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TABLE OF CONTENTS
NO TITLE PAGE
SYLLABUS
QUESTION BANK
CLASS WORK PROBLEMS
TWO MARKS
UNIT – I – INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Design
1.2 Engineering Design 1
1.3 Considerations To Evolve A Good Design 1
1.4 Design Factors
1.4.2 Electromagnetic Fields 1
1.4.1 Electrostatic Fields
1.5 The Basic Structure Of An Electromagnetic
2
Rotating Electrical Machine
1.6 Limitations In Design 4
1.7 Constructional Details Of Machines 6
I
1.8 Specification Of Machines
1.8.1 Specification
1.8.2 The Standard Specifications Issued For
8
Electrical Machines,
1.8.3 Indian Standard Specifications Numbers
Along With Year.
1.9 Recend Trends In Design 9
1.10 Basic Principles
1.10.1 Faraday’s Law Of Electromagnetic
Induction
1.10.2 The Change In Flux Linkages Can Be
11
Caused In Three Ways
1.10.3 Biot-Savart’s Law
1.10.4 Force Between Current Carrying
Conductor
1.11 General Design Procedure
1.11.1 Main Dimension Of The Rotating 14
Machines
1.12.Properties Of Materials Used In Electrical
Machines
1.12.1 Properties Of High Conductivity
1.12.2 Properties Of Copper
1.12.3properties Of Annealed Copper
1.12.4 Magnetic Materials 16
1.12.5 Soft Magnetic Materials
1.12.6 Hard Magnetic Materials
1.12.7 Electrical Properties Of Insulating
Materials
1.12.8 Applications Of Insulating Materials
1.13 Recent Trend In Design
1.13.1 Advantages Of Use Of A Digital
Computer
1.13.2 Computer Aided Design ( Cad)
1.13.2.1 Analysis Method
1.13.2.2 Synthesis Method
1.13.2.3 Hybrid Method
22
1.13.3 The Method Of Design Optimization
Using Computers
1.13.4 Flow Diagram For Analysis Method Of
Design.
1.13.6 Flow Diagram For Synthesis Method Of
Design.
1.13.5 Advantages Of Analysis Method
1.14 Basic Principles Of Magnetic Circuits 26
1.15 Difference Between Electric And Magnetic
29
Circuits
I
1.16 Similarities In Electric And Magnetic Circuit 30
1.17 Magnetization Curves 30
1.18 Reluctance Of The Airgap In Machines With
Smooth Aramture
1.18.1 Reluctance Of Airgap In Machines With
Open Armature Slot
1.18.2 Case (I) Reluctance Of Airgap Neglecting
Fringing Effect 32
1.18.3 Case (I) Reluctance Of Airgap Including
The Effect Of Fringing
1.18.4 The Gap Contraction Factor For Slots
1.18.5 Estimation Of Carter’s Gap Co-Efficient
For Slots
1.19 Effects Of Ventilating Ducts On Reluctance Of
Airgap
36
1.19.1 Gap Contraction Factor For Ducts (Kgd)
1.19.2 Total Gap Contraction Factor
1.20 Gap Contraction Factor For Induction Motor
1.20.1 Stator Slot Opening
38
1.20.2 Rotor Slot Pitch
PROBLEMS 48
UNIT II
DC MACHINES
2.1 Constructional Elements 66
II
2.2 Output Equation 67
2.3 Alternative Expression For Power Developed In
68
Armature
2.4 Separation Of D And L For Dc Machines 69
2.5 Choice Of Armature Diameter 71
72
2.6 Choice Of Specific Loading
2.7 Choice Of Specific Electric Loading 73
2.8 Selection Of No. Of Poles
2.8.1 Advantages Of Large Number Of Poles
2.8.2 Disadvantages Of Large Number Of Poles
75
II 2.8.3 Guiding Factor / Condition Factor For
Choice
Of Number Of Poles
2.9 Length Of Airgap 78
PROBLEMS 79
138
4.13 Stator Teeth
4.14 Depth Of Stator Core 138
4.15 Length Of Air Gap 139
4.16 Choice Of Rotor Slots 139
4.17 Design Of Squirrel Cage Rotor 140
4.18 Design Of End Rings 141
4.19 Design Of Wound Rotor 141
4.20 Rotor Teeth 142
4.21 Rotor Core 142
4.22 Slip Rings & Brushes 142
4.23 Output Equation And Output Co-Efficient Of Ac
142
Machines (Induction Machine)
PROBLEMS
144
UNIT - IV
INDUCTION MOTORS
5.1 Introduction
5.1.1 (I)Salient Pole Machines 159
V 5.1.2 (Ii)Cylindrical Rotor Machines
5.2 Output Equation 159
5.3 Design Of Salient Pole Machines 159
5.4 Types Of Poles 160
5.5 Short Circuit Ratio (SCR) 161
5.5.1 Effect Of SCR On Machine Performance
5.5.2. Summarizing, High Value Of SCR Leads To
5.6 Choice Of Specific Magnetic Loading 161
5.7 Choice Of Specific Electric Loadings 161
5.8 Number Of Stator Slots 162
5.9 Methods Of Eliminating Harmonics 162
5.10 Length Of Air Gap
5.10.2 Disadvantage Of Large Air Gap
163
5.10.1 Advantage Of Large Air Gap Are
5.10.3 Estimation Of Air Gap Using Scr
5.11 Turbo Alternator 164
5.12 Armature Design Of Salient Pole Alternator 166
5.13 Field Design (Salient Poles) 168
5.14 Design Of Damper Winding 170
PROBLEMS 171
5.15 Dispersion Coefficient
174
5.15.1 Higher Value Of Dispersion Co Efficient
ELECTRICAL MACHINE DESIGN
UNIT I: INTRODUCTION
UNIT V: ALTERNATORS
TEXT BOOKS
4. M.V.K. Chari and P.P. Silvester, "Finite Elements in Electric and Magnetic
Field Problems", John Wiley, 1980.
REFERENCE BOOKS
1.1 DESIGN
1. Cost
2. Durability
3. Compliance with performance criteria as laid down in specifications.
4. Compliance with the performance specification and consumer requirements.
A good design is one where the machine has reasonable operating life,say between 20
to 30 years and has a low initial cost. This is for motors.
Large synchronous machines and transformers which are used in power system must
be designed with reliability and durability in operation as the major considerations
with less initial cost.
-------------------------------*---------------------------------
The mechanical force required for movement in Rotating electrical machines can be
produced both by
1. Electrostatic fields
2. Electromagnetic fields
------------------*--------------------------
1. Magnetic circuits
2. Electric circuits
3. Dielectric circuits
4. Thermal circuits
5. Mechanical parts
It provides the path for the magnetic flux and consists of airgap, stator and rotor
teeth and stator and rotor cores (yokes)
Electric circuits
Dielectric circuits
The dielectric circuit consists of insulation required to isolate one conductor from
another and also the windings from the core. The insulating materials are essentially
non-metallic and may be organic or inorganic ,natural or synthetic.
Thermal circuits
The thermal circuits is concerned with mode and media for dissipation of heat
produced inside the machine on account of losses.
Mechanical parts
Fig (1.5 )
Basic
structure
ofrotating
machines
1. Frame
2. Bearings
3. Shaft
--------------------*--------------------------
Saturation
Temperature rise
Insulation
Efficiency
Mechanical parts
Commutation
Power factor
Consumers specifications
Standard specifications
Saturation
The maximum allowable flux density to be used is determined by the saturation level
of the ferromagnetic material used.
A high value of flux density results in increased excitation resulting in higher cost for
the field system.
Temperature rise
The operating life of a machine depends upon the types of insulating materials used in
its construction .
Proper cooling and ventilation techniques are required to keep the temperature rise
within safe limits.
Insulation
The insulation materials used in a machine should be able to withstand the electrical
,mechanical and thermal stresses which are produced in the machines.
And also the size of the insulation is decided by maximum voltage stress and
mechanical stresses produced.
Efficiency
The efficiency of the machine should be as high as possible to reduce the operating
costs.
In order to design a highly efficient machine, the machine and electric loadings used
should be small and this requires the use of large amount of material.
Mechanical parts
For example
In turbo alternator ,the rotor slot dimensions are so selected that the mechanical
stresses at the bottom of rotor teeth do not exceed the maximum allowable limit.
In induction motors ,the length of airgap is kept as small as possible in order to have
a high power factor.
The length of airgap and also that of the size of the shaft are mainly decided by the
mechanical considerations.
