RISE OF NATIONALISM IN EUROPE

Giuseppe Mazzini: Mazzini dedicated his life for creation of unified and Republican Italy. He was
both romantic and liberal. In 1831, Mazzini founded Young Italy, an organization which was intended
to awaken Italy and transform Europe into a brotherhood of free peoples. For Mazzini Italy would be
unified by a revolution from the people of Italy against Austrian princes. The revolution arose in 1848
but was severely crushed by Austrian forces.
Count Camillo de Cavour: He was a significant figure in the movement towards unification of Italy.
He founded the Agrarian Association in 1842 and the newspaper “IL Risorgimento”. On becoming
the Chief Minister of Piedmont-Sardinia, Cavour launched many reforms to strengthen the economy.
For which he reorganized taxes,built steamships, railways and improved agriculture and business
affairs of Piedmont-Sardinia. Cavour’s immediate aim was to increase territory of Piedmont-Sardinia
by driving the Austrians out from North Italy in which he succeeded and became the architect of
Italian unification.
Role of Cavour: (1) Cavour tried to end all the privileges of the clergy and introduced various reforms
for thepromotion of trade and commerce. These reforms include agriculture and infrastructural
facilities, i.e. roads andrailways.
(2) He supported the adventures and plans of Mazzini and Garibaldi.
(3) By virtue of his tactful diplomatic alliance with France, he could defeat the Austrian forces in
1859. He droveaway the Spanish rulers from two Sicilies in South Italy.
The Greek War of Independence: It was an event that mobilized nationalist feelings among the
educated eliteacross Europe. Greece had been part of the Ottoman Empire since the fifteenth
century and war of independenceamongst the Greeks began in 1821. Poets and artists including
West European masses joined that war ofindependence with their skills and expertise and thus, they
could overthrow the Ottoman Empire. Contribution of poets like Lord Byron was praiseworthy. Treaty
of Constantinople of 1832 made the Greece an independent nation.
Frankfurt Parliament: To unite Germany and to frame a constitution for the united Germany, a
constituent assembly met in Frankfurt on 18 May, 1848. The Frankfurt Assembly proposed the
unification of Germany as a constitutional monarchy under the King of Prussia who would become
emperor of Germany but he did not wish to accept the crown from the elected representatives of the
people. He resorted to repressive measures and even the rights that people had won in the initial
stages of the revolution were taken away. Thousands of German revolutionaries had to flee the
country and live in exile. With the failure of the revolution of 1848 to unify Germany, one phase in the
struggle for unification came to an end.
Now Germany was to be unified not into a democratic country but into a militaristic empire. The
leader of this policy was Bismarck who belonged to a Prussian aristocratic family. The role of women
in nationalist struggles: In those parts of Europe such as Germany, Italy, Poland, the Austro-
Hungarian Empire—men and women of the liberal middle classes combined their demands for
constitutional monarchy with national unification. They took advantage of the growing popular unrest
to push their demands for the creation of a nation-state on parliamentary principles a constitution,
freedom of the press and freedom of association.The issue of extending political rights to women
was a controversial one within the liberal movement, in which large numbers of women had
participated actively over the years. Women had formed their own political associations, founded
newspapers and taken part in political meetings and demonstrations. Despite this, they were
denied suffrage rights during the election of the Assembly. This fact was evident from Frankfurt
Parliament convened in the Church of St. Paul where women were admitted only as observers to
stand in the visitors’ gallery.
Steps taken by the French revolutionaries take to create a sense of collective identity among
the French
From the very beginning, the French revolutionaries introduced various measures and practices that
couldcreate a sense of collective Identity amongst the French people. We can sum-up them as
