policies, such as the The role of the corridor in relation to local communities needs to
location of vehicle-genrating activities. For example, a truck or be examined carefully. Many existing corridors serve not only
dangerous goods route should be linked with the location of regional, but also district and local transpor t functions.
goods distribution centres and warehousing. Restrictions on local access, spacing of intersections and

prohibitions on turning movements will have consequences for for public transport, pedestrians and cyclists.
the local networks. There may be a need for grade separation on
secondary transport routes, or changes to the vertical alignment Corridors as seams or edges?
of the regional route. Improvements in accessibility may also lead
to local land-use changes ,and there may be implications for Most urban arterials are no longer the seams in the community
zoning. In all cases, there will be a need for careful assessment they once were. They have become edges to the precincts which
and consultation about alternatives. adjoin them. Corridors in established areas, especially in inner
urban areas, will have both heavy traffic and active frontage
Land use should be related to corridor function functions. Where these frontage functions are unlikely to be
changed in the longer term and integrated redevelopment
Where corridor reservations exist, adjoining land uses should be (including the use of airspace over the road) is unlikely to be
developed in such a manner that there is adequate feasible at least in the short term, options for another transport
environmental protection. This prevents a costly retrofit at the corridor may have to be explored. Alternatively, the classification
time when the road is constructed. as a Type I corridor may need to be changed to a Type II corridor
(with the clear shift in priorities this implies). The road may then
Local land-use zoning should reflect the corridor function. In the become an activity street, perhaps during off-peak periods only.
case of truck and dangerous goods routes, land-use activities
with a large concentration of people should be located well
outside the corridor. There are other performance- based criteria
for zoning, such as vehicle-oriented uses and access-dependent
activities.
Corridors and the local environment
The need for regional corridors should not compromise the

opportunity for connectivity for pedestrians, cyclists, public
transport and local vehicle movements. Corridors should not
become barriers to established local communities.
Policies should be developed, which are attuned to these

situations. Key elements of such policies are the type of land
uses, degree of pedestrian and vehicle generation, site access,
set-back, on-site parking, sensitivity to air quality and traffic
noise, design for noise protection, intersection spacing and Figure 12-3 Cross links must be maintained
turning movements, community severance and cross connectivity

Corridors through country towns Values of properties with a frontage to heavy traffic routes are
generally 10–15 % lower than those one street-block away. With
Major routes through country towns often do not have high traffic adaptation and proper protection, these values could at least be
volumes and adaptation of the Main Street section as a Type II maintained or even increased.
corridor may be possible, irrespective of whether it is classified
as a ‘Main Road’. Where this cannot be done, a bypass or Reduction of friction
diversion of heavy vehicles may be required.
Accepting the premise that maximum transport use is made of
’ADJACENT’ LEVEL the major investment in a transport corridor, reduction of friction
should be another major objective. In established corridors, this
An integrated, instead of a road-based, approach will require longer-term policies on pedestrian-generating and
vehicle-generating activities, arrangements for alternative means
Sustainable development does not extend only to redressing the of site access, and on-street parking (see the Guide. Part C, C-8
relationship between transport and the environment at regional and the VicRoads, 1996 example of parking management).
and local levels. It also requires new approaches for roads as
traffic routes and their local environment. Such approaches need Providing for interdependent associations
to recognise community concerns about increasing transport
capacity or performance through their area. Some land-use and road function associations must be retained,
but policies and guidelines are required for the location and
Planning of the corridor should incorporate the relationship design of sites to achieve visibility, safety and no interference
between adjoining land uses - existing as well as future uses -, with traffic flow.
and address the management of friction and impact. Some
aspects would be covered through integrated local planning, but Design and image enhancement
there are additional variables. These include the type of land
uses, degree of pedestrian and vehicle generation, site access, Each section of a corridor should be examined with regard to:
set-back, on-site parking, sensitivity to traffic noise, design for
noise protection, on-street parking, footpaths and cycleways. (i) the dynamic view from the road and the strategic location
of land marks for legibility and orientation; and
Reduction of impact
(ii) the relationship between the road space and design, and
The primary objective at the adjacent levels is to reduce the the built environment.
impact of traffic on adjoining properties and to plan, develop and,
where necessary, redevelop land to create acceptable living and Desirable outcomes can then be identified and incorporated into
working conditions. There is not only justification for local planning instruments. Guidelines for image enhancement
environmental reasons; it also makes good economic sense. should cover matters such as building set-backs, building

heights, selected landmark and corner buildings, building form,
mass and bulk, building exteriors, on-site parking, signage,
fencing, landscape enhancement, utilities, traffic control devices,
and street furniture and accessories (City of Waverley, Vic,
1992).
The design and management of both the transport route and the
adjoining built environment should reflect the kind of driver
behaviour expected. For example, drivers should determine
appropriate speed behaviour in response to them and not
depend on legal speed limits alone.
Development options
Figure 12-4 Road environments need to be adapted
Integrated development options should be considered for each to changed road functions
section of a corridor, including
• co-ordinated development control;
• separate road reconstruction, co-ordinated with private

development or redevelopment;
• integrated public redevelopment; and
• joint ventures, with or without participation of local

property owners.
These options are further discussed in the Guide, Part C - C-14

and R-10. In many cases, there will be a need to extend planning
to the adjoining street block and not confine it to the frontage
property alone.
Figure 12-5 Variable traffic and land-use functions

12.3.3 PRINCIPLES RELATED TO TYPE II CORRIDORS
Pedestrians
peak hour Integrated planning of Type II corridors should be based on
per 100 m of Desired friction and impact management
frontage activity profile
Existing One of the fundamental differences with Type I road
activity profile environments is the relationship between pedestrians and
vehicles. There will be sections along Type II corridors where the
frontage functions are important and friction for vehicle traffic
must be increased to protect the pedestrian and business
environment. Speed and activity management are the
cornerstones of an integrated approach.
Length of frontage
Key variables in the relationship between land use and road
planning along Type II traffic routes are:
Figure 12-6 Activity profile • pedestrian safety;
• convenience;
Speed • amenity;
km/h
Desired
speed profile • business activity;
Existing
speed profile
• site access;
60
40 • parking; and
25
• land use.
Length of frontage
Figure 12-7 Speed profile

REGIONAL LEVEL emphasis may be on creating environmental protection In
contrast with Type I corridors, certain sections of Type II corridors
A regional context may be seams in the community (e.g. ‘activity street’). In other
sections, movement functions prevail for some, or all, of the time.
Type II corridors and their existing or intended transport functions
should be related to the regional network and land-use strategy. Planning policies for different situations
Generally, planning of Type II corridors should not aim to change
existing transport functions, but to create more compatible There are two basic planning situations: (i) new corridors; and (ii)
conditions through the management of land use and the adaptation of existing corridors. There are several sub-categories
transport space. However, when a bypass is to be built or the in each (see the Guide, Part C, Corridors). The policy approach
function of other routes is changed, there may be special may well be different for each of them (see the Guide, Part C -
opportunities for integrated approaches towards the adaptation C4 and C5).
of the original road.
Categorisation of road environment situations
There is often a need to accommodate peak hour flows along
Type II corridors, especially in large urban areas and conditions Inventories should be made of existing Type II corridors. The
in the use of the road space can vary during the day. In resort conditions should be assessed by applying the criteria used for
centres, traffic volumes may vary greatly with the season. the policy elements. On the basis of such an assessment, the
need for adaptation and its nature can be categorised and
Corridors as potential multi-modal routes priorities be determined.
Type II corridors, also, should be conceived as routes for the LOCAL LEVEL
movement of people and goods, but the balance between heavy
vehicles and public transport differs from that in Type I corridors. Transport function and local accessibility
Type II corridors have potential as people routes served by local
public transport and the proportion of heavy vehicles should be The role of the corridor in relation to local communities need to
low (except in industrial and warehousing zones). be assessed carefully. Many existing Type II corridors serve
regional, district and local transport functions. Restrictions on
Variable road environments local access, spacing of intersections, and prohibitions on turning
movements will have consequences for the local networks.
There usually are widely var ying conditions in the road Changes should not be made without assessment and
environment, requir ing a range of friction and impact consultation on alternatives. Improvements in accessibility may
management techniques. In some sections (for example, near also lead to local land-use changes, and there may be
schools or along shopping centres), greater weight must be given implications for zoning.
to pedestrians and vehicle speeds, whereas in other sections the

Land-use changes are important; in some centres, new shopping Speed targets are reflected in design
centres have been built, which changed the nature of the conflict
between pedestrians and vehicles (e.g. Taree, NSW). The design and management of the transport route and the
adjoining built environment should reflect the kind of driver
ADJACENT LEVEL behaviour which is appropriate. For example, drivers should
determine speed behaviour as a response to the road design
Key principles and not depend on legal speed limits alone.
Policies need to be developed to facilitate integrated Reduced speed at pedestrian concentrations

development and adaptation of Type II Corridors.
In areas with high levels of pedestrian activity, target speeds of
There are four fundamental principles: 25 km/h or less are appropriate. Where pedestrian crossing
points occur, such as at schools, special measures are needed
• Concentrating pedestrian-oriented activities in ‘core’ zones to reduce vehicle speed.
and vehicle-oriented activities in non-pedestrian zones;
Speed and activity profiles
• Creating an approach or transition zone, when there are
core zones; Speed and activity profiles should be used as the basis of
planning Type II corridors.
• Reducing vehicle speed in the core zone and approach
zones; and The use of ‘portals’
• Friction and impact management, depending on the type Speed management and driver behaviour are linked. One of the
of zone. key aspects of Type II corridors is variable speed management,
depending on the adjoining road environment. A deliberate effort
Land use should be related to corridor function must be made to create driver awareness of the need for
changed behaviour. There are many ways in which this can be
Local land-use zoning should reflect the corridor function. There done (see for example, Sharing the Main Street, 1993). However,
are clear implications for conventional zoning: instead of zoning in all cases there is a need for measures which encourage
by land use alone, zoning should reflect whether proposed land drivers to adjust vehicle speed gradually, as sudden or isolated
uses should be pedestrian or vehicle-oriented (or in some cases changes are a cause of accidents.
both).

local schemes have been introduced in country towns and some
suburban areas, incorporating design measure to create a sense
of place in the core area. These measures include building set-
backs, building heights, selected landmark and corner buildings,
building form, mass and bulk, building exteriors, signage, fencing,
landscape enhancement, utilities, traffic control devices, and
street furniture and accessories.
Figure 12-8 Angle of field of vision and vehicle speed are linked.
Target speeds must be determined with the need to get
driver attention and response to changed conditions
Figure 12-9 Creating a community focus through
environmental adaptation
Creating a community focus
There often are opportunities to create a community focus by

closing some side streets and change parking and footpath
arrangements. x x x x x x xxx
Design and image enhancement
Image enhancement, especially in core zones, can contribute Figure 12-10 Variable speed, determined
greatly to a safer and more attractive road environment. Many by the road environment

12.4 ISSUES REQUIRING CLARIFICATION What type of vehicles should be permitted to use certain
arterial roads?
12.4.1 ISSUES RELATED TO TYPE I CORRIDORS
A central issue is the impact of designation of truck routes and
Should ar terial roads be separated from adjoining the movement of dangerous goods. There may be sensitive land
developments by back fences? uses along such routes (e.g. hospitals). Should there be any
restrictions on the type of vehicles at particular times (e.g. trucks
The argument is that back fences separate roads from at night)?
communities, that they are visually unattractive and create a
security problem. This issue is partly addressed by Brindle, 1996. The use of the road space for public transport is also relevant.
Back fences as screens separating a road from the community is Local bus routes have stops, which draw pedestrians across the
not the only issue. A similar issue arises because of the road. This may be a problem, when there are no signal controlled
increased use of noise reduction walls and screens. intersections or crossings.
Which land uses can have access frontage access? Should guidelines be established for severance?
Some land uses depend on vehicular access (e.g. service There is considerable community concern to maintain links
stations), while others find it a considerable advantage (e.g. between communities across Type I corridors (e.g. schools,
motels). The question is under what circumstances can such activity centres). However, it appears that there no standards
establishments be given the opportunity to have access. concerning the frequency and type of cross connections for
pedestrians and cyclists.
Should residential development be encouraged?
Finding an acceptable balance in established areas?
There is a view that residential development is possible, provided
the design takes account of traffic noise. It is argued that it Many urban arterials were originally traffic routes providing
depends on performance and that there are adequate standards access to adjoining local areas and frontages, and became major
to follow. Another opinion is that the standards do not apply to through routes as urban areas expanded. Development along
outdoor space and prevent residents from enjoying that space in adjoining sites also changed, when accessibility to the arterial
comfort. Yet others consider that low-rise development protected increased the commercial exposure to passing traffic.
by mounds is acceptable (e.g. Robina, Qld). One aspect which Commercial strip developments developed along many arterials
seems to be overlooked in these views, is the impact of vehicle and sub-arterials, often without adequate set-back, entrance
emissions on community health. drives and provision for parking. Residential development is
characterised by many entrance drives, and with increased traffic
it became difficult to exit and park, while protection against traffic
noise is very difficult to achieve. Some local cross routes may be

impossible to close off, if upgrading is contemplated. new techniques (e.g. movable bollards, variable regulatory
controls).
How can an acceptable balance be created in rural areas?
NOTE: A Table of tools for the application of principles and
One of the difficult aspects is that of severance, especially when approaches related to corridors can be found at the end of
controlled access routes are being planned. The issue of fair Chapter 13.
compensation looms large in all areas, but is of particular
significance in rural areas.
12.4.2 ISSUES RELATED TO TYPE II CORRIDORS
What are acceptable conditions for pedestrian/vehicle

interaction outside active areas?
Acceptable conditions can be achieved in commercial centres by

applying the principles of environmental adaptation, but there are
unresolved issues regarding pedestrian/vehicle interaction
outside such areas (e.g. aged homes, schools). These problems
occur because of initial land-use decisions and/or changes in
traffic conditions.
How to manage the balance between traffic and land-use

function, when they vary?
Land-use and traffic conditions can vary widely. Some centres

are large, some small; the traffic function may be regional in peak
and local in off-peak conditions; traffic volumes may vary during
the week and seasons. The frontage function can also vary with
shopping activity dur ing the day and restaurants and Figure 12-11 Adaptation of the Main Street
entertainment at night. after construction of a bypass
The need to develop responsive and flexible solutions is a real

challenge in specific situations. Traffic engineering solutions,
such as tidal flows, may be appropriate in some cases, but have
an impact on the road environment. There may also be scope for

Chapter 13 Towards integration There are several reasons for those conflicts:
in corridors • proposals are conceived as road-based proposals;
• the impact on the road environment is subservient

to the dominant transport function;
• the community is often faced with a well- developed

13.1 INTRODUCTION proposal and a commitment to proceed; scope to explore
trade-offs may be constrained;
In this chapter the emphasis shifts again from information about
interactions and planning principles to their application. The • there is no single agency responsible for transport routes
important issues are: and their environment;
• establishing desired outcomes; • there is a lack of awareness of the complex interactions,

which occur; and
• policy development;
• there are no clear policies and directions for transport
• process development, including stakeholder participation; routes as corridors in which land use and the environment
and are an integral part of the problem.
• institutional development. There is consultation, but there are few policies
A lack of direction Consultation between transpor t, land-use planning and

environmental management authorities does take place, but
The planning and development of transport routes come into objectives are not necessarily aligned. There are processes (and
sharp focus when there are proposals to upgrade existing major they are being used), but there is a dearth of policies.
roads or create new ones. At that time, an EIS is required and
often storms of protests are unleashed. The battle between There are no co-ordinated policies for frontage access,
different interests signifies that there are problems in an appropriate land uses, the siting and design of buildings, social
approach which relegates planning to conflict resolution and interaction and severance, pedestrian and vehicle-generating
political horse-trading. There are better ways to plan transport activities, on-road parking, visual enhancement and integrated
routes. development along frontages.

