GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM

The ecosystem with grassy land and with annual rainfall from 250 to 750 mm (10 to 30 inch)is
called grassland ecosystem

Evolutionary history
The grass-like graminoids are among the most versatile life forms. They became widespread toward
the end of the Cretaceous period, and coprolites of fossilized dinosaur feces have been found
containing phytoliths of a variety of grasses that include grasses that are related to modern rice and
bamboo.
The appearance of mountains in the western United States during the Miocene and Pliocene
epochs, a period of some 25 million years, created a continental climate favorable to the evolution of
grasslands. Existing forest biomes declined, and grasslands became much more widespread.
Following the Pleistocene ice ages, grasslands expanded in the hotter, drier climates, and began to
become the dominant land feature worldwide.

Climates
Grasslands often occur in areas with annual precipitation is between 600 mm (24 in) and 1,500 mm
(59 in) and average mean annual temperatures ranges from −5 and 20 °C However, some
grasslands occur in colder (−20 °C) and hotter (30 °C) climatic conditions. Grassland can exist in
habitats that are frequently disturbed by grazing or fire, as such disturbance prevents the
encroachment of woody species. Species richness is particularly high in grasslands of low soil
fertility such as serpentine barrens and calcareous grasslands, where woody encroachment is
prevented as low nutrient levels in the soil may inhibit the growth of forest and shrub species.

Biodiversity and conservation

Grasslands dominated by unsown wild-plant communities ("unimproved grasslands") can be called
either natural or "semi-natural" habitat. The majority of grasslands in temperate climates are "semi-
natural". Although their plant communities are natural, their maintenance depends upon
anthropogenic activities such as low-intensity farming, which maintains these grasslands through
grazing and cutting regimes. These grasslands contain many species of wild plants, including
grasses, sedges, rushes, and herbs; 25 or more species per square meter is not unusual.Chalk
downlands in England can support over 40 species per square meter. In many parts of the world,
few examples have escaped agricultural improvement (fertilizing, weed killing, plowing or re-
seeding). For example, original North American prairie grasslands or lowland wildflower meadows in
the UK are now rare and their associated wild flora equally threatened. Associated with the wild-
plant diversity of the "unimproved" grasslands is usually a rich invertebrate fauna; there are also
many species of birds that are grassland "specialists", such as the snipe and the great
bustard.Agriculturally improved grasslands, which dominate modern intensive agricultural
landscapes, are usually poor in wild plant species due to the original diversity of plants having been
destroyed by cultivation, the original wild-plant communities having been replaced by sown
monocultures of cultivated varieties of grasses and clovers, such as perennial ryegrass and white
clover. In many parts of the world, "unimproved" grasslands are one of the most threatened types of
habitat, and a target for acquisition by wildlife conservation groups or for special grants to
landowners who are encouraged to manage them appropriately.
ORIGIN

Located in Pakistan
Grassland ecosystem is found in Kashmir , Gilgit,Waziristan ,lower Chitral and North Kallat.

Location in the world

LLargest grassland are present in the centre of Eurasian continent (Eur mean Europ and
Asian mean Asia).

TYPES OF GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM

There are Two types of Grassland.

PRAIRIES (PAMPAS)
 The grassland without Woody trees is called Prairies.These grassland are present in
temperate climate for example Prairies of South America, the Pampas of Argentina .
SAVANNA
The grassland with scattered Woody trees is called savannas these are the grasslands of
tropical climates they have Woody trees so these grasslands are called Savanna

Schimper (1898)

Grassland types by Schimper (1898, 1903):

● meadow (hygrophilous or tropophilous grassland)
● steppe (xerophilous grassland)
● Savannah (xerophilous grassland containing isolated trees)

Ellenberg and Mueller-Dombois (1967)

Grassland types by Ellenberg and Mueller-Dombois (1967):

Formation-class V. Terrestrial herbaceous communities
A. Savannas and related grasslands (tropical or subtropical grasslands and parklands)
B. Steppes and related grasslands (e.g. North American "prairies" etc.)
C. Meadows, pastures or related grasslands
D. Sedge swamps and flushes
E. Herbaceous and half-woody salt swamps
F. Forb vegetation

Laycock (1979)

Grassland types by Laycock (1979)

1. tallgrass (true) prairie;
2. shortgrass prairie;
3. mixed-grass prairie;
4. shrub steppe;
5. annual grassland;
6. desert (arid) grassland;
7. high mountain grassland

RAINFALL
Annual rainfall is 250 to 750 mm ( 10 to 30 inches ). This rainfall in mid way between forest
and desert grassland faces severe droughts.Grassland have a continuous cover of grass.
trees are present only along the river. Water and fire play an important role in competition
between grass and trees.