under:
(i) Propagation of ideas like patrie (the fatherland) and Le Citoye (the citizen).
(ii) A new French flag (Le. Tricolour flag) was adopted.
(iii) The Estates General was renamed as National Assembly.
(iv) New hymn composed, oaths taken and martyrs commemorated in the name of nation.
(v) French was made a common language of the nation. All slogans and hymns were composed in
very language.
(vi)Marianne and Germania
These were allegory of nation the same way as Bharat Mata, a female figure is Imagined in India.
Marianne was an allegory of France while Germania was an allegory of Germany. It was a mode of
visualizing the nation so as to generate extreme sense of respect and reverence in the hearts of the
people living in those countries. Attributes of liberty were red cap or broken chain and justice was a
blind folded woman carrying a pair of weighing scales, characteristics of Marianne were drawn from
the red cap, the tricolour and the cockade. Statues were made and picture of Marianne printed on
postage stamps. Germania wears a crown of oak leaves because that tree stands for heroism. She
holds a sword in her hand.
Process of German Unification
At the beginning of 19th Century, Germany was divided in to 39 states, of which Prussia was the
most powerful. The initiative for unification was first taken by the liberals in 1848, when 831
representatives from 39 states formed
FRANKFURT ASSEMBLY. The Assembly sought to establish a German Union with a parliament,
headed by constitutional monarch. However the more was repressed by the combined forces of
monarchy and the military supported by the large land owners (called Junkers) of Prussia.
After the German liberals failed to unite Germany, it was Otto Von Bismarck (Chief Minister of
Prussia), who carried the process with the help of Prussian army and Bureaucracy to its completion.
Bismarck for the causeunification involved Prussia in three (3) wars, with Denmark in 1864; with
Austria in 1866 and with France in 1870.The success of Bismarck in these wars unified Germany
and in 1871, Kaiser William I (of Prussia) was proclaimed the King, while as Otto Von Bismarck
became the first Chancellor of Germany.
Administrative system of Napoleon
On December 2, 1804 Napoleon Bonaparte declared himself as the emperor of France between
1805 and 1807, he inflicted decisive defeats on Austria, Prussia and Russia and by 1810, Napoleon
dominated almost whole of the European continent. Napoleon was on enlightened despot who
incorporated many principles of French Revolution in his legal framework called “Napoleonic Code”,
which was exported to the regions under French rule. The code (Civil Code, 1804) contained the
provisions:
Napoleon simplified administrative divisions, abolished feudal system and freed peasants from
serfdom and many taxes to be paid to landlords (called manorial dues)
He organized effective civil service by abolishing the privileges of birth and courts of nobles.
In the towns, guilds (association of merchants and artisans who safeguard their own interests only)
were abolished.
Uniform weights and measures were introduced.
Common national currency also facilitated the movement of goods from one region to another.
1848 Revolution of the liberals
Liberals were actually the people wishing freedom for their living because the term liberalism derive
from the Latin root ‘liber’ meaning free. The revolution by middle classes in Germany, Italy, Poland
against Austro-HungarianEmpire i.e. monarchy was called 1848th revolution of liberals. They wanted
to establish constitutional and parliamentary government and national unification. They advocated
freedom for the individual and equality of all before the law. These revolutionists were consisted of
professionals, businessmen and prosperous artisans. Ideas supported by the Liberals:
(i) It is necessary to create a nation state on parliamentary principles.
(ii) A national assembly akin to constituted in France is to be formed.
(iii) A constitution is to be drafted.
(iv) Freedom of Press and freedom of association is necessary:
(v) Only people owning property are to be given universal suffrage (i.e., right to vote).
(vi) Conservatism is to be removed.
Contribution of culture to the growth of nationalism in Europe:
