The Branches of Philosophy[edit]

Western philosophy can be divided into six branches that have assumed various importance over
time. Traditionally metaphysics sets the questions for philosophy. Epistemology asks how do we
know? Ethics and politics have to do with action and quality of life. Aesthetics or value theory has to
do with beauty, balance, and harmony. Logic has to do with the relations of things. Epistemology
sometimes replaces metaphysics these days, because it has fewer religious overtones. Among
Eastern European and continental philosophers, philosophy tends to be the study of politics. Logic is
critical for analytic philosophers, who are deeply suspicious of ethics, politics, and metaphysics.
Understanding philosophy in the 6th century B.C. involves taking into account different priorities than
those of the 19th century a.d. However, these divisions remain helpful for identifying what's at stake.
Metaphysics, which studies the nature of existence, is closely related to Epistemology, the study of
knowledge and how we know what we do about the world around us. Ethics, the study of how
individuals should act, depends on Epistemology, because we need knowledge to make good
choices. Politics studies human interaction. Aesthetics studies the value of things. Logic is about the
symbolic representation of language and thought processes. Once the domain of Aristotle, the
foundation of the exact sciences must now take into account relativity, uncertainty and
incompleteness. 5/17

Epistemology[edit]
The theory of knowledge, from the Greek words episteme (knowledge) and logos
(word/speech/study), is the branch of philosophy that deals with the nature, origin, scope and
(possibility/study) of knowledge. Dealing with nature, is one of the branches of philosophy. But
before anything is done, the meaning of philosophy should be understood. A philosopher of religion
must be objective. Anyone who is ready to study philosophy should be able to attack and defend.In
other definitions logic is the study of reasoning . It can also be described as the study of strength of
the evident links between the premises and the conclusion.Logic is further divided into deductive
reasoning and inductive reasoning . Deductive reasoning proceeds from a general statement to a
particular statement , it is mostly a valid argument given that is tautological in nature this means that
the conclusion bares no new knowledge that it is missing in the premises . Inductive argument this
reasoning perceives from a particular statement to a general statement this reasoning is mostly
uterlised in the scientific researches

Metaphysics[edit]
Metaphysics however (derived from the Greek words " meta & physika ") - meaning 'after physics'. It
was the way students referred to a specific book in the works of Aristotle, and it was a book on First
Philosophy. (The assumption that the word means "beyond physics" is misleading) Metaphysics is
the branch of philosophy concerned with the study of "first principles" and "being" (ontology). In other
words, Metaphysics is the study of the most general aspects of reality, pertaining to subjects such as
substance, identity, the nature of the mind, and free will. It is a study of nature, the nature of reality,
and the nature of the world in which humans live.

Logic[edit]
Logic (from Classical Greek λόγος (logos), originally meaning the word, or what is spoken, but
coming to mean thought or reason is most often said to be the study of arguments. Logic is the study
of correct reasoning. However the subject is grounded, the task of the logician is the same: to
advance an account of valid and fallacious inference to allow one to distinguish.

Ethics[edit]
Ethics is a general term for what is often described as the "science (study) of morality". In
philosophy, ethical behavior is that which is "good" or "right". The Western tradition of ethics is
sometimes called moral philosophy.Its the study of right and wrong in human endeavors

Aesthetics[edit]
Aesthetics is a branch of philosophy that explores the creation and appreciation of beauty through
critical analysis and reflection.

Other Branches[edit]
Philosophy of Education: Fairly self-explanatory. A minor branch, mainly concerned with what is
the correct way to educate a person. Classic works include Plato's Republic, Locke's Thoughts
Concerning Education, and Rousseau's Emile.
Philosophy of History: Fairly minor branch (not as minor as education), although highly important
to Hegel and those who followed him, most notably Marx. It is the philosophical study of history,
particularly concerned with the question whether history (i.e. the universe and/or humankind) is
progressing towards a specific end? Hegel argued that it was, as did Marx. Classic works include
Vico's New Science, and Hegel and Marx's works.
Philosophy of Language: Ancient branch of philosophy which gained prominence in the last
century under Wittgenstein. Basically concerned with how our languages affect our thought.
Wittgenstein famously asserted that the limits of our languages mark the limits of our thought.
Classic works include Plato's Cratylus, Locke's Essay, and Wittgenstein's Tractatus Logico-
Philosophicus.
Philosophy of Law: Also called Jurisprudence. Study of law attempting to discern what the best
laws might be, how laws came into being in the first place, attempting to delimit human laws from
natural laws, whether we should always obey the law, and so on. Law isn't often directly dealt with
by philosophers, but much of political philosophy obviously has a bearing on it.
Philosophy of Mathematics: Concerned with issues such as, the nature of the axioms and symbols
(numbers, triangle, operands) of mathematics that we use to understand the world, do perfect
mathematical forms exist in the real world, and so on. Principia Mathematica is almost certainly the
most important work in this field.
Philosophy of Mind: Study of the mind, attempting to ascertain exactly what the mind is, how it
interacts with our body, do other minds exist, how does it work, and so on. Probably the most
popular branch of philosophy right now, it has expanded to include issues of AI. Classic works
include Plato's Republic and Wittgenstein's Philosophical Investigations, although every major
philosopher has had some opinion at least on what the mind is and how it works.
Philosophy of Politics: Closely related to ethics, this is a study of government and nations,
particularly how they came about, what makes good governments, what obligations citizens have
towards their government, and so on. Classic works include Plato's Republic, Hobbes' Leviathan,
Locke's Two Treatises, and J.S. Mill's On Liberty.
Philosophy of Religion: Theology is concerned with the study of God, recommending the best
religious practises, how our religion should shape our life, and so on. Philosophy of religion is
concerned with much the same issues, but where Theology uses religious works, like the Bible, as
its authority, philosophy likes to use reason as the ultimate authority.
Philosophy of Science: It is the Study of science concerned with whether scientific knowledge can
be said to be certain, how we obtain it, can science really explain everything, does causation really
exist, can every event in the universe be described in terms of physics and so on. Also popular in
recent times, classic works include Hume's Treatise on Human Nature, Kripke's Naming and
Necessity, Kuhn's Structure of Scientific Revolutions.
Introduction to Philosophy/What is
Philosophy!?
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Definition & Meaning[edit]

The word Philosophy is derived from two Greek words; Philo meaning love and Sophia meaning
wisdom. In general, it means love of wisdom. Philosophy is a broad field of knowledge in which the
definition of knowledge itself is one of the subjects investigated. It spans the nature of the universe,
the mind, and the body; the relationships between all three, and between people. Philosophy is a
field of inquiry – the pursuit of wisdom; the predecessor and complement of science, developing the
issues which underlie science and pondering those questions which are beyond the scope of
science.

Using Philosophy[edit]
The essence of philosophy is the study and development of fundamental ideas and methods that are
not adequately addressed in specialized empirical disciplines, such as physics or history. As such,
philosophy provides the foundations upon which all belief structures and fields of knowledge are
built. It is responsible for the definitions of, and the approaches used to develop the theories of, such
diverse fields as religion, language, science, law, psychology, mathematics, and politics. It also
examines and develops its own structure and procedures, and when it does so is
called metaphilosophy: the philosophy of philosophy.
Philosophy has a rich literary heritage, including the writings and teachings of profound thinkers from
many cultures throughout history. Philosophers seek to understand the principles that underlie
all knowledge and being. For this purpose, they develop methods of thinking,
including logic, introspection, and meditation. Applying these methods, they investigate the most
fundamental questions, such as "What is the nature of the universe?" (metaphysics), "What do
we know, and how do we know it?" (epistemology), "What is the difference between good and evil?"
(ethics), "What is beauty?" (aesthetics), and "What is the meaning of life?" (teleology).