PLANT LIFE
Dominant species Garminoids i.e. Grass and grass like plants. Certain forbs like composite
legumes and many other herbaceous plant species are also associated with grasses.

LARING
layering is the characteristic features of Grassland

First layer:
It has tall glasses ( Andropogon and Panicum )
Med layer:
It is composed of mid height grasses (Stipa,Sporobolus and Oryzopsis)
Third layer:
third layer is formed by short grasses, fords and warfare species (Poa,Bromus).This layer also
have Mosses and Lichens

SOIL CONDITIONS:
Grasslands have low precipitation (rain) soil have Evaporation rate so the soil moisture is
limited. upper soil layer is kept moist but deeper layers are dry. the soil of Grassland is
impermeable. it have excessive salinity

ANIMAL LIFE;
Dominant species in grasslands are herbivorous. invertebrates like insects are very
numerous. grasshoppers are also numerous. Grasshoppers compete with other herbivores for
plant foliage Predators are reptiles amphibians and mammals like lizards, toads and turtles .
They prey on insects .Fox and wolves are very common.
DECOMPOSERS:
The most common decomposers are Actinomycetes bacteria and fungi like molds, yeast
mushrooms and Bracket fungi . Larger animals like zebras, wild horses,bisons are important.

PRODUCTIVITY:
Different grasslands have different productivity rate

TEMPERATE GRASSLAND
There rate of primary production is about 700 to 1500 g/m annually

SUB-HUMID TROPICAL GRASSLAND

Their productivity rate is more than 4000 g/m

ANNUAL GRASSLAND
Large grass eating animals consumers small amount of 5 to 10% of the total
herbage.Invertebrates rodents and birds consume equal amount or a little more.
HUMAN IMPACT ;
The nature grassland in world are used for crop production and livestock management. there is
acidic condition solution and salinity in these grasslands. so only a small fraction of the World
grassland is under cultivation. grazing have great effect on grassland. overgrazing cause
reduced in herbage cover. It results in soil Erosion. there is overgrazing in many grasslands.
grasslands are converted into deserts by a process called desertification.
Desert ecology
The driest ecosystem with less than 3 cm (10 inch) annual rainfall is called desert.
Common desert have widely spaced vegetation. They have larger areas of bear grounds.

Climate

Deserts experience a wide range of temperatures and weather conditions, and can be classified
into four types: hot, semiarid, coastal, and cold. Hot deserts experience warm temperatures year
round, and low annual precipitation. Low levels of humidity in hot deserts contribute to high daytime
temperatures, and extensive nighttime heat loss. The average annual temperature in hot deserts is
approximately 20 to 25 °C, however, extreme weather conditions can lead to temperatures ranging
from -18 to 49 °C.
Rainfall generally occurs in concentrated bursts, followed by long periods of dryness. Semiarid
deserts experience similar conditions to hot deserts, however, the maximum and minimum
temperatures tend to be less extreme, and generally range from 10 to 38 °C. Coastal deserts are
cooler than hot and semiarid deserts, with average summer temperatures ranging between 13 and
24 °C. They also feature higher total rainfall values. Cold deserts are similar in temperature to
coastal deserts, however, they receive more annual precipitation in the form of snowfall.[1] Deserts
are most notable for their dry climates; usually a result from their surrounding geography. For
example, rain-blocking mountain ranges, and distance from oceans are two geographic features that
contribute to desert aridity. Rain-blocking mountain ranges create Rain Shadows. As air rises and
cools, its relative humidity increases and some or most moisture rains out, leaving little to no water
vapor to form precipitation on the other side of the mountain range.

ORIGIN
Deserts occupy one-fifth of the Earth's land surface and occur in two belts: between 15° and 35°
latitude in both the southern and northern hemispheres.[2] These bands are associated with the high
solar intensities that all areas in the tropics receive, and with the dry air brought down by the
descending arms of both the Hadley and Ferrel atmospheric circulation cells. Dry winds hold little
moisture for these areas, and also tend to evaporate any water present.
Many desert ecosystems are limited by the available water levels, rather than the rates of radiation
or temperature. Water flow in these ecosystems can be thought of as similar to energy flow; in fact, it
is often useful to look at water and energy flow together when studying desert ecosystems and
ecology.[3]
Water availability in deserts may also be hindered by loose sediments. Dust clouds commonly form
in windy, arid climates. Scientists have previously theorised that desert dust clouds would enhance
rainfall, however, some more recent studies have shown that precipitation is actually inhibited by this
phenomenon by absorbing moisture from the atmosphere. This absorption of atmospheric moisture
can result in a positive feedback loop, which leads to further desertification.[4]