1st Example: Romanticism developed a particular form of nationalist sentiment. It included
constitution of poetry/poems/hymns and paintings stimulating natural love and affection for the
nation. German philosopher Johann Gottfied Herder claimed that the German culture was to be
discovered among the common people through folk songs, folk poetry and folk dances. For example,
Grirnms’ Fairy Tales.
IInd Example: The Dream of Worldwide Democratic and Social Republics—A print prepared by
Frederic Sorrieu in 1448 that exhibits the people of Europe and America (men and women) of all age
and social classes— marching in a long train and offering homage to the Statue of Liberty.
IIIrd Example: The caricature titled as The Club of Thinkers creates public awareness that in
monarchical pattern of government, people cannot enjoy freedom of press and expression.
Development of Nation-states in Italy and Germany:
(i) Ideology of liberalism purported to freedom for the individual and equally of all before the law
helped in development of nation state. It was supported and advocated by new middle class.
Secret society namely, Young Italy was formed by Giuseppe Mazzini comparing middle class,
people there. Similarly, a large number of political associations from middle class professionals,
businessmen and prosperous artisans as members were formed in Germany.
(ii) Hunger, hardship and popular revolt emerged in these countries. Italy was divided into seven
states. These were being ruled by dynasties like Habsburgs, Pope and Bourbon dynasty. Only
Sardinia-Piedmont was ruled by an Italian princely house. Owing to the autocratic rule, people were
suffering. Same was the condition of the people in Germany also. There were conservative forces
like that of Junkers (big landlords) who did not want to accept the concept of nation-state.
(iii) Romantic imagination and national feelings also became a major factor for formation of nation-
state. Johann Gottfried Herder of German told that true spirit of nation can be inculcated through folk
songs, poetry and dances, Caricature of Garibaldi of Italy etc. helped in stimulating nationalistic
feelings among masses.
(iv) Wars with diplomatic tricks had developed nation-states. In Germany three wars against Austria,
Denmark and France were fought for seven years. Similarly, Cavour established a tactful diplomatic
alliance with France and won two Sicilies and Papal States as well.
Nationalism in Britain
(i) In Britain the formation of the nation- state was not the result of a sudden upheaval or revolution.
It was theresult of a long- drawn-out process. There was no British nation, prior to the eighteenth
century.
(ii) The primary identities of the people who inhabited the British Isles were ethnic ones such as
English, Welsh, Scot or Irish. All of these ethnic groups had their own cultural and political traditions.
But as the English nation steadily grew in wealth, importance and power, it was able to extend its
influence over the other nations of the islands.
(iii) The English Parliament, which had seized power from the monarchy in 1688 at the end of a
protracted conflict, was the instrument through which a nation-state, with England at its centre, came
to be forged.
(iv) The Act of Union (1707) between England and Scotland that resulted in the formation of the
‘United Kingdom of Great Britain’ meant, in effect, that England was able to impose its influence on
Scotland. The British parliament was henceforth dominated by its English members.
(v) The Catholic clans that inhabited the Scottish Highlands suffered terrible repression whenever
they attempted to assert their independence.
(vi) The Scottish Highlanders were forbidden to speak their Gaelic language or wear their national
dress, and large numbers were forcibly driven out of their homeland.
(vii) Ireland suffered a similar fate. It was a country deeply divided between Catholics and
Protestants. The English helped the Protestants of Ireland to impose their dominance over a large
Catholic country.
(viii) Catholic revolts against British dominance were brutally suppressed. After a failed revolt led by
Wolfe Tone and his United Irishmen (1798), Ireland was forcibly incorporated into the United
Kingdom in 1801.