Philosophical Perspectives & Traditions[edit]

'What is philosophy', is itself a philosophical question. This is a clue to the nature of philosophy. It is
very general in scope; so general that it, perhaps uniquely among the disciplines, includes itself in its
scope. What is clear is that philosophy is, in some sense, thinking about thinking.
In the analytic tradition of Europe and its subsequent transplanting to the Americas, philosophy has
reinvented itself with a new set of techniques that would be out of place in the world of the ancient
Greeks, where philosophy started. It centres on logic and conceptual analysis. Topics at its centre
include the theory of knowledge, ethics, the nature of language, and the nature of mind.
Earlier traditions of philosophy placed more emphasis on the study of the arts and science of life: a
general theory and a commendation of way of life. In this sense, philosophy is concerned with
the practical bits of how to live rather than a theoretical attempt to understand. This legacy was
derived from some of the earliest philosophers known to us: the Sophists, who were the teachers of
rhetoric, grammar and science of the ancient world. Though somewhat akin to sages these Sophists
played an important role in the development of philosophy.
In the subsequent analytic tradition that developed after the Sophists, philosophy became a subject
you could pursue for purely abstract and metaphysical reasons. In the Sophist tradition, philosophy
is a body of knowledge to be mastered with which you could gain power or reward. It is possible to
exaggerate these differences for when philosophy is not dogma each tradition pays some homage to
the other.
In the Western world, at one time the term 'philosophy' covered all disciplines. Over time, as the
corpus of human knowledge grew, various disciplines emerged, each with their own methodologies
and domains of study, and these disciplines became to a large extent autonomous. For example, if
you go into a public library that uses the Dewey decimal classification system, you will find that
psychology books have a classmark starting with 150 - right in the middle of the philosophy section.
This is because at the time the system was created, in the latter half of the 19th century, psychology
was only just beginning to emerge as a distinct discipline. Another example is the term 'natural
philosophy', which was once used to mean science, or more particularly physics. By this view, what
is called 'philosophy' at any time in history are those provinces of human knowledge which have not
yet come of age, which not yet developed their own autonomous character and status.
These independent disciplines do have their own philosophies; so there is a philosophy of science, a
philosophy of mathematics, a philosophy of psychology, and so on. When studying in these areas,
one looks at methodological issues or examines some of the core concepts of the discipline, as well
as various ethical issues.
There are domains which definitely belong in a philosophy department. Epistemology is concerned
with 'how do I know what I know?', Ontology with 'what is real?', Ethics with 'how should one conduct
oneself?'. Logic is concerned with proper reasoning. Many other disciplines exist within philosophy.
Etymology[edit]
The term philosophy is derived from the Greek words phylos meaning "to love" and sophie meaning
"wisdom".

Introduction to Philosophy[edit]
In the Phaedo, Socrates says that philosophy is a preparation for the death that awaits us all. When
the mind is engaged in philosophy it is free of concerns and dwells in the domain of ideas. Our
minds enter a spiritual region transcending the death of our corporeal experience. Another, better
known, view of Socrates is that of philosophy as ‘the love of wisdom’. This love discovers truth, and
we become wise by practical application in our daily lives of what has been discovered.
These definitions highlight the nature of philosophical inquiry. Philosophers ask questions. These
questions try to understand the metaphysical and physical universe including humans and their
world

