EE 204 (Lecture 4)

Fluid Mechanic Dynamics

4.1 Introduction
In the previous chapters, we have discussed the effect of force on the
liquids at rest. In this chapter we shall study the motion of liquids. There is two
type of calculation in fluid mechanics in motion (Real fluids calculation and
Ideal fluids calculation) in this chapter we will deal with fluid as ideal fluids.
There are three equations commonly used in fluid mechanics:

1. Continuity Equation (Conservation of Mass).

2. Energy Equation or Bernoulli Equation (Conservation of Energy).
3. Momentum Equation (Dynamic Forces).

Difference between Ideal and real fluid

Ideal Fluids Real Fluids

1. Incompressible 1. Compressible
2. It has zero viscosity 2. Viscous in nature
3. No resistance is encountered as 3. Certain amount of resistance is
the fluid moves always offered by these fluids
4. Irrotational the flow is smooth, as they move
no turbulence 4. Rotational flow
5. Steady Flow 5. Unsteady flow
6. No heat transfer to or from the 6. Has heat transfer to or from the
fluid. fluid.

4.2 Flow Rate

1. Volume Flow Rate – Discharge (Q)
The discharge is the volume of fluid flowing per unit time (m3/s),
V
Q=
T

Where:
V: is the volume of fluid, and
T: is the time.
2. Discharge and Mean Velocity
As we mention in previous lectures velocity distribute in a cross section as shown
in figure 4.1.
Crossing the centerline of flow area, the velocity is zero at the walls increasing to
a maximum at the center then decreasing symmetrically to the other wall.

Velocity profile in pipe velocity profile in open channel

Fig. (4.1) Velocity profile

This variation across the section is known as the velocity profile or distribution.
For discharge calculation we depend Mean velocity.
Q=vxA
Which
v: mean velocity (m/s , ft/s)
A: cross section area of flow (m2 , ft2)
Q: discharge (m3/s)
4.3 Types of Flow

1. Steady flow: The steady velocity at a point remains constant with respect to
time.
∆v
=0
∆T
2. Unsteady flow: the flow velocity changes either in magnitude or in direction
with respect to time.

∆v
≠0
∆T

3. Uniform flow: the flow velocity remains constant with respect to distance (S),
or (if the flow velocity is the same magnitude and direction at every point in the
fluid).
∆v
=0
∆S
4. Non-uniform flow: the velocity changes either in magnitude or in direction
with respect to distance

∆v
≠0
∆S
4.4 Streamlines

Is an imaginary line in the flow which the tangent at any point represents the
direction of motion at that point. Where streamlines crowd together the flow
speed increases.
 Fig.(4.3) Stream lines of flow

4.3.4 Separation Zone

Separation zone in regions where boundaries turn away from the flow so as to
cause the stream lines to diverge, the flow usually separates from the boundary
and recirculation pattern is generated in the region, see Fig. (4.4).

Fig.(4.4) separation zone

4.5 Continuity Equation

The continuity equation is based on the conservation of mass as it applies to the
flow fluids. It is applicable to Ideal fluid.
Fluid flow is the volume of fluid that moves past a certain point per unit time.

∆𝑋
∆𝑋
from the principle of conservation of mass for steady flow, the mass of fluid
entering cross section 1 per unit time must be equal to the mass leaving cross
section 2.
mass flowing in = mass flowing out

m1 = m2

ρ1 .V1 = ρ2 .V2 V=A Δx

ρ1 .A1. Δx = ρ2 A2 Δx But v=Δx/Δt

So V=A. v.Δt

ρ .A1. v1. Δt = ρ .A2 .v2 .Δt

For incompressible fluid flow 𝜌 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

A1. v1 = A2 .v2 =Q (discharge) [Continuity equation]

