RGUKT, Nuzvid

RGUKT, Nuzvid ROBOTICS

 By K.Lakshmi Kanth
Assistant Professor
RGUKT Nuzvid

RGUKT, Nuzvid ROBOTICS

This semester we will study many aspects of robotics.

Basic components of Electrical

and Electronics
Current
Voltage
Electrical resistivity
Electrical conductivity
Conductors
Insulators
Semi conductors
AC & DC current

RGUKT, Nuzvid ROBOTICS 3

Current: Current is the flow of electrical charge carriers like
electrons. Current flows from negative to positive points.
Electric current is widely used in household and industrial appliances.
Ampere:
 which is the flow of electric charge across a surface at the rate of
one coulomb per second.
 One ampere of current is defined as one coulomb of electrical
charge moving past a unique point in a second.
 The ampere (symbol: A) is an SI base unit
 Electric current is measured using a device called an ammeter.

Voltage: Voltage is what makes electric charges move. It is the 'push'

that causes charges to move in a wire or other electrical conductor.
Voltage is also called, in certain circumstances, electromotive force
(EMF). Voltage is an electrical potential difference, the difference in
electric potential between two places.

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Current is the rate at which electric charge flows past a point in
a circuit.
Voltage is the electrical force that would drive an electric
current between two points.

Current Voltage
Symbol I V
Definition Current is the rate at which electric Voltage, also called electromotive
charge flows past a point in a circuit. In force, is the potential difference
other words, current is the rate of flow of in charge between two points in
electric charge. an electrical field. In other words,
voltage is the "energy per unit
charge”.

Unit A or amps or amperage V or volts or voltage

Relationship Current is the effect (voltage being the Voltage is the cause and current is
cause). Current cannot flow without its effect. Voltage can exist
Voltage. without current.

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Measuring Instrument Ammeter Voltmeter

SI Unit 1 ampere =1 1 volt = 1

coulomb/second. joule/coulomb.
(V=W/C)
Field created A magnetic field An electrostatic field

In series connection Current is the same Voltage gets

through all components distributed over
connected in series. components
connected in series.
In a parallel connection Current gets distributed Voltages are the same
over components across all components
connected in parallel. connected in parallel.

RGUKT, Nuzvid ROBOTICS

In electrical engineering, different types of materials are used for
manufacturing of electrical products and equipment. Any material
in real life can have different properties and characteristics, which
can be used appropriately for better utilization. But electrically a
material can be classified as either insulator or conductor and semi-
conductor.
The property which makes a material insulator, conductor or
semiconductor is called electrical resistivity. The electrical resistivity
is the measure of how difficultly a material passes a current. Which
depends upon the availability of free electronic or ions. The more
free-electrons/ion available at a body the more it will be a
conductor and fewer electrons/ions mean insulator.
Electrical resistivity, represented by the Greek letter ρ (rho), is a
measure of how strongly a material opposes the flow
of electric current. The lower the resistivity, the more readily the
material permits the flow of electric charge. Electrical conductivity
is the reciprocal quantity of resistivity. The resistivity/conductivity
of material
RGUKT, Nuzvid varies from material to material. ROBOTICS
What Is Conductor?
 Conductors are type materials which pass electric current in it
because of availability of free electrons. An electrical conductor has
low resistivity and high conductivity.
 The resistivity of a conductor is from zero to 10-4 Ohm-meter. The
conductor has plenty of free electrons in it, a small potential can
cause the flow of electrons.
 One of a good example of a conductor is metal, where there are
very few valence electrons in the outermost shell of each atom and
they are loosely attracted to the nucleus. A very little energy can
extract them out of the atom orbit and make them free electrons.
 Electrical wire is made of conductors which carry current from
source to load. Best electrical conductor examples are copper,
silver, gold, aluminium etc.
 Silver has highest electrical conductivity and lowest electrical
resistivity. It is the best electrical conductor.