Pre-Socratics[edit]
The history of philosophy in the west begins with the Greeks, and particularly with a group of
philosophers commonly called the pre-Socratics. This is not to deny the occurrence of other pre-
philosophical rumblings in Egyptian and Babylonian cultures. Certainly great thinkers and writers
existed in each of these cultures, and we have evidence that some of the earliest Greek
philosophers may have had contact with at least some of the products of Egyptian and Babylonian
thought. However, the early Greek thinkers added at least one element which differentiates their
thoughts from all those who came before them. For the first time in history, we discover in their
writings something more than dogmatic assertions about the ordering of the world - we find
reasoned arguments for various beliefs about the world.
Thales[edit]
Thales (in Greek: Θαλης) of Miletus (circa 624 BC - 546 BC), also known as Thales the Milesian,
was a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher. Many regard him as the first philosopher in the Greek
tradition. He has also been traditionally considered the father of science, although it is also
contended that the beginnings of science may be traced to Ancient Egypt.
Life[edit]
Thales lived in the city of Miletus, in Ionia, now western Turkey. According to Herodotus, he was of
Phoenician descent.
The well-traveled Ionians had many dealings with Egypt and Babylon; Thales may have studied in
Egypt as a young man. In any event, Thales almost certainly had exposure to Egyptian mythology,
astronomy, and mathematics, as well as to other traditions alien to the Homeric traditions of Greece.
Perhaps because of this, his inquiries into the nature of things extends beyond traditional mythology.
Several anecdotes suggest that Thales was not solely a thinker; he was involved in business and
politics. One story recounts that he bought all the olive presses in Miletus after predicting the
weather and a good harvest for a particular year. Another version of this same story states that he
bought the presses to demonstrate to his fellow Milesians that he could use his intelligence to enrich
himself. Herodotus recorded that Thales advised the city-states of Ionia to form a federation.
Thales is said to have died in his seat, while watching an athletic contest.
Theories and influence[edit]
Before Thales, the Greeks explained the origin and nature of the world through myths of
anthropomorphic gods and heroes. Phenomena like lightning or earthquakes were attributed to the
actions of the gods.
By contrast, Thales attempted to find naturalistic explanations of the world, without reference to the
supernatural. He explained earthquakes by imagining that the Earth floats on water and that
earthquakes occur when the Earth is rocked by waves. Herodotus cites him as having predicted the
solar eclipse of 585 BC that put an end to the fighting between the Lydians and the Medes.
Thales's most famous belief was his cosmological doctrine, which held that the world originated from
water. It is sometimes assumed that Thales considered everything to be made from water.
According to others, however, it's likely that while Thales saw water as an origin, he never pondered
whether water continued to be the substance of the world.
Many philosophers followed Thales's lead in searching for explanations in nature rather than in the
supernatural; others returned to supernatural explanations, but couched them in the language of
philosophy rather than myth or religion.
Thales is credited for having first popularized Geometry to ancient Greek culture, mainly that of
spatial relationships.
The best explanation of Thales's view is the following passage from Aristotle's Metaphysics (983
BC). The passage is given in translation with key phrases transliterated from the Greek for the
reader's benefit. The reader will see in the transliteration words from the theory of matter and form
that were adopted by science with quite different meanings. The translation is somewhat literal, for
purposes of accuracy.
"That from which is everything that exists (ta onta) and from which it first becomes (ex hou
gignetai protou) and into which it is rendered at last (eis ho phtheiretai teleutaion), its
substance remaining under it (tes men ousias hypomenouses), but transforming in qualities
(pathesi metaballouses), that they say is the element (stoicheion) and principle (archen) of
things that are (ton onton)."
And again:
"For it is necessary (dei) that there be some nature (physin), either one or more than one,
from which become (gignetai) the other things (t'alla) of the object being preserved
(sozomenes ekeines)... Thales says that it is water (hydor)."
Aristotle's depiction of the change problem and the definition of substance could not be
more clear. If an object changes, is it the same or different? In either case how can there be
a change (metabollein) from one to the other? The answer is the substance (ousia or
physis), which "is saved", but acquires or loses different qualities (pathe, the things you
"experience").
A deeper dip into the waters of the theory of matter and form is properly reserved to other
articles. The question for this article is, how far does Aristotle reflect Thales? He was
probably not far off, and Thales was probably an incipient matter-and-formist.
The essentially non-philosophic DL states that Thales taught as follows:
"Water constituted (hypestesato, "stood under") the principle of all things."
Heraclitus Homericus (Quaes. Hom. 22, not the same as Heraclitus of Ephesus) states
that Thales drew his conclusion from seeing moist substance (hygra physis) turn into air,
slime and earth. It seems clear that Thales viewed the Earth as solidifying from the
water on which it floated and which surrounded it as Ocean.
 Thales applied his method to objects that changed to become other objects, such as
water into earth (he thought). But what about the changing itself? Thales did address the
topic, approaching it through magnets and amber--which, when electrified by rubbing,
attracts in the same way.
How was the power to move other things without the mover’s changing to be explained?
Thales saw a commonality with the powers of living things to act. The magnet and the
amber must be alive, and if that were so, there could be no difference between the living
and the dead. When asked why he didn’t die if there was no difference, he replied
“because there is no difference.”
Aristotle defined the soul as the principle of life, that which permeates the matter and
makes it live, giving it the animation, or power to act. The idea did not originate with him,
as the Greeks in general believed in the distinction between mind and matter, which was
ultimately to lead to a distinction not only between body and soul but also between
matter and energy.
If things were alive, they must have souls. This belief was no innovation, as the ordinary
ancient populations of the Mediterranean did believe that natural actions were caused
by divinities. Accordingly, the sources say that Thales believed all things possessed
divinities. In their zeal to make him the first in everything they said he was the first to
hold the belief, which even they must have known was not true.
However, Thales was looking for something more general, a universal substance of
mind. That also was true to the polytheism of the times. Zeus was the very
personification of supreme mind, dominating all the subordinate manifestations. From
Thales on, however, philosophers had a tendency to depersonify or objectify mind, as
though it were the substance of animation per se and not actually a god like the other
gods. The end result was a total removal of mind from substance, opening the door to a
non-divine principle of action. This tradition persisted until Einstein, whose cosmology is
quite a different one and does not distinguish between matter and energy.
Classical thought, however, had proceded only a little way along that path. Instead of
referring to the person, Zeus, they talked about the great mind:
"Thales", says Cicero, "assures that water is the principle of all things; and that God is that
Mind which shaped and created all things from water." (Cicero:"De Nat.Deorum,"i.,10.)
The universal mind appears as a Roman belief in Vergil as well:
"In the beginning, SPIRIT within strengthens Heaven and Earth,
The watery fields, and the lucid globe of Lina, and then --
Titan stars; and mind infused through the limbs
Agitates the whole mass, and mixes itself with GREAT MATTER"
(Virgil: "Aeneid," vi., 724 ff.)
Socrates[edit]
Socrates (c.470 – 399 BC) (Greek Σωκράτης Sōkrátēs) was a
Greek (Athenian) philosopher.
Like Thales and the other pre-Socratics, Socrates too had the
ambition to ask questions of life. However, where the pre-
Socratics were more concerned with the cosmological
questions, Socrates was concerned with questions of the
following nature: What is piety? What kind of life is worthwhile
for a human to live? Can virtue be taught? What is justice? Is
there more than one's virtue? What is human excellence?
Socrates did not actually write any of these ideas down. The
only written information about his philosophy can be found in
the dialogues of Plato and Xenophon. These dialogues deal
mostly with questions of the good life, human excellence, and
the cultivation of knowledge. One of Plato's most important and
best known works is "The Republic" in which we find the
allegory of The Cave that explains the difference between
perceived reality and "real" reality which, according to Plato,
can only be found in the realm of ideas. More: Greek
Philosophy: Socrates
  What is Philosophy?
 Why is it called a science?
 What can we get from philosophizing?
 What are the prevailing attitudes toward it?
 What are the primary objectives in studying Philosophy of Man?

 Philosophy is a science because it is based on knowledge, not on mere opinion, theory or

hypothesis.

 Philosophy is a science of beings (things) – it covers all things which can be apprehended by the
human mind, that is:

1. Philosophy enables us to understand ourselves better.

2. Philosophy helps us understand others, our fellowmen.
3. Philosophy helps us understand others’ way of thinking.
4. Philosophy helps us understand the world and our place and role in it.
5. Philosophy helps us understand the significance, meaning, value, and finality of human life.
6. Philosophy helps us know and understand God in His nature, essence, activities, and attributes.

Five Views on Philosophyaccording to Harold H. Titus and

Marilyn S. Smith
1. Philosophy is difficult to understand.
2. It is impractical or “out of touch with reality.”
3. There is no progress in philosophy, for even philosophers disagree with one another.
I. Speculative Philosophy – philosophy which considers beings for the sole purpose of acquiring
knowledge of them.
(a) Rational Philosophy or Logic – the science and art of correct thinking.
(b) Real Speculative Philosophy – science which considers real being, that is, all beings which have their
own nature.
(1) Philosophy of Nature – mobile being endowed with physical motion.
(2) Metaphysics – it deals with human reality and system of human thought that seeks to explain the
fundamental concept of man.
1. Epistemology – the study of the origin, structures, methods, nature, limit and veracity that includes
truth, reliability, and validity of human knowledge.
2. Cosmology – origin and development of the cosmos
3. Aesthetics – the study of what is beautiful
4. Philosophical Psychology – the science of mind, mental state and processes.
5. Theodicy – philosophical study of God
6. Social Philosophy – the study of man in relation to family, state and church.
  In general, Philosophy of Man is a course that deals with man; man is the superstar in the
Philosophy of Man.
 Philosophy of Man is one’s desire to know who and what man is.
 Philosophy of Man delves into the origin of human life, the nature of human life and the reality of
human existence.

Philosophy of Man
Is the theoretical and reflective study of human being, which intends to gain interpretive and prescriptive
knowledge regarding the meaning and value of human nature, personhood, existence and condition.
1. Philosophy of Man gives us a broader horizon in understanding ourselves, others, and God.
2. Philosophy of Man helps us to identify the points of divergence and convergence between us and the
animals and between us and the plants.
3. Philosophy of Man helps us understand better our nature, the meaning of our existence, our point of
origin, and out terminal point who is God.
4. Philosophy of Man exposes us to a thorough and deeper understanding of ourselves as unique
dipartite creatures; that we are the substantial unity of body and soul.
5. Philosophy of Man enables us to encounter the diverse views of different philosophers concerning our
nature, our uniqueness, and our role in the whole spectrum of God’s creation.
5. Philosophy as an activity, both critical and analytical

Etymological definition
Philosophy is one of the noblest activities in which we can engage because it promotes wisdom in our
lives.
It investigates and presents evidenced, systematically-arranged, and complete body of knowledge or
truth.
The interest of philosophy is not only limited to all living beings but also it incorporates inanimate objects
and covers a wide range of examination on issues on justice, conscience, reason, the incorruptible soul,
and the Summum Deum.
*American Philosopher & Theologian

Primary Objectives
"The literal definition gives us the idea that a person who takes part in studying Philosophical subjects is a
man who loves wisdom."