Location in Pakistan
There are three desert in Pakistan
Thal;
The desert ecosystem present in a western Punjab (Mianwali and Bukhar) known as Thal.
Cholistan ;
Cholistan is present in southern Punjab in areas like Fort Abbas,BahawalNagar, Yazman
BahawalPur (Cholistan),Khan Pur and Rahimyar khan also have desert.
Thar:
Desert ecosystem is called Thar in Sindh

Location in the world

These biomes are found in every continent. There are present around 20 degrees to 30
degrees north and South latitude. Deserts are also found in rain Shadow of a major mountain
regions.Deserts have a variety of environments. the extreme form of desert is the Sahara and
chill. there is no raining in these desserts. so there is no vegetation in the deserts.

RAINFALL
Less than 25 to 50 cm (10 to 20 inch) are not at all

PLANT LIFE
Although deserts have severe climates, some plants still manage to grow. Plants that can
survive in arid deserts are called xerophytes, meaning they are able to survive long dry periods.
Such plants may close their stomata during the daytime and open them again at night. During the
night, temperatures are much cooler, and plants will experience less water loss, and intake larger
amounts of carbon dioxide for photosynthesis.
Adaptations in xerophytes include resistance to heat and water loss, increased water storage
capabilities, and reduced surface area of leaves. One of the most common families of desert plants
are the cacti, which are covered in sharp spines or bristles for defence against herbivory. The
bristles on certain cacti also have the ability to reflect sunlight, such as those of the old man cactus.
Certain xerophytes, like oleander, feature stomata that are recessed as a form of protection against
hot, dry desert winds, which allows the leaves to retain water more effectively. Another unique
adaptation can be found in xerophytes like ocotillo, which are "leafless during most of the year,
thereby avoiding excessive water loss".[15]
There are also plants called phreatophytes which have adapted to the harsh desert conditions by
developing extremely long root systems, some of which are 80 ft. long; to reach the water table
which ensures a water supply to the plant

ANIMAL LIFE
Deserts support diverse communities of plants and animals that have evolved resistance, and
circumventing methods of extreme temperatures and arid conditions. For example, desert
grasslands are more humid and slightly cooler than its surrounding ecosystems. Many animals
obtain energy by eating the surrounding vegetation, however, desert plants are much more
difficult for organisms to consume.[10] To avoid intense temperatures, the majority of small desert
mammals are nocturnal, living in burrows to avoid the intense desert sun during the daytime.
These burrows prevent overheating and dehydration as they maintain an optimal temperature
for the mammal.[11] Desert ecology is characterized by dry, alkaline soils, low net production and
opportunistic feeding patterns by herbivores and carnivores. Other organisms' survival tactics
are physiologically based. Such tactics include the completion of life cycles ahead of anticipated
drought seasons, and storing water with the help of specialized organs.[12]
Desert climates are particularly demanding on endothermic organisms. However, endothermic
organisms have adapted mechanisms to aid in water retention in habitats such as desert
ecosystems which are commonly affected by drought.[13] In environments where the external
temperature is less than their body temperature, most endotherms are able to balance heat
production and heat loss to maintain a comfortable temperature. However, in deserts where air
and ground temperatures exceed body temperature, endotherms must be able to dissipate the
large amounts of heat being absorbed in these environments. In order to cope with extreme
conditions, desert endotherms have adapted through the means of avoidance, relaxation of
homeostasis, and specializations. Nocturnal desert rodents, like the kangaroo rat, will spend the
daytime in cool burrows deep underground, and emerge at night to seek food. Birds are much
more mobile than ground-dwelling endotherms, and can therefore avoid heat-induced
dehydration by flying between water sources. To prevent overheating, the body temperatures of
many desert mammals have adapted to be much higher than non-desert mammals. Camels, for
example, can maintain body temperatures that are about equal to typical desert air
temperatures. This adaptations allows camels to retain large amounts of water for extended
periods of time. Other examples of higher body temperature in desert mammals include the
diurnal antelope ground squirrel, and the oryx. Certain desert endotherms have evolved very
specific and unique characteristics to combat dehydration. Male sandgrouse have specialized
belly feathers that are able to trap and carry water. This allows the sandgrouse to provide a
source of hydration for their chicks, who do not yet have the ability to fly to water sources
themselves.[14]

HUMAN IMPACT ;

Desertification the separating of deserts to grassland area is called desertification

 The human activities are reducing many Biomass.So they are spreading desserts. this process
is called desertification
for example