Commutation
Commutation condition limit the maximum output that can be taken from a
machine.
Power factor
Poor power factor results in larger values of current for the same power and therefore
large conductor sizes have to be used.
The size and hence cost of induction motors can be reduced by using a high value of
flux density in the airgap but results in saturation in iron parts of machine and
consequently a poor power factor.
Thus the value of flux density depends upon the power factor.
Consumer’s specifications
The specifications as laid down in the consumer’s order have to be met and the design
evolved should be such that it satisfied all the specifications and also the economic
constraints imposed on the manufacturer.
Standard specifications
This specifications are the biggest strain on the design because both the manufacturer
as well as the consumer cannot get away from them without satisfying them.
-------------------------------*-----------------------------
This above said conversions in any electrical machine takesplace through magnetic
field.
The basic principle of operation of all electrical machine is governed by faraday’s law of
electromagnetic induction.
1. IRON CORE
2. PRIMARY AND SECONDARY WINDING
3. TRANSFORMER TANK
4. COOLING TUBES
1. STATOR
2. ROTOR
3. Others.
DC machine
Stator
a. Yoke
b. Field pole
c. Pole shoe
d. Field winding
e. Inter pole
Rotor
a. Armature core
b. Armature winding
c. Commutator.
d.
Others
a. Brush
b. Brush holder
Stator
a. Frame
Rotor
a. Rotor core
b. Rotor bars
c. End rings
1.8.1 SPECIFICATION
The specification are guidelines for the manufacturers to produce economic products
without compromising quality.
The quality of the certified products will be periodically monitored by the standard
organization.
in India ,the Indian standards organization (ISO) has laid down their specification(ISI)
for various products.
The name plate of the rotating machine has to bear the following details as per ISI
specifications.
IS 13555 – 1993 : Guide for selection and application of three phase induction
100KVA
----------------------------------* -------------------------------------------
Electrical machines having a power outputs upto about 750W may be called small
machines.
Electrical machines having power outputs ranging from a few kilowatt upto
approximately 250KW may be classified as medium size machines.
Electrical machines with power outputs in the range of 250KW upto about 5000KW
are classified as large size machines.
The machines are usually designed and manufactured as a series and have a definite
power output range.
These machines are manufactured on special orders from customer to meet their
specific demands.
The process of design of a single machine may be divided into three major design
problems.
1. Electromagnetic design
2. Mechanical design
3. Thermal design
4. Dielectric design
For example
Therefore the machines for such a system cannot be designed in isolation and the
designs of all the machines have to be complete concurrently since the design of ine
machine depends upon that of the others.
To design a series of machines having different ratings to fit into a single frame size.
In this case ,the finished designs of machines must be produced in groups ,where all
designs with in a group are independent.
The evolution of design to meet the specified optimum criteria is a matter of long and
tedious iterations and this fact has led to the applications of fast digital computers to
the design of electrical machines and transformers.
The digital computers has completely revolutionalized the field of electrical machine
deisgn.
The computer aided design has the advantages of eliminating tedious and time
consuming hand calculations thereby releasing the designer from numerical.
---------------------------* ----------------------------------
The action of electromagnetic machines can be related to three basic principles which
are,
1. Induction
2. Interaction
3. Alignment
This law states that emf induced in a closed electric circuit is equal to the rate of
change of flux linkages.
Flux linkages Ψ = NФ
Ф – flux linking
But flux Ф does not link with all the turns or alternatively all the turns do not link
with the same link.
In this case there is a change in the value of the flux linkages of the coil,an induced
emf is produced is given by,
e= (volt)
1. The coil is stationary with respect to flux and the flux varies in magnitude with
respect to time.
2. The flux is constant with respect to time and is stationary and the coil moves
through it.
3. Both the changes mentioned above occur together (ie)the coil moves through a
time varying field.
Method I
Where the coil is stationary and the flux is time varying an emf called transformer
or pulsational emf is produced.
Method II
The flux cutting rule can be employed to illustrate the emf generated in a
conductor moving in a constant stationary field.
where
Method III
This law gives the value of force produced on account of interaction between a
magnetic field and a current carrying conductor
Fe=Blisin newton
The direction of force produced is perpendicular to both current and magnetic field.
Conductor and magnetic field are perpendicular to each other and thus =
90˚,sin90̊˚= 1
fe=Bli newton
Flux density B= μH
B=μ
Electromagnetic force
F = BI2l
F=μ I2l
F= I1I2 newton
------------------------------* ---------------------------------------
1.11 GENERAL DESIGN PROCEDURE
In general electrical machines having two windings
Two winding
Primary secondary
Winding winding stator Rotor
Winding Winding
The general design procedure is to relate the main dimensions of the machines to its
rated power outputs.
Rated power is the maximum power that can be delivered by the machine safety.
Active part
In electrical machines the core and winding of the machine are together called active
part.
Because the energy conversion takes place only in the part active part of the
machines.
For all the machines the general output equation can be developed for DC machines
which relates the power output to volume of active part (D2L),speed, magnetic and
electric loading.
Similarly a general output equation can be developed for AC machine which relates
KVA rating to volume of the active part (D2L), speed, magnetic and electric loading.
The volume of the cylindrical is given by the product of area of cross-section and
length (AxL)
In DC machines
In AC machines
Dr – Diameter of Rotor
lg-Length of airgap
--------------------*-----------------------
This type of materials used for making all types of windings required in electrical
machines,apparatus and devices.
This type of materials used for making resistance and heating devices.
Copper
Aluminum
The high demand for conductor materials which cannot be met by copper production
alone.
Pure aluminum is softer than copper,therefore can be rolled into thin sheets (foils)
Where
Steel alloyed with chromium and aluminum is used for making starters,Rheostats
where lightness combined with robustness and good heat dissipation are important
considerations.
Cast iron is used in the manufacture of resistance grids to be used in the starters of
large motors.
Alloys of copper
1. Ferromagnetic materials
2. Paramagnetic materials
3. Diamagnetic materials
For this reason, magnetic cores used in alternating magnetic fields are made from
materials whose hysteresis loop are more or less narrow.
1. Electrical machines
2. Transformers
3. Electrical apparatus
4. Instruments and devices
These materials are used in certain types of electrical machines of low power rating
and in all kinds of instruments and devices requiring permanent magnetic which set
up magnetic fields of their own.
These materials are normally used for parts of magnetic circuits carrying steady flux
such as cores of DC electromagnets, relays and field frames of DC machines.
1. Soft iron
2. Relay steel
3. Cast steel
4. Cast iron
5. Ferro cobalt
Insulating materials
It is essentially
1. Non metallic
1. Paper
2. Cloth
3. Paraffin
4. Wax
5. Natural resins
1. Glass
2. Ceramics
3. Mica
The above said properties of insulating materials vary widely with many factors.
---------------------------*------------------------------
The digital computer has completely revolutionalized the field of design of electrical
machines.
The use of computer makes possible more trial designs and enables sophisticated
calculations to be made without intolerable tedium and excessive time.
In the earlier stages ,the use of digital computers for design of transformer only.
In the year 1956,moore and Williams discussed the use of digital computer for
design of rotating machines.
A flow chart was developed giving basic procedure for design of polyphase induction
motors.
1. Analysis method
2. Synthesis method
In this method the choice of dimensions, materials and types of construction are made
by the designer and these are presented to the computer as input data.
The designer examines the performance and makes another choice of input,if
necessary and the performance is recalculated.
The process of design any electrical may be broadly divided into three major aspects.
1. Electrical design
2. Mechanical design
3. Thermal design
The computer can handle large volume of data to make a number of trials designs.
An optimized design with least cost and the required performance can be easily
obtained.
1. Analysis method
2. Synthesis method
3. Hybrid method
Analysis method
A preliminary design is made by the designer regarding the machine dimensions,
materials and other constructional features and these are given as input data to the
computer and the performance quantities are calculated.
The designer examines the performance and accordingly alters the input data and
then feed them to the computer again.
The computer calculates the new performance with the revised data.
The required performance values are also given to the computer as input.
The computer through an iterative process alters the dimensions till the required
performance is obtained.
Start
Human decision
NO
Input
` Is
Performance Decision Stop
calculations
Performance OK?
Output
Start
Performance specification
Design calculations
Adjust
values of Performance calculations
variables
IS
NO
Performance
satisfactory
Yes
Calculate total cost
Stop
Print design values
The various elements in the flux path of non –salient pole machines are
Stator core
Stator teeth
Air gap
Rotor teeth
Rotor core
In electric circuit the emf circulates current against resistance when a closed path is
provided.