*James Porter Moreland

Other Branches of Philosophy
2. Philosophy as a method of reflective thinking and reasoned inquiry.

The Meaning of Philosophy

 It is through reason that a thing is known and understood.
The Meaning of Philosophy
A cause is something from which other things come.

Philosophy: Its Nature and Place in Society

II. Practical Philosophy – is a philosophy, which considers how man naturally ought to act to attain his
ultimate end.
(a) Ethics – the science of morality of human acts.
the study of what is right and wrong in man’s behavior in the pursuit of beauty and goodness in life.
(b) Economics or Domestic Moral – considers the operations of domestic society, that is, of the family.
(c) Politics – considers the operations of civil society.
Finally, philosophy can be acquired by the aid of human reason alone means that philosophy bases its
knowledge solely on the reasoning power of the human mind, not on any authority.

Division of Philosophy
 The literal definition of philosophy, then, is the love of wisdom or knowledge.

Real definition
4. Philosophy as logical analysis of language and the clarification of the meaning of words and concepts.

The Meaning of Philosophy

So why philosophize?

The Meaning of Philosophy

Attitudes Towards Philosophy
1. Philosophy as personal attitude towards life and the universe.
“THINKING which aims at maximum connected truth about all available experience.”
3. Philosophy as an attempt to gain a view of the whole.

Miriam Defensor – Santiago

Philosophy obliges the person to pursue the process of search and discovery.
No other being except man can know himself.

Mr. Erwin Rivera Mercado

Instructor
The Purposes of Philosophy
 RELIGION tells you there is a heaven.

 SCIENCE describes HOW the heavens work.

  PHILOSOPHY teaches you

WHAT,
WHERE, and…
HOW to get there.
a)anything that exists,
b) is going to exist,
c) can be thought of,
d) is known.
We have to…It is our mission. God-by giving us a mind-consigns us to philosophize so that we can
understand ourselves, others, the world, and Him better than we believe we do.
"Philosophy is the attempt to think rationally and critically about life’s most important questions in order to
obtain knowledge and wisdom about them."
The science of beings (things) in their ultimate reasons, causes and principles acquired by the aid of
human reason alone.

The Meaning of Philosophy of Man

The Purposes of Philosophy
Philosophy of Human Person
“Think Out of the Box”
 Philosophy as science of beings in their ultimate reasons, causes and principles.