𝑄1 = 𝑄2

Σ(v.A)𝑖𝑛 =Σ(v.A)𝑜𝑢𝑡

Q1= Q2 + Q3
A1.V1 = A2.V2 + A3.V3
Example 1
Pipe A, a (12cm) diameter pipe, branches into two pipes B and C. Pipe B is (6cm)
diameters and pipe C is (3cm) diameter. If the flow in a divides so that 2/3 of the
flow goes into B and 1/3 in pipe C, what is the max. discharge, if the velocity
must not exceed 10 m/s in any of the pipes?
Example 2
Water flow through a pipes as shown in Figure, if 𝑑𝐴=45 𝑐𝑚,=30 𝑐𝑚,𝑑𝐶=15
𝑐𝑚,𝑑𝐷=20 𝑐𝑚, 𝑉𝐴 = 2m/s, and 𝑉𝐷= 4m/s, calculate 𝑉𝐵 and 𝑉𝑐?
Example 3
Find the elevation of water surface in the tank after 24 sec?
4.6 Bernoulli Equation BE (Energy Equation)
It is based on the conservation of energy, it is applicable in steady flow and
incompressible fluid.
Total energy line for Ideal fluid :
This method assume the fluid as ideal and its mean that is no loss of head along
fluid path.
T.E.L (H)

H.G.L
.

P V2
T.E.L (H) = + +Z
γ 2g

And for Ideal fluid H (head of energy) is Constant thus:

H1 = H2
P1 V21 P2 V22
+ +Z1 = + +Z2 Bernoulli equation for Ideal fluid
γ 2g γ 2g

P
H.G.L (hydraulic Grade line) = +Z
γ

Where :
H: Total energy head (constant) = TEL
P: pressure at point
γ: Specific weight of fluid
V: velocity at that point
g: gravity acceleration (9.81 m/sec2).
Key Conditions for Bernoulli’s Equation for Ideal fluid
1. Valid for incompressible fluids only. Specific weight cannot change between
the two points and density is constant.
2. No mechanical devices between the two sections – that might add or remove
energy.
3. No heat transfer to or from the fluid.
4. No energy loss due to friction (Friction losses are negligible).
5. Flow is steady.
6. The equation relates the states at two points along a single streamline, (not
conditions on two different streamlines).
Example 4
Water flows steadily through the pipe shown in Figure, such that the pressures
at sections 1 and 2 are 300 Kpa and 100 Kpa respectively. Determine the
diameter of the pipe at section 2, d2, if the velocity at section 1 is 20 m/sec.

2
 Applications of the Bernoulli Equation
1- Flow through Orifice
a. Free Orifice

Applying B.E between 1 and 2 datum at 2

P1 V21 P2 V22
+ +Z1 = + + Z2
γ 2g γ 2g

V22
0 + 0 + H = 0 + + 0
2g
V22
H=
2g
V = √2g H (This velocity represent the theoretical velocity Vth)
Actual velocity (Vac) is always less than theoretical velocity due to friction of
fluids with the orifice.

Vac = Cv .Vth
Vac = Cv . √2g H
Where Cv : coefficient of velocity
V
Cv = Vac Cv < 1
th
Types of orifice :
1- Sharp inlet
Cv = 0.99
Cc = 0.61

2- Square Edged inlet

Cv = 0.8
Cc = 1

3- Rounded inlet
Cv = 0.98
Cc = 1

Where Cc : is coefficient of contraction

Ac
Cc = At
Ac: area of contract
At: Total area
Qth = At x Vth
 Qac = Ac x Vac
QAc = Cc x At x Cv x Vth
QAc = Cc x Cv x Qth
QAc = Cd x Qth
Cd = Cv x Cc
Cd : coefficient of discharge.

b. Submerged Orifice

Applying B.E between 1 and 2

datum at 2

P1 V21 P2 V22
+ +Z1 = + + Z2
γ 2g γ 2g

V22
0 + 0 + H = h + +0
2g
V22
H = h +
2g

vth = √2g (H − h)
vac = Cv. √2g (H − h)
Example 5:
A 6cm diameter orifice is discharging water under a head of 9m. Calculate the
actual discharge in (lt/s), and actual velocity of the jet in (m/s), at contractor, if
Cd =0.6 and Cv= 0.9?

Example 6
From figure shown determine the discharge if the diameter of orifice is 4 inch,
height of water 4 m and height of oil 3 m ?