In magnetic circuit the mmf creates flux in a closed path against reluctance of the
path.
The coil wound on an iron core with N turns and carrying a current I will produce an
mmf of NI Ampere turns
AT – unit of mmf
Flux =
Ф= (or) Ф = AT x Λ , Λ= – permeance
Reluctance of the magnetic materials can be estimated using the following equation
Reluctance S= x
S=
- Relative permeability
H/m
The strength of the magnetic field is measured by the term magnetizing force (H).
H=ФX X
H=Ф =Ф (B = ,A= , = )
H=
For the case of a materials of length l and carrying a uniform flux,the total mmf AT is
H=
H=
AT = H x l = at x l
S = S1+S2+S3+………………..
Total mmf
AT = ФS
AT = Ф (S1+S2+S3+………………..)
= AT1+AT2+AT3+………………..
= at1l1+at2l2+at3l3+……………...
AT =
In a parallel circuit
Total flux divides between the paths in inverse proportion to their releuctances.
In parallel circuit
Divide by AT
= + +
= + +………= …………
----------------------------*----------------------------------
Resistance R = ρl / A = l / σA Reluctance ,S = l / μA
σ conductivity
Current = Flux =
------------------------------*----------------------------------
B- H or B-at CURVES)
The electric current is assumed to be the flow of free electrons but there is no flow of
magnetic flux .
The value of reluctance of a magnetic materials is dependent upon the value of flux
passing through it.
The relative permeability of ferro magnetic materials may vary between a flow hundred
and about five hundred thousand.
The actual values of permeability and reluctance are hardly used in magnetic circuit
calculations.
The magnetization curves of magnetic materials relating flux density B to mmf per uint
length ,H or at per mt are used for the rapid determination of necessary excitation.
B=
B= -
A,ao,a1,a2,b1,b2 – constants
For non magnetic materials (like air) have a constant value of permeability and so the
B-at curve for them is a straight line passing through the origin.
H =
H= = 800000B
Where B – wb/m2
-------------------------*----------------------------
All rotating machines will have a small airgap between armature and pole surface.
lg-airgap length
ys – slot pitch
Ws – width of slot
Wt – width of teeth
The area of cross section of the magnetic path over one slot of the armature.
Sg =
lg-length of airgap
μo-Permeability of air
-Area of cross section of airgap over one slot (The product of the length of armature
and slot pitch)
Ys-slot pitch
In armature with open and semi enclosed slots, the flux will flow through the teeth of
the armature.
Hence effective area of the flux path is decreased ,which results increased reluctance
of airgap.
In armature with open slots the flux would fringe around the tooth and this fringing
would increase the area of cross section of flux path.(δWs).
Ys’ = Ys-Ws(1-δ)
Sg=
Sg =
Kgs =
Kgs =
Kgs =
Kgs =
Kcs =
Kcs = [
Where Y =
-----------------* ---------------------------------
When the length of the armature is higher than the diameter or length is greater than
0.1metre ,radial ventilating ducts are provided for better cooling of the core.
Kcd =
L’ = L – KcdndWd
Kgd =
Kgd = =
Kgd =
Kg =
Kg = X = Kgs X Kgd
Kg = Kgs x Kgd
-----------------------*---------------------------------
Hence the gap contraction factor should be computed for both the stator and rotor.
Kgss =
Kgsr =
Yss =
Yss =
Ysr =
Ysr =
Sr – no of rotor slots
Ss – no of stator slots
---------------------------*--------------------------
Mmf per meter of the path in non magnetic materials = = ~ 800000B AT/m
In machines with open or semienclosed slots ,the flux concentrates on teeth ie the
flux is not uniformly distributed in the airgap.
These are radial ventilating ducts in the machines for cooling purposes .this results in
contraction of flux in the axial direction.
atg= = = 800000Bav
μ –μo-Permeability of airgap
mmf required for airgap of length lg in machines with smooth armature ATg =
800000Bavlg
1.21.3 Mmf of air gap in machines with open armature slot and Radial ventilating ducts
Armature slots
Mmf required for airgap in machines with open armature slots and ducts =
= Kg x 800000Bavlg
Kf =
Kf = ,Also Kf ~Ψ =
Bg = =
-----------------------*---------------------------
1.22.1 METHODS
1. GRAPHICAL METHOD
2. THREE ORDINATE METHOD (SIMPSON’S RULE)
3. Bt1/3 method
ds=lt
lt –length of teeth
----------------------------*--------------------------
Higher flux densities the flux passing through the slots becomes large and can not be
neglected .
In machines – two parallel paths for the flux over one slot pitch
The apparent flux density = Bapp = total flux over a slot pitch /iron area over a slot
pitch
Ba =μoH = μo atreal
The flux which passes through unwanted path is called the leakage flux.
The designer has to provide a path of low reluctance so that comparatively little flux
leaks away from the desired path.
The leakage path flux affects the performance of transformer and rotating machines.
1.24.1 The leakage flux affects the following performance of various machines
Leakage co-efficient
When the leakage flux is associated with a winding carrying alternating current.
This reactive voltage may be considered as a voltage drop due to a leakage reactance.
Zs –conductors
= ZsФsl / Iz ---------------(1)
Ls = Zs2Λs
Xs = 2πf Zs2Λs
----------------*------------------------
In rotating machines if the air gap around the armature peripheral is non uniform
then radial forces are developed in the rotor .
F= ½ B2/ μo Ap
F = Bm2 /3μo DL
B – flux density
In ac machines
Unbalanced magnetic pull due to P number of poles UMP = pole pair *Pp
UMP = P ApPm(e/lg)
1. The length of the rotor can be kept small and diameter can be made higher
2. Ball bearings are employed and rotor is dynamically balanced
3. The combination of rotor and stator slots which produce vibrations are avoided.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
PROBLEMS
P1) A 350 KW, 500V, 450rpm, 6-pole, dc generator is built with an armature
diameter of 0.87m and core length of 0.32m. The lap wound armature has 660
conductors. Calculate the specific electric and magnetic loadings.
Given data
P= 350KW
D = 0.87m
V = 500V
L = 0.32m
To find
Bav and ac
Formula
Bav = pФ / πDL
ac=IzZ / πD
soln
P= VI *10-3 in KW
I =700 amps
Iz = Ia / a
Iz = 700 /6
ac=28173 amp.cond / m
= 500 / 660*(450/60)
Ф = 0.101wb
Bav = pФ / πDL
= 6*0.101/ π*0.87*0.32
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
P2) Calculate the MMF per meter for a flux density of 1.7wb/m and a
permeability of 23.5 x 10- 6H/m.
Given data
To find
Mmf / meter = ?
Formula used
B = μH
H=B/μ
Solution
H=B/μ
H = 72.3x103A/m
Result
Mmf / meter H =
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
P3 ) The length of the iron path of a magnetic circuit is 50cm.the area of cross
section is 12.5cm2 µr = 800, what is the reluctance of the magnetic circuit.
Given data
l=50cm =50x10-2m
a=12.5x10-4
μr=800
To find
Reluctance (S)
Formula used
S= =
Solution
S = 3.98X105A/wb
……………………………………………………………………………………………………..
P4) Calculate the mmf required for the air gap with kg = 1.1, Lg =2mm, Bg
=1.5Wb/m2
Given data
Kg=1.1
Lg=2mm=2x10-3m
To find
Formula
Mmf = 800000kg lg Bg
Solution
Mmf = AT=8x105x1.1x2x10-3x1.5
Mmf = 2640A
Mmf = 2640AT
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
P5) Calculate the mmf required for one air gap of a dc machine with an axial
length of 20 cm (no ducts) and a pole are 18 cm. The slot pitch is 27 mm, slot
opening 12 mm, air gap 6 mm and the useful flux per pole 25 mWb. Take
carter's coefficient for slot as 0.3.
Given data
No ducts Kg = Kgs
Kcs = 0.3
To find
Formula
Kg = Kgs
Kgs =
Kgs =
Kgs = 1.1538
For Bg
We know that
Bav =
Pole pitch -
Bg =
Bg =
Bg =
Bg = =
Bg=
Soln
= 800000*1.1538*0.6944*6*10-3
ATg = 3845.75 AT
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
P6) A 15 KW, 230 V, 4- pole dc machine has the following data: armature
diameter = 0.25 m, armature core length = 0.125 m, length of air gap at pole
center = 2.5 mm, flux per pole = 11.7 x 10-3 Wb, (pole arc/pole pitch) = 0.66.