RGUKT, Nuzvid ROBOTICS

What Is Insulator?
 Insulators are the type of electrical material which possesses
high resistivity more than 104 Ohm-meter, or inversely low
conductivity.
 There almost no free electrons available for carrying current in
insulators. A large voltage in insulator may not cause current but
in some cases a very small leakage current because of
unavailability of free electrons.
 Most non-metals are insulators, where bonds have the desire to
catch more electrons. Therefore, a significant amount of external
energy may not able to extract an electron free. In ionic material,
all the ions are arranged together such that there are no carries
available for current to carry.
 Insulators are used to support conductor, avoid electric shock
and all those paths where no current is intended. The best
insulators are ceramics, plastic, wood, etc.

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What Is Semiconductor?
 The semiconductor has the resistivity between 10-4 and
104 ohm-meters. At normal temperature, the resistivity of a
semiconductor is comparatively high but as temperature
increase, the resistivity decreases.
 A semiconductor is mostly having four electrons in its valence
shell and belong to coulomb 3 and 4 of the periodic table.
 The number of free electrons in a semiconductor are very few
at ambient temperature, where external energy i.e. increase in
temperature can increase the number of free electrons.
 A semiconductor is the basis of modern electronics. The best
example of a semiconductor is Germanium, Silicon and Gallium
Arsenide etc.

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RGUKT, Nuzvid ROBOTICS
Difference between Conductor Semiconductor and Insulator
CHARACTERISTICS CONDUCTOR SEMI-CONDUCTOR INSULATOR
Conductivity High Moderate Low
Resistivity Low Moderate Very High
Forbidden gap No forbidden gap Small forbidden gap Large forbidden gap

Temperature Positive Negative Negative

coefficient
Conduction Large number of Very small number of Moderate number of
electrons for electrons for electrons for
conduction conduction conduction
Conductivity value Very high 10- Between those of Negligible like 10-
7mho/m10-7mho/m conductors and 13mho/m10-13mho/m
insulators i.e. 10-
7mho/m10-
7mho/mto 10-
13mho/m10-
13mho/m
Resistivity value Negligible; less Between those of Very high; more
than 10-5 Ω-m10- conductors and than 105 Ω-m
5 Ω-m insulators i.e. 10-5 Ω-
m10-5 Ω-m to 105 Ω-
RGUKT, Nuzvid m105 Ω-m ROBOTICS
Current flow Due to free electrons Due to holes and free Due to negligible free
electrons electrons
Number of Very high Low Negligible
electronics carriers at
normal temperature

Band overlap Both conduction and Both bands are Both bands are
valence bands are separated by an separated by an
overlapped. energy gap of 1.1eV energy gap of 6eV to
10eV
0 Kelvin Behavior Acts like a Acts like an insulator Acts like an insulator
superconductor
Formation Formed by mettalic Formed by covalent Formed by ionic
bonding bonding bonding
Valence Electrons One valence electron Four valence electron Eight valence electron
in outermost shell in outermost shell in outermost shell

Examples Copper, mercury, Germanium, Silicon Wood, Rubber, Mica,

aluminum, silver Paper

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RGUKT, Nuzvid ROBOTICS
Electricity flows in two ways:
 Either in an alternating current (AC) or in a direct
current (DC). Electricity or "current" is nothing but the
movement of electrons through a conductor, like a
wire.
 The difference between AC and DC lies in the direction
in which the electrons flow. In DC, the electrons flow
steadily in a single direction, or "forward".
 In AC, electrons keep switching directions, sometimes
going "forward" and then going "backward" .
 Alternating current is the best way to transmit
electricity over large distances.

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 Alternating Current Direct Current

Amount of energy that Safe to transfer over longer city Voltage of DC cannot travel
can be carried distances and can provide more power. very far until it begins to lose
energy.
Cause of the direction of Rotating magnet along the wire. Steady magnetism along the
flow of electrons wire.
Frequency The frequency of alternating current is The frequency of direct current
50Hz or 60Hz depending upon the is zero.
country.
Direction It reverses its direction while flowing in It flows in one direction in the
a circuit. circuit.
Current It is the current of magnitude varying It is the current of constant
with time magnitude.
Flow of Electrons Electrons keep switching directions - Electrons move steadily in one
forward and backward. direction or 'forward'.

Obtained from A.C Generator and mains. Cell or Battery.

Passive Parameters Impedance. Resistance only

RGUKT, Nuzvid ROBOTICS