There is a need for better processes
To resolve the often conflicting interests of the stakeholders,

there is a need to identify stakeholders, and how they should be
involved in the process. Strategic planning should precede
development planning, project planning and the preparation of an
EIS. Opportunities need to be created to explore objectives and
desired outcomes, examine options and trade-offs and consider
measures to mitigate impacts, before there is a commitment to
an EIS. Differences, which cannot be resolved by this process,
need to be resolved at political levels.
A need for better institutional arrangements
The greatest obstacle to greater integration is associated with

institutional constraints. The responsibility for transport, land use
and the environment are divided. A holistic approach is required
to manage the action space for corridors and to involve a wide
range of disciplines and agencies.
Figure 13-1 Division of responsibility

13.2 DESIRED OUTCOMES a widening of footpaths, providing parking elsewhere, and
making space for pavement cafes and restaurants (e.g.
13.2.1 FOCUS ON OUTCOMES, NOT PROJECTS Crows Nest, Sydney); and
From issues to goals • a built form, appropriate in scale and form for a corridor,
can be incorporated in local development plans, with
There should be agreement on the problems to be addressed detailed guidelines on design (similar to those prepared by
and the priority to be given to them. Careful thought should be VicRoads for traffic noise).
given to the definition of goals which address the issues. The
goals may not be those which seem obvious to those trained in Possible outcomes
undertaking projects. In some cases, a transport problem may
suggest a land-use solution, in others it may involve a transport- Desired outcomes for Type I corridors could be:
related action. Often it will be both.
• efficient movement of through traffic;
From goals to outcomes
• opportunities for multi modal transport use of the route;
An integrated approach towards corridors can lead from goals to
unexpected outcomes. For example: • reduced conflict between pedestrians, cyclists and
vehicles;
• a goal to reduce the impact of traffic noise may lead to
progressive elimination of site access to small-scale • increased safety of all road users;
adjoining development, because noise barriers in such
situations are not effective; • improvement in the quality of the road environment for all
users;
• a goal to increase the performance of existing urban
arterials may lead to a policy on appropriate land use, • no adverse impact on local communities;
especially where arterials are to serve as regional truck or
dangerous goods routes (e.g. land-use sensitivity to traffic • adjoining land uses are protected from the impact of
noise and risk); traffic;
• a goal to convert an existing Type II corridor to a Type I • opportunities for the location and safe operation of land
may lead to a local plan to develop alternative means of uses, which are interdependent with the road function and
access (e.g. Wynham City Council, 1994); traffic needs;
• a goal to enhance activity in a Type II corridor may lead to • adjoining development with urban design qualities

appropriate for the transport function and traffic 13.2.2 VISION STATEMENTS
characteristics; and
A search for a vision statement for corridors was unsuccessful. In
• on-going management plans, which maintain/enhance the practice, it would be useful to prepare it. It could be a starting
performance of the transport function, while protecting the point in stakeholder participation and the collective exploration of
functioning of local communities. goals that focus on outcomes, instead of outputs.
Desired outcomes for Type II corridors could be: 13.3 POLICY DEVELOPMENT
• efficient movement of through and local traffic; 13.3.1 POLICIES THAT SUIT THE CONTEXT
• opportunities for public transport use of the route; Policies to suit the context
• a variable vehicle speed environment which reduces A framework should be developed to identify different road
conflict between pedestrians, cyclists and vehicles; environments. Then integrated land-use, environmental and
transport policies and guidelines should be established.
• increased safety of all road users;
The basic road/environment typology (Type I and Type II) may be
• Improvement in the quality of the road environment for all a start for such a framework, but the policies and guidelines will
users; have different details for the range of possible situations in such
a typology.
• maintenance/enhancement of the economic performance
of the commercial functions along the frontage; The desired outcome of a Type I road environment is likely to be
efficiency in performing regional transport functions, compatible
• provision for traffic and parking needs; adjoining development and protection of the local community. The
desired outcome for a Type II road environment is likely to focus
• adjoining development with urban design qualities on an acceptable balance between traffic function, pedestrian
appropriate for the transport function and traffic safety and amenity.
characteristics; and
13.3.2 APPROACHES TO POLICY DEVELOPMENT
• implementation of an integrated plan which is affordable
and acceptable to the community. Current policies
Some States have partial policies or guidelines, or are in the

process of developing them. In NSW, State Environmental

Planning Policy 11 addresses traffic generating development on An integrated policy framework
major roads, In Queensland, the Department of Transport has
development guidelines. South Australia has established an As far as we are aware, there are no integrated sets of policies
Arterial Roads Working Group, with the task of setting criteria for Type I and II road environments. A policy framework should be
relating to planning policies for adjacent land uses. VicRoads and developed. Policies on the many aspects, which are relevant for
the Victorian Department of Infrastructure are undertaking a corridors will take time to develop. The framework shows the
review of arterial access controls, and VicRoads produced a relationship between policies which exist and those yet to be
policy for kerb-side management (see example:Kerb-lane prepared. An integrated framework would ensure that land-use,
Management Plan). Noise protection policies are in general use. transpor t and environmental agencies authorities have a
common basis for planning and implementation.
A common approach
Consistent format
Policy development should ensure that there is a common
approach towards a particular type of road environment, and There should also be a consistent methodology in the
could involve: preparation and presentation of the policies. For example, a
format could consist of objectives, performance criteria and
• categorisation of corridors according to desired function; acceptable solutions.
• determining criteria for the transport and environmental Criteria need to be deter mined for the transpor t and
performance of each category; environmental performance of each policy field. The conventional
use of standards alone is not recommended, because there is a
• establishing appropriate performance characteristics for need for flexibility in order to respond to special circumstances. A
each criterion and for each category of corridor; perfor mance approach based on objectives and desired
outcomes provides such flexibility.
• developing guidelines on acceptable outcomes for each
category in respect of friction and impact management, Guidelines for policy fields or elements
interdependent associations, and an appropriate urban
design relationship between the road and the built The following list is indicative of the kind of policy fields which
environment; may be relevant:
• implementation policies, including defining responsibilities FRICTION

and establishing procedures for resolving conflicts; and
Roadside friction
• identifying needs for research and development.
• vehicle traffic generation;

• pedestrian traffic generation; IMPACT
• parking generation; • truck routes, noise and vibration;
• loading/unloading; • dangerous goods movement and exposure to risk;
• access driveways; and • air emissions;
• visual features. • traffic noise production and mitigation;
Road design/management friction • property access, including restrictions caused by

clearways, medians and turning bans;
• intersection spacing;
• local accessibility and circulation (e.g. impact of turning
• ramp spacing; bans and side street closure);
• ramp design; • road safety and vulnerable groups;
• right-hand turns; • community and property severance;
• lane width; • bus/tram operation and access to bus/tram stops;
• truck lanes; • development potential, property values and business

activity;
• bus lanes;
• drainage, run-off and water quality;
• tram lines;
• acid soils and other geological conditions;
• bus and tram stops;
• scenic and other visual aspects;
• cycle ways and cyclist turning movements;
• heritage sites;
• pedestrian and cyclist crossings; and
• aboriginal sites; and
• trees.

• endangered species (flora and fauna). • advertising sign controls.
INTERDEPENDENT ASSOCIATIONS The City of Waverley (Vic.) has developed design guidelines (City
of Waverley, 1992). The design guidelines cover:
• appropriate land uses, including siting and design
conditions; • building set-backs;
• roadside services; • building heights;
• roadside corridor preservation; • selected landmark and corner buildings;
• quality of the pedestrian and business environment (for • building form, mass and bulk;
Type II corridors); and
• building exteriors;
• image enhancement and urban design.
• car park set-backs;
Image enhancement and urban design policies
• signage:
Image enhancement and urban design covers many aspects and
there may be a need for policies for Type II corridors on aspects, • fencing;
such as:
• landscape enhancement;
• footpath width and use;
• utilities and traffic control devices; and
• continuous weather protection;
• street furniture and accessories.
• places for social interaction and events;
Roadside corridor preservation
• selecting and locating street furniture;
Some States have policies and guidelines regarding the
• pedestrian lighting, as well as vehicle lighting; preservation of roadside corridors in rural areas, but the term
corridor is defined as the land within the road reservation.
• street trees and landscaping; Matters considered include wildlife habitat, remnants of original
plants, seed source of vegetation, control of erosion and siltation,
• building set-backs and height; and scenic reservations, routes for pedestrians and cyclists, green

buffers, areas for rest and recreation, windbreaks and the 13.4 PROCESS DEVELOPMENT
location of utilities, such as electricity and water (RTA 1995).
13.4.1 CURRENT APPROACHES
Details are provided in the Guide, (see C-15 Ecological Functions)
Separate and different processes
As noted before, much transport planning and land-use planning

An example: Kerb-lane Management Plan
for corridors is under taken separately, without much co-
ordination. This is especially true for Type I corridors, where the
Guidelines have been developed by VicRoads for the
roads are usually the responsibility of State authorities, while
planning and assessment of kerb-lane management plans
local land use is the responsibility of the local planning
on principal traffic routes. The Guidelines require a
department.
preliminary Local Area Traffic Management Plan (LAMP) to
be prepared which addresses land-use changes,
Transpor t planning for corridors proceeds from network
alternative parking facilities and other actions associated
strategies, priorities for network improvement and route function,
with any reductions in kerbside parking (VicRoads, 1996).
to route location studies, then to project design, and finally to
construction.
Land-use planning for Type I corridors generally does not exist.

The planning approach invariably is based on area planning, not
on route planning. Zoning plans generally do not address land
use along corridors. Hence, there is no specific focus on land use
in road environment corridors.
Widespread use of EIS processes
The EIS process is well developed and guidelines exist (e.g.

NSW Department of Urban Affairs and Planning, 1996, Roads
and related facilities). The NSW guidelines address some of the
problems with many EIS approaches. They identify important
factors to be considered when preparing an EIS:
• early consideration of the strategic context;

Figure 13-2 Relationship between local area
and corridor management • early assessment of options;

• identifying issues;
• prioritising issues;
• impact analysis, prediction and presentation;
• the ‘question of adequacy’; and
• ecologically sustainable development.
The principles of ecologically sustainable development are

defined as follows:
a) The precautionary principle - namely,

if there are threats of serious or irreversible environmental
damage, lack of full scientific certainty should not be used
as a reason for postponing measures to prevent
environmental degradation.
b) Inter-generational equity - namely, that the present

generation should ensure that the health, diversity and
productivity of the environment is maintained or enhanced
for the benefit of future generations.
c) Conservation of biological diversity and ecological Figure 13-3 Strategic planning

integrity. should precede project planning
d) Improved valuation and pricing of environmental

resources.
Strategic assessment
There are two main problems associated with conventional EIS

processes:
(i) they are used, when there is

a commitment to a project. However, groups in the development concepts and policies for corridor
community, affected adversely, question the basis for environments, and local community impacts. In the case of
making this commitment; and existing roads, development planning can lead to the
production of corridor development plans for sections of a
(ii) there is little scope for collective learning, exploring corridor, and be used as the basis for development control
options and trade-offs. policies.
Strategic assessment processes, before there is an EIS process, • Operational planning includes the project planning
can overcome, or partly overcome, these problems. As a result, activity of a road improvement proposal, in association
interest in these processes is increased. Strategic planning with the adaptation of the road environment, including the
processes with community involvement can be a constructive road design, traffic management and the land use and
and collective learning activity, which adds value to the outcome development controls necessary to achieve the desired
(Brewer et al., 1994). Strategic environmental impact assessment outcome. An EIS is also interpreted here as an operational
is a concept with potential for efficiency, and for increased planning activity, because there is a project and a need for
environmental consideration in general policies and choice of working through the fine print before construction is
action (Samuels and Black, 1995). commenced.
13.4.2 TYPES OF PROCESSES
Processes for different purposes
Integrated approaches in corridor planning can address different

issues, and a process should be used which is appropriate for
the purpose. Chapter 4 identified three main processes: strategic
planning; development planning and operational planning.
Integrated corridor planning requires them all:
• Strategic planning can be used he need for a corridor, its

functions and performance and its broad location. Where a
transport route exists, strategic planning is used to clarify
desired function and performance, taking account of
environmental constraints.
• Development planning can be used for investigating

route options and constraints and opportunities, Figure 13-4 Current practice

Process development for Type I corridors Assessing Type I Corridors
Corridor planning can best be approached by a sequential set of Matters to be included will depend on the process and context.
processes. There are critical issues which should be determined Typical matters for an operational planning process, such as an
at the strategic planning stage. When these issues have been EIS, are well documented (e.g. NSW Department of Urban
resolved, there may be a need for a development planning Affairs and Planning, 1996):
process for specific sections. Alternatively, or additionally, an
operational planning process can be used to resolve the details • the likelihood of soil contamination arising from the
(see the Guide Part B, Chapter 2, Corridor Planning). development or activity;
• the impact of the development or activity on flora and

fauna;
• the likelihood of air, noise or water pollution arising from

the development or activity;
• the impact of the development or activity on the health of

people in the neighbourhood of the development or
activity;
• any hazards arising from the development or activity;
• the impact of the development or activity on traffic in the

neighbourhood of the development or activity;
• the effect of the development or activity on local climate;
• the social and economic impact of the development or

activity;
• the visual impact of the development or activity on the

scenic quality of land in the neighbourhood of the
development or activity;
Figure 13-5 Integrated processes
• the effect of the development or activity on soil erosion

and the silting up of rivers or lakes; and management and environmental design.
• the effect of the development or activity on the cultural and • Development planning follows after strategic options have
heritage significance of the land. been explored. It examines alternative concepts related to:
future development of pedestrian and vehicle-generating
However, this list represents the transport impact and not the activities; the role of different transport modes (including
friction associated with roadside development. Assessment walking and cycling); bus stops; the distribution of short
processes for integrated approaches should consider them both. and long-term parking; pedestrian crossings; intersections
and provision for turning movement; selected side street
The process for Type II corridors closures; site access; footpath width and community
space; and indicative streetscape. Typical outputs are the
Priorities for the adaptation of Type II corridors are more readily definition of core and approach zones, speed and activity
identified, and in many cases will focus on areas where there is a profiles, friction and impact management intentions,
pedestrian/vehicle or a land-use and traffic conflict. The process gateways (or portals), traffic and development control
developed for ‘Sharing the Main Street’ consists of planning, measures.
design, assessment and evaluation. Experience in the practical
application of this process indicates that it provides a useful • Operational (project) planning occurs when there is a
basis with some modifications (RTA, 1998). concept development plan. It involves detailed urban
design and engineering, including pavement materials,
Type II corridors need a larger handle than traffic calming alone. kerb lines, street furniture and lighting, landscaping,
Traffic calming can treat the symptoms of a conflict, but not the services, line marking and signage. At this stage,
causes. Type II corridors, too, require a strategic planning performance objectives and criteria for building sitingand
process, followed by a development and operational planning design are defined as the basis for development control.
process:
13.4.3 ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION
• Strategic planning identifies possible changes in land use
and transport functions and the way they may influence There is a difference between assessment and evaluation
the parameters for development planning and design. A
classic case is that of Taree, a coastal country town north Assessment is the technical activity of deter mining the
of Newcastle, where completion of an off-centre market consequences of an option for a particular aspect or criterion,
place caused a major shift in pedestrian movements in the and is the job of the professional. Evaluation is making choices,
Main Street. A bypass removed nearly all heavy vehicles the activity of judging which criteria should be given the most
and almost half of the vehicle traffic in the Main Street. weight, and determining, which option is best. The stakeholders
The development planning parameters then become need to be involved in this activity. State and local authorities
matters of economic renewal, as well as transport need to make a final evaluation after consultation with the

community has taken place. 13.4.4 STAKEHOLDER PARTICIPATION
Assessment by the project team The problem of regional benefits and local costs
It is impor tant for the assessment to be objective and In many cases, the provision of a new transport route or the
transparent. For this reason, the project team should avoid giving major upgrading of an existing transport route, has regional and
weight to matters which are subjective or cannot be quantified. A local dimensions. We can observe this duality at different
planning balance sheet gives the opportunity for an objective geographical scales in the context of a motorway or major arterial
representation of advantages and disadvantages. However, with road. The new link in the network performs a regional role with
many options and many criteria, the planning balance sheet may regional benefits, exceeding regional costs (otherwise the link
become too complex for comprehension. In that event, would not be contemplated). However, the local benefits may be
simplification is necessary, for example, by highlighting those small and the local costs high. In other words, the benefits and
aspects, where there are significant differences and trade-offs. disbenefits which arise from a project are not produced at the
same geographical level and affect regional and local
Assessment criteria should be developed with the stakeholders differently.
stakeholders
Issues which indicate the need for action are also relevant in the
development of assessment criteria. The stakeholders can assist
in establishing the criteria for assessment. These criteria can
then be used for testing and comparison of options.
Evaluation with and by the stakeholders
Different stakeholders should determine which option they prefer