Calculate the mmf required for air gap (i) if the armature surface is treated
as smooth (ii) if the armature is slotted and the gap contraction factor is 1.18.
Given data
No of poles p=4
To find
Formula
ii) mmf required for airgap with slotted armature ATg = 800000 Kg Bg lg
To find Bg
Bg = Bav / Ψ
Bav =
Bav =
Bg = Bav / Ψ
Bg=0.4767 / 0.66
Bg=0.7223wb/m2
Kgd =
Kgd = 1.02
lg=ATg / 800000*Bg*Kg
= 3100 / 800000*0.7*1.1782
lg=4.678*10-3
lg=4.7mm
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Given data
P= 20KW
p=2
lg=2.5mm
θ=45˚
To find
Formula
To find Pm
Soln
Pm = ½ B2 / μo = ½ (0.82 / 4π*10-7)
Pm = 254.64 *103N/m2
= 4* 20*10-3 * 254.64*103*(0.4/2.5)*(sin45)2
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
P9 ) Calculate the unbalanced magnetic pull of 4 pole DC machine having air gap
flux density of 0.85wb/m2, and a gap length of 2mm. the area of each pole is
24x10-3m2 and poles are symmetrically mounted. The accentricity is 15% in the
air gap.
Given data
p=4
lg=2mm
B=0.85wb/m2
Ap=24*103m2
Accentricity= e = 15% of lg
To find
Formula
Pm = ½ 0.852 / 4π*10-7
e=15% of lg
e=15 /100*2
e=0.3mm
= 4* 24*10-3*287.47 *103*(0.3/2)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Given data
Ws = 12mm
L = 0.38m
Wt =12mm
Ducts = 5 nos
Wd= 10mm
B real = 2.2wb/m2
at=70000AT/m
To find
Formula
Soln
Ks =
Li = Sf ( L -5Wd)
Li = 0.3036
Ks = 2.5
= 2.2 +4π*10-7*70000(2.5-1)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
P11) Find the permeability at the root of the teeth of a DC machine armature
from the following data, slot pitch 2.1cm,tooth width at the root 1.07cm,gross
length 32cm,stacking factor=0.9 real flux density at the root of the teeth
2.25tesla,apparent flux density at the root 2.36tesla.
Given data
To find
Permeability = ?
Formula
Breal = μ at real
μ= Breal / at real
Ks = ( Li = SfL)
Soln
To find
Ks =
Ks =
Ks = 2.181
= 2.36-2.25 / 4π*10-7(2.181-1)
To find
μ= Breal / atreal
μ = 2.25 / 74120
μ = 30.356*10-6 H/m
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
P12)Calculate the mmf for air gap in a three phase induction motor from the
following data stator bore 500mm,core length = 220mm,stator slots 76,rotor
slots 94,slot opening 2mm,air gap length 0.9mm,take Kgd=1.15 and air gap flux
density 0.54wb/m2
Stator slots Ss = 76
Rotor slots Sr = 94
Wor = 2mm
Kgd = 1.15
Bav = 0.54wb/m2
To find
Formula
Soln
Kcs =
Kcs = 0.3077
Kgss =
Kgss = 1.0307
Kgsr =
Kgsr = 1.0307
Kgs = 1.0703
Kg = Kgs *Kgd
Kg = 1.0703*1.15
Kg= 1.2308
= 800000 *0.54*1.203*0.9*10-3
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
Calculate mmf required for the air gap of a machine having core length of 0.32m
including 4 ducts of 10mm each ,pole arc of 0.29m,slot pitch of 65.4mm ,slot
opening of 5mm,air gap length of 5mm,flux per pole of 52mwb,given carter’s
coefficient is 0.18 for opening /gap =1 and is 0.28 opening / gap =2 .
L= 0.32m
nd=4
Wd=10mm
Wo = 5mm
Lg=5mm
b=0.29m
Ф = 52*10-3wb
Ys = 65.4mm
Kcs = 0.18
Kcd = 0.28
Find
Formula
Mmf = 800000 Bg Kg lg
Soln
Bg=Bav / Ψ
= pФ / πDLb [ Ψ = b / ]
= pФπD / πDLbp
Bg = Ф / L*b
Bg = 52*10-3 / 0.32*0.29
Bg = 0.56
Kg = Kgs *Kgd
= 65.4*10-3 / 65.4*10-3-0.18*5*10-3
Kgs = 1.01
Kgd =
Kgd = 1.003
Kg = Kgs *Kgd
Kg = 1.01*1.003
Kg= 1.013
ATg = 2269.12 AT
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
DC MACHINES
Constructional details- Output equation - Choice of specific electric and
magnetic loadings - Separation of D and L for rotating machines. Estimation of
number of conductors / turns - Coils - armature Slots - Conductor dimension -
Slot dimension. Choice of number of poles - Length of air gap - Design of field
system, Interpoles, Commutator and Brushes.
Consists of
- Constructional Elements
- Output Equation
- Length of airgap
- Armature design
(i) Armature
(1) winding
(2) core
(3) commutator
(ii) Field
(1) winding
(2) core
(iii) Frame.
Pa=CoD2Ln
The equation which relates the power output to D.L,Bav,ac and n of the machines is
known as input equation.
E = ФZNp / 60*a
E = ФZnp /a ------------------------------------------------(1)
The conductors are connected in parallel paths ,if a – number of parallel path,then
Iz= Ia/ a
Or
Ia = Iz a ------------------------(2)
We know that
Or
pФ = πDLBav ------------(3)
Or
Iz z = πD ac ---------------(4)
In dc generator
In dc motor
Pa= πDLBav*πDac*n*10-3
Pa = π2Bavac*10-3*D2Ln
Pa = CoD2Ln --------------------------------------------------(7)
Where Co = π2Bavac*10-3
Co – o/p co efficient
-----------------------------*---------------------------------
Pa = pФ*IzZ*n*10-3
cu loss )
losses)
if P = output
η -efficiency
input power = P / η
in case of large machines the friction,windage and iron losses can be neglected .
Pa = P / η (for generator )
Pa = P ( for motors)
=P/η–P
-------------------------------------*-----------------------------------------------------------------
1. Pole proportional
2. Peripheral speed
3. Moment of inertia
Pole proportional
This states that foe a given flux and cross section area of pole, the length of mean turn
of field winding is minimum when the peripheral forms a square.
L= b= Ψ
Ψ – 0.64 to 0.72 ; Ψ = b / ; b= Ψ
L / = 0.64 to 0.72
L / = 0.7
L – core length
Peripheral speed
Moment of inertia
-------------------------------*----------------------------------------
1. Cost
2. Ventilation
Core length is very large then ventilation of the core will be difficult
P – no of poles
Va – peripheral speed
--------------------------*----------------------------------------
1. Peripheral speed
2. Pole pitch
Pole pitch
2 Upto 240
4 240 to 400
6 350 to 450
-------------------------*-----------------------------
Higher mmf results in increase of iron loss, cu loss & cost of cu.
If f is high then iron losses in arm. Core & teeth would be high.
As the dia increases the width of the tooth also increases, permitting increased value
of Bg without saturation.
---------------------------*---------------------------
2. Speed of machine
3. Voltage
4. Size of machine
5. Armature reaction
6. Commutation
Ex. In m/cs. Using class F insulation which can withstand a temp. of 155’c, the value
of ac can be approx. 40% higher than that used in m/cs. Designed for class
(iii) Voltage
In high V m/cs large space is reqd. for insulation & therefore less space for
conductors.
Ie. Space left for conductors is less & therefore we should use a small value of ac.
With high ac, arm. Reaction will be severe. To counter this field mmf is
(vi) Commutation .
Ac=Iz*Z
D*Π
(i) Large Z OR
(i) M/c have large Z having large no. of turns; L is proportional to square
(ii) If small dia, it is not possible to usewide slots because otherwise the space left for
teeth will become smaller giving rise to high B in them. Only way is us ting deeper
slots to use. But the deeper slots increases the L value.
-------------------------*------------------------
1. Frequency
2. Length of commutator
4. Weight of copper
5. Labour chargers
The aim of the designer to select the main dimensions as will result in the minimum
cost and yet at the same time meet the desired specifications.
For choice of no. of poles let us assume D,L,Bav & ac are const.P only variable.
Increasing the number of poles,the weight of iron in the armature core can be
decreased .
4. length of commutator
2. labour charges
p-number of poles
(i) Frequency
F=pn/2
oterwise the frequency will become high giving rise to excessive iron losses.
Thus if the no. of poles is doubled, the flux carried by yoke is halved.
proportionatelydecreased.