(ix) A new ‘British nation’ was forged through the propagation of a dominant English culture. The
symbols of the New Britain-the British flag (Union Jack), the national anthem (God Save Our Noble
King), the English language—were actively promoted and the older nations survived only as
subordinate partners in this union.
Reasons for emergence of nationalist tension in the Balkans:
(i) It was a region consisting of multi-nationalities like modern day Romania, Bulgaria, Albania,
Greece, Macedonia, Crotia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro. Its habitants
were called Slays and its larger part was under control of Ottoman Empire.
(ii) As Christianity was the major religion of these people, the Muslim rulers inflicted atrocities upon
them. They therefore, became upset and aggrieved.
(iii) Gradually, during the internal conflicts, the Ottoman Empire was met to disintegration. It was,
therefore, a good opportunity for these nationalities and their people to raise their voice of protest to
gain their own republics.
(iv) The Romantic literature, i.e. folk songs, tales etc. propagated there from England (UK) and
people understood that they were once independent states but subsequently, the foreign powers
(i.e. Muslims) had subjugated them. This arose tension in their minds and they started making their
own organizations to launchfreedom movement.
(v) The Balkan states were fiercely jealous of each-other and each hoped to gain more territory at
the expense of the other.
(vi) Other big powers of the world i.e. Russia, Germany, England, Austro-Hungary, etc. were keen
on controlling the, hold of other powers over the Balkans and each among them was keen to extend
its own control over.
Italian Unification
In 1815, Italy consisted of several separate states. The north Italy was ruled by Austria, while the
Bourbon dynasty ruled in the south and it was Piedmont-Sardinia only to which the Italian rule was
confined.There where 3 important personalities who took part in the process of unification, they were
Mazzini, Cavourand Garibaldi.
Pole of Mazzini: During the 1830s, Mazzini had sought to put together a coherent programme for a
unitaryItalian Republic. He formed Young Italy in 1831 which was intended to awaken Italy and
transform Europe into abrotherhood of free peoples. Mazzini prescribed that an uprising from the
lower sections of people against Austria would unify Italy. However the uprising was severely
suppressed by the Austrian forces in 1848.
Role of Cavour: Cavour, the Chief Minister of Piedmont-Sardinia was neither a revolutionary nor a
democrat.Through a diplomatic alliance with France Piedmont-Sardini succeeded in defeating
Austria in 1859.
Role of Garibaldi: Mazzini is considered as the soul, Cavour, “the brain” whereas Garibaldi “the
Sword” of Italian unification. In 1860, Garibaldi organized 1000 red shirted patriots and marched to
south to drive the Bourbons out of the Kingdom of two Sichlih. In 1861, Italy became unified and
Victor Emmanuel was declared the King of Unified Italy. Obstacles in the way of the Italian
unification:
There were many obstacles in the way of the unification of Italy in the 19th century. Some of the most
important are the following:
(1) Division of Italy into so many States. Italy, which was once the leader of Renaissance, became a
very weak and powerless country in the 16th century. So Italy lost its unity and was parceled out into
so many states. These states always used to quarrel among themselves and thus they rendered
themselves quite weak.
(2) Foreign Rule. Foreign invaders took advantage of Italy’s weakness and invaded it over and over
again. Especially France and Austria established their rule over a great part of Italy. Napoleon, the
French Emperor, had conquered the whole of Italy. Thus the foreign rule was great hurdle in the way
of the Italian unification.
(3) Congress of Vienna. After the downfall of Napolean, the Congress of Vienna once again divided
Italy into small states. Lombardy and Venetia were handed over to Austria while Parma, Tuscany
and Modena were handed over to France. Similarly, many old rulers, who were against the spirit of
unity, were restored to their respective thrones. Thus the Congress played a great havoc with the
task of Italian unification.