after understanding the consequences associated with it. The
loss of on-street parking space to widen the footpath and create
a more attractive pedestrian environment is an example of a
trade-off. Community involvement is essential to get a handle on
the trade-offs people are prepared to make and how the priorities
are perceived This is discussed in the section below.
Figure 13-6 The wide diversity of interest

should be accommodated

Local stakeholders believe that they have to pay too high a price, A decision is then made and followed by the fourth step: public
and question the need for the proposed infrastructure. The monitoring of the project to ensure that the environment is
proposed options, which are based on long-term traffic forecasts protected and the economic and social integration of the project
and past behaviour, are brought into question. What is demanded is achieved.
are other, more deliberate ways of controlling urban
development, more local traffic solutions, and details of the Experience has shown the need to give careful attention to four
routes so that the impact can be assessed. This is a common aspects:
problem and must be rcognised in the design of a process of
stakeholder participation. • difficulty of finding common ground;
The French model • a procedure which defines possible arguments;
In France, as in many other countries, major problems occurred • a procedure which assigns precise roles to players; and
with public participation in important projects and, as a result, a
four-step model was formalised in 1992 (Fourniau, 1995). • the issues involved in expert opinions.
The model separates two types of consultation, which follow These aspects are briefly discussed In the following sub-
different timetables. The initial type occurs when the project sections.
begins and deals with the general concept - a multi-modal
exploration in the case of a transport project. It results in the Consultation should attempt to identify and resolve conflict
drawing up of the specification of the project The quality of the
debate is monitored by a ‘monitoring committee’ which does not A consultation policy and program should be designed to reduce
take any position on the issues in debate. conflict. Some of the elements are: involvement of stakeholders
based on a need to know; early commencement of the
When the consistency of the project begins to be sufficiently consultation process; a solution-oriented, rather than problem-
clear, the public authorities involved can decide on a second type oriented approach; expedition; and adequate resourcing. Of
of consultation and expert appraisal. The purpose of this stage is course, there will be situations where conflict cannot be resolved.
to design or detail the project, consider the problems arising with
implementation and decide whether or not to validate any It is important to establish the nature of the issues and conflicts
differences between the specification of the first phase and the upfront. The first stage of the consultation program should seek
designed variants. The monitoring committee also watches over to identify them. One of the difficulties felt by all the stakeholders
the second phase. who take part in the first stage of a program is that they share no
common ground, they share no common ‘territory of the project’.
The third step is a public inquir y, which addresses the The upstream consultation program creates an awareness by all
development of the areas affected in a regional context. the stakeholders of the range of issues to be addressed. It also

highlights the problems involved in reducing conflict between deadlock and conflict. This is particularly the case when the
scope of local negotiations and the rationale of comprehensive public feels that the lines of reasoning it considers legitimate are
issues, which shape the territory for the project. excluded. Consensus building through collective learning then
may be an unrealistic expectation.
A procedure which defines possible arguments
The issues involved in expert opinions
A frequent criticism of public inquiries and environmental impact
statements is that they occur very late in the decision process Although the public debate in France is institutionalised and there
and place environmental defence associations in a ‘NIMBY’ is openness of information, there is no real capacity to seek a
position. The project sponsors constantly refer to the existence of second expert opinion or a guarantee of the impartiality of expert
a Strategic Plan as a normative statement, which justifies action appraisal with respect to the project sponsor. Project sponsors
and prevents the debate from bringing the project into question. are most unwilling to accept that, once the details of the project
Connections between the aims of a project as a link in a broader start to be defined, the public has the right to question studies
context are not accepted by those who object to the proposal. which have been carried out with indubitable competence some
The par ticipants see the debate as an abstract for m of time previously.
consultation, where there is no place for the emotional
attachment they feel towards the place where they live. Many elected representatives see requests for additional expert
appraisals as a tactical means of delaying a project. For
A procedure which assigns precise roles to players community associations the formulation of such demands is a
strategic decision, which gets them involved in the project, but at
Public authorities (in France) hope that the first stage will lead to the same time prevents them from returning to an attitude of
a broad public consensus concerning the functions of the project protest. Fourniau believes that this transition from opposition to
and its contributions to public interest, and to a specification for challenge is generally costly to them in terms of their ability to
the project. The specification is seen as a type of contract mobilise support. It requires them to become more ‘professional’
between the public authorities and the members of society, which (e.g. learn techniques), a process which is so far reserved to the
cannot be brought into question during the later stages. They more educated sections of the population.
expect that time spent during the debate will ultimately improve
control of the total duration of the process and make the Legislation to clear the air
completion of projects more certain.
In order to overcome these constraints, the French passed
Participants often display a wide range of positions in the debate legislation in 1995 ,which
and diversity in their aims. They may act competently, but, in
pursuance of their own goals, contribute to the creation of a (i) allows for a second expert opinion;
conflict. When a procedure assigns excessively rigid roles to
players, it may, without any intention on their par t, lead to (ii) reaffirms the prerogatives of the project sponsor in the

management of projects and the responsibility of the State The consultation process requires professional skills
in achieving a compromise, when conflicts arise, and in
decision making; It is desirable to clearly separate the role of facilitation of
community consultation from the planning and design role, yet
(iii) establishes a national public consultation committee, there must be interaction. Professional expertise is required in
whose members will preside over and participate in the consultation. This expertise may not be part of the experience
committees, which are set up in order to organise and and training of those involved in planning, design and
conduct consultation regarding each major infrastructure construction. Consultation processes and conflict resolution
project; and should be considered in professional education.
(iv) defines the relationship between the ‘territoriality’ of a 13.5 INTEGRATED MANAGEMENT
project and the broader strategic planning context.
A critical issue
A possible way forward
The approach towards integrated planning of transport corridors
The French experience exemplifies the finely tuned balance in which the transport and corridor environment are considered
between public authorities, community participation, professional together requires a level of integrated management which is not
activity, and political decision-making in projects which are in common use at present. As explained in Chapter 12,
controversial. A procedure which enables strategic contexts to be responsibilities are divided, especially in respect of Type I
reviewed, confirmed or modified can define fundamental issues corridors. There is no single agency with a management role in
of need and function of the route. A political decision may need to leading, organising, planning and control of transport routes as
be made so that the ‘territory’ of the proposal is clearly defined. corridors.
Once such a commitment is made, a procedure follows which In the case of Type II corridors, local authorities potentially have
focuses on location and detailed planning. A different set of an integrating management role. The traditional division of
arguments will then need to be discussed. There will be trade- responsibilities between planners and engineers can be
offs which recognise the strategic significance of the route and overcome by a focus on corporate outcomes.
the need for mitigation of local impact. An integrated corridor
approach offers considerable scope for negotiation during this Clarify responsibilities
process.
Existing management arrangements need review if integrated
Finally, an operational procedure with an EIS concludes the corridor planning is to succeed. The review should deal with
process. There is merit in establishing mechanisms for mediation leadership, roles, resources, and implementation of actions. It is
when there are unresolved issues, so that the cost and delay of essential for these issues to be addressed, as the lack of a single
appeals to the Courts can be avoided. and primary point of reference is one of the greatest obstacles in

integrated planning. Better information
Who provides the leadership? Transport routes are major public assets with considerable
pressure on them. Yet, there is little comprehensive information
Leadership for Type I corridors should come from State and on road environments, except when a special study of a
regional authorities. particular road has been undertaken (for example as part of an
EIS). Environmental management information systems are being
Leadership for Type II road environments can vary. Some roads developed, but they cover only a few of the many interactions
in this category perform important regional traffic functions at identified in Chapters 11-13. Information on land use and the
peak periods and may be controlled by State or regional physical and traffic characteristics of roads generally exists, but
authorities. In most cases, local government has the primary not in a form to be readily used for integrated policy development
responsibility. Par tnership in planning, co-ordination and and management.
controlling will be important in all cases. State authorities have a
significant role in the development of guidelines on objectives,
performance criteria and arriving at acceptable solutions, while
local authorities will be responsible for land use and traffic
management. Demonstration grants, performance monitoring
and disseminating findings could be useful here.
Professional leadership
Irrespective of institutional leadership, there is also a need for

professional leadership. It requires individuals with: a proactive
approach; an ability to involve people so that they understand the
issues, present options objectively, encourage informed debate,
elicit the criteria which are important to the stakeholders; oversee
the assessment; negotiate with different agencies; and present
the results in a form, which the community and decision-makers
can understand.
In this way, the integrity and credibility of the professional role are
maintained, the community feels that it can contr ibute
constructively, and decision-makers play the role, which they
have been elected for. It is a transparent process of learning Figure 13-7 Better information management is needed
about change and accepting its implications.

The development of prediction models environments, including adjoining land use, road
characteristics and conditions, access and traffic
There are models to predict the impact of traffic noise, using management, and aspects related to the environment.
geographic information systems (see for example, Black et al.,
1995, Brown and Patterson, 1990), and the impact of site 13.6.2 DEVELOPING AND APPLYING
development on traffic generation. Models for other important INTEGRATED PROCESSES
associations, such as pedestrian generation and
pedestrian/vehicle conflict prediction do not exist. C6 Develop guidelines for stakeholder participation in route
function and location, corridor development planning and
13.6 AN AGENDA FOR project planning;
INTEGRATED CORRIDOR PLANNING
C7 Develop guidelines for strategic corridor location and
13.6.1 DEVELOPING AND APPLYING CORRIDOR POLICIES assessment;
C1 Determine the primary functions of proposed transport C8 Develop guidelines for integrated corridor route planning
routes, or review them in the case of existing major in urban areas and non-urban regions; and
transport routes, together with adjoining land uses (both
existing and planned or proposed); C9 Review current processes for project planning and
upgrading of existing arterial roads to ensure that
C2 Increase knowledge about the relationship between roads adjoining land-use and environmental considerations are
and their adjacent environment: the impact of traffic and fully incorporated into the project.
traffic management on adjoining land use and friction to
traffic associated with adjoining land-use activities; 13.6.3 DEVELOPING AND APPLYING
FORMS OF INTEGRATED MANAGEMENT
C3 Develop a framework for identifying different road
environments and establishing land-use, environmental C10 Identify who has the primary responsibility, and which
and transport policies and guidelines for each (NOTE: internal and external stakeholders should be involved in
Sharing the Main Street provides such polices and the process;
guidelines for some aspects of Type II road environments);
C11 Establish mechanisms for the involvement of stakeholders
C4 Establish guidelines on objectives and desirable in defining objectives and desired outcomes, the
outcomes, performance criteria and acceptable solutions development of options and measures to mitigate impacts,
for different situations; and and evaluate options and proposed measures for
implementation;
C5 Establish integrated databases for Type I and Type II road

C12 Institute formal arrangements for implementing and
monitoring an integrated corridor development plans; and
C13 Explore the scope and application for integrated joint

ventures and other mechanisms relating to corridor
redevelopment in established urban areas.
13.6.4 TOOLS WHICH MAY BE RELEVANT
Table 13-1 indicates the kind of tools which may be relevant for
integrated approaches in corridors.

TOPIC INTENT BPG
Corridor categorisation To identify road/environment corridors and categorise them for the purpose of integrated planning, design and C-1
management.
Planning new Type I To encourage the planning of major transport routes as corridors in which transport, land use and the environment C-2
corridors are integrated at all stages.
Planning new Type II To ensure that the transport function and performance are planned together with adjoining land use and to create an C-3
corridors effective secondary route with a safe and attractive environment.
Adapting Type I corridors To encourage the adaptation and enhancement of major transport routes as corridors in which transport, land use C-4
and the environment are integrated at all stages.
Adapting Type II corridors To ensure that the transport function, traffic performance and adjoining land uses are adapted together to create a C-5
safe and attractive secondary transport route.
Access to roads To ensure that access to sites and local streets along major traffic routes does not impede the function of such routes C-6
and the safety of road users.
The right transport task on To ensure that transport reservations are planned and managed for a range of compatible transport modes. C-7
the right mode
Congestion management To reduce the cause and incidence of congestion without recourse to major additions to the existing road network. C-8
Transport pricing and tolls To reduce the amount of vehicle travel in congested areas and explore the impact of tolls on the management of C-9
accessibility, land use and the environment.
Intelligent Transport To make better use of existing infrastructure and reduce the environmental impact of traffic. C-10
Systems
Reducing noise exposure To ensure that land-use planning, building siting and design, road design and traffic management reduce noise C-11
through design exposure.
Maintaining community To ensure that roads and traffic do not become barriers in the functioning of a community. C-12
cohesion
Visual enhancement To promote the development and application of guidelines for design elements along roads and streets. C-13
Urban corridor management To ensure that the management of traffic and land use is integrated. C-14
Rural corridor management To ensure that transport corridors in rural regions are managed as environmental assets. C-15
Roadside services To ensure that provision is made for roadside services along limited access roads. C-16
Table 13-1 Corridor tools and their intent

Chapter 14 Conclusion understanding of the processes and management systems and
how to apply them are equally important. This led to a further set
of questions:
• what constraints are there in applying policies to achieve

greater integration, and how can they be overcome;
• what processes are necessary;

14.1 THE CONTEXT
• what institutional arrangements are needed; and
The initial purpose of the project was to explore the relationship
between transport, land use and the environment, with the aim of • how to reconcile long-term interests with market
achieving greater integration. Integration today is evoked as the preferences, community values and behaviour.
magic wand which is going to solve our urban problems.
The initial overview led to a first draft of a Better Practice Guide
The first overview, produced in 1996, lifted the lid on many in 1997. The draft identified some 47 tools or strategies, and
aspects and attempted to bring them together in a provisional sketched out the processes which could be used to determine
framework. It became clear that we needed to address: desired outcomes and the tools required to achieve them.
• how the urban system functions and changes; The final stage in the project was to reinforce the nexus between
the Resource Document and the Guide. The former was intended
• what issues and interactions were important in the context to provide the rationale and argument for the latter. This chapter
of achieving integration; summarises the findings of this overview.
• whether there were generally accepted goals and desired 14.2 WHAT ARE THE ISSUES?
outcomes;
Urban system changes
• what planning principles could be used to achieve such
outcomes; and Major forces are continually shaping and reshaping urban areas
in response to economic, technological and social changes, and
• how the system responds to planning policies and controls changes in values and market preferences. The issues centre
based on such principles. around urbanisation, suburbanisition, reurbanisation, densities,
centralisation and dispersal. Disregarding local contexts of land
However, it also became clear that achieving greater integration forms and the important issue of water supply and sewerage in
was not only a matter of discovering high-sounding principles. An shaping urban structures, the key to the development of urban