The flux per pole divides itself in 2 paths in the armature core.
iron in the yoke.But increase in no. of poles would result in higher iron
A.MUMTHAJ,AP/EEE EMD Page 77
loss in arm. Core owing to increased frequency of flux reversals.
s α (ØT/4A2)2*(2*n/2)2
α (ØT2n2)/16A22
s α (ØT/8A4)2*(4*n/2)2
α (ØT2n2)/16ª42
-----------------------------------*--------------------------------
A small gap is provided between the rotor and stator to avoid the friction
1. Lesser noise
2. better cooling
-----------------------*---------------------------------------
P1) Find the main dimensions of a 200KW, 250V, 6 pole, 1000 rpm generator.
The maximum value of flux density in the gap is 0.87 Wb/m2 and the ampere
conductors per metre of armature periphery are 31000. The ratio of pole arc to
pole pitch is 0.67 and the efficiency is 91 percent. Assume the ratio of length of
core to pole pitch = 0.75
Given data
P=200KW
V=250V
P=6
Formula
Pa=CoD2Ln
Soln
= 200 / 0.91
Pa = 219.78KW
To find Co
Bg = Bav / Ψ
Bav = BgΨ
Co = ∏2 BgΨac*10-3
Co = ∏2*0.67*0.87*31000*10-3
Then Pa = CoD2Ln
D2L = Pa / Co*n
= 219.78 / (178.34*(1000/60))
D2L = 0.0739m3
Given L / = 0.75
L=0.75 *
L=0.3927D
D2L = 0.0739
D2(0.3927D)= 0.0739
0.3927D3 = 0.0739
D = (0.0739 / 0.3927)1\3
D= 0.57m
L=0.3927D
L= 0.22m
Result
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
P2 ) Find the main dimensions and the number of poles of a 37 KW, 230V, 1400
rpm shunt motor so that a square pole face is obtained. The average gap density
is 0.5 Wb/m2 and the ampere conductors per metre are 22000. The ratio of pole
arc to pole pitch is 0.7 and the full load efficiency is 90 percent.
Given Data
Soln
I = P / ηV*10-3
I = 37 / 0.9*230*10-3
I = 178.74A
Ia = I = 178.74A
Armature current is less than 200A,hence the current per parallel path will not
exceed the upper limit of 200A.
Co = ∏2*0.5*22000*10-3
Co = 108.57 KW / m3-rps
Then Pa = CoD2Ln
D2L = Pa / Co*n
D2L = 0.0146m3
L= 0.7
L= 0.7( π*D) / p
= 0.7*π*D / 4
D2L = 0.0146
D2(0.5498D) = 0.0146
D3(0.5498) = 0.0146
D= 0.3m
L = 0.5498D
L = 0.5498 * 0.3
L = 0.165m
Result
Number of poles, p = 4
Diameter of armature, D = 0.3 m
Length of armature, L = 0.165 m
-------------------------*----------------------------------
P3) Calculate the main dimensions of a 20Hp, 1000 rpm, 400V, dc motor. Given
that bav = 0.37 Wb/m2 and ac = 16000 amp.cond./m. Assume an efficiency of
90%.
Given Data
n =16.66rpm
V=400 V
ac = 16000 amp.cond./m
= 90%
Formula
Pa = Co = D2Ln KW
Power i/p Pi = P / η
Pi = 16.57KW
Also Pi = VI *10-3
I = 16.57 / 400*10-3
I = 41.45A
Ia = I = 41.45A
Let
Frequency lie in the range of 25 to 50Hz for minimum cost the highest possible choice
of poles should be chosen.
Hence p=6
Output co efficient
Co = ∏2Bavac*10-3
Co = ∏2*0.37*16000*10-3
Co = 58.428 KW / m3-rps
Pa = CoD2Ln
D2L = Pa / Co*n
D2L = 0.0153m3
L / = 0.7
L= 0.7( π*D) / p
= 0.7*π*D / 6
D2L = 0.0153
D2 (0.3665D) = 0.0153
D30.3665 = 0.0153
D = 0.34m
L= 0.3665D
L = 0.3665*0.34
L= 0.127m
Result
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
Magnetic circuit
Yoke / frame
Poles
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
P4) Design a suitable commutator for a 350 KW, 600 rpm, 440 V, 6 pole dc
generator having an armature diameter of 0.75 m. The number of coils is 288.
Assume suitable values wherever necessary.
Given Data
p=6
V = 440 V
N = 600 rpm
To find
Diameter of commutator
Length of commutator
Soln
Dc = 0.75 D
Dc = 0.75 * 0.75
Dc = 0.56m
Vc = π*0.56*(600/ 60)
Vc = 17.59m/sec
Vc = 15m/sec
Hence Dc=0.48m
βc=π*0.48 / 288
βc=5.2*10-3m
βc=5.2mm
Ia = 795.5amps
= 2*795.5 / 6 = 265.2A
nb = 4
= 3*5.2
A.MUMTHAJ,AP/EEE EMD Page 87
tb=15.6mm
width of brush Wb = ab / tb
ab = 44.2 / 75*10-3
ab = 590mm2
Wb = 37.77mm
Cb = 5mm
C1 = 20mm
C2 = 20mm
Lc= 6(38+5)+20+20
Lc= 298mm
Lc= 0.298m
Result
Number of brushes = 6
Width of brush = 38 mm
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
P5) Draw the winding diagram in the developed form for a 4-pole, 12 slots
simplex lap connected dc generator with commutator having 12 segments.
Indicate the position of brushes.
A.MUMTHAJ,AP/EEE EMD Page 88
Soln
No of commutator segments = 12
Pole =4
No of coils C= 12
= 24 / 12
Step I
Representation of poles
Step II
Step III
Winding pitches
Lap winding
Back pitch Yb = 2C +K
Yb=(2*12 / 4) +K = 6+K
Winding pitch
Front pitch
Commutator pitch
The front and back connections of the coil sides are determined as shown below,
Bottom coil side of the first coil (back connection) = top coil side of first coil +back
Pitch
= 1+Yb = 1+7 = 8
Top coil side of the second coil (front connection) = bottom coil side of first coil – front
Pitch
= 8 – Yf = 8-5 =3
Winding calculations
1+7 = 8
8-5 = 3
3+7 = 10
10-5=5
5+7 = 12
12-5= 7
7+7 = 14
14-5=9
9+7=16
16-5=11
11+7=18
18-5=13
13+7=20
A.MUMTHAJ,AP/EEE EMD Page 91
20-5=15
15+7=22
22-5=17
17+7=24
24-5=19
19+7=26-24=2
26-5=21
21+7=28-24=4
28-5=23
23+7=30-24=6
6-5=1
Back connection
1 8
3 10
5 12
7 14
9 16
11 18
13 20
15 22
17 24
19 2
21 4
23 6
Front connection
8 3
A.MUMTHAJ,AP/EEE EMD Page 92
10 5
12 7
14 9
16 11
18 13
20 15
22 17
24 19
2 21
4 23
6 1
Winding table
1 8 3 10 5 12 7 14 9 16
11 18 13 20 15 22 17 24
19 2 21 4 23 6 1
lap winding
no of brush = no of poles
In this winding there will be four brushes and in this four brushes two will be
positive and two will be negative.
On observing the currents entering at the commutator segments we can place positive
brushes at segments 4 and 10
In segments 1 and 7 the current leaves the commutator segments .hence negative
brushes can be placed at segments 1 and 7.
- Ve
+ve
A.MUMTHAJ,AP/EEE EMD Page 93
Place of +ve brush place of –ve brush
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
P6) Draw the winding diagram for a 4-pole, 13 slots, simplex wave connected dc
generator with a commutator having 13 segments. The number of coil sides per
slot is 2. Indicate the position of brushes.