(4) The Pope of Rome. The Pope of Rome was keeping Rome and its adjoining territories under his
dominance.He was acting as the head of all the Christian countries of the world as such he was also
proving a great hurdle in theway of the Italian unification. He had kept the foreign forces to throw out
any attempt of the patriots to snatch Rome from him.
(5) Reactionary Rulers. Even those states which were under the dominance of Italian rulers were not
at all cooperative with the nationalists. They were reactionaries and were ever ready in curbing the
nationalist feelings.These rulers were, thus, also proving a great hurdle in the way of Italian
unification.
The Young Italy:
Giuseppe Mazzini founded in 1832 “Young Italy” in the city of Marseilles in France. It was a new
party to take revolutionary works in Italy. The branches of this party were set up all over Italy with
50,000 members dedicated to cause of unification of Italy. Its motto was “God, Peo1e and Italy”.
Nation: According to well-known French philosopher Ernest Renan, ‘A nation is the culmination of a
long past of endeavors, sacrifice and devotion. A heroic past, great men, glory, is the social capital
upon which one bases a national idea. To have common glories in the past, to have a common will
in the present, to have performed great deeds together, to wish to perform still more, these are the
essential conditions of being a people. A nation is, therefore, a large-scale solidarity.’
Emergence of feelings of nationalism:
During the nineteenth century, nationalism emerged as a force which brought about sweeping
changes in the political and mental world of Europe. The end result of these changes was the
emergence of the nation states in place of the multi-national dynastic empires of Europe. The
concept and practice of a modern state, in which a centralized power exercised sovereign control
over a clearly defined territory, had been developing over a long period of time in Europe. But a
nation-state was one in which the majority of its citizens, and not only its rulers, came to develop a
sense of common identity and shared history or descent. This commonness did not exist from time
immemorial; it was forged through struggles, through the actions of leaders and the common people.
Importance of a nation: A nation never has any real interest in annexing or holding on to a country
against its will. The existence of nations is a good thing, a necessity even. Their existence is a
guarantee of liberty, which would be lost if the world had only one law and only one master.
Examples: (i) Frederic Sorrieu’s print that reveals his dream of worldwide’ democratic and social
republics(France).
(ii) An Anthology of Fairy Tales by Grimm Brothers and their subsequent participation in liberal
politics(Germany).
(iii) Confederation of English, Welsh, Scot Irish culture into Great Britain (U.K.).
(iv) Lord Byron’s poetry encouraged Greeks to face and fight boldly against the Turks who had
establishedOttoman Empire and exiled them to Italy. Thus, the Treaty of Constantinople of 1832
recognized Greece as anindependent nation.
Nationalism
The words ‘nation’ and ‘nationality’ are derived from the Latin word ‘Natus’ which means a ‘race’.
Devotion,love, and patriotic feelings for one’s own nation is called ‘Nationalism’. It is a feeling of
political consciousness and unity among the people of a state.
Rise of Nationalism in Europe
Nationalism provided one of the greatest forces in Europe in the 19th century. The following were
responsible
for the rise of nationalism in Europe:
(1) Decline of Feudalism: Feudal lords were a great tumbling bloc in the way of the rise of the
national feelings among the people. But many causes led to their fall. Many of them died in mutual
warfare. The crusades also impoverished the barons. Without the destruction of nobility the cause of
nationalism might have been greatly suffered.
(2) Weakness of Papacy and the Holy Roman Empire. In the middle Ages the Church enjoyed and
exalted position and commanded a great power. But the Renaissance and Reformation movements
led to awakening among the people and weakened the authority of the Pope. Consequently, national
churches and national states were established in many countries.