Philosophy of Man
 The term “philosophy” is derived from the Greek philos/philia meaning “love,” and sophia meaning
“wisdom” or “knowledge.”
Lecture 1 Introduction to Philosophy
1. 1. LECTURE NO. 1 Presented by: Arnel O. Rivera LPU-Cavite Based on the presentation of:
Mr. Alexander Rodis
2. 2. MEANING OF PHILOSOPHY The word philosophy is derived from the Greek words philia
(love) and sophia (wisdom) and means “the love of wisdom.” Pythagoras was said to have
been the first man to call himself a philosopher; in fact, the world is indebted to him for the
word philosopher. It is said that when Leon, the tyrant of Philius, asked him of who he was,
he said, “a Philosopher” and he likened the Philosopher to spectators at ancient games.
Before that time the wise men had called themselves a sage, which was interpreted to mean
those who know. Pythagoras was more modest. He coined the word philosopher, which he
defined as one who is attempting to find out. According to him, men and women of the world
could be classified into 3 groups: 1. those that love pleasure 2. those that love activity and 3.
those that love wisdom.
3. 3. MEANING OF PHILOSOPHY Philosophy is the study of general and fundamental
problems, such as those connected with existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and
language. Philosophy is the rational attempt to formulate, understand, and answer
fundamental questions.
4. 4. NATURE OF PHILOSOPHY 1. Philosophy is a set of views or beliefs about life and the
universe, which are often held uncritically. We refer to this meaning as the informal sense of
philosophy or “having” a philosophy. Usually when a person says “my philosophy is,” he or
she is referring to an informal personal attitude to whatever topic is being discussed.
5. 5. NATURE OF PHILOSOPHY 2. Philosophy is a process of reflecting on and criticizing our
most deeply held conceptions and beliefs. These two senses of philosophy— “having” and
“doing”— cannot be treated entirely independent of each other, for if we did not have a
philosophy in the formal, personal sense, then we could not do a philosophy in the critical,
reflective sense. Having a philosophy, however, is not sufficient for doing philosophy. A
genuine philosophical attitude is searching and critical; it is open-minded and tolerant—
willing to look at all sides of an issue without prejudice. To philosophize is not merely to read
and know philosophy; there are skills of argumentation to be mastered, techniques of
analysis to be employed, and a body of material to be appropriated such that we become
able to think philosophically. Philosophers are reflective and critical.
6. 6. NATURE OF PHILOSOPHY 3. Philosophy is a rational attempt to look at the world as a
whole. Philosophy seeks to combine the conclusions of the various sciences and human
experience into some kind of consistent world view. Philosophers wish to see life, not with
the specialized slant of the scientist or the businessperson or the artist, but with the overall
view of someone cognizant of life as a totality.
7. 7. NATURE OF PHILOSOPHY 4. Philosophy is the logical analysis of language and the
clarification of the meaning of words and concepts. . Certainly this is one function of
philosophy. In fact, nearly all philosophers have used methods of analysis and have sought
to clarify the meaning of terms and the use of language. Some philosophers see this as the
main task of philosophy, and a few claim this is the only legitimate function of philosophy.
8. 8. NATURE OF PHILOSOPHY 5. Philosophy is a group of perennial problems that interest
people and for which philosophers always have sought answers. Philosophy presses its
inquiry into the deepest problems of human existence. Some of the philosophical questions
raised in the past have been answered in a manner satisfactory to the majority of
philosophers. Many questions, however, have been answered only tentatively, and many
problems remain unsolved.  “What is truth?”  “What is the distinction between right and
wrong?”  What is life and why am I here?  Why is there anything at all?
9. 9. IMPORTANCE OF PHILOSOPHY 1. The study of Philosophy enables us to think carefully
and clearly about important issues. 2. In studying Philosophy, we learn to take a step back
from our everyday thinking and to explore the deeper, bigger question which underpins our
thought. 3. The focus in the study of Philosophy is to learn not what to believe, but how to
 think. 4. Studying philosophy sharpens your analytical abilities, enabling you to identify and
evaluate the strengths and weaknesses in any position. 5. It hones your ability to construct
and articulate cogent arguments of your own. 6. It prompts you to work across disciplinary
boundaries and to think flexibly and creatively about problems which do not present
immediate solutions. 7. Because philosophy is an activity as much a body of knowledge, it
also develops your ability to think and work independently.
10. 10. BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY Historically, philosophical concerns have been treated
under these broad categories: 1. Logic 2. Metaphysics 3. Epistemology 4. Value theory
11. 11. A. LOGIC Logic is the systematic study of the rules for the correct use of these
supporting reasons, rules we can use to distinguish good arguments from bad ones. Most of
the great philosophers from Aristotle to the present have been convinced that logic
permeates all other branches of philosophy. The ability to test arguments for logical
consistency, understand the logical consequences of certain assumptions, and distinguish
the kind of evidence a philosopher is using are essential for “doing” philosophy
12. 12. B. METAPHYSICS Another traditional branch of Philosophy traditionally known as
metaphysics. For Aristotle, the term metaphysics meant “first philosophy,” discussion of the
most universal principles; later the term came to mean “comprehensive thinking about the
nature of things.” It means, usually, the study or theory of reality. The question of
metaphysics is: what is reality? What is real? Is reality some kind of “thing”. Is it one or is it
many? If it is one, then how is it related to many things around us? Can ultimate reality be
grasped by five senses, or is it supernatural or transcendent? Metaphysics undoubtedly is
the branch of philosophy that the modern student finds most difficult to grasp. Metaphysics
attempts to offer a comprehensive view of all that exists. It is concerned with such problems
as the relation of mind to matter, the nature of change, the meaning of “freedom,” the
existence of God, and the belief in personal immortality.
13. 13. C. EPISTEMOLOGY The technical term for the theory of knowledge is epistemology,
which comes from the Greek word episteme, meaning “knowledge.” In general, epistemology
is the branch of philosophy that studies the sources, nature, and validity of knowledge. 
There are three central questions in this field:  (1) What are the sources of knowledge?
Where does genuine knowledge come from or how do we know? This is the question of
origins.  (2) What is the nature of knowledge? Is there a real world outside the mind, and if
so can we know it? This is the question of appearance versus reality.  (3) Is our knowledge
valid? How do we distinguish truth from error? This is the question of the tests of truth, of
verification.
14. 14.  Traditionally, most of those who have offered answers to these questions can be
placed in one of two schools of thought—rationalism or empiricism.  The rationalists hold
that human reason alone can discover the basic principles of the universe.  The empiricists
claim that all knowledge is ultimately derived from sense experience and, thus, that our
knowledge is limited to what can be experienced.  It should be clear that there is a
necessary relation between metaphysics and epistemology. Our conception of reality
depends on our understanding of what can be known. Conversely, our theory of knowledge
depends on our understanding of ourselves in relation to the whole of reality.
15. 15. D. VALUE THEORY Value theory is the branch of philosophy that studies values. It can
be subdivided into ethics, aesthetics, and social and political philosophy. In broad terms
ethics concerns itself with the question of morality. What is right and what is wrong in human
relations? Within morality and ethics there are three major areas: descriptive ethics,
normative ethics, and metaethics. Descriptive ethics seeks to identify moral experience in a
descriptive way. We seek to identify, within the range of human conduct, the motives,
desires, and intentions as well as overt acts themselves.
16. 16. ETHICS  Descriptive ethics consider the conduct of individuals, or personal morality;
the conduct of groups, or social morality; and the culture patterns of national and racial
groups.  A second level of inquiry is normative ethics (what ought to be). Here philosophers
try to work out acceptable judgments regarding what ought to be in choice and value. “We
 ought to keep our promises” and “you ought to be honorable” are examples of normative
judgments— of the moral ought, the subject matter of ethics.  Third, there is the area of