regions in Australia and New Zealand is the ever-changing Sustainable development
relationship between accessibility and mobility. The accessibility
has until recently been provided by the public sector on the basis A central place in the planning and management of urban areas
of meeting demand, with the demand largely governed by highly is the goal of sustainable development. It is generally defined,
valued private mobility, commercial transport needs and the following the Brundtland Repor t (World Commission on
operation of the property market. Environment and Development, 1987), as development, which
meets the needs of the present, without compromising the ability
Accessibility is strongly correlated with land-use activity, and of future generations to meet their own needs. There are many
activity is strongly correlated with accessibility. The needs for components to this notion (see, for example, Chapter 13).
mobility are strongly linked with the type of land use activity and ‘Sustainable mobility’, as used by the Commission of the
the socio-economic characteristics of the households and European Communities (1992), defines sustainable
businesses associated with it. transportation as satisfying current transport and mobility needs
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet
System failures these needs.
Feedback loops have started to operate in the form of urban In a review paper, Black (1996) concludes that current transport
sprawl, congestion, environmental degradation, and the social is not sustainable due to the finite nature of petroleum reserves,
problem of dependence on the car for adequate mobility. This air quality problems, global atmospheric problems, excessive
has led to a questioning of the desirability and ability of meeting fatalities, congestion and urban sprawl. The solutions to the
market demand. There are calls for intervention, ranging from sustainability problem, proposed in the literature (based on their
curbing the growth of cities and making cities more compact, application in the United States), are found to be ineffective. In
improving air quality, reducing dependence on the car, focusing the aftermath of the Rio Earth Summit, little is being done (in the
on people rather than cars (‘from automobility to people mobility’, US) to solve the overall sustainability problem.
Cervero, 1997), and encouraging transit communities or ‘urban
villages’. There are also demands for reducing the impact of Review of the literature for this Resource Document tends to
motor transport on the environment, converting centres into safe confirm that many of the actions proposed will have some, but
and more attractive people places, and improving the quality of generally marginal, effect on the basic problem of sustainable
life in living areas. transport. They are worth pursuing, but are not the magic wand.
Much more is required to address the issue of long-term
Some of these changes may occur without a heavy hand of adaptation for sustainable development. There is a need to
intervention. Increased consumer awareness may lead to market address the location of activities, accessibility, mobility, vehicle
changes anyway (such as selective re-urbanisation). However, and information technology, life style, value systems and many
there are many aspects where long-term public interest is not other factors (see, for example, Newman and Kenworthy, 1997).
ser ved by shor t-ter m market conditions. Some for ms of
intervention are necessary. In a recent study Br indle concludes that the greatest

contributions to integrated planning and application of the 14.3 THE ROLE OF INTEGRATED PLANNING
sustainable development planning techniques are found where
there is regional government or some other form of co-operative Integration is needed
government action (Austroads, 1997). However, it does not
appear to be possible to generalise a model from one place to The Resource Document shows that a holistic approach is
another. ‘While Australian physical and social urban required to address the issues mentioned above. Integration is
environments are perhaps closer to those in North America, the needed:
potential roles of government and the nature of planning are
arguably closer to those in Europe. We probably have to find our • between land use, transport and the environment;
own unique combination of the characteristics that seem to have
played a role . . . [elsewhere]’. • in the use of physical, human, economic and financial
resources;
Brindle then provides a long list of these characteristics. It is of
interest that almost all of them had already been incorporated in • between the public and private sector;
the Resource Document and Better Practice Guide. This degree
of convergence, arrived at independently, may be more than • between different levels of government;
fortuitous and offer some reassurance about the conclusions.
• between institutions and agencies;
The future of private mobility
• between government and the community; and
The individual mobility, flexibility and freedom, which the car
provides, are so entrenched that it will be difficult to change the • between different professional disciplines.
lifestyle and value systems which have grown up around it. Even
in countries where there have been deliberate policies to develop Issues arise at three levels
alternative transport modes and create urban development
patterns based on such modes (as in the Netherlands), car As there are many issues and a need to develop a framework for
ownership and use are not declining. integrated planning and management, issues were grouped into
three broad categories. This produced a list according to scale:
There seems little doubt that ‘green’ vehicles, eventually, will macro, meso and micro issues.
become widespread. There is the potential for creating a cleaner
and, perhaps, quieter urban environment in the longer term The issues were then related to the level or sphere of primary
Similarly, there are prospects that new technology will enable responsibility: regional and local. The distinction is of practical
more intensive use of the transpor t space. However, the value. At the regional level, there are major (macro) issues, which
problems of congestion, vehicle intrusion and lack of choice will cannot be addressed at the local level alone. At the local level,
not disappear. meso and micro issues prevail and can be addressed at that

level. Each of these planning interactions and process and
management interactions apply to different levels of planning, but
The two levels enable a hierarchical management structure to be with a different emphasis. The chapters were structured to first
developed. This is important, because integrated management explore the planning issues, then identify relevant planning
involves more than the sum of the parts. Local management principles, and finally provide an overview of matter related to
cannot address regional issues effectively because it lacks the policy, process and management.
powers and resources for determining and allocating priorities. A
corporate approach is needed, which may involve trade-offs Generally accepted goals
between regional and local interests. And yet, regional
management should not intrude into local management, unless There is a high degree of consensus on the goals: efficiency,
there are overriding regional concerns. The two management equity, environmental quality and livability (Chapter 6). As could
systems must be integrated to work together towards the be expected, the balance between them and how they are
outcomes benefitting the whole region. interpreted vary with regional and local needs and perceptions.
Integration is necessary to achieve a common interpretation, and
A division of issues on such an area basis is commonly used, this is necessary in all situations.
although there are significant aspects which are not adequately
covered on an area basis. This is the case with transport Objective and desired outcomes must be home-grown
corridors which have linear characteristics and raise regional
and local issues with divided responsibilities. Therefore, the The objectives and desired outcomes depend on the specific
issues were examined under three main headings: Regional, context. The Guide can do no more than present ideas and
Local and Corridors. options. They will require interpretation in each situation.
The Resource Document identifies many principles which can be
Interactions developed as strategies or policies and incorporated in planning
practice. A summary of them is given in the sections that follow.
With this context, what are the critical interactions which
integrated planning should address? There are planning
interactions, process and management interactions. The three
significant planning interactions identified in this document are:
• the relationship between activity and accessibility;
• the relationship between transport modes and the use of

the transport space; and
• the relationship between transport and the environment.

LEVELS ISSUES
MACRO MESO MICRO
Urban form and structure, Transport mode and route Traffic noise, air quality, road
densities, activity and choice, land use location and safety, environmental capacity,
accessibility, multi-use centres, accessibility to public transport, vehicle speed, severance, site
transport mode, regional urban villages, precincts and access, property values,
parking, freight transport, environmental protection, local streetscape, building siting
network development, networks (including bus routes and design
transport corridors, demand and cycleways), interchanges,
management, resource pricing, commuter parking, road safety,
air quality, fuel and energy pedestrian-friendly centres,
consumption traffic noise, mixed use zoning,
urban design and character
REGIONAL
LOCAL
CORRIDOR
Table 14-1 Issues and levels

14.4 TOWARDS GREATER a high degree of accessibility, most roads are free and the cost of
REGIONAL INTEGRATION fuel is relatively low.
The first step is to understand the interactions. The analysis It is not sur prising that, under conditions of ubiquitous
indicates that there are aspects we do understand, aspects taken accessibility, incremental transport improvements have little
as truths - and myths as well - but by no means clear cut, and effect on location. ‘The land-use transport feedback cycle
aspects which are not well understood. remains in effect only where accessibility is a scarce resource . . .
This implies that in metropolitan areas with inexpensive
The land-use transport system has been described as a series of transport, little planning control and a deregulated land market,
actions which are cyclical in nature. The first figure (figure 14-1) policies to influence location or travel behaviour must fail. This
shows these actions in relation to each other. Like any diagram, explains why public transport investment alone does not lead to
there is risk of oversimplification. For example, the diagram does significant reductions of car use. The consequence is that a
not explain the time frame involved. The top half, which illustrates synergistic mix of incentives and restrictive measures seems
the trip production, distribution, mode and route selection part of necessary: incentives to promote higher density mixed-use
the cycle is direct and immediate, but the bottom half, which development and environment-friendly modes such as public
illustrates the investment and location decisions based on transport, cycling and walking, and constraints on urban sprawl
accessibility, has a much longer time frame. through stricter land-use controls and on car driving through
speed limits, parking restraints and higher fuel taxes.’ (Wegener,
Another shortcoming is that it is essentially a demand-driven 1995).
model (and even incomplete as economic conditions are not
included). It does not show the externalities nor the public sector This kind of policy mix is in use in many European countries, but
supply and control influences on it. For example, the urban densities are at least twice as high as they are in Australia,
environmental impacts of the operation of the system are not and there is greater provision and use of public transport. A
shown, nor is there any feedback arising from government significant factor seems to be the relationship between cost of
decisions on public infrastructure investment, traffic travel, energy use (which - with present technology - is linked to
management, parking provision and pricing, fuel and registration air pollution), densities and public transport use . In European
costs, fares, and development regulations (see figure 14-2). As cities, fuel prices are 2–4 times those in Australia. Wegener’s
the Resource Document shows, all these factors are relevant and comparison with Nor th American cities may be valid for
important. Australian cities too: ‘both high transport energy consumption
and low urban densities in Nor th American cities are a
More significantly, the links between the elements in the cycle consequence of inexpensive transport - people drive more
are not as strong as was originally thought (Wegener in Banister, because travel is cheap, which is in line with economic theory,
1995). Wegener comments that the feedback model was first and so can afford to live in low-density suburbs.’
proposed when accessibility was still a scarce resource, and that
today most urban areas have What is the answer? Wegener suggests increased fuel pricing:

the acceptability of such a strategy for Australian cities at this
point in time is open to question. Fuel pricing is controversial and
favours cities (Cox, 1997). Selective road and parking pricing is
not palatable either, but may become unavoidable in areas of
congestion and limited accessibility.
Figure 14-1 The land-use transport feedback cycle Figure 14-2 Factors influencing the cycle
(adapted from Wegener in Banister, 1995)

The preferred strategy at present is to selectively increase cycling) and goods, and take full account of the need for
densities and encourage the location of housing and environmental protection;
employment, with the aim of improving opportunities for better
public transport and other transport modes. As noted before, the • accessibility and activity planning: land uses, which are
individual effects of these measures is likely to be small. It is located having regard to their mobility characteristics and
wor th noting that the impact of UK Planning Policy 13 is the type and level of accessibility provided by the
estimated to achieve no more than a change in travel demand of infrastructure;
10–15 percent over a 20 year period under the most favourable
conditions. • road space, public transport and parking policies
(including pricing), which are designed to reduce the
There are obviously no miracles to be expected with the dependence on private transport and maximise the
measures to be taken. Other measures may be needed, such as effective use of existing infrastructure; and
travel demand management. This should not be confined to
transport management, but include land-use management. The • regional centres, where the type and amount of activity is
latter will have a longer gestation period, but cannot be ignored. closely linked to the level and kind of accessibility (e.g.
public transport, private transport, parking) available and
There are prospects of changing travel behaviour through committed to be provided, and where there is a mix of
techniques such as ‘travel blending’ (see the Guide Part C, R-15), land-use activity.
which depends on increasing awareness of choices available.
The bottom line is that much depends on the values and Intervention can be a combination of infrastructure investment,
perceptions of the community. If there is a widespread offering sites for development or other inducements (a ‘pull’ or
perception, that the major cities are in crisis (and some people ‘carrot’ strategy) and regulation and control (a ‘push’ or ‘stick’
think they are now), a higher level of intervention may be more strategy). What is an acceptable balance will depend on each
acceptable than where there is no perceived sense of urgency. situation and will change over time. Stakeholder participation is
an essential prerequisite in developing such a balance, as there
Clearly, there are gaps in our understanding of the complex are inevitable (and often difficult) trade-offs. In all cases, there
relationships, but there are principles which could be applied at will be a need for outcomes-based management so that the
the regional level, because they appear to be robust. They are: desired outcomes are funded and managed on a co-ordinated
basis.
• regional and urban structures, which are less dependent
on the motor car than they are at present;
• networks, which promote accessibility to economic and

social activities, provide for the movement of people
(including road-based public transport, walking and

An important strategy is to establish a closer fit between land-use
activities and the accessibility provided by different transport
modes. To counter the dominance of the motor car, there is
a need to create options and, in order to achieve this, more is
required than providing convenient bus, pedestrian and cycle
routes. The location and mix of activities, and densities should be
related to them. Hence, the principle of accessibility zoning has
potential for application in practice.
More attention should be given to land use and accessibility at

different times of the day (e.g. peak and off-peak). Off-peak
access to public transport (with different routes and longer
walking distances) and the integration of different transport
modes should be on the agenda.
Figure 14-3 Examples of push and pull strategies
14.5 TOWARDS GREATER LOCAL INTEGRATION
Similar issues arise at the local level, but there is a sharper

cutting edge. Land-use control is normally exercised and traffic
management has its greatest impact at this level.
There is also more emphasis on environmental protection, safety, Figure 14-4 Accessibility and land-use activities
convenience and amenity.

Another important strategy is the creation of pedestrian-friendly 14.6 TOWARDS GREATER INTEGRATION
precincts with a high level of environmental protection and IN TRANSPORT CORRIDORS
amenity, a mix of local land uses and good pedestrian/cyclist and
public transport links between them. The term ‘corridors’ is used to describe roads and nearby land
uses where there is a direct functional or environmental
There are considerable differences in the type of local area: e.g. relationship between them. Hence the boundaries of a corridor
fringe areas, infill areas and inner suburbs. However, there are are not confined by the road reservation, but extend over the
principles which could be applied generally: distance where there is a functional relationship or an impact.
There are major corridors (Type I), normally associated with
• a closer fit between local land use and accessibility with a regional transport routes, and corridors related to secondary, and
built-in choice in transport mode and priority measures for generally more local, networks (Type II).
the operation of local and express bus routes;
The planning of corridors can have both regional and local
• accessibility zoning; dimensions, and there also are interactions with adjoining land
and property. The planning, development and management of
• precincts for environmental protection and corridors for corridors are often controversial because of conflicting interests
movement; between regional, local and adjacent objectives.
• more pedestrian-friendly living environments with a variety Because transport space is limited, its use for different transport
of local land uses and safe and convenient pedestrian and modes is also coming in the spotlight. There is often a conflict
cycle routes; between vehicle- and people-intensive transpor t modes.
Priorities have to be determined and this has land-use and
• development and management of centres as precincts environmental consequences.
with provision for vehicle restraint in the core and a
mixture of land-use activities; and Integrated corridor approaches are not well developed. Again,
there are gaps in knowledge, but a growing body of relevant
• centres as people places with a high level of safety and information. Principles which could be applied are:
amenity.
• Roads and their environments should be planned,
Here, too, the kind and level of intervention will vary depending designed, developed and managed as integrated, multi-
on local needs and values. It is important to consider a range of modal corridors;
push and pull strategies as a package. For example, traffic
calming should not be considered without addressing the • The different types and functions of corridors and their
management of traffic diverted to other routes. relationship with adjoining communities, land uses and
built form should be recognised in the processes used;

• Strategic planning should be used to determine the need (ILAP). The now defunct Better Cities Program has demonstrated
for a corridor, its functions and performance and its broad the importance and benefits of integrated planning.
location; development planning for investigating route
options and constraints and opportunities, development New issues and priorities
concepts and policies for corridor environments;
operational planning for design, traffic management and The Resource Document shows that there is a need to revisit
the land use and development controls necessary to existing strategies and develop new ones for aspects where
achieve the desired outcome; there are no integrated strategies (for example, in corridor
planning).
• Corridor route development and management plans
should be the basis for integrated planning and As sustainability is such a key issue, the development and
management; implementation of Sustainability Plans or Local Agenda 21 Plans
are of considerable importance. Although most nations have
• Such plans should be based on friction and impact signed Agenda 21, the process of preparing Sustainability Plans
management, including site access, the location of has been slow to develop.
pedestrian-generating activities, the safety of pedestrians
and cyclists, on-street parking, the impact on business A critical matter is what communities want to achieve. The
activity, building siting and design; matters raised in the Resource Document show that integrated
planning involves making difficult trade-off decisions in relation to
• For ‘Type II’ corridors, speed and activity profiles should be accessibility and activity, transport and the environment, and
developed and used as the basis for development control priorities for the use of limited transport space. Cities and local
and traffic management; and communities do not exist in isolation. As the 1997 international
greenhouse convention in Kyoto showed, the global sustainability
• Urban design should reflect the nature and scale of the agenda cannot be ignored. Targets will need to be set and
corridor, recognise the environmental impact of traffic on actions taken to reduce emissions. This has consequences for
adjoining development and the need to add legibility of the the way cities are developed and used.
corridor to drivers and passengers in motion.
However, cities also compete with others for employment and
14.7 INTEGRATED PROCESSES business activity. ‘A sustainable city must constantly learn how to
AND MANAGEMENT merge physical/environmental planning with its economic
planning’ (Newman, 1996).
Integration is not a new idea All major cities in Australia and New
Zealand have developed and implemented plans, which involve a The British Transport Secretary, when announcing a reduction in
considerable degree of integration. Many local governments have the UK road budget by one third in 1995: ‘costs to the environment
embraced the principles of Integrated Local Area Planning are real costs. There is no simple choice between an "expensive"

environmental protection option and a "cheap" option of trying to • measuring actual outcomes and comparing them with
ignore environmental impacts. A deteriorating environment, in the desired outcomes.
form of worsening air quality, degraded towns and cities and
damaged landscapes would make the United Kingdom an Integrated management approaches are needed to overcome the
unattractive location for investors and would cost us a great deal current fragmentation of responsibilities in transport, land-use
in economic terms as well as in our physical health and the and environmental planning and achieve desired outcomes and
quality of our lives.’ targets.
A systems view of management Processes are of critical importance
Effective integration of land use, transport and environmental The concept of involving stakeholders is well accepted and the
planning depends on the ability to manage all these relationships techniques are widely used.
within regions, cities and towns as single systems.
The processes used for integrated planning should involve all
In order to manage such systems, there is a need to understand stakeholders: internal - government organisations and agencies
how they operate, what problems exist or may arise without at different levels, as well as external - people and businesses
intervention. A systems view requires: affected by planning strategies, policies and projects. There are
difficult choices and trade-offs which cannot be addressed
• clarity about goals and desired outcomes; without involving them in a collective learning situation.
• knowledge about strategies and policies to achieve them; Processes to resolve conflicts between regional and local
interests are of crucial importance in corridor planning and there
• understanding of constraints and opportunities for is considerable room for improvement. It is a worldwide problem
intervention (including community values and availability and the French approach (Chapter 13) is of interest here.
of resources);
But processes require motivation. As Brindle points out: ‘the keys
• setting priorities for action; to implementation of planning programs for sustainability seem to
lie in achieving appropriate levels of perception and motivation by
• setting achievable targets; government and the community (both individuals - as makers of
choices and as voters - and groups). This may be as a result of
• agreement on responsibilities for action and applying the long-standing cultural attributes or attitudes, or it may be
legal, financial and technical resources for encouraged through information programs and the media.
implementation; Durable commitment to programs for sustainability depends on
continued government leadership, and that in turn requires at
• establishing performance indicators; and least tolerant if not supportive community perceptions.’