(3) Wars. Sometimes the wars also infused the spirit of nationalism. The Hundred Years War
between England and France gave rise to national feeling both in France and England. It roused
nationalism among the people of both the countries in the face of a common foe.
(4) Foreign Rule. In certain countries foreign rule played an important part in the growth of
nationalism. The foreign rulers suppressed the people under them cruelly and mercilessly. But all
this led to reaction and united the people against the foreign rule and infused the spirit of nationalism
in them to free themselves from the foreign yoke.
(5) Geographical Factor. Geographical factor also helped a lot in the rise of nationalism. National
boundaries of a country surely create the feeling of political consciousness and oneness among the
people. For example, England is bounded by sea on all the sides. It facilitated the rise of the feelings
of unity and nationalism among the English.
(6) Reaction against Injustice. Reaction against injustice also leads to nationalism. The Vienna
Settlement after the Napoleonic Wars tried to suppress the force of revolution and nationalism in
Europe. But soon there started a reaction against the arbitrary rule and the people of the subjected
countries started national movements for their independence.
(7) Contribution of Great Writers. Many writers, poets, statesmen, politicians and philosophers, etc.
also made valuable contribution to the growth of nationalism. Machiavelli had been rightly called the
father of modern nationalism. The writings of J. S. Mill, Fitech, Mazzini, Garibaldi etc. went a long
way in rousing political consciousness and national spirit among the people.
General characteristics of the nationalist movement in Poland:
(a) Poland in the 17th century was a fairly big state. Her neighbours Russia, Austria and Prussia were
very hostile and fought long and bloody wars with her. Consequently, Poland was divided thrice and
by 1795, she ceased to be an independent state.
(b) Poland had the institution of elective monarchy and a parliament. All laws had to be passed
unanimously.The result (of its partition and some wrong political systems) was that the country
remained backward and conservative. Feudalism was the order of the day in Poland. Austria, Russia
and Prussia took advantage of her problems and interfered in her internal matters.
(c) According to the Vienna Congress, 1815. Poland was a looser country. According to the principle
of rewards and punishments (after the downfall of Napoleon) Poland was divided into three parts
each being given to Russia, Prussia (later on Germany) and Austria.
(d) Thus, Poland disappeared as an independent country. The idea of Po1ih position was not new (it
had already taken place thrice 1772, 1793 and 1795).
(e) Czar Nicholas I, who was a terrible autocrat, mercilessly suppressed the patriotic Polish.
According to Grant and Temperly, this iron rule ran twenty five years unabated
(f) Alexander-I granted a constitution to Poland but the monarch gave up his liberalism arid became
an arch reactionary when he came under the reactionary influence of Metternich (of Austria). He
died in 1825.
(g) The revolutionary of Poland (within Russia) started their movement but Nicholas-I mercilessly
crushed the Polish when they revolted in 1830. About 45,000 Polish were banished from their home
country.
(h) In spite of so partitioned, Polish kept alive their national feelings through music and languages.
For example, Karol Kurpinski celebrated the national struggle through his operas and music. He
transformed folk dances like the polonaise and mazurka into nationalist symbols. The use of Polish
came to be seen as a symbol of the struggle against Russian dominance.
Nationalist movement in Greece.
(a) The people of Greece (Greek) started their war of independence in 1820, against Turkey or
Ottoman Empire. The much-awaited opportunity came in 1821 when All Pasha, the Turkish
Governor of Janina, quarreled with the Sultan and went to war with him. Prince Hypsilanti was
defeated in the battle at Moldavia by the Turks and the movement fizzled out for a short time.
(b) But in the Mona and in the islands of the Egean, the rising assumed formidable proportions. The