critical or metaethics. Here interest is centered on the analysis and meaning of the terms and
language used in ethical discourse and the kind of reasoning used to justify ethical
statements. Metaethics does not propound any moral principle or goal (except by
implication), but rather consists entirely of philosophical analysis. What is the meaning of
“good?” and Can ethical judgments be justified? are typical problems for metaethics.
17. 17. AESTHETICS Concerns the theory of art and beauty. Questions of art and beauty are
considered to be part of the realm of values because many philosophical problems in
aesthetics involve critical judgments. There are wide differences of opinion as to what
objects call forth the aesthetic response, and what beauty really is. Our concepts of beauty
may differ not because of the nature of beauty itself, but because of varying degrees of
preparation in discerning beauty. Therefore, if we cannot perceive beauty in objects that
others find beautiful, it may be wise to withhold judgment until we are capable ourselves of
making a competent analysis of the aesthetic experience.
18. 18. SOCIAL AND POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY Social and political philosophy investigates
value judgments concerning society, the state, and the individual’s relation to these
institutions. The following questions reflect the concerns of social and political philosophy: 
Why should individuals live in society?  What social ideals of liberty, rights, justice, equality
and responsibility are desirable?  Why should anyone obey any government?  Why should
some individuals or groups have political power over others?  What criteria are to be used
in determining who should have political power?  What criteria are to be used in
determining the scope of political power, and what rights or freedoms should be immune
from political or legal control?  To what positive goals should political power be directed,
and what are the criteria for determining this?
INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY
1. 1. PHILOSOPHY Prepared by Raizza Corpuz
2. 2. INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY • • • • • • • MEANING NATURE SCOPE GOALS
IMPORTANCE BRANCHES EPOCH
3. 3. WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY? WHERE IT BEGINS?
4. 4. REMEMBER • In studying PHILOSOPHY one should KNOW the : 1.Contextualize/ation
2.Basis In this way one can distinguish both VALIDITY and TRUTH, GENUINE and
ESSENTIAL ideals.
5. 5. FROM WONDER TO WANDER
6. 6. “Wasn’t it extraordinary to be in the world right now, wandering around in a wonderful
adventure!” ― Jostein Gaarder, Sophie's World
7. 7. Wonder • To be filled with curiosity or doubt • An event inexplicable by the laws of nature;
a miracle. • A feeling of puzzlement or doubt. Source: Thesaurus Dictionary
8. 8. Wander: Verb • Walk or move in a leisurely, casual, or aimless way. • An act or instance of
wandering. verb. roam - ramble - rove straynoun. wandering - stroll - saunter ramble Source:
Thesaurus Dictionary
9. 9. • Philosophers’ definition-arises out of wonder, out of curiosity, out of desire to learn, and
to understand things. • According to the Philosopher, Philosophy is a process of analysis,
criticism, interpretation and speculation • Analysis-if we know how to synthesis and
antithesis. • Synthesis- put idea together or event of the same characteristic. • Antithesis-
remove from or put it out, removing ideas • Criticism- is a process of commenting or giving a
judgment, even if its positive or negative. • Interpretation-demonstration of ideas. •
Speculation-being satisfied.
10. 10. A. Meaning of Philosophy Etymology Etymology- or etymological definition of Philosophy
-derived for Greek words etimos and logos Etimos-root, origin, cause, basis, history Logos-
study Etymology-study of the history of the word Philosophy comes from the Geek Words
Philia and Sofia. Sofia-wisdom Philia-love, desire for, interest in Philia and Sofia join by
Pythagoras-600 B.C. Episteme-means knowledge Wisdom-defining deeply, wise, according
to etymology -is an awareness of something which is basic. -knowledge of the basic
principle. Knowledge-is only a million formation -simple data that comes from the outside that
pass to our senses.
11. 11. What is Philosophy as a TERM/WORD? The term “philosophy” comes from the Greek
language. It consists of two words : • philos, (love, or philia )– friendship, affection • sophos
(learned scholar, sage, or • sophia - wisdom, knowledge, talent)
12. 12. “philo” - love “sophia” - wisdom THUS: 1. Philosophy is the love of wisdom 2. Philosophy
attempts to answer life's Big Questions 3. Philosophy is about Questions 4. Philosophers ask
Questions about what people Believe 5. Philosophy is about Examining Ourselves & Our
Beliefs
13. 13. THERE ARE MANY QUESTIONS but there are SOME BIG QUESTION What? Why?
HOW
14. 14. What are the REASONS for a particular belief?
15. 15. Have you ever looked in the mirror and asked: The Unexamined Life is not worth living.”
(Socrates) Who am I? Why am I here? What should I do with my life?
16. 16. Have you ever looked in the mirror and asked: OR???
17. 17. Examining Our Beliefs Behavior Beliefs and Values World-View I Exist. Other People
Exist. I believe that my friend is real I talk to my friend
18. 18. What is ‘Philosophy’?
19. 19. BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY
20. 20. Ethics Religion Epistemology Politics Aesthetics Philosophy Science Logic Metaphysics
Branches of Philosophy
21. 21. Branches of Philosophy
22. 22. Ethics Questions: How should we live? What is good and evil? What is the best way to
live? What is Justice? Is right and wrong the same everywhere or different everywhere?
23. 23. Ethics
24. 24. Epistemology Knowledge Science Explores the nature and limitations of knowledge
Definition of knowledge Investigates how knowledge is obtained Explores the relationship
between belief, truth and knowledge
25. 25. Epistemology Questions: What is knowledge? How is knowledge acquired? How do we
know what we know?
26. 26. What is Epistemology?
27. 27. Epistemological Questions
28. 28. Metaphysics Knowledge Science Explores the fundamental nature of reality and being
Ontology Existence Objects Properties Space and Time Cause and Effect
29. 29. Metaphysics Questions: What is real? What is reality? What is reality like?
30. 30. Metaphysics
31. 31. Politics Political Philosophy Explores the relationship between citizens and governments
Liberty Legal Justice Property Ownership Citizen's Rights System of Law
32. 32. Politics Questions: How should government be organized? What makes a government
legitimate? Who decides who the leaders should be? What laws are good and necessary?
How should law be enforced?
33. 33. Aesthetics Sensori-Emotional Values Explores the nature of beauty, art, and taste with
the creation and appreciation of beauty
34. 34. Aesthetics Questions What is beauty? What is art? What is the value of beauty and art?
Who should judge what is beautiful or artistic? How should art and beauty be judged?
35. 35. Aesthetics Discussion: On the left is Marcel Duchamp's ready-made “sculpture” called
“Fountain”. It's a factorymade urinal on a stand. Is this “Art”? Why / Why not? Is it beautiful?
Offensive? Why?
36. 36. Logic Rules for Thinking The systematic principles (or rules) for thinking rationally.
Inferences are made by construction of Arguments Rules of Logic determine which
arguments are VALID and which are FALACIES
37. 37. Logic
38. 38. Religion Philosophy of Religion Branch of philosophy concerned with questions regarding
religion Nature & Existence of God Theology Examination of Religious Experience Analysis
of Religious language and texts Relationship between Religion and Science
39. 39. Religion Questions Does God exist? What is God? What is the nature of the relationship
between God and humans? Is God active in the world? How? Is there life after death? What
is the relationship between Religion and Ethics? ...Religion and Science?
40. 40. Religion Pantheism What is God? God is the Universe and the Universe is God. There is
no distinction between God and the universe (nature). Some forms of Buddhism are
examples of pantheism.
41. 41. Religion Panentheism What is God? God is in the Universe and the Universe is in God
God is more than the Universe. God and the Universe are connected but not identical.
42. 42. Philosophy of Science Science Concerned with the assumptions, foundations, methods
and implications of science. Empirical Verification Inductive Logic Objectivity of the Observer
43. 43. Philosophy of Science Questions What is the natural world? How should we study
nature? What methods are useful in the study of nature? Can science establish Natural Laws
which are absolute (true everywhere and for everyone)? What are the limits of scientific
knowledge?
44. 44. THANK YOU!!! –END--
Nature of philosophy
1. 1. NATURE OF PHILOSOPHY Mrs. Lorraine S.Almario
2. 2.  One cannot simply divorce himself/herself from philosophy.  The moment someone
starts asking anything about his/her environment, himself/herself, and his/her society, this
person in already philosophizing.