(Austroads, 1997).
Implementation requires new skills
Implementation of the more demanding principles suggested in

the Better Practice Guide will be slow as cities and regions
require long lead times to adapt, but it is necessary if the goals of
sustainable development are to be achieved. It also requires
special skills.
Parkin, in a forthcoming book on Infrastructure Planning for

Engineers (to be published by Telford, London), makes a
distinction between the technical and political perspective of
planning. The first is the conventional technocratic view, that
[infrastructure] systems are the result of planning based on
rational analysis of socio-technical problems. The second,
political perspective is as important to the planning process and,
in many cases, more important than the technical perspective.
The political perspective takes account of the many conflicting
interests involved in the conception, planning, management and
use [of the infrastructure], and requires a grasp of human nature,
an ability to manoeuvre, negotiate and persuade and, especially, Figure 14- 5 Invented and drawn by Michael Scott
the gift of leadership (see also Parkin, 1996). (during an Austroads workshop)
No miracles, but many good deeds
There are no miracles in planning Cities for Tomorrow. However,

there are numerous oppor tunities for good deeds, which,
collectively and progressively, contribute to civilised living,
diversity and choice, and less congestion and pollution. The
Better Practice Guide shows how this can be done.

Index
AZ
page numbering applicable to print version only
Cities for Tomorrow Index

INDEX Accessibility profiles BPG - 99
Accessibility, activity and urban structure RD - 52
At different times of the day RD - 163
page numbering applicable to print version only Activity/accessibility zoning BPG - 173
Car dependence BPG - 176
Categorisation of land use according to freight generating
BPG - Better Practice Guide characteristics BPG - 127
RG - Resource Document Classification of locations BPG - 174
Defining accessibility and mobility RD - 51
Four implementation actions BPG - 102
Households, land-use activities and accessibility RD - 89
Improve public transport serving preferred locations RD -
A 71
Access management BPG - 283 Incremental transport improvements little effect on location
Access categories BPG - 286 RD - 162
Access categories as a basis for planning policy BPG - Integrated forms of activity and accessibility perform best
287 RD - 55, 71
Access category and functional classification. BPG - 286 Linked investment decisions RD - 56
Effects of access management techniques BPG - 284 Locations
Measures to control conflicts BPG - 286 A-locations BPG - 100
Safety BPG - 284 B-locations BPG - 101
Site access and land use RD - 132 C-locations BPG - 101
Techniques BPG - 284 Regional centres BPG - 112
Why access management is important BPG - 284 Outlying employment sites BPG - 107
Typology of activity location by
Accessibility BPG - 99,218; RD - 21,40 accessibility RD - 56
Accessibility and costs RD - 52 Road haulage BPG - 176
Accessibility as a policy tool RD - 51 Locate employment generating development
ABC policy in the Netherlands RD - 55; BPG - 100 according to accessibility criteria RD - 71
Accessibility policy on public transport RD - 105 Matching accessibility and activity RD - 94
Pricing could be an element of an accessibility Matching accessibility with mobility BPG - 101; RD - 56
policy RD - 72 Mobility profile definition BPG - 101
Regional parking policy BPG - 102 Priorities for transport modes in different parts of a centre
Accessibility indicators RD - 52, 126 BPG - 218
Accessibility profile definition BPG - 100 Public transport accessibility of centres

BPG - 218 according to accessibility RD - 71
Setting accessibility priorities RD - 107 Matching accessibility with mobility RD - 56
Setting targets for land-use activity in centres BPG - 113 Mixed locations RD - 105
The integration of land-use developments and Mobility profile of land use activities BPG - 101
infrastructure BPG - 113 Out-of-centre shopping RD - 57
The relationship between activity and accessibility RD - Parking standards BPG - 174
21, 40 People-oriented activity locations RD - 104
Urban regional centres RD - 95 Self-containment RD - 53
What accessibility for what size of centre? RD - 73 Setting targets RD - 57
Women’s travel needs RD - 89 The relationship between activity and
accessibility RD - 21, 40
Activity RD - 21, 40 Typology of activity location by accessibility RD - 55
See Also Land use Vehicle-oriented locations RD - 105
ABC policy in the Netherlands RD - 55 Visitor intensity BPG - 176
Accessibility activity zoning - what is it? BPG - 174
Accessibility, activity and urban structure RD - 52 Air quality BPG - 145; RD - 58
Activity and travel demand in country town centres RD - Acceptable levels of exposure BPG - 147
95 Air pollution and health BPG - 145; RD - 58
Activity and travel demand in urban centres RD - 94 Air pollution in precincts BPG - 233
Activities with a low labour and/or visitor intensity BPG - Air quality issues BPG - 146
176 Community perception BPG - 147
Activities with a potential for cycle trips BPG - 196 Greenhouse gases RD - 58
Car dependence BPG - 176 Impact of air pollution RD - 132
Changes in employment and housing location RD - 44 Models - prediction BPG - 147
Classification of locations BPG - 174 Reducing the incidence and impact BPG - 148
Kind and level of development contributions BPG - 174 Regional level BPG - 146
Integrate activity and accessibility RD - 71 Setting targets BPG - 147
Integrated forms of activity and accessibility perform best Vehicle technological improvements RD - 59
RD - 55
Integrated transit-oriented development RD - 71 Assessment
Labour intensity BPG - 176 Assessment criteria should be developed with the
Labour intensive and/or visitor intensive stakeholders RD - 155
business and services BPG - 176 Difference between assessing and evaluation RD - 153
Linked investment decisions RD - 56 Evaluation with and by the stakeholders
Locate employment generating development RD - 153

Process BPG - 351 Land-use plan to reflect pedestrian or vehicle orientation
Strategic assessment RD - 151 RD - 107
Techniques BPG - 352 Linking centres of activity BPG - 106
Major activity centres as crunch points RD - 53
Audits BPG - 363 Market changes BPG - 106
Matching accessibility and activity RD - 93
Mobility represents the demand for travel RD - 93
C Multi-function centres BPG - 105; RD - 94
Centres BPG - 105,111, 196, 217, 218 Multi-purpose centres as key centres of activity RD - 70
Access routes and circulation RD - 107 No through traffic RD - 106
Accessibility nodes BPG - 105 Parking BPG - 219
Accessibility represents the transport supply RD - 93 Partnership between the public and private sectors BPG -
Activities, collectively, represent the transport demand RD 107
- 93 Pedestrian malls BPG - 220; RD - 109
Activity and travel demand in country town centres RD - Pedestrian routes BPG - 219
95 Pedestrian-friendly environment BPG - 218; RD - 106
Activity and travel demand in urban centres RD - 94 Proposals for outlying centres BPG - 106
Amenity and convenience BPG - 218; RD - 108 Public transport accessibility BPG - 218
Area licensing schemes RD - 99 Public transport access to the core RD - 106
Arrangement of functions BPG - 219 Regional centres
Bicycle access to centres BPG - 196; RD - 108 Adapting existing regional shopping centres BPG -
Bulky goods’ developments BPG - 109 115
Business and technology parks BPG - 106 Attributes of regional centres RD - 95
Convenience BPG - 218 Free-standing regional shopping centres BPG - 115
Core/frame concept BPG - 218; RD - 99 Key regional centres BPG - 111
Development economics BPG - 112 Key regional centres - range of activities BPG - 112
Distribution of employment and centres RD - 54 Location of key regional centres BPG - 114
Employment profile RD - 94 Policy issues for regional centres BPG - 113
Environmental protection of adjoining areas RD - 108 Relationships at regional, local and adjoining area level
Establishing a pedestrian friendly environment RD - 99 RD - 96
Hierarchy of centres BPG - 106 Sequential approach BPG - 106
Impact on adjoining areas BPG - 113; RD - 70 Setting accessibility priorities RD - 107
Incentives and disincentives RD - 104 Sharing the road space RD - 109
Issues in the core RD - 96 Space or time-based exclusion of certain kinds of vehicles
Key factors BPG - 217 RD - 108

Strip shopping centres BPG - 107 Preparation of a participation plan BPG - 368
Sub-centralisation with a high degree Principles BPG - 365
of self-containment RD - 68 Problems BPG - 365
Suburban activity centres RD - 54 Process BPG - 365
Terminology BPG - 107 Seeking consensus RD - 82
Transit centres BPG - 111 Stakeholders and their roles: RD - 31
Transit malls RD - 109 Structuring the process RD - 31
Transport management BPG - 219 Techniques BPG - 370; RD - 28
Transport mode and mode split RD - 94 The French Model RD - 154
Urban design BPG - 221 The problem of uncertainty RD - 30
Vehicle restriction zone RD - 107 The problem of regional benefits and
Vehicle speeds BPG - 220 local costs RD - 153
Weather protection BPG - 219 The role of consultants RD - 32
What accessibility for what size of centre? RD - 73 Useful key principles BPG - 371
Community involvement Community values

A systems approach RD - 30 Collective learning and selective decision with the
Adding value RD - 30 community RD - 17
Application BPG - 365 Community acceptance of the policies RD - 17
At the regional level RD - 81 Community concerns RD - 13
Conflict between regional and local interests RD - 30 Community expectations RD - 13
Consultation programs have an expiry date RD - 36 Community perceptions RD - 16
Definition of consultation RD - 25 Integrated planning must be rooted in
Desired outcomes of the process should be defined RD - the values of the community RD - 17
29
Development of a framework BPG - 366 Commuter planning BPG - 159
Different levels of consultation RD - 29 See also Travel demand management
Dispute resolution techniques RD - 29 Commuting alternatives BPG - 161
Expert opinions RD-154 How can it be done? BPG - 160
Facilitation RD - 32 When is it appropriate? BPG - 159
Finely tuned balance RD -155
How much detail? RD - 35 Congestion management
Interactive workshops RD - 28 See Transport pricing
Key principles RD - 36 See Traffic management
Outcome of process RD - 36

Corridors BPG - 76,80,325,333,339 Impact and possible cause RD - 131
See also Rural corridor management Impact reducing policies BPG - 330
All corridors are potentially multi-functional RD - 140 Land-use performance and impact
An integrated framework for corridor management BPG - management BPG - 330
326 Initiatives towards greater integration RD - 138
Approaches to policy development RD-149 Integrated policy framework RD -149
Building siting and densities RD - 130 Interactions BPG - 254; RD - 123
Business and parking RD - 133 Interpretation BPG - 213
Busways RD - 69 Land uses along freight routes BPG - 126
Categorisation - 158 RD - 141,144 Land use sensitivity RD - 132
Commercial centres are a problem RD - 130 Location of roadside service centres BPG - 340
Corridor enhancement in rural areas BPG - 333 Medians RD - 129
Corridor Management Plan BPG - 76, 325 Movement, access or both? RD - 123
Corridor planning using the steps BPG - 77 Multi-modal orbital routes and land use
Description BPG - 253 RD - 69
Design for safety RD - 136 Network strategy as a corridor management tool BPG -
Desired outcomes RD -148 327
Development planning BPG - 86 Operational planning BPG - 86
Driver recognition of the type of road Parking
environment situation RD - 140 On-street parking RD - 130
Environmental Management System BPG - 361 Parking management on principal traffic routes
Examples of specific objectives BPG - 83 BPG - 332
Exposure to risk RD - 134 Pedestrians
Friction Crossing pedestrians RD - 128
Composite index of friction BPG - 328 Pedestrian activity and land use RD - 127
Friction: cause and possible effects RD - 127 Pedestrian behaviour and land use RD - 128
Friction, impact and associated land uses RD - 123 Pedestrian densities and vehicle flow RD - 129
Friction reducing policies BPG - 329 Planning for roadside services BPG - 339
Performance targets for friction BPG - 328 Reasons for creating and developing transport routes as
Transport performance and friction management corridors BPG - 214
BPG - 327 Relationship between corridors and precincts BPG - 214
Vehicle speed and frontage activity RD - 129 Road environment performance targets
Functional and environmental relationships RD - 122 BPG - 330
Impact Road/environment relationships BPG - 254
Composite index of impact BPG - 330 Roadside Environment Strategy in rural areas BPG - 333

Road environment types RD - 124 Corridors as seams or edges? RD - 141
Roads for freight and other movements RD - 70 Corridors through country towns RD - 142
Scale and design related to type of road environment RD - Corridor situations RD - 140,144
136 Competing interests and views BPG - 273
Site access and land use RD - 130 Development options RD - 142
Strategic planning processes BPG - 84 Different contexts BPG - 272
The relationships between land use, environment and Friction BPG - 260, 273; RD - 142
transport are dynamic BPG - 326 Impact BPG - 260, 273; RD - 142
The view from the road RD - 136 Interdependent associations BPG - 261, 273
Towards greater corridor integration - summary RD - 164 Land use should be related to corridor function RD - 144
Traffic noise RD - 131 Local considerations BPG - 272
Truck routes RD - 132 Objectives BPG - 262
Two types of corridors BPG - 254 Performance criteria (adjacent) BPG - 263
‘Type I’ corridors BPG - 214, 259, 271 Planning principles RD - 140,143
‘Type II’ corridors BPG - 214, 265, 277 Reasons for adaptation BPG - 272
Urban corridor management BPG - 325 Regional relationships BPG - 272; RD - 126
Use road-based infrastructure for public Strong local opposition RD - 122
transport RD - 69 Three levels of consideration BPG - 260, 272
Variable balance between friction and impact BPG - 254 Transport functions and levels of performance BPG - 272
Variable traffic and land-use function RD - 146 Urban design relationships RD - 142,145
Visual pollution RD - 9 Upgrading of a Type I corridor BPG - 274
When does a Type II become a Type I corridor? RD - 126
Which land uses can have access frontage access? RD - Corridors Type II BPG - 277
145 Adaptation and enhancement BPG - 277
Why categorisation of transport routes as corridors is Analysis BPG - 278
useful BPG - 253 Categorisation BPG - 278
Why there is a need for corridor management plans BPG - Categorisation a creative tool BPG - 266
326 Conflicts and trade-offs BPG - 278
Development Plans BPG - 280
Corridors Type I BPG - 259, 271 Difference between Type I and Type II
A corridor approach may lead to new solutions BPG - 262 corridors BPG - 266
Adaptation BPG - 271 Different kinds of Type II corridors BPG - 277
Adjacent relationships BPG - 273 Illustration of categorisation BPG - 267
An integrated, instead of a road-based, approach RD -142 Information needs BPG - 282
A wide diversity of interests RD - 122 Issues BPG - 266