Greeks began the war with gruesome massacre of the Turks. The evil example thus, set was
followed by the Turks by the massacre of Greeks.
(c) The war thus, developed into one of mutual extermination, and was conducted on both sides with
the utmost ferocity and bloodcurdling atrocities. For the first six years (1821-28) the powers did not
intervene and Greeks were left to their own efforts. Metternich was against giving help to
revolutionaries and had to fight alone.
(d) Metternich, with his dread of insurrection against legitimate authority, looked upon the Greeks as
rebels who must be left to their fate. He wanted to let this revolt “burn itself out beyond the pale of
civilization.”
(e) To prevent independent action on the part of Russia, he induced France and Czar Nicholas I to
combine with England in forcing an armistice on the Sultan, and compelling him to accept the joint
mediation of the allied powers.
(f) Conference was held in London in July, 1827 and a joint note was accordingly dispatched to
Turkey to grant autonomy but the Sultan refused to accede to the proposals of armistice and
granting autonomy to Greece.
Thereupon the allied fleets of France and England completely destroyed the Turkish Fleet at
Navasino after a fierce
encounter on 20th October, 1827.
(g) This victory encouraged the Greeks and encouraged them to secure their liberation. But apart
from this, all the advantages of joint intervention were reaped by Russia alone. Lord Canning was
dead and his policy was reversed by Duke of Wellington who now became the British Prime Minister.
England was still officially at peace with Turkey.
(h) On her own responsibility, Russia declared war against Turkey in 1828 and forced her to come to
terms by the Treaty of Constantinople on 14th September. 1832, Turkey recognised the
independence of Greece and granted practical autonomy to the principalities of Wallachia and
Moldavia. To Russia she granted an expansion of territory in Asia, as well as increased commercial
and political rights.
(i) By the Convention of London in 1832 the new kingdom of Greece was placed under the joint
guarantee of the powers and Prince Otto of Baveria was selected as its king.
(j) The Treaty of Constantinople was thus, a signal victory of Russian policy.
(k) The Greek afforded the first example of the victory of nationalism against the reactionary policy of
the Congress of Vienna and as such it struck a blow to Metternich’s system. Secondly, it
demonstrated the common
interest of the European powers and the practical possibility of a resuscitation of the Christian states.
(l) The help which Turkey had to seek from Mohemet Ali, as well as her defeat at the hands of
Russia, exposed her weakness to the world and Turkey began to be called sick man of Europe.
(m) Policy of Russia to annex Balkan States by dismembering Turkey and British policy to preserve,
gave rise to certain controversies that resulted subsequently in Balkan wars.
HOME ASSIGNMENT
Multiple Choice Questions:
(i) Who was the King of France at the time of the French Revolution of 1789?
(a) Louis XIV (c) Louis XVI
(b) Louis XV (d) Louis XVIII
(ii) Matternich was the Chancellor of
(a) France (c) Denmark
(b) Hungary (d) Austria
(iii) Napoleon introduced his Civil Code in the year
(a) 1801 (c) 1803
(b) 1802 (d) 1804
(iv) Napoleon was finally defeated in the year
(a) 1811 (c) 1814
(b) 1812 (d) 1815
(v) With which country are the organizations Young Italy and Carbonari associated?
(a) Germany (c) France
(b) Italy (d) Austria-Hungary
(vi) Which Italian patriot organized a group of soldiers known as ‘Red Shirts’?
(a) Garibaldi (c) Mazzini
(b) Cavour (d) Victor Emmanuel II
(vii) To whom does the credit of unifying Germany go?
(a) Louis Philippe (c) Count Cavour
(b) Mazzini (d) Bismarck
(viii) Who was proclaimed the emperor of Germany after its unification in 1871?
(a) Victor Emmanuel I (c) Otto Von Bismarck
(b) King William I (d) Prince Matternich
Fill in the Blanks:
(a) Frederick Sorrieu was a French artist who prepared a series of ________ paintings.
(b) When __________ sneezes whole of Europe catches cold.
(c) Matternich was the Chancellor of __________.
(d) Napoleon Bonaparte met his downfall in 1815 in the battle of _________.
(e) The area called Balkans is commonly known as the ___________ empire.