No of commutator segments = 13
Pole =4
No of coils C= 13
= 26 / 13
Step I
Representation of poles
Step II
Step III
Winding pitches
Back pitch Yb = 2C +K
= (2*13/4) +K = 6.5K
Let K = 0.5
Commutator pitch
Winding pitch
A.MUMTHAJ,AP/EEE EMD Page 96
Y = 2Yc ; Y = Yb+Yf
= 2Yc-Yb = 2*7-7
Yf = 7
Bottom coil side of the first coil (back connection) =top coil side of first coil +back
pitch
= 1+Yb = 1+7 = 8
Top coil side of the coil lying one pole pitch from first coil (front connection) = bottom
= 8+Yf
= 8+7 = 15
Winding calculations
1+7= 8
8+7=15
15+7=22
22+7=29-26=3
3+7=10
10+7=17
17+7=24
24+7=31-26=5
5+7=12
12+7=19
19+7=26
26+7=33-26=7
7+7=14
14+7=21
21+7=28-26=2
A.MUMTHAJ,AP/EEE EMD Page 97
2+7=9
9+7=16
16+7=23
23+7=30-26=4
4+7=11
11+7=18
18+7=25
25+7=32-26=6
6+7=13
13+7=20
20+7=27-26=1
1 8 8 15
15 22 22 3
3 10 10 17
17 24 24 5
5 12 12 19
19 26 26 7
7 14 14 21
21 2 2 9
9 16 16 23
23 4 14 11
11 18 18 25
25 6 6 13
13 20 20 1
TRANSFORMER
Constructional details-Classification – output equation - Core section - Window
dimensions - Yoke dimension - Overall dimension - Determination of number of
turns and length of mean turns of windings- Resistance of windings- Leakage
reactance- No load current calculation – Regulation, losses and efficiency.
Output equation
The equation which relates the rated KVA output of a transformer to the area of core
and window is called output equation .
Output KVA depends - flux density (core area ) – ampere turns (window area)
E = 4.44fФmT volts
Kw =Ac / Aw ----------------------------------------------------(1)
ap=Ip / δ -----------------------------------------------------(4)
as=Is / δ --------------------------------------------------(5)
Total copper area in window Ac = copper area of py wdg + copper area of sy wdg
section of sy wdg
= Tpap+Tsas
= Tp Ip / δ + Ts Is / δ
= 1 / δ ( TpIp+TsIs)
= 1/δ ( AT+AT)
Ac = 2AT / δ ---------------------------(7)
KwAw = 2AT \ δ
Q = EpIp*10-3
= Ep / Tp *TpIp*10-3
Q = Et*AT*10-3 -----------(8)
Substituting
AT = KwAwδ / 2
Q = 2.22 f ФmKwAwδ*10-3
Q = 2.22 f BmAiKwAwδ*10-3
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
E = 4.44fФmT volts
In case of three phase transformer ,each window has two primary and two
secondary winding
Kw =Ac / Aw ----------------------------------------------------(1)
as=Is / δ --------------------------------------------------(5)
Total copper area in window Ac = copper area of py wdg + copper area of sy wdg
section of sy wdg
=2 Tpap+2Tsas
= 2Tp Ip / δ + 2Ts Is / δ
= 2 / δ ( TpIp+TsIs)
= 2/δ ( AT+AT)
Ac = 4AT / δ ---------------------------(7)
KwAw = 4AT \ δ
Q = 3EpIp*10-3
= 3 (Ep / Tp *TpIp*10-3
Q = 3 Et*AT*10-3 -----------(8)
Substituting
Et = 4.44fФm
AT = KwAwδ / 4
Bm = Фm / At ; Фm= Bm*At
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
The transformer design starts with selection of an appropriate value for emf per turn
Et = 4.44fФm
Et =K√Q
-------------------------------*---------------------------------------------
The cross section may be rectangular ,when rectangular cores are used the coils are also
rectangular in shape .
Rectangular cores the width of the central limb is 2 to 3 times the depth of the core.
Square core
a – side of square
d=√a2+a2
d=√2a2
d=√2 * a
a2=(d / √2)2
a2 = 0.5d2
= 0.9 * 0.5d2
Ai = 0.45d2
Core area factor Kc = net core area / square of circumscribing circle (dia of circle)
= 0.45d2 /d2
Kc= 0.45
Agi =0.618d2
Sf= 0.9
Ai = 0.9*0.618d2
Ai =0.56d2
Core area factor Kc = net core area / square of circumscribing circle (dia of circle)
= 0.56d2 /d2
Kc= 0.56
Higher value of flux density –small core area ,lesser cost ,reduction in length of mean
turn of wdg ,higher iron loss,large magnetizing current.
---------------------------*--------------------------------------------
Design of wdg involves the determination of number of turns and area of cross section of the
conductor used for wdg.
The area of cross section – using rated current and current density
Where
In step up T/F
TLV = Tp
VLV = Vp
THV = Ts
VHV = Vs
THV = Tp
VHV = Vp
TLV = Ts
VLV = Vs
Rated current in a winding = KVA per phase *10-3 / voltage rating of the winding
The area of cross section of primary and secondary winding conductors are estimated by
assuming a current density
δ = 1.1 to 2.2 A/mm2 for small power T/F with self oil cooling.
δ =2.2 to 3.2 A/mm2 for large power transformer with self oil cooling or air blast .
δ=5.4 to 6.2 A/mm2 for large power T/F with forced circulation of oil or with water
cooling coils.
---------------------------------*------------------------------------------------------------
Losses developed in the transformer core and windings are converted into thermal energy and
causes heating of corresponding transformer parts .
1. Air natural
2. Air Blast
3. Oil natural
4. Oil natural air forced
5. Oil natural water forced
6. Forced circulation of oil
7. Oil forced air natural
8. Oil forced air forced
9. Oil forced water forced
Forced oil and air circulation are employed for transformers of capacities 30MVA
Forced oil and water is used for T/F designed for power plants .
For the T/F oil,the specific heat dissipation due to convection of oil is given by
The T/F core and wdg assembling is placed inside a container called tank.
For a temp rise of 40˚C above the ambient temp of 20˚C ,the specific heat dissipation are as
follows
λrad =6 W/m2-˚C
λcon=6.5 W/m2-˚C
θ= total loss / specific heat dissipation *heat dissipating surface of the tank
A.MUMTHAJ,AP/EEE EMD Page 113
θ=Pi+Pc / 12.5St
Pc=copper loss
------------------------------------*_----------------------------------------------------
Let
=12.5 St
= 8.8 XSt
= (12.5+8.8X) St
= St(1+X)
area
= St(12.5+8.8X) / St(1+X)
θ = Pi+Pc / St(12.5+8.8X)
(or)
--------------------------------------------*-------------------------------------------------------
C3 =clearance between the T/F frame and the tank at the bottom
LT = Doc +2C2
HT =H+C3+C4
Clearance in mm
Voltage KVA rating
C1 C2 C3 C4
------------------------------------*-------------------------------------------------------
P1 ) Calculate the core and window areas required for a 1000 KVA, 6600/400 V,
50 Hz, and single phase core type transformer. Assume a maximum flux density
of 1.25 Wb/m2 and a current density of 2.5 A/mm2. Voltage/turn = 30 V.
Window space factor = 0.32
Given Data
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
Given Data
50 Hz
Et = 8.5 V
= 2.5 A/mm2
d = 0.25m
Kw = 0.28
To find
Vs = 254V
Es~Vs
Ts = Es / Et = 254/8.5
Tp = Ts*(Vp/Vs)
Tp = 30 * (6600 / 254)
Tp = 779.5~780 turns
Ip = ILP / √3
Q = √3VLSILS*10-3 ------------(2)
ILP = Q / √3*VLP*10-3
ILP = 26.24A
Ip = ILP / √3
Ip = 26.24 /√3
Ip = 15.15A
ap=15.15 / 2.5
ap=6.06mm2
ILS = Q / √3VLS*10-3
ILS = 393.65A
ILS = Is
as=393.65 / 2.5
as=157.5mm2
window area
Aw = Ac/ Kw
Ac = 2(6.06*780+157.5*30)
Ac = 18903.6mm2
Aw = 18903.6 / 0.28
Aw = 67512.86mm2 = 67512.8*10-6m
Ai = Sf*Agi
For 3 stepped core,the ratio = gross core area / area of circumscribing circle = 0.84
= π*(0.25)2 / 4
= 0.049m2
Agi =0.041m2
Ai = Sf*Agi
Ai = 0.9 *0.041
Ai = 0.0369m2
Ai = 0.037*106mm2
Height of window
Hw = Aw / Ww
Hw = 67512.86*10-6 / 0.45
A.MUMTHAJ,AP/EEE EMD Page 122
Hw = 0.15m
Result
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
P3) Determine the dimensions of core and window for a 5 KVA, 50 Hz, 1-phase,
core type transformer. A rectangular core is used with long side twice as long as
short side. The window height is 3 times the width. Voltage per turn = 1.8 V.