Limitations of the road hierarchy BPG - 266 Integrated planning RD - 7
New Type II corridors BPG - 265 Land-use planning RD - 7
Performance indicators BPG - 267 Road planning RD - 7
Relationships BPG - 278 Transport planning RD - 6
Sharing the Main Street BPG - 279; RD - 137 Type I road environment RD - 125
Type II road environment RD - 125
Cycling
Bicycle route in centres RD - 108 Density BPG - 89, 93,121
Commuting to work BPG - 162 AMCORD BPG - 94
Cycle-friendly infrastructure BPG - 198 Are density and housing proxies for other
Cycle route planning RD - 106 variables? RD - 91
Goals and means of a regional cycleway system BPG - Based on accessibility to public transport line haul
197 systems BPG - 121
How cycle use can be increased BPG - 195 Changes in the market BPG - 95
In residential precincts BPG - 231 Intensity of use should be greatest close to the transit
Land use and accessibility for cycling BPG - 196 facility BPG - 181
Level of service BPG - 198 Land-use patterns, travel and densities RD - 88
On-site amenities BPG - 164 Lifestyle BPG - 95
Overcoming constraints BPG - 199 Low densities and car use are linked BPG - 93
Performance audit BPG - 363 Market demand BPG - 95
Range BPG - 196 Obstacles BPG - 95
Safety BPG - 196 Preference for low density suburbs BPG - 94
Targets BPG - 199 Selective concentration along transit routes RD - 48
Transport space allocation BPG - 292 Selective nodes of higher density BPG - 95
Types of network BPG - 196 Should densities be increased? RD - 47
Why cycling is important BPG - 195 Smaller lots BPG - 95
Urban and housing density raise different issues BPG - 94
D Urban consolidation RD - 48
Urban containment BPG - 94
Why density is important BPG - 94
Definitions
Accessibility RD - 51 Development contributions
Consultation RD - 25 Accessibility BPG - 174
Environmental planning RD - 7 Development contributions BPG - 245
Environmental traffic capacity RD - 97 Development incentives BPG - 245

Examples BPG - 246 Corridor enhancement in rural corridors BPG - 333
Methods of implementation BPG - 247 Environmental traffic capacity - what is it? RD - 97
Planning bonuses BPG - 246 Environmental capacity as a tool in established suburbs
RD - 98
Development of cities BPG - 135,290 Environmental Management System BPG - 361
A national agenda RD - 10 Exposure to risk RD - 134
Historical context RD - 9 Greenhouse gases RD - 58
Integrated urban management BPG - 135 Housing along traffic routes RD - 111
Problems RD - 10 Impact of traffic on local environment RD - 96
Transport plans directly related to the Minimise freight transport intrusion RD - 73
achievement of desired urban structure and form BPG - New developments in automotive engineering RD - 59
138 Pedestrian safety and noise protection RD - 111
Transport space BPG - 290 Protect local environments RD - 109
Protect regional environments RD - 72
Development planning Protection of areas adjoining centres RD - 108
See Processes Streets and roads not to exceed their
environmental capacity RD - 110
E The relationship between transport and the
environment RD - 22
Traffic noise BPG - 309; RD - 131
Employment Transport routes and the natural environment RD - 124
See Also Suburbs and Activity What are acceptable environmental impacts? RD - 97
A built-in car-dependency RD - 92 What is an ‘acceptable level of exposure? RD - 58
Employment decentralisation RD - 92
Employment profile of centres RD - 94 ESD BPG - 90
Key regional centres BPG - 112 See also Sustainable development
Out-of centre employment RD - 92 Air pollution RD - 58
Shifts in employment location BPG - 118 Energy and resources RD - 78
ESD and urban form and structure RD - 48
Environment Government intervention BPG - 90; RD - 65
See also Environmental traffic capacity Sustainable development - OECD BPG - 92
See also ESD Sustainable transport policy RD - 66
Air pollution RD - 58 Uncertainty RD - 75
Air pollution and health RD - 58 Urban structure, form and density BPG - 90
Community perceptions RD - 60

F G
Forecasting Goals
Alternative futures BPG - 170 A national agenda RD - 10
Cumulative approaches versus threshold Desired outcomes at the regional level RD - 77
approaches RD - 79 Efficiency RD - 65
Exploring boundaries BPG - 170 Environmental quality RD - 66
From goals to outcomes for corridors RD-148
Freight Livability RD - 66
Commodities carried BPG - 125 Objectives and desired outcome for corridors RD - 148
Economic activity zones BPG - 91 Regional planning RD - 65
Economic factors BPG - 126 Social justice RD - 66
Freight handling RD - 73 Vision statements RD - 77
Freight loading and parking strategies BPG - 127 Visions have expiry dates RD - 78
Freight traffic BPG - 125
Goods distribution BPG - 126; RD - 44
Hazardous goods movement BPG - 126 I
Increasing proportion of vehicle traffic is goods movement
RD - 47 Infrastructure BPG - 135
Intermodal facilities BPG - 126 Benefit-related assessments BPG - 246
Issues BPG - 125 Bonuses and incentives BPG - 142
Land uses along freight routes BPG - 126 Capital contributions BPG - 246
Minimise freight transport intrusion RD - 73 Decision rules for infrastructure BPG - 136
Patterns of origins and destinations BPG - 125 Development contributions BPG - 142
Potential role of other transport modes BPG - 127 Development corporations BPG - 142
Regional distribution centres BPG - 127 Discount rates BPG - 248
Roads for freight and other movements RD - 70 Examples of incentives BPG - 246
Safety in operation BPG - 126 Funding BPG - 141
Transport demand BPG - 127 Infrastructure development costing BPG - 140
Truck routes RD - 132 Funding regional centres BPG - 113
Implementation models BPG - 144
Infrastructure decisions are central issues RD - 61
Joint ventures BPG - 142
Negotiated contributions BPG - 246

Overspill costs and benefits BPG - 142 Traffic noise management BPG - 312
Planning bonuses BPG - 246
Public and private investment BPG - 141 Integrated development BPG - 136
Requirements for a successful program BPG - 136 See also Management
Special development areas BPG - 247 Transit-oriented development BPG - 116
Tax breaks BPG - 246 Coordination requirements BPG - 136
The principle of Present Value BPG - 247 How can it be achieved? BPG - 136
User charges BPG - 246 Sequence of development BPG - 140
Variations in charges BPG - 246 What are the benefits? BPG - 136
Where is it needed? BPG - 136
Institutional arrangements BPG - 107, 113, 138; RD - 36
See also Management Integrated planning BPG - 41, 125, 277
Area-based versus functional funding BPG - 138 See also Integrated processes
Changing relationships RD - 37 See also Processes
Effectiveness of different models RD - 38 See also Strategic planning
Forms of partnership BPG - 144 Access to sites and local streets along major traffic routes
Integrated budgeting BPG - 138 BPG - 283
Integrated management structures for regional centres Activity centres BPG - 105
BPG - 116 Adaptation of Type I corridors BPG - 271
Integration and organisational reform RD - 85 Adaptation of Type II corridors BPG - 277
Key centres BPG - 107 Air and noise standards and targets BPG - 145
Models for arranging planning, funding and AMCORD RD - 4
implementation RD - 84 Areas of application BPG - 88; RD - 26
Outcome-based funding RD - 83 Barriers RD - 15
Partnership between public and private sectors BPG - 142 Building Better Cities Program RD - 4
Priorities for parking provision BPG - 151 Centres BPG - 217
Relationship between public authorities RD - 83 Checklist for integrated planning: BPG - 35
Regional level RD - 82 Community views RD - 14
Roles for State Authorities RD - 37 Co-ordination is not the same as integration RD - 15
Role of government BPG - 96 Country regional centres BPG - 112
Role of the private sector in parking provision BPG - 151 Cycling - extending opportunities BPG - 195
Roles and responsibilities BPG - 39 Development areas BPG - 135
Special bodies RD - 38 Development incentives and contributions BPG - 245
State government agencies: RD - 83 Different professional approaches RD - 19
Stakeholders BPG - 97 Freight handling areas and truck movement BPG - 125

Increasing choice in transport BPG - 185 Transport pricing and charges BPG - 299
Initiatives towards greater integration RD - 138 Transport reservations BPG - 289
Interactions RD - 21 Transport routes and the built environment BPG - 319
Issues RD - 14 Urban corridor management BPG - 325
Key regional centre BPG - 111 Urban density BPG - 93
Long-term view is essential RD - 13 Urban form and structure BPG - 87
New Type I corridors BPG - 259 What is integrated planning? RD - 3
Philosophical basis RD - 18 Who is responsible? RD - 7
Planning for multiple areas of applications BPG - 88
Planning of new Type II corridor BPG - 265 Integrated processes BPG - 41; RD - 20
Planning of residential precincts BPG - 223 See also Integrated planning
Planning Policy Guidance 13, Transport RD - 4 RD - 117 See also Processes
Precincts and corridors BPG - 213 Eight steps for integrated planning BPG - 35
Professional views and expectations RD - 13 Framework RD - 18
Public and private development BPG - 141 Integrated Local Area Planning RD - 4, 118
Reducing noise exposure BPG - 309 Keeping options open BPG - 169
Regional parking policies BPG - 149 Local planning RD - 118
Road systems and land use BPG - 129 Prerequisites RD - 18
Rural corridors BPG - 333 Process for integrated planning BPG - 35
‘Shaping up’ RD - 5 Selecting processes RD - 34
‘Sharing the Main Street’ RD - 4 Steps for integrated planning BPG - 39, 45, 47, 52; RD -
Supply and demand management policies BPG - 96 32
Summary 1 Defining the problem BPG - 36
Towards parking standards and management BPG 2 Roles and responsibilities BPG - 39
- 207 3 Determining desired outcomes BPG - 41
Towards greater corridor integration - summary RD 4 Determining the scope - area of application BPG
- 164 - 43
Towards greater local integration - summary RD - 5 Defining specific objectives BPG - 45
163 6 Selecting tools BPG - 47
Towards greater regional integration - summary RD 7 Defining actions and targets BPG - 52
- 161 8 Monitoring and feedback BPG - 54
To maintain the integrity of communities BPG - 315 Type I corridors RD - 152
Traffic calming BPG - 229 Uncertainty management BPG - 169; RD - 78
Transit centres BPG - 111
Transit-friendly land use BPG - 177

Intelligent Transport Systems BPG - 188,305 use areas BPG - 120
Freight Management Systems BPG - 306 Activity street BPG - 119
Road Safety Enhancement BPG - 306 Classification of land-use locations BPG - 174
Advanced Traffic Control BPG - 306 Concentrate pedestrian-generating uses and
Automatic Vehicle Control BPG - 306 provide pedestrian accessibility BPG - 204
Defining a ‘core infrastructure’ BPG - 308 Continuous activity near stations BPG - 179
Driver Information BPG - 306 Corridors - land use BPG - 326
Electronic Toll Collection BPG - 306 Creating central places as public transport nodes BPG -
Environment and Pollution Monitoring BPG - 307 121
Information about time tables and routes BPG - 188 Design issues for mixed uses BPG - 192
Incident Management BPG - 306 Employment dispersal BPG - 118
Parking management BPG - 306 Examples of mixing land uses BPG - 191
Possible implications for integrated planning BPG - 307 Footpath activity BPG - 203
Potential benefits BPG - 307 Impact of a by-pass on trade RD - 126
Public Transport Information BPG - 306 Impact of roadside service centres on local trade BPG -
Public Transport Management BPG - 306 340
Route Guidance BPG - 306 Increased land-use mix and densities at origin and
Security and Emergency Services BPG - 306 destination RD - 90
Technologies used BPG - 305 Land use and parking RD - 89
What they may lead to BPG - 305 Land use and traffic generation RD - 89
Land uses and transit orientation BPG - 122
Interchanges BPG - 187 Land uses at ground floor level along pedestrian ways
Interchanges RD - 105 BPG - 180
Provision of transport interchanges. RD - 71 Land uses that generate patronage BPG - 179
Timed transfer BPG - 120,187 Land-use management and development control along
corridors BPG - 331
Intervention BPG - 42; RD - 163 Land use sensitivity to traffic RD - 132
Push and pull factors BPG - 42 Land-use patterns, travel and densities RD - 88
Regulation RD - 37 Link between land use and walking BPG - 201
Location of activities BPG - 100
L Location of freight reception and distribution centres BPG
- 127
Mixed use RD - 90
Land use BPG - 118, 142, 177, 201, 316 Application of mixed use developments BPG - 192
A hierarchy of public transport services for different land- Home-based business activities BPG - 193

Mixed use in neighbourhood centres BPG - 193 Guidelines RD - 117
Mixed use in town centres BPG - 192 Housing along traffic routes need protection RD - 111
Principles for mixed uses in living areas BPG - 193 How to plan when there are regional, local and corridor
Transit and bus facilities BPG - 179 issues? BPG - 70
Vertically mixed uses BPG - 192 Integrated Local Area Planning (ILAP) RD - 118
Why mixed use has advantages BPG - 192 Integrated processes for inner suburbs BPG - 69
Pedestrian activity and land use RD - 127 Key areas RD - 87
Pedestrian behaviour and land use RD - 128 Local planning using the Steps BPG - 70
Pedestrian-generating activities BPG - 203 Local Area Planning Program BPG - 357
Potential severance BPG - 316 Overview of local interactions RD - 87
Public transport routes developed as ‘people’ routes BPG - Planning principles RD - 103
177 Relating density, accessibility and transport to each other
Public transport-friendly land-use structures BPG - 118 RD - 105
Review of the current approach to land-use Restructuring of established urban areas RD - 110
management BPG - 101 Structure of a policy framework RD - 117
Roadside facilities BPG - 340 Towards greater local integration - summary RD - 163
Roadside services BPG - 339 Vision statements RD - 115
Site access and land use RD - 130 Zoning based on mobility characteristics and accessibility
Stability of the station area BPG - 179 RD - 104
Transferable development rights BPG - 142
Transit supportive development patterns BPG - 178
Types of locations BPG - 100 M
Land values BPG - 95 Management BPG - 135, 181, 221
See also Institutional arrangements
Local planning Areas where significant change is required BPG - 136
Accessibility policies for land-use activities and transport Balancing means and ends RD - 84
RD - 105 Betterment charges and improvement rates BPG - 142
Action space RD - 102 Clarify responsibilities RD - 156
Areas for policy development RD - 116 Collaboration between the property and development
Basis of local transport and land-use planning RD - 101 industry in centres BPG - 221
Best practice RD - 119 Coordination BPG - 137
Distinguishing different types of local streets RD - 111 Development corporations BPG - 142
Examples of possible desired outcomes RD - 115 Development sequence BPG - 140
Examples of specific objectives BPG - 73 Different agendas RD - 138

Do land-use location decisions reflect the real costs? RD- Mobility profile BPG - 101
61 Mobility profiles of land use RD - 93
Fiscal arrangements BPG - 136
Forms of integrated urban management BPG - 136 Models BPG - 147; RD - 41
Fragmented property ownership BPG - 137 Development RD - 12
Funding RD - 16, 83 Development of disaggregated models RD - 113
Implementation models BPG - 143 Dispersal of air pollutants BPG - 147
Improving the competitive edge of public transport RD - 61 Land use / transport models RD - 41
Infrastructure decisions are central issues RD - 61 Micro-simulation RD - 75
Integrated budgeting BPG - 138 Requirements for integrated models RD - 42
Integrated programming and budgeting BPG - 135 Traffic noise BPG - 147
Investment coordination BPG - 136 Transport and environment models RD - 42
Integration and organisational reform RD - 85
Is it feasible to manage employment location? RD - 73 Multi-modal transport routes
ISTEA Integrated funding program RD - 84 See Roads as transport space
Joint ventures BPG - 142 STEA - Intermodal Surface Transportation
Land pooling BPG - 142 Efficiency Act RD - 81
Market demand BPG - 142
Organisational culture RD - 83
Outcome-based integrated control RD - 84 N
Outcome-based integrated management RD - 83, 119
Transit development sites BPG - 181 Neo-traditional planning
Output of an integrated management process BPG - 137 Does it offer new insights? RD - 99
Political acceptability BPG - 144 Is the cul-de-sac a dead end? RD - 113
Public policy intentions BPG - 142 Planning and design principles BPG - 225
Special mechanisms are needed BPG - 142 Should ‘integrator arterials’ be encouraged? RD - 112
Three Year Rolling Programs BPG - 64 Should residential development be encouraged? RD - 145
Value management BPG - 54 Should some collector streets be planned as activity
streets? RD - 112
Mixed use
See Land use Networks RD - 41
See also Corridors
Mobility BPG - 174 See also Roads and Streets
Future of private mobility RD - 160 A classification on functional grounds BPG - 133
Mobility is an indicator of the demand for travel RD - 93 Categorisation BPG - 253