Oil
r.d = 0.75

H2O
Example 7
An orifice is (1 inch) in diameter as shown in Figure, 𝑃1=35 psi, 𝑃2=15 psi,
what is the actual discharge through the orifice, velocity of the jet and the
contracted area of the jet, if 𝐶𝑑= 0.61, and 𝐶𝑣= 0.96?
2- Flow in Siphon

Flow in Siphon

P1 V21
H1 = + + Z1
γ 2g
H1 = 0 + 0 + Z1
P2 V22
H2 = + + Z2
γ 2g
P2 V22
H2 = + + Z2
γ 2g
P3 V23
H3 = + + Z3
γ 2g
V23
H3 = 0 + + Z3
2g
As the velocity head increased at a point, the pressure head decreases by a
corresponding amount. For a liquid, there is a limit to this decrease in pressure
called vapor pressure of the liquid. At this limit the liquid will vaporize and cause
the siphon to break.
Cavitation: Is the phenomenon that occurs when the fluid pressure is reduced to
the local vapor pressure and boiling occurs. Cavitation typically occurs at
locations where the velocity is very high.
Example 8:
Figure below shows pipe of 8 cm diameter working as siphon. Find the velocity
of flow, discharge and absolute pressure at point B if Patm is equivalent to 10m of
water. Neglect losses.

2m

cm
A

C
3- Venture meter
For measuring the discharge and pressure in pipes, it consist of, convergent,
throat, divergent, and 𝜃 <15 to avoid separation.

1 2 3
Datum x

Ss

For Horizontal Venturi Meter

Applying B.E. between 1 and 2 datum at x
P1 V21 P2 V22
+ +Z1 = + + Z2
γ 2g γ 2g
P1 V21 P2 V22
+ +0 = + +0
γ 2g γ 2g
P1−P2 1
= (V22 - V12 )
γ 2g
∵ 𝑄 = 𝐴.v

P1−P2 1 Q2 Q2
= ( - )
γ 2g A22 A21

P1−P2 Q2 A21 −A22

= ( )
γ 2g A22 ∗A21
 2 P1−P2 A22 ∗A21
Q = 2g ( )( )
γ A21 −A22

P1−P2 A1 ∗A2
Q th = √2g ( ) .( )
γ
√A21 −A22

P1−P2 A1 ∗A2
Q ac = Cd√2g ( ) .( )…….(1)
γ
√A21 −A22

∵Pa=Pb P2 + γL + γs h = P1 + γ(L+h)
γ
P1−P2 = γh ( s − 1)
γ
P1−P2 γ
( ) = h( γs − 1)
γ
P1−P2 Ss
( ) = h( − 1)………(2)
γ S
Substituting Eq. (2) into Eq. (1) we get

Ss A1 ∗A2
Q ac = Cd√2g h( − 1) . ( ) for horizontal venturi
S
√A21 −A22
For Vertical and inclined Venturi Meter

𝛾𝑠 𝛾𝑠

Ss A1 ∗A2
Q ac = Cd√2g h( − 1) . ( ) for vertical venturi and inclined
S
√A21 −A22

Example 9
The pressure difference between the taps of horizontal venture meter carrying
water is 35kpa. If d =20cm and D = 40cm, what is the discharge of water?
4- Flow over Weir
A weir is an abstraction in open channel for measuring the discharge passing
over it.

Types of Weir

1. Sharp Crested Weir

a. Rectangular Weir
b. Rectangular Contracted Weir
c. Triangular Weir (or V-notch Weir)
d. Trapezoidal Weir.
2. Flow under Sluice Gate

 1

 2

H’

Common types of Weir

For Rectangular Weir (b=L)

3
2
Q th = . √2g L. H 2
3
3
2
Q act = Cd. . √2g L. H 2
3
Where: 𝐶𝑑: coefficent of discharge
H
𝐶𝑑 : coefficent of discharge = 0.611+0.075
H′
g : acceleration due to gravity
L : length of weir = channel width
H : upstream water head above the weir crest.
For Rectangular Contracted Weir
3
2
Q act = Cd. . √2g b. H 2
3
Where: b is Notch width = channel width.
For Triangular Weir (or V-notch Weir)
5
8 θ
Q act = Cd. . √2g tan . H 2
15 2
Where: 𝜃 is notch opening angle.
For Trapezoidal Weir