3. 3.  It is in the nature of philosophy that a person inquires for the meaning of himself/herself
and the world around him/her.  It inquires about the entire breadth of reality, and gives a
purely rational explanation of its totality.
4. 4. General Statements that attempt to explain philosophy 1. Philosophy integrates itself with
other disciplines to achieve a comprehensive and coherent world view. 2. Philosophy
analyzes the very foundations of other disciplines. 3. Philosophy analyzes and criticizes
treasured beliefs and traditions.
5. 5. What is Philosophy? (Christine Carmela Ramos - REX)  Greek words: philo – to love,
sophia – wisdom  science that by natural light of reason studies the first causes or highest
principles of all things
6. 6. Things to be considered:  Science  investigation is systematic  follows certain steps /
employs certain procedures  organized body of knowledge just like any other sciences
7. 7.  Natural light of Reason  investigates things not by using any other laboratory
instrument or investigative tools, neither on the basis of supernatural revelation  uses his
natural capacity to think or simply human reason alone (unaided reason)
8. 8.  Study of All things  Philosopher studies human beings, society, religion, language,
God, and plants  not one dimensional or partial
9. 9.  a philosopher does not limit himself to a particular object of inquiry  questions almost
anything, if not everything  multidimensional or holistic
10. 10.  Early Greek philosophers studied aspects of the natural and human world that later
became separate sciences – astronomy, physics, psychology, and sociology.
11. 11. What is Philosophy? (Nuelan A. Magbanua – BRILLIANT CREATIONS)  Discovery of
philosophy may be attributed to Pythagoras of Samos who was the first to use the term
“philosopher.”  There is a big difference between being a lover of wisdom and a mere
receiver of knowledge.  For philosophers, they aim to be wise in almost all aspects of
human discipline, inquiring and investigating all forms of human phenomena.
12. 12.  Certain basic problems – the nature of the universe, the standard of justice, the validity
of knowledge, the correct application of reason, and the criteria of beauty – have been the
domain of philosophy from its beginnings
13. 13.  They seek to answer the questions of the world, not because they are forced to do so,
but because they are passionate in their quest for wisdom.  Philosophers are known to be
entities or beings of wisdom, for their teachings helped shed light to the many questions of
humankind.
14. 14.  Their wisdom stood the test of time and were even immortalized that up to this day,
they become the bases of the people’s judgments and decisions.  Philosophy is a field of
study that desires to understand and comprehend the mysteries of reality, to unveil the
nature of truth, and examine the significance of life.
15. 15.  It also became the story of people who never cease to wonder, inquire, and investigate
about everything and anything under the sun.
16. 16. What is Philosophy (Sioco & Vinzons - VIBAL)  Philosophy is a mother discipline out if
which the other sciences emerge.  During ancient times, in Greek Ionia, any investigation
regarding the nature of things would be labeled as ‘phusis’ or nature.  Back then, there was
no distinction between science, philosophy, or religion.
17. 17.  Before philosophy, the ancient Greeks were so engrossed with their myths about their
gods and goddesses such an extent that in order to please the gods and grant their wishes,
they would offer some token.
18. 18.  Around 650 BC, a man from a fishing village in Miletus –Thales started to diverge from
the mythological tradition and sought to answer questions like:  What is the underlying
substance that reality is made of?  How do things come to be, change and pass away?  Is
there something that remains amidst all these changes?
19. 19.  Thales was the first man in recorded history to veer away from mythological tradition
and began to view things in different angle.
20. 20. HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY 7th Century B.C.
21. 21.  Milesians  Thales - water  Anaximander - infinite/apeiron  Heraclitus – fire  "Strife is
the father of all."  Anaxagoras  "There is a portion of everything in everything" -- earliest
theory of infinite divisibility.
22. 22. Late 7th Century B.C. to Early 5th Century B.C.
23. 23.  Pre-Socratics  Empedocles - water, air, fire, and earth  Parmenides - the world is a
uniform solid, spherical in shape; "Being is, Non-Being is not"; empty space cannot exist if all
things are made of basic stuff
24. 24.  Zeno of Elea - paradoxes of space and motion  Euclid - logic and mathematical theory
 Pythagoras - numbers  Plato'sTheory of Forms was greatly influenced by Parmenides'
notion of the One and by the mathematical conclusions of Pythagoras.
25. 25. 6th Century B.C.
26. 26.  Eastern prophets & moral teachers  Lao-Tse - The Buddha, a title meaning "the
enlightened one," said life itself is marked by suffering, and that the path to transcendence
(nirvana) lay in avoiding the extremes of self-indulgence and self-mortification.
27. 27.  Confucius - Confucius' ethics centered on the ideas of benevolence, filial piety, and
reciprocity (treating others as one would wish to be treated)
28. 28.  Buddha - discerned an underlying reality of all things, the understanding of which
depends on emptying one's soul and focusing on "TheWay," orTao
29. 29. Early 5th Century B.C. to Late 4th Century B.C.
30. 30.  Socrates  Socrates developed a method of questioning designed to expose
weaknesses in the interrogated (sometimes referred to as the maieutic method, in which the
questioner acts as a midwife, helping to give birth to others' thoughts).
31. 31.  He believed circumspect use of language and endless self-questioning are crucial in
the quest for wisdom.  Teacher of Plato, world-sage in outlook, he saw philosophy as a way
of life, the highest calling of a select few. For him the highest good is knowledge.  He wrote
nothing but dramatically influenced the course of intellectual history.
32. 32.  Plato  Plato, teacher of Aristotle, set forth his philosophy in dialogues, chief
protagonist of which was Socrates, his mentor; he founded the Academy (c. 387 BC),
perhaps the first institution of learning in the western world.
33. 33.  Most famous for hisTheory of Forms (phenomenal world of matter just an imperfect
reflection of an immutable, transcendental world of ideas).  Plato believed that knowledge is
a process of remembering; the objects of knowledge are ideal and immutable.
34. 34.  Aristotle  Aristotle theorized on a vast range of subjects: biology, ethics, logic,
metaphysics, politics, &c.  He founded the Lyceum and tutored Alexander the Great.  He's
considered history's first logician and biologist.
35. 35.  His thinking influenced numerous theologians and philosophers, including St. Augustine
andThomas Aquinas.  He was a naturalist who revised Plato's theory of form and matter; for
Aristotle, the form is what makes matter what it is (as the soul defines a living body).
36. 36.  He put forth two general principles of proof: the excluded middle (everything must either
have or not have a given characteristic), and the law of contradiction (nothing can both have
and not have a given characteristic).
37. 37. Middle 4th Century B.C. to Early 3rd Century B.C.
38. 38.  Epicurus/Epicureanism –  known mostly for hedonistic ethical system in which
pleasure is the highest good  (Epicurus: "Eat, drink, and be merry for tomorrow you will
die.")
39. 39.  Quality of pleasure more important than mere quantity.  Epicureans defended an
atomistic view of the world (i.e., things are made up of minute, indivisible particles that move
about in a void).  Epicurus believed there are infinitely many worlds (what we call "galaxies"
today).
40. 40. EarlyThird Century B.C. to Third Century A.D.
41. 41.  Stoics  Zeno  Seneca  Epictetus  Marcus Aurelius
42. 42.  Name Stoicism derived from stoa, or porch, where the movement's founder Zeno (not
Zeno of Elea) taught.  Everything happens for a reason, so that the goal of life should be
acquiescence to divine laws, not resistance.
43. 43.  God is immanent in all matter, creates a harmonious order.  Later Roman Stoics
affirmed same themes: need for harmony in one's life, for spiritual growth which ideally would
exist in seclusion from the everyday hassles of society.
44. 44. Late Fifth Century B.C. to Second Century A.D.
45. 45.  Skeptics  Pyrrho of Elis,  Timon  Antisthenes, and later,  Sextus Empiricus
46. 46.  Avoided doctrines and dogmas and sought to criticize existing ideas.  Nothing is truly
knowable; doubt is the most tenable disposition of mind (Pyrrho).
47. 47.  Important harbinger of later empiricism, of the modern scientific method, of religious
agnosticism.  Profoundly influenced later philosophers (Descartes, Hume, Santayana
among them).
48. 48. Fourth Century B.C. to Sixth Century A.D. (not a continuous school)
49. 49.  Cynics  Diogenes  Antisthenes
50. 50.  Name "Cynic" comes from nickname given Diogenes: the Dog.  Cynical philosophy
unrelated to modern acceptation of the term (view that people act self- centeredly in pursuit