Freight movement BPG - 126 Parking codes BPG - 210
From road hierarchy to road environment Parking for a new transit centre BPG - 152
classification RD - 125 Parking policy to satisfy demand or constrain/ moderate
Impact of land-use change on networks RD - 44 car usage? BPG - 208
Modal use of road system BPG - 130 Parking regulation BPG - 211
Road networks BPG - 129 Parking restraint management BPG - 208
System for monitoring performance BPG - 130 Parking strategy BPG - 210
The relationship between networks, modes Reasons for regional parking policies BPG - 150
and the use of the transport space RD - 41 Regional parking policies BPG - 149; RD - 57, 74
Regional parking policy for A and B locations BPG - 102
Noise Responsibility for developing regional parking policies
See Traffic noise BPG - 151
Shared parking for different uses. BPG - 209
O Site density and parking supply affect vehicle trip rates RD
- 54
Operational planning Pedestrians

See Processes A safe, convenient, attractive and accessible
pedestrian environment BPG - 204
Activity streets and spaces BPG - 203
P Crossability and safety RD - 134
Crossing pedestrians RD - 128
Parking RD - 54 Footpath activity BPG - 203
Angle parking BPG - 242, 244 How pedestrians respond to an environment dominated
Application of regional parking policies BPG - 150 by vehicle movements BPG - 202
Business and parking RD - 133 Making walking safe BPG - 204
Conflicting priorities for commuter parking RD - 74 Mixed use of footpaths by pedestrians and cyclists BPG -
Congestion and parking charges BPG - 150 204
Front or rear angle parking? BPG - 209 Pedestrian activity and land use RD - 127
Funds generated BPG - 151 Pedestrian behaviour and land use RD - 128
Landscaping BPG - 210 Pedestrian delay in precincts BPG - 233
Land-use planning considerations BPG - 209; RD - 89 Pedestrian densities and vehicle flow RD - 129
Local parking provision BPG - 207 Pedestrian needs BPG - 202
On-street parking RD - 130 Pedestrian perception and behaviour BPG - 242
Parking and amenity BPG - 209 Pedestrian policy BPG - 204

Pedestrian routes BPG - 203; RD - 106 Regional centres BPG - 113
Pedestrian safety BPG - 233; RD - 127 Structure of a local policy framework RD - 116
Pedestrian safety and noise protection RD - 111 Sustainable transport policy RD - 66
Pedestrian/vehicle interaction outside active areas RD - UK Planning Policy Guidance Note No 13 RD - 117
146
Type of pedestrians movements BPG - 202 Precincts BPG - 213, 223
Vehicle speed is a key factor for pedestrian safety RD - See also Residential precincts
129 AMCORD BPG - 223
Walking as a transport mode BPG - 201 Bus routes BPG - 225
Connectivity between adjoining areas RD - 110
Performance criteria/indicators BPG - 192 Centres as precincts BPG - 217
Focus on outcomes to be achieved BPG - 192 Connectivity between adjoining precincts BPG - 224
Intended mobility characteristics of land uses BPG - 174 Creating integrated communities BPG - 224
Creating Livable Streets BPG - 228
Performance-based approaches Creating precincts BPG - 224
A focus on outcomes instead of prescription BPG - 249 Defining precincts and corridors RD - 110
Acceptable solutions BPG - 250 How much space devoted to streets? RD - 112
Consultation, negotiation and mediation BPG - 250 Identity BPG - 225
Overcoming obstacles BPG - 251 Large or small precincts? BPG - 214
Performance criteria BPG - 250 Livable streets RD - 98
Requirements for a performance approach BPG - 250 Managing residential precincts BPG - 226
Weighting and trade-offs BPG - 250 Minimise freight transport intrusion RD - 73
What are they? BPG - 250 Neo-traditional planning RD - 99
What performance approaches can do BPG - 249 Pedestrian-friendly environment in centres BPG - 218; RD
- 106
Policy development Planning precincts BPG - 225
Areas for local policy development RD - 117 Reasons for the creation of precincts BPG - 214
Developing integrated guidelines RD - 117 Relationship between corridors and precincts BPG - 214
Higher densities combined with low fuel cost RD - 162 Road hierarchies and their limitation BPG - 214
Image enhancement and urban design policies RD -150 Size of a precinct BPG - 224
Integrated policy framework for corridors RD -149 Should some collector streets be planned as activity
Mix of sticks and carrots taxes RD - 162 streets? RD - 112
Location of activities BPG - 102 Spacing and type of junctions RD - 110
Policy field for corridors RD - 149 Street design RD - 111
Regional RD - 79 The neighbourhood concept BPG - 224

Traffic calming should be an integral part in all precincts Make maximum use of existing corridors, but not without
RD - 110 adaptation RD - 139
‘Urban villages’, station communities or transit centres Making alternative means of travel more attractive RD - 68
BPG - 192 Making better use of what exists RD - 104
Minimise freight transport intrusion RD - 73
Principles More compact urban forms RD - 67
Accessibility policies for land-use activities and transport More sustainable environments with new design
RD - 105 approaches RD - 111
Accessibility to stations and transport stops RD - 105 Multi-modal orbital routes and land use RD - 69
All corridors are potentially multi-functional RD - 140 Multi-purpose centres as key centres of activity RD - 70
Better use of existing networks RD - 70 Pedestrian-friendly activity centres RD - 106
Better use of underdeveloped and inappropriate land use Planning for diversity and choice RD - 104
RD - 70 Priority for public transport RD - 103
Classification of road environments RD - 139 Protect local environments RD - 109
Create busways RD - 69 Protect regional environments RD - 72
Distinguishing different types of local streets RD - 111 Provision of transport interchanges. RD - 71
Driver recognition of the type of road Recognise the needs of special groups RD - 103
environment situation RD - 140 Regional parking policies should be a part of an
Encourage personal public transport RD - 103 accessibility RD - 71
Encouraging multiple land-use centres RD - 103 Relating density, accessibility and transport to each other
Freight handling requires special attention RD - 72 RD - 105
Hierarchy of accessible and multi-purpose centres RD - 69 Relating employment to housing location RD - 103
Improve public transport serving preferred locations RD - Selective concentration of housing and employment RD -
71 68
Increase opportunities for non-motorised Sub-centralisation with a high degree of self-containment
transport modes RD - 103 RD - 68
Integrate activity and accessibility RD - 71 Type I and II road environments should be treated as
Integrated transit-oriented development RD - 71 corridors RD - 139
Intelligent transport systems RD - 70 Use road-based infrastructure for public transport RD - 69
Land-use structures reducing demand for car-based travel
RD - 68 Processes BPG - 36, 41, 45, 47, 52, 355
Link development standards to cost-effectiveness and See also Integrated processes
affordable RD - 103 A simple checklist RD - 82
Locate employment generating development according to Assessment and evaluation RD - 153
accessibility RD - 71 Collective learning and selective decision with the

community RD - 17 Why conventional benefit-cost analysis is limited BPG -
Checklist for integrated planning: BPG - 35 170
Community involvement BPG - 365
Defining the problem BPG - 36 Professional skills
Different processes for different types of agendas and A need for interdisciplinary skill RD - 119
outcomes RD - 39 Consultation process RD - 155
Establishing the structure RD - 35
How much detail? RD - 35 Public transport BPG - 117, 178
Example of Development Planning BPG - 355 See also Transport mode
Exploring alternative futures BPG - 170 Area-based approach BPG - 117
Exploring alternative scenarios BPG - 171 Categorisation of public transport BPG - 119
Exploring the boundaries of probability BPG - 170 Creating people routes BPG - 119
ILAP process RD - 118 Differences in transport demand and supply BPG - 120
ISTEA - Intermodal Surface Transportation Dual mode systems BPG - 122
Efficiency Act RD - 81 Elements of a transit-friendly approach BPG - 178
Keeping options open BPG - 169 Employment dispersal BPG - 118
Performance Audit- Example Provision for cycling BPG - Fixed route systems BPG - 119
363 Graded residential and employment densities based on
Performance audits BPG - 361 accessibility to public transport BPG - 121
Possible outputs of a development process Growth corridors BPG - 121
BPG - 355 Hierarchy of public transport service BPG - 120
Principles of strategic planning BPG - 349 How to create a real choice BPG - 118
Risk analyses BPG - 170 Hybrid systems BPG - 119
Selection of commitments BPG - 170 Interchanging BPG - 119
Separate and different processes RD - 151 Line haul systems BPG - 119
Strategic planning BPG - 169 Pedestrian circulation plan and public transport BPG - 180
The Delphi technique BPG - 171 Personal public transport, BPG - 119
The difference between ‘ futures’ and scenarios BPG - 171 Stations as focal points BPG - 178
The problem of regional benefits and local costs RD -153 Taxis BPG - 119
Three Year Rolling Programs BPG - 64 What does transit-friendly mean? BPG - 178
Uncertainty management BPG - 169
Understanding the real problem BPG - 36
Value management BPG - 54
What is development planning? BPG - 355
What is operational planning? BPG - 361

R Does the use of the infrastructure reflect the real costs?
RD - 61
Flexible charging systems RD - 63
Regional planning BPG - 61; RD - 68 Fuel pricing as a tool RD - 63, 162
A simple checklist RD - 82 Is realistic pricing an option? RD - 63
Desired outcomes RD - 77 Pricing could be an element of an accessibility policy RD -
Examples of specific objectives BPG - 61 72
Integrated Regional Transport Planning BPG - 61 Regional parking policies should be a part of
Key issues for greater integration RD - 85 an accessibility RD - 71
Principles RD - 68 Smart card RD - 63
Public transport and land use BPG - 117 The real cost of a car-dominant mobility RD - 49
Setting targets RD - 80
Towards greater regional integration - summary RD - 161 Roads and streets BPG - 233
Regional planning using the Steps BPG - 58 See Also Access management
See Also Networks
Research RD - 75 See Also Roads as transport space
Regional topics RD - 75 Balance between regional, district and local roads and
streets BPG - 132
Residential precincts Carriageway narrowing BPG - 233
See also Precincts Classification system for roads BPG - 130; RD - 115
Driveways BPG - 242 Criteria in categorisation BPG - 131
Gradients BPG - 243 Distinction between roads and streets RD - 98
Location of footpaths and cycleways BPG - 243 Distinguishing different types of local streets RD - 111
The use of streets in precincts BPG - 225 Driver recognition of the type of road environment
Traffic calming BPG - 231 situation RD - 140
Sight distances BPG - 242 Effects of access management techniques BPG - 284
Environmental protection as a basis for categorisation
Road pricing BPG - 172; RD - 61 BPG - 132
See also Transport pricing Functions RD - 9
Assessment of charging systems RD - 62 Hierarchy of road/street types by development areas BPG
Comparison of the performance of alternative road pricing - 132
systems RD - 65 Impact of access drives and local streets and arterial
Conceptual approaches to transport pricing RD - 61 traffic BPG - 284
Congestion pricing systems RD - 62 Is the cul-de-sac a dead end? RD - 113
Cost recovery RD - 61 Key measures to control access-related conflicts BPG -

286 Frontage activities BPG - 290
Medians RD - 129 Integrated approaches towards transport reservations
Movement, access or both? RD - 123 BPG - 289
Network spacing BPG - 132 Issues BPG - 290
Pedestrian safety BPG - 233 Making more intensive use of transport space BPG - 292
Pedestrian-oriented or vehicle-oriented BPG - 131 Mixed use of footpaths by pedestrians and cyclists BPG -
Performance-based approach towards 204
categorisation BPG - 132 Networks, modes and the use of transport space RD - 41
Purpose of access management BPG - 284 On-street visitor parking BPG - 225
Road hierarchy BPG - 131, 226 Recycling BPG - 290
Roads for movement streets for access and local traffic Retrofitting BPG - 199
BPG -225 Should cyclists share the road space or
Road space, its use and design RD - 99 be accommodated elsewhere? BPG - 198
Should arterial roads be separated from adjoining Speed-volume combinations for cyclists BPG - 198
developments RD - 145 Separating or mixing transport modes BPG - 292
Should some collector streets be planned Tasks and modes of transport BPG - 291
as activity streets? RD - 112 The use of streets in precincts BPG - 225
Space allocation to transport modes BPG - 231 Traffic calming BPG - 231
Speed, access condition and traffic performance are Transport space in corridors BPG - 291
linked BPG - 286 Transport space in precincts BPG - 291
Street design and urban design are linked RD - 111. 140 Transport space is a land use but depends on continuity
Streetscape and urban design BPG - 321 BPG - 290
Types of conflict related to access BPG - 285 What priority should be given to particular modes? BPG -
Vehicle speed and frontage activity RD - 129 293
Vehicle speed is a key factor for pedestrian safety RD -
129 Rural corridor management
Bushfire BPG - 335
Roads as transport space BPG - 198, 289; Cultural and natural heritage values BPG - 335
A safe, convenient, attractive and accessible pedestrian Pests BPG - 334
environment BPG - 204 Scenic Values BPG - 335
Busway Strategy BPG - 293 Soil Conservation BPG - 334
Compatibility and incompatibility of transport modes BPG Commercial activities BPG - 338
- 292 Community Involvement BPG - 336
Compatibility with the land-use environment BPG - 293 Cultural planting BPG - 335
Cross-sections BPG - 292 Funding/sponsorship BPG - 338

Indigenous Vegetation BPG - 334 Pedestrian safety in precincts BPG - 233
Land use and ownership BPG - 337 Pedestrians and vehicle speed BPG - 242
Land use/development BPG - 337 Potential conflicts along pedestrian routes BPG - 237
Protection of Watercourses BPG - 335 Safety framework BPG - 236
Rest areas BPG - 335 Sight distance at junctions and intersections BPG - 243
Roadside structures BPG - 337 Sight distances BPG - 242
Safety Issues BPG - 335 Speed affects the angle of vision BPG - 242
Scenic Values BPG - 335 Speed and activity profiles BPG - 239, 279
Travelling stock BPG - 337 Speed reduction zone BPG - 243
Weeds BPG - 334 The route to the school BPG - 238
Wildlife BPG - 334 Time of travel BPG - 236
Spacing of roadside service centres BPG - 340 Transport planning for safety BPG - 239
Transport planning to reduce the potential for conflict BPG
S - 238
Vehicle speed is a key factor for pedestrian safety RD -
129
Safety BPG - 204, 220, 279, 284, 322 Visibility BPG - 239, 322
Access management BPG - 284
Accidents and land use RD - 129 Severance
Confusion BPG - 322 Bicycle routes and horse trails BPG - 317
Crossability and safety RD - 134 Community - definition BPG - 316
Crossing pedestrians RD - 128 Community links BPG - 316
Definition of acceptable risk BPG - 237 Impact on local circulation patterns BPG - 317
Distraction BPG - 322 Impact categories for land use and community severance
Driver fatigue BPG - 340 BPG - 317
Driver perception and behaviour BPG - 242 Impact on vehicle links BPG - 317
Driveways BPG - 242 Issues BPG - 315
Land-use planning to reduce conflict BPG - 237 Mitigation options BPG - 318
Make walking safe BPG - 204 Pedestrian links BPG - 316
Managing conflict BPG - 239 Severance RD - 133
Pedestrian densities and vehicle flow RD - 129 When severance will occur BPG - 315
Pedestrian perception and behaviour BPG - 242
Pedestrian safety RD - 127 Sharing the Main Street
Pedestrian/vehicle interaction outside active areas RD - See Corridors Type II
146