Early History

Indo-China comprises the modern countries of Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia. Its

early history shows many different groups of people living in this area under the

shadow of the powerful empire of China. Even when an independent country was

established in what is now northern and central Vietnam, its rulers continued to
maintain the Chinese system of government as well as Chinese culture. Vietnam was

also linked to the maritime silk route that brought in goods, people and ideas. Other

networks of trade connected it to the hinterlands where non-Vietnamese people such

as the Khmer Cambodians lived.Finish Line & Beyond

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Colonial Domination and Resistance

French troops landed in Vietnam in 1858 and by the mid-1880s they had established

a firm grip over the northern region. After the Franco-Chinese war the French
assumed control of Tonkin and Anaam and, in 1887, French Indo-China was formed.
In the following decades the French sought to consolidate their position, and people

in Vietnam began reflecting on the nature of the loss that Vietnam was suffering.
Nationalist resistance developed out of this reflection.
The colonisation of Vietnam by the French brought the people of the country into
conflict with the colonisers in all areas of life. The most visible form of French control
was military and economic domination but the French also built a system that tried

to reshape the culture of the Vietnamese. Nationalism in Vietnam emerged through

the efforts of different sections of society to fight against the French and all they

represented.

Need of Colony for French

Colonies were considered essential to supply natural resources and other essential goods. Like
other Western nations, France also thought it was the mission of the

‘advanced’ European countries to bring the benefits of civilisation to backward

peoples.

The French began by building canals and draining lands in the Mekong delta to

increase cultivation. The vast system of irrigation works – canals and earthworks –
built mainly with forced labour, increased rice production and allowed the export of

rice to the international market. The area under rice cultivation went up from

274,000 hectares in 1873 to 1.1 million hectares in 1900 and 2.2 million in 1930.
Vietnam exported two-thirds of its rice production and by 1931 had become the third

largest exporter of rice in the world.

This was followed by infrastructure projects to help transport goods for trade, move

military garrisons and control the entire region. Construction of a trans-Indo-China

rail network that would link the northern and southern parts of Vietnam and China

was begun. This final link with Yunan in China was completed by 1910. The second

line was also built, linking Vietnam to Siam (as Thailand was then called), via the

Cambodian capital of Phnom Penh. By the 1920s, to ensure higher levels of profit for

their businesses, French business interests were pressurising the government in

Vietnam to develop the infrastructure further.

Should Colonies be Developed

An eminent thinker, Paul Bernard, argued that the purpose of acquiring colonies was
to make profits. If the economy was developed and the standard of living of the

people improved, they would buy more goods. The market would consequently

expand, leading to better profits for French business. Bernard suggested that there

were several barriers to economic growth in Vietnam: high population levels, low agricultural
productivity and extensive indebtedness amongst the peasants. To
reduce rural poverty and increase agricultural productivity it was necessary to carryFinish Line & Beyond

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out land reforms as the Japanese had done in the 1890s. However, this could not
ensure sufficient employment. As the experience of Japan showed, industrialisation
would be essential to create more jobs.

The colonial economy in Vietnam was, however, primarily based on rice cultivation
and rubber plantations owned by the French and a small Vietnamese elite. Rail and

port facilities were set up to service this sector. Indentured Vietnamese labour was

widely used in the rubber plantations. The French did little to industrialise the

economy. In the rural areas landlordism spread and the standard of living declined.

The Dilemma of Colonial Education

French colonisation was not based only on economic exploitation. It was also driven
by the idea of a ‘civilising mission’. Like the British in India, the French claimed that

they were bringing modern civilization to the Vietnamese. They took for granted that

Europe had developed the most advanced civilisation. So it became the duty of the

Europeans to introduce these modern ideas to the colony even if this meant destroying local
cultures, religions and traditions, because these were seen as

outdated and prevented modern development. Education was seen as one way to civilise the
‘native’. But in order to educate them, the French had to resolve a

dilemma. This dilemma was about the extent to which the Vietnamese needed to be

educated. The French needed an educated local labour force but they feared that education might
create problems. Once educated, the Vietnamese may begin to question colonial domination.
Moreover, French citizens living in Vietnam (called
colons) began fearing that they might lose their jobs to the educated Vietnamese. So they opposed
policies that would give the Vietnamese full access to French education.

Talking Modern

The French were faced with yet another problem in the sphere of education: the

elites in Vietnam were powerfully influenced by Chinese culture. To consolidate their

power, the French had to counter this Chinese influence. So they systematically

dismantled the traditional educational system and established French schools for the

Vietnamese. But this was not easy. Chinese, the language used by the elites so far,

had to be replaced.

There were two broad opinions on this question. Some policymakers emphasised the

need to use the French language as the medium of instruction. By learning the

language, they felt, the Vietnamese would be introduced to the culture and

civilisation of France. This would help create an ‘Asiatic France solidly tied to
European France’. The educated people in Vietnam would respect