Q = Q 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 + Q𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟
3 5
2 8 θ
Q act = Cd. . √2g b. H + Cd.2 . √2g tan . H 2
3 15 2
3
2
Q act = Cd. . √2g b. H 2
3
For Flow under Sluice Gate

V2 = √2g(h1 − h2)
Q act = Cd. a. L. √2g(h1 − h2)
h2=𝐶𝑐. 𝑎
Where: Cc: coefficient of contraction= 0.61,
a : height of gate opening above bed,
h1 : Upstream depth of flow, and
h2 : Downstream depth of flow.
L : Flow width.
Example 10
The head on a rectangular weir that is 60cm high in a rectangular channel and
1.3m wide is measured to be 21cm as shown in Figure, what is the discharge of
water over the weir?
Example 11
The head on a 60o triangular weir is measured to be 43 cm, what is the flow of
water over the weir, if Cd = 0.58?

5- Pitot tube

2
1

Applying B.E between 1 and 2 datum at 1

P1 V21 P2 V22
+ +Z1 = + + Z2
γ 2g γ 2g
P1 V21 P2
+ +0= +0+0
γ 2g γ
V21 P2 P1
= -
2g γ γ
 P2 −P1
v1= √2g.
γ

Example 12
A piezometer and a Pitot tube are tapped into a horizontal water pipe to
measure static and stagnation pressures. For the indicated water column
heights in the figure, determine the velocity at the center of the pipe.
4.7 Momentum Equation (Dynamic Forces) and Its Applications
Momentum equation is based upon Newton's second law of motion, F=ma, it is
seen that the force is required to change the velocity of a body, either in
magnitude or in direction. By the law of action and reaction the equal and
opposite force is exerted by the fluid upon the body producing the change of
velocity. Examples are, the force of a jet on a wall, force on a pipe elbow and
transition.

F = m.a
∆v
F=ρ∗V∗
∆t
V
But Q =
∆t
Thus F = ρ ∗ Q ∗ ∆v
F = ρ ∗ Q ∗ (v1 − v2)

Applications on the momentum equation

1-Force in a Pipe Elbow

Total Force = Force due to pressure + Force due to momentum

FX = P1A1 – P2A2.cosθ + ρQ(v1 − v2 cosθ)

FY = 0 + P2A2.sinθ + ρQ(0 − (−v2 sinθ)
FY = P2A2.sinθ + ρQ(v2 sinθ)
RX = FX but in opposite direction

RY = FY but in opposite direction

R = √(R X )2 + (R Y )2
FY
θ = tan-1
FX
Example 13
Water flows through the 180° horizontal bend shown in the Figure. Find the
force acting on the bend if a discharge 3 m3/s is passed the bend.
Example 14
A pipe diameter reduces from (3) m to (2) m as shown in Figure. Determine
the force acting on the pipe if the discharge is (25) m3/s. Pressure in the
bigger diameter is (30) KN/ m2.
Example 15
A 90° elbow is fitted to a (915) mm diameter horizontal pipe to change the
direction. Find the resultant force acting on the elbow if water is flowing
through the pipe with constant velocity (3.05) m/s and pressure (2) KPa.
2- Force of a Jet on a Fixed Surfaces

a- Fixed surface:

F = P1A1 – P2A2 + ρQ(v1 − v2 )

F = 0 – 0 + ρQ(v1 − 0)
F = ρQ(v1 )

b- Moving Surface

F = P1A1 – P2A2 + ρQ([v1 − vb ] − v2 )

F = 0 – 0 + ρQ([v1 − vb ] − 0)
F = ρQ(v1 − vb )
Example 16
A nozzle of (5) cm diameter delivers a stream of water horizontally at a velocity
of (64) m/s perpendicular to a fixed plate. Calculate the force on the plate:
1. When it is fixed
2. When it moves in the direction of the jet at (15) m/s.