Speed Sustainable mobility RD - 160
See Traffic calming Sustainable transport policy RD - 66
Regional centres are the trump card BPG - 113
Strategic planning Travel behaviour BPG - 166
Eleven basic elements of the process BPG - 347 Travel demand management BPG - 154
1 Needs Assessment BPG - 348 Systems
2 Context scan BPG - 348 Cities as self-organising systems RD - 17
3 Values and visions BPG - 349
4 Directions and Objectives BPG - 349
5 Futures, Scenarios and Strategies BPG - 350 T
6 Assessment Criteria BPG - 350
7 Assessment BPG - 351 Traffic calming
8 Evaluation (Choice of Strategies) BPG - 351 See also Traffic management
9 Action Plan (Strategic Priorities) BPG - 352 Activity profiles BPG - 239
10 Implementation BPG - 353 Air pollution BPG - 233
11 Monitoring and Review BPG - 353 Area approach BPG - 231
Principles RD - 4 Area-wide trade-offs BPG - 232
Purpose BPG - 347 Carriageway narrowing BPG - 233
Tools of strategic relevance BPG - 354 Controlling ‘rat runs BPG - 232
What is strategic planning? BPG - 347 Conflict management BPG - 239
Critical performance areas BPG - 229
Suburbs - Outer BPG - 118, 135 Definition BPG - 229
Development sequence BPG - 140 Design speed BPG - 230
Dispersion of jobs BPG - 118 Driver perception and behaviour BPG - 242
Environmental traffic capacity BPG - 232
Suburbs-inner BPG - 135 Importance of vehicle speed BPG - 230
Inner suburbs BPG - 232
Sustainable development BPG - 154, 166, 169, 185; RD - 160 Noise BPG - 233
See also ESD Objectives BPG - 230
Definition RD - 151 Operating speed BPG - 230
Increasing choice in transport BPG - 185 Pedestrian delay BPG - 233
Inter-generational equity BPG - 169 Pedestrian safety BPG - 233
Local Agenda 21 RD - 66 Space allocation to transport modes BPG - 231
More compact urban forms RD - 67 Speed limit in residential streets BPG - 230
Precautionary principle RD - 151 Speed limit in shopping strings BPG - 231

Speed profiles BPG - 239 Vehicle restriction zones RD - 99
Speed reduction zone BPG - 243 Vehicle speed BPG - 297
Target speed BPG - 230 Visibility BPG - 242
Techniques BPG - 230 What are acceptable environmental impacts? RD - 97
To reduce the potential for conflict BPG - 238 What criteria determine environmental capacity? RD - 97
Traffic impacts of development BPG - 233 Traffic noise BPG - 146
Acceptable traffic noise exposure levels RD - 132
Traffic management BPG - 242 Acoustic site planning BPG - 313
See also Corridors Approaches to noise management in corridors BPG - 311
Access for service vehicles BPG - 220 Building siting and design BPG - 311
Better use of existing networks RD - 70 Earth mounds BPG - 313
Business and parking RD - 133 Exposure BPG - 146
Causes of congestion BPG - 296 Guidelines for traffic noise exposure BPG - 310, 311
Circulation traffic BPG - 219 Incidence of exposure BPG - 309
Conflict management in centres BPG - 219 Insulation BPG - 314
Congestion management BPG - 295 Land use management to discourage noise-sensitive uses
Congestion management as a tool in urban structure BPG BPG - 311
- 297 Management plans BPG - 147
Congestion management measures BPG - 297 Noise barriers BPG - 313
Environmental traffic capacity RD - 99 Noise mitigation methods BPG - 313
Impact of traffic calming devices RD - 98 Potential for mitigation RD - 132
Intelligent transport systems RD - 70 Residential areas BPG - 233
Responses to congestion BPG - 297 Residential precincts BPG - 310
Role in minimising noise emission BPG - 312 Role of traffic management BPG - 312
Ring routes in centres BPG - 219 Traffic calming devices BPG - 310
Sight distances BPG - 242 Traffic noise abatement plans BPG - 314
Speed affects the angle of vision BPG - 242 Traffic noise in shopping strings BPG - 312
Streets and roads no to exceed their environmental Walls and fences BPG - 313
capacity RD - 110 What are acceptable noise exposure levels
Traffic calming - overspill effects RD - 112 in activity centres BPG - 310
Traffic calming should be an integral part in all precincts
RD - 110 Transit centres
Traffic noise RD - 131 See Centres
Treatment of the causes or effects of congestion? BPG -
296

Transport demand management Personal public transport BPG - 187; RD - 46
See also Travel demand Management Priority for public transport RD - 103
Incentives and disincentives BPG - 155 Residential density and mode split RD - 46
Land-use measures BPG - 154 Safety BPG - 186
Reducing travel by single occupant vehicles BPG - 156 Space allocation to transport modes BPG - 231
Relationship between strategy and potential impact BPG - Targets BPG - 186
158 Timed transfer BPG - 186
Transport pricing BPG - 155 Transport modes, travel patterns and densities RD - 88
Transport-related measures BPG - 154 Walking as a transport mode. BPG - 201
What it can do BPG - 153 Walking distances BPG - 186
What makes people choose RD - 45
Transport mode BPG - 185; RD - 47
A systems approach BPG - 186 Transport pricing BPG - 297
Accessibility policy RD - 105 Area licence BPG - 302
Alternative forms of public transport RD - 46 Benefits of tolling BPG - 301
Bus routes RD - 106 Congestion pricing BPG - 301
Busways RD - 69 Cost of collecting tolls BPG - 301
Bus and train taxis BPG - 187 Difference between charging for road space and
Can planning influence the mode split? RD - 45 BPG - congestion pricing BPG - 302
186 Differential charges BPG - 302
Equity BPG - 186 Equity of road pricing BPG - 303
Improve access to public transport BPG - 204 Goals BPG - 299
Improved information BPG - 188 Impact of road tolls BPG - 300
Improving the competitive edge of public transport RD - 61 Impact on neighbouring areas BPG - 301
Increase access and choice BPG - 185 Juxtaposition of tolled and untolled road links BPG - 300
Increasing car occupancy levels RD - 59 Methods of pricing BPG - 302
Increasing predictability BPG - 187 Private financing BPG - 301
Increasing security BPG - 187 Road Pricing BPG - 297
Making alternative means of travel more attractive RD - 68 Road tolls BPG - 300
Making public transport a more attractive alternative BPG Travel costs by different modes BPG - 300
- 186 Why road pricing is controversial BPG - 300
Mode split trends RD - 45
Multiple occupancy vehicle lanes RD - 47 Travel BPG - 118, 165, 186
Off peak routes and services BPG - 188 A built-in car-dependency RD - 92
Park and ride BPG - 188 Access for handicapped people BPG - 186

Behavioural change BPG - 167 Employer shuttles BPG - 161
By public transport - impediments BPG - 118 Guaranteed ride home program BPG - 164
Household type, life cycle and transport behaviour RD - Making a resource inventory BPG - 160
88 Marketing BPG - 163
Households, land-use activities and accessibility RD - 89 Multiple occupancy vehicle lanes RD - 49
Increasing car occupancy levels RD - 59 On-site amenities BPG - 164
Interchanging BPG - 119 Parking cash-out BPG - 162
Land use and traffic generation RD - 89 Parking fee BPG - 163
Land-use patterns, travel and densities RD - 88 Selective constraints on car use RD - 64
Population and household distribution and transport Strategies to influence the vehicle kilometres travelled RD
demand RD - 87 - 58
Reducing ‘friction’ for public transport BPG - 187 Strategies to reduce the demand for using cars for travel.
Reducing the demand for car travel RD - 59 RD - 59
Reducing travel costs BPG - 187 Telecommuting BPG - 162
Reducing travel time BPG - 186 Transport coordinator BPG - 163
Timed transfer BPG - 120 Travel demand strategies RD - 59
Transfer time BPG - 186 Using company fleet vehicles BPG - 163
Transport modes, travel patterns and densities RD - 88 Van pooling BPG - 161
Travel activity BPG - 166
Travel blending BPG - 165 Trips BPG - 202
Travel blending pilot project BPG - 168 Changes in land-use location RD - 43
Travel diaries BPG - 166 Changes in trip making rates RD - 43
Trip generation RD - 41 Combination of different trip purposes BPG - 192
Vehicle use BPG - 166 Households BPG - 165
Waiting time BPG - 186 Mode choice RD - 45
What is travel blending? BPG - 166 Multi-directional flows BPG - 192
Women’s travel needs RD - 89 Origin and destination RD - 43
Site density and parking supply RD - 54
Travel demand management BPG - 153; RD - 47, 64 Telecommuting RD - 43
See Also Transport demand management The problem with exclusive zoning RD - 44
Buspooling BPG - 161 Travel diaries BPG - 166
Carpooling BPG - 161 Travel distance and time RD - 45
Commuter planning BPG - 159 Trip generation RD - 42
Compressed work week BPG - 162 Trip making and available opportunities RD - 43
Cycling and walking BPG - 162 Walking trips BPG - 202

Transport and land-use planning RD - 3 181
Genesis RD - 3 Relationship between streets and the built
Models RD - 3 environment BPG - 226
Roads in the Community RD - 4 Retrofitting BPG - 323
Scale and design related to type of road environment RD -
U 136
Stations as visual focal points BPG - 178
Street design and urban design are linked RD - 111
Urban consolidation RD - 48, 90 Streetscape BPG - 226
Better use of underdeveloped and inappropriate land use Streetscape in centres BPG - 220
RD - 70 The quality of the centre depends on the quality of urban
Does the community wants to be consolidated? RD - 91 design RD - 109
How much consolidation is achievable? RD - 73 The view from the road RD - 136
How much consolidation is desirable? RD - 71 Transport routes and the built environment RD - 124
Impact on vehicle travel RD - 90 Transport routes - visual experience in motion BPG - 320
Integrated transit-oriented development RD - 71
More compact urban forms RD - 67 Urban structure and form RD - 47, 53
Selective concentration of housing and employment RD - Areas of potential intervention BPG - 91
68 Australian cities BPG - 88
The basic argument RD - 48 ‘Automobile city’ RD - 66
Canberra BPG - 92
Urban design Changing urban structure BPG - 87
Advertising controls BPG - 322 Decentralisation and sub-centralisation BPG - 89
Boulevards BPG - 322 Distribution of employment and centres. RD - 54
Built form and road safety BPG - 322 Effect of urban form on travel BPG - 90
Concepts for road and streets in precincts BPG - 321 ESD and urban form and structure RD - 48
Design elements BPG - 321 Future city structures BPG - 88
Driver perception of road space BPG - 321 Growth corridors BPG - 91; RD - 68
Image enhancement of corridors BPG - 322 Jobs-housing balance and self-containment BPG - 90
Improving the public environment near stations BPG - 180 Land-use structures reducing the demand for car-based
More emphasis on environmental design RD - 102 travel RD - 68
Network image BPG - 320 Major activity centres as crunchpoints RD - 53
Parking and amenity BPG - 209 Objectives BPG - 88
Pedestrian perception of road space BPG - 321 Robust principles BPG - 90
Regulate building height and setback near stations BPG - Selective concentration BPG - 90

Self-containment BPG - 88
Should densities be increased? RD - 47 Z
Suburbanisation BPG - 88
Targets for urban expansion BPG - 91 Zoning BPG - 173, 191
‘Threshold’ decisions BPG - 88 A zoning table for different location BPG - 174
Urban form - description BPG - 87 Activity management instead of land-use zoning? RD - 74
Urban structure description BPG - 87 Activity/accessibility zoning BPG - 173
Urbanisation processes RD - 50 Amenity BPG - 191
Urbanisation, sub-urbanisation or re-urbanisation? RD - Are low-density business parks desirable? RD - 74
50 Building siting and densities RD - 130
What determines urban structure and form? RD - 47 Bulky goods’ developments BPG - 109
Businesses and services with a low labour and/or visitor
V intensity BPG - 176
Examples of mixing land uses BPG - 191
Home-based business activities BPG - 193
Values BPG - 166, 169; RD - 17 Labour intensive and/or visitor intensive
Changes in lifestyle and behaviour RD - 18 business and services BPG - 176
Conflict RD - 18 Land use management to discourage
People’s travel must be made tangible if they are to noise-sensitive uses BPG - 311
comprehend the need for change BPG - 166 Land-use management and development control along
Trade-offs RD - 18 corridors BPG - 331
Land-use plan to reflect pedestrian or vehicle orientation
Vehicle restriction zones BPG - 220, 302 RD - 107
Area licence BPG - 302 Land use related to corridor function RD - 141,144
Pedestrian malls BPG - 220; RD - 109 Limitations RD - 92
Sharing the road space RD - 109 Outcome-based integrated control RD - 84
Space or time-based exclusion of certain kinds of vehicles Out-of centre developments BPG - 109
RD - 108 Out-of-centre shopping RD - 57
Vehicle restriction zone RD - 107 Overcoming impediments to mixed use zoning BPG - 192
‘Overlays’ along arterial roads BPG - 332
Visibility Performance-based development criteria BPG - 174
Factors BPG - 241 Performance-based zoning BPG - 249
Splays BPG - 244 Preferred Locations BPG - 109
Should residential development along Type I corridors?
RD - 145

The problem with exclusive zoning RD - 44
The scale and form of development should be
related to the road RD - 140
Which land uses can have access frontage access? RD -
145
Why mixing land uses makes sense BPG - 191
Zoning based on mobility characteristics and accessibility
RD - 104

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Cities for Tomorrow

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Commissioned by AUSTROADS as a contribution to integrated planning

Better Practice Guide

AUSTROADS ROAD SYSTEM MANAGEMENT PROGRAM

Project Management Team

Mr Allan Krosch: Executive Director (Roads), Department of Main Roads,

ADVISORY GROUP MEMBERS

Mr Graham Callaghan: Chief Engineer/Australian Local Government

Cities for Tomorrow Better Practice Guide

Cities for Tomorrow Better Practice Guide

A considerable amount of useful material was provided during an

Bruce Sinclair AM, consultant and Carolyn Stone, PPM

The active interest and encouragement of the Advisory Panel

Cities for Tomorrow Better Practice Guide

Cities for Tomorrow Better Practice Guide

Internal stakeholders - those agencies with a responsibility for, or a

Cities for Tomorrow Better Practice Guide

Cities for Tomorrow Better Practice Guide

Cities for Tomorrow Better Practice Guide

• between the public and private sectors;

• between different levels of government;

• between institutions and agencies;

Cities for Tomorrow Better Practice Guide

The aims of the Guide are to:

There is much at stake in the planning of cities for tomorrow. We

Cities for Tomorrow Better Practice Guide

Cities for Tomorrow Better Practice Guide

The value system on which these judgements are based is

• sustainability - in a broad sense - in ecological, human

• quality in urban living;

• efficiency and cost-effectiveness; and

These goals need interpretation, and there will be differences of

Austroads commissioned the preparation and publication of the

The Guide is designed to assist practitioners and decision

Cities for Tomorrow Better Practice Guide

There are no strict boundaries between ‘regional’ and ‘local’

There is a need for a third level requiring integrated approaches,

Cities for Tomorrow Better Practice Guide

Cities for Tomorrow Better Practice Guide

The ‘tools’ in the Guide are to be used in achieving the objectives

Tools are related to the interaction between

• land use and transport, such as ‘The right activity in the

• networks, modes and the utilisation of the road space,

• transport and the environment, such as ‘Traffic calming’.

The tools developed for the Guide can generally be related

• Multiple areas of application.

Cities for Tomorrow Better Practice Guide

• Tools for making the most effective use of transport

systems, such as demand and congestion management,

Land-use and environmental planning

Figure A-4 Regional focus

Cities for Tomorrow Better Practice Guide

Table A-1 Predominantly regional tools

PLANNING FOR LOCAL OUTCOMES

• Integration between local land use and transport to

Cities for Tomorrow Better Practice Guide

Table A-2 Predominantly local tools

Corridors are defined as transport routes and their associated