Space factor = 0.2, = 1.8 A/mm2, Bm = 1 Wb/m2
Given data
f=50Hz
Hw= 3Ww
Et = 1.8V
Kw = 0.2
δ=1.8A/mm2
Bm=1wb/m2
A.MUMTHAJ,AP/EEE EMD Page 123
To find
Soln
Hw
Ww
Et= 4.44fФm
Фm = Et / 4.44f
= 1.8 / 4.44*50
Фm= 0.0081wb
Net core area = Ai = Фm / Bm
Ai = 0.0081 /1
Ai = 0.0081m2
Cross section of the core is rectangle
Agi = length *breath
Agi = a*b
Gross core area Agi = Ai / Sf [ Ai = Sf*Agi , Agi = Ai / Sf]
Agi = 0.0081 / 0.9
Agi = 0.009m2
Agi = axb given that a= 2b
Agi = 2bxb
Agi = 2b2
b2=Agi/ 2
b= 0.067m
a = 2b = 2*0.067 = 0.134m
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
P4) The tank of 1250 KVA, natural oil cooled transformer has the dimensions
length, width and height as 0.65 x 1.55 x 1.85 m respectively. The full load loss
= 13.1 KW, loss dissipation due to radiations = 6 W/m2-0C, loss dissipation due to
convection = 6.5 W/m2-0C, Improvement in convection due to provision to tubes
= 40 %, Temperature rise = 400C, Length of each tube = 1 m, Diameter of tube =
50 mm. Find the number of tubes for this transformer. Neglect the top and
bottom surface of the tank as regards the cooling.
Given data
KVA = 1250KVA
= 0.65x1.55x1.85
λrad=6W/m2-˚c
θ = 40˚c
lt=1m
dt=50mm
To find
Number of tubes
Formula
Soln
Tank dimension
Lt = length = 0.65m
Wt = width = 1.55m
Ht = Height = 1.85m
= 2(LtHt+WtHt)
= 2Ht(Lt+Wt)
= 2*1.85*(0.65+1.55)
St = 8.14m2
= 12.5St
= St(12.5+9.1X)
Temperature rise in transformer with cooling tubes = total loss / total loss dissipated
θ = 13.1*103 / St(12.5+9.1X)
X = 1/9.1[13.1*103/40*8.14-12.5]
X = 3.0476
= XSt
= 3.04*8.14
= π*50*10-3*1
Width of the tank is 1550mm,if we leave spacing of 62.5mm on either sides then we
can arrange 20 tubes widthwise with spacing of 75mm between centres of tubes.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
2. Loss components
Magnetizing components depends on the mmf required to establish the desired flux.
Ly
Lc lc
ly
mmf for core = mmf per meter for maximum flux density in core * total length of core
= atc*2lc
Mmf for yoke = mmf per metre for maximum flux density in yoke * total length of yoke
= aty*2ly
Total magnetizing mmf ATo = mmf for core +mmf for yoke +mmf for joints
= ATo / Tp
Im = ATo / √2*Tp
Pi = iron loss
A.MUMTHAJ,AP/EEE EMD Page 129
Vp = terminal voltage of primary winding
Iron loss are calculated by finding the weight of core and yokes.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
Ly
Lc lc lc
ly
Total length of core = 3lc
mmf for core = mmf per meter for maximum flux density in core * total length of core
= atc*3lc
Mmf for yoke = mmf per metre for maximum flux density in yoke * total length of yoke
= aty*2ly
Total magnetizing mmf ATo = mmf for core +mmf for yoke +mmf for joints
= ATo / Tp
Im = ATo / √2*Tp
Il = Pi / 3Vp
--------------------------------*-------------------------------------------------------------------
Consists of
- Construction
- Output equation
- Choice of loadings
- Main dimensions
- Stator winding
- Stator core
- Length of airgap
- Choice of rotor slots
Design of Squirrel cage
- rotor
- Design of Wound rotor
Stator consists of
(i)Core
(ii)Winding
A large value of ‘ac’ results in higher copper losses & higher temperature rise. For
machines with high voltage rating smaller values of ‘ac’ should be prepared. Since for
high voltage machines the space required for insulation is large.
For high overload capacity, lower values of ‘ac’ should be selected. Since large values
of ‘ac’ results in large number of turns per phase, leakage reactance will be high. Large
values of leakage reactances results in reduced overload capacity.
-------------------------------*----------------------------------------------------------
For machines
Cranes rolling mills Bav = 0.65 wb/m2
With large values of Bav, the magnetizing current will be high, which results in poor
power factor. However in induction motors the flux density in the airgap should be
such that there is no saturation in any part of the magnetic circuit.
A large value of Bav results in increased iron loss & decresed efficiency. With higher
values of Bav higher values of over load capacity can be obtained. Since the higher
Bav provides large values of flux per pole, the turns per phase, will be less & so the
leakage reactance will be less. Lower value of leakage reactance results in higher over
load capacity.
------------------------------------------*-------------------------------------------------------
L/ ζ ratio
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4.7 Stator winding
For small motors upto 5HP, single layer windings like mush Winding, whole coil
concentric winding & bifurcated concentric winding are employed.
.
For large capacity machines, double layer windings(either lap or wave winding) are
employed with diamond shaped coils.
Stator turns per phase
The turns per phase Ts, can be estimated from stator phase voltage and maximum
flux in the core. The maximum flux(φm) in thecore can be estimated from Bav,D,L and
p.
Bav = pφm/ӅDL
Stator turns per phase = Es/(4.44*Kws*f*φm)
Es= Stator phase voltage
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4.8 Length of mean turn
The Length of mean turn for voltage upto 650 Vcan be calculated by
Length of mean turn = 2L+2.3 ζ +0.24 in m
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
ds = √4as /π
if the diameter is more than 2 or 3mm bar or strip conductors are used.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Stator slots
Different types of slots are
1.open slots
2.semi enclosed slots
.
When semienclosed slots are used the coils must be taped & insulated after they are
placed in the slots. The advantages of semienclosed slots are less airgap contraction
factor giving a small value of magnetising current, low tooth pulsation loss & much
quieter operation.
In small motors round conductors are used and in large & medium size motors strip
conductors are used
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4.16 CHOICE OF ROTOR SLOTS
With certain combination of stator and rotor slots, the following problems may develop
in the induction motor.
1.The motor may refuse to start
2.The motor may crawl at some subsynchronous speed
3.Severe vibrations are developed & so the noise will be excessive
Crawling
Crawling is a phenomenon in which the induction motor runs at a speed lesser than
subsynchronous speed.
Cogging
Cogging is a phenomenon in which the induction motor refuses to start.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Diameter of rotor,Dr=D-2lg;
lg-length of air gap
Design of rotor bars & slots
Rotor bar current is given by Ib=(6*Is*Ts*Kws*Cosφ)/Sr
Area of each rotor bar is given by ab = Ib/δb in mm2
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
It can be shown that if flux distribution is sinusoidal then the bar current & end ring
current will also be sinusoidal.
Also
Area of cross section of end ring ae = de*te
de- depth of end ring;
te- Thickness of endring
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4.19 DESIGN OF WOUND ROTOR
The wound rotor has the facility of adding external resistance to rotor circuit in order
to improve the torque developed by the motor. The rotor consists of laminated core
with semi-enclosed slots and carries a 3 phase winding.
Rotor windings
For small motors mush windings are employed.
For large motors double layer bar type wave windings are employed.
With certain combination of stator and rotor slots, the following problems may develop
in the induction motor.
1. The motor may refuse to start
2. The motor may crawl at some subsynchronous speed
3. Severe vibrations are developed & so the noise will be excessive
The above effects are due to harmonic magnetic fields developed in the machine. The
harmonic fields are due to
1.winding
2.slotting
3.Saturation
4. irregularities in air gap
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4.20 Rotor teeth
.
Minimum teeth area per pole = φm/1.7
Teeth area per pole = (Sr/p)*Li*Wtr
Minimum width of teeth, Wtr= φm/(1.7*Sr/p*Li)
Minimum width of teeth, Wtr=[Ӆ(Dr-2dsr)/Sr]-Wsr
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
The equation of induced emf ,frequency,current through each conductor and total
number of armature conductors of an AC machine are given below
f=pns / 2
Iz = Iph / a
p-no of poles
ns-synchronous speed
Z = 3*2Tph
Z = 6Tph
We know that
Substitute
6Tph = Z
Where
PROBLEMS
P1) Determine the approximate diameter and length of stator core, the number
of stator slots and the number of conductors for a 11 KW, 400V, 3, 4-pole,
1425 rpm, delta connected induction motor. Bav = 0.45 Wb/m2, ac=23000 amp.
Cond/m, full load efficiency = 0.85, pf = 0.88, L/ = 1. The stator employs a
double layer winding.