of narrow aims).
51. 51.  According to the older Greek philosophy, happiness is found in virtuous action; goods
in the external world (wealth, fame, pleasure, individualistic ambitions) are unnatural and
harmful.
52. 52. First Century A.D. to Seventeenth Century A.D. (for various Christian philosophies)
53. 53.  Christian & Arabian Philosophy  The advent of the Church led to numerous questions
about Jesus' nature, about the nature of God and the universe, the nature of theTrinity, the
question about faith and reason (are they naturally opposed or naturally complementary?).
54. 54.  Philosophical speculation spills over into theological speculation. Philosophers (e.g.,
Origen and Clement, Boethius, Plotinus, Augustine, Avicenna, Averroes, Maimonides, and
laterAquinas) are chiefly concerned with religious questions.
55. 55.  Greatest influence on Christianity was Platonism, with its emphasis on the superiority of
the soul (spirit) against all materialistic and bodily functions, the belief in a higher,
transcendent world (heaven for religious devotees), belief in Truth andVirtue and acceptance
of immutable, perfect Forms (Jesus being the Form of ideal humanity).
56. 56.  Early post-Hellenistic philosophy reached its summit in the Medieval Period, with the
philosophy of Anselm and Aquinas and the poetry of Dante.
57. 57. Late Fifth Century A.D. to Middle Fifteenth Century
58. 58.  Medieval Period  Boethius  Abelard  William of Ockham  Averroes  Maimonides 
Anselm  Avicenna  Aquinas  Dante  Duns Scotus
59. 59.  advent of scholasticism:  strict adherence to rationalism  inclination to pore over
numerous theological questions  ideas prevalent in this era: question of universals 
debates about existence and essence
60. 60.  Birth of Modern Science  Bacon  Copernicus  Kepler  Galileo
61. 61. Late 15th to Late 17th Centuries
62. 62.  Kepler sought to provide mathematic proofs of Copernicus' views.  Galileo, an Italian
physicist, combined math and science to fashion a new scientific worldview.  He was the
first to use a telescope, the first to confirm that Copernicus' view was correct.
63. 63.  Old views of the world come under scrutiny and are revised (e.g., Ptolemaic view that
earth is the center of the universe).  Copernicus, a Polish astronomer, challenged the
Ptolemaic view; he said the sun was the center of our solar system, and that the earth and
other planets revolve around it.
64. 64.  The Church at this time looked upon scientific experimentation with hostility and
agitation;Galileo was forced to utter a recantation of his views, which he did half- heartedly.
65. 65.  Francis Bacon, considered the father of science in England, made no actual
discoveries (lawyer, essayist, moral philosopher and man of letters) but gave voice to the
inductive method of science and, more importantly, to empiricism (pursuit of knowledge by
observation and experiment, not by use of reason alone).
66. 66.  This period marked the end of scholasticism, the growth of intellectual curiosity and
freedom, and the belief, however tacit, that knowledge about the universe can be derived not
from revelation, as many of the scholastics thought, but from direct investigation and
observation.
67. 67. Early 17th Century to Early 18th Century
68. 68.  Modern Philosophy  Hobbes  Descartes  Newton
69. 69.  English philosopherThomas Hobbes was influenced by both Bacon and Galileo.  He
set out to construct a "master science" of "nature, man, and society"; if knowledge of nature
is obtainable, Hobbes reasoned, knowledge of human nature must also be in reach.
70. 70.  He steered away from empiricism, however, and sought to formulate principles of
human conduct.  The natural state of all bodies, he concluded, is motion; material universe
is matter in motion. Life is motion in limbs, nerves, cells, and heart; human feelings, such as
desire and aversion, are motions either towards something or away from it.
71. 71.  Descartes, known by many as the Father of modern philosophy, revisited the themes
of skepticism (only thing that he couldn't doubt was himself thinking, hence cogito ergo sum);
 He made landmark contributions to mathematics , Cartesian geometry.
72. 72. Mid 17th Century to Early 19th Century
73. 73.  Second Half Of Modern Period  Spinoza  Leibnitz
74. 74.  Cartesian thought proved immediately influential: both Spinoza and Leibniz shared the
Frenchman's passion for ratiocination and developed metaphysical systems of their own. 
Like Descartes, Spinoza and Leibnitz believed in a rational, benevolentGod.
75. 75.  Spinoza wrote the Ethics, whose style took the form of geometrical analysis; he was a
determinist, denied final causes, sought to transcend the distinction between good and evil
altogether, and perhaps most controversially, equatedGod with creation.  Leibnitz's chief
contribution was the monads or metaphysical units that make up substance.
76. 76. Mid 17th Century to Early 19th Century
77. 77.  Second Half Of Modern Period  Locke  Berkeley  Hume  Rousseau  Kant
78. 78.  Locke veered away from metaphysical notions and sought instead an approach
encompassing the empiricism of Bacon and the skepticism of Descartes.  Purpose of
philosophy is to formulate and analyze concrete problems, he said, a view which is strikingly
popular in universities today.
79. 79.  Locke denied that people are born with innate knowledge; human beings are born with
a tabula rasa, or empty slate, everything subsequently known coming from sensory
experience.
80. 80.  George Berkeley, a bishop, attacked Locke's view of knowledge and instead proposed
an idealist system (esse est percipi: to be is to be perceived).  Matter, Berkeley said, is
really only a mental representation in our mind.
81. 81.  Hume assailed Berkeley's views of knowledge and reality and argued that reason
cannot give certain knowledge.  There is no proof of causality, Hume contended; the
skeptical vantage point is the safest to assume in all questions of truth and knowledge.
82. 82.  Rousseau's contribution was less in the field of epistemology, more in the areas of
ethics and political philosophy.  He believed that people are born good but that society
wields a corrupting influence on them.
83. 83.  According to Kant, the world of things-in- themselves is unknowable; the world of
appearance, the phenomenal world governed by laws, is knowable.  Transcendental
knowledge is impossible. Kant rejected the argument of the empiricists that all knowledge is
derived from sensory experience.
84. 84. 19th Century
85. 85.  Post-KantianThinkers  Schopenhauer  Fichte  Hegel  Marx
86. 86.  Schopenhauer thought the driving force of reality isWill.  Knowledge depends not on
reason but Will; to understand reality, we need to look inward, not outward.
87. 87.  Hegel defined the Absolute (unity of God and Mind), popularized the dialectical
approach to truth in which assertion is followed by negation, which in turn is followed by
synthesis.  Hegel held that the external world is mind: there is no real bridge between the
knowing mind and what the mind knows.
88. 88.  Marx excoriated religion, embraced a determinist perspective, and most of all, saw
class conflict and capitalist-driven economic disparity as the hallmarks of industrial society.
89. 89. 19th Century
90. 90.  Humanistic Philosophy & Growth of Modern Science  Comte  J.S. Mill  Darwin
91. 91.  French philosopher Auguste Comte is credited with developing positive philosophy, or
positivism, the view that metaphysics is a meaningless endeavor and that the right emphasis
for philosophy should be along the lines of the scientific method.
92. 92.  Influenced by his father, James Mill, and by Jeremy Bentham, J.S. Mill defended
liberty of expression fought for women's rights and advanced qualitative utilitarianism as a
moral philosophy.  Darwin, another Englishman, is of course best known for The Origin of
Species, a work advancing the theory of evolution and the doctrine of natural selection.
93. 93. 19th And 20th Centuries
94. 94.  Nihilism & Existentialism  Kierkegaard  Nietzsche  Heidegger  Sartre
95. 95.  Existentialism: the view that existence precedes essence, that there's no meaning or
value or truth to life a priori.  Kierkegaard, reputed "founder" of existentialism  Heidegger:
idea of death provokes a fear of nothingness; people hide in inauthentic routines; they seek
to renounce their freedom to act
96. 96.  Sartre: human beings are unique because they can both act and be aware of it at the
same time.
97. 97. 19th And 20th Centuries
98. 98.  American Philosophy  Peirce  James  Dewey
99. 99.  C.S. Peirce gives birth to pragmatism (doctrine which sees truth as the effectiveness of
an idea used as an hypothesis; test of truth is whether idea works when tested by
experiment);
100. 100.  William James elaborates upon the doctrine (metaphysics the enemy of a
pragmatist; goal of pragmatism to be clear and precise in one's thinking; doctrine is empirical
in nature).
101. 101.  Dewey another pragmatist, but didn't share James' fondness for religion or
Peirce's interest in metaphysical criticism.  Dewey was most famous for his progressive
contributions to education and his outspoken criticism of American culture.
102. 102. end