Given Data
L = = 1 = πD /p = πD / 4
L = 0.1494D ---------------------------------------------------(2)
Substitute eqn (2) in eqn (1)
D2*0.1494D = 0.0054
0.1494 D3 = 0.0054
D = 0.1902m
Eqn (2) becomes L = 0.1494*D
L = 0.1494*0.1902
L = 0.15m
To find
Stator slot Ss = no of phases *poles*q
For q = 2, Ss = 3*4*2 = 24
q=3, Ss = 3*4*3 = 36
q=4, Ss = 3*4*4 = 48
stator slot pitch should lie between 15mm to 25mm
stator slot pitch Yss = πD / Ss
when Ss = 36, Yss = π*0.19*103 / 36 = 16.58mm
when Ss = 36, Yss lies between 15mm to 25mm ,hence the stator slot pitch can be 36
Ss = 36
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………...
P2) Estimate the stator core dimension ,no of stator slots and no of stator
conductors per slots for a 100KW,3300V,50Hz,12 pole ,star connected slip ring
induction motor,Bav = 0.4wb/m2.ac= 25000amp-cond/m,η=0.9,pf = 0.9,choose
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
P3) Determine the D and L of a 70 Hp, 415V, 3-phase, 50-Hz, star connected, 6
pole induction motor for which ac = 30000 amp.cond/m and Bav = 0.51 wb/m2.
Take = 90 % and pf = 0.91. Assume = L. Estimate the number of stator
conductors required for a winding in which the conduxtors are connected in 2-
parallel paths. Choose a suitable number of conductors/ slots, so that the slot
loading does not exceed 750 amp. cond.
Given Data
Soln
KVA input Q = HP*0.746 / η*PF
Q = 70*0.746 / 0.9*0.91
KVA input Q = 63.76KVA
When Ss = 54 when Ss = 72
Zss = total stator conductor / Ss Zss = total stator conductor / Ss
Zss = 744 /54 Zss = 744 /72
Zss = 13.77 ~14 Zss = 10.33 ~11
Slot loading =ZssIz slot loading = ZssIz
= 14*44.35 = 11*44.35
= 620.9amp cond = 487.85 amp cond
In both the cases the slot loading is not exceeded
For lower fabrication cost Ss = 54
For low temperature rise Ss = 72
Let Ss = 54
Turns / phase = 63
Conductors / slot = 14
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
P4) Estimate the main dimensions, air-gap length, stator slots, stator turns per
phase and cross sectional area of stator and rotor conductors for a 3-phase, 15
HP, 400 V, 6 pole, 50 Hz, 975 rpm, induction motor. The motor is suitable for
star delta starting. Bav = 0.45 Wb/m2, ac = 20000 amp.cond/m, L\ = 0.85, =
0.9, pf = 0.85
Given data star delta starting (the motor should be designed for delta connection)
3Ф KVA o/p = 15HP
V=400v
P=6 pole
f=50Hz
N=975rpm
Bav = 0.45 wb/m2
ac=20000amp.cond / m
L\ = 0.85, = 0.9, pf = 0.85
To find
Main dimension
Airgap length
let Ss = 36
Zss = 6Ts / Ss = 1452 / 36 = 40.33 total stator conductor = Ss*Zss
= 36*40
= 1440 conductors
The new value of Ts =Zss*Ss / 6
= 40*36 / 6
Ts = 240
KVA input Q = √3VLIL*10-3 = 3EphIph*10-3
Iph = Q*103 / 3*Eph
= 14.62 *10-3 / (3*400)
Iph = 12.183A
Let δ = 3A/mm2
Cross sectional of stator conductor as= Iph / δ = 12.183 / 3
as=4.061mm2
Airgap length
Lg=0.2+2√DL = 0.2+2√0.275*0.12 = 0.5633mm
lg=0.6mm
Rotor slot
Sr- number of rotor slots
Sr should be less than Ss and (Ss-Sr) can not be
0 , ±p , ±2p , ±3p , ±5p , ±1 , ± (p±1) , ±2 , ± (p±2)
Let p = 6
Ss-Sr can not be
0 , ±6 , ±12 , ±18 , ±30 , ±1 , ±2 , ±5 , ±7 , ±8 , ±4
P6) A three phase induction motor has 54 stator slots with 8 conductors per slot
and 72 rotor slots with 4 conductors per slots. Find the number of stator and
rotor turns. Find the voltage across the rotor slip rings, when the rotor is open
circuited and at rest. Both stator and rotor is star connected and a voltage of
400 volt is applied across the stator terminals.
Given data
Three phase IM
Ss = 54
Zss = 8
Sr = 72
Zsr = 4
V=400V
Consists of
-Introduction
-Output equation
- Choice of specific magnetic loadings
- Choice of specific electric loadings
-Short Circuit Ratio
-Length of airgap
- Number of stator slots
-Field design
5.1 INTRODUCTION
The synchronous machines may be classified into
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Round poles
Rectangular poles
Round pole
– round pole
Rectangular poles
The value of allowable peripheral speeds depends on the type of pole attachment
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
The ratio of field current required to produce rated voltage on open circuit to
field current required to circulate rated current at short circuit.
Thus SCR is the reciprocal of Xd, if Xd is defined in p.u.value for rated voltage and
rated current. But Xd for a given load is affected by saturation conditions that then
exists, while SCR is specific and univalued for a given machine.
Non-salient pole alternators : 1- 1.5 ; Salient pole alternators : 0.5 – 0.7
5.5.1 Effect of SCR on machine performance
i) Voltage regulation :A low SCR highXdwhich results in large voltage drop
which results in poor voltage regulation.
ii) Parallel operation :A low SCR which results in high Xd which results in low
synchronizing power which results in parallel operation becomes difficult.
.
A.MUMTHAJ,AP/EEE EMD Page 160
iii) Short circuit current : A low SCR which results in high Xd which results in low
short circuit current. But short circuit current can be limited by other means not
necessarily by keeping a low value of SCR.
iv) self excitation :Alternators feeding long transmission lines should not be
designed with small SCR as this would lead to large terminal voltage on open
circuit due to large capacitance currents.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
It depends on
Iron loss
Stability
Voltage rating
Transient short circuit current
Parallel operation
Hence to limit short circuit current, a low value of magnetic loading should
be chosen.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Copper loss
Temperature rise
Ac lies in the range of 20000 to 40000 amp cond / m for salient pole machines.
Ac lies in the range of 50000 to 75000 amp cond / m for Turbo alternator.
We know that
----------------------------------(3)
form factor
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Peripheral spped
800000
800000
800000
The armature slot, winding, turns per phase and conductor designs of turbo
alternator are same as that of salient pole alternator.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Armature conductors
In order to design the field wdg ,the exciter voltage must be known
The exciter voltage varies between 50V to 400 V
This is uaually specified by the customer
For small and medium size machines
Exciter voltage of 125V
For large size machines
Exciter voltage = 250V
Field wdg should be designed for a voltage to allow for the drop in voltage from 15
to 20% less than the exciter voltage to allow for the drop in voltage between field
and the exciter and to allow for variations in the reluctance of magnetic field.
Voltage across each field coil
Ef = (0.8 to 0.85) Ve / p
p-no of poles
Ve – exciter voltage
Height of the field coil (winding height )
Hf= hpl – h1-space taken by spool,flanges
Space taken by spool = 20mm
Height of the pole = hpl
0.1 25
0.2 35
0.4 45
Total area of damper wdg is distributed into smaller cross sections depending upon
the number of bars used.
The damper winding slot pitch = stator slot pitch
Pole arc = number of bars per pole *Ys *0.8
The length of each damper bar
Ld = 1.1 L for small machines
Ld = L+0.1m, for larger machines
Cross section of each damper bar,
ad=total area of bars per pole /no of damper bars per pole
ad=Ad /Nd
In case of circular bars
ad= (π /4) dd2
dd = diameter of damper bars
The area of each ring short circuiting the bars
Aring = (0.8 to 1) Ad
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
PROBLEMS
P1) For a 250KVA.1100V, 12 pole, 500 rpm, 3 phase alternator. Determine air
gap diameter, core length, number of stator conductors, number of stator
slots and cross section of stator conductors. Assuming average gap density as
0.6 wb/m2 and specific electric loading of 30000 amp. Cond/m, .
Given data
To find:
Air gap diameter (D), no of stator conductors, core length (L), no of stator slots,
cross section of stator conductors.
Solution:
Output equation:
Current density
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Dispersion co-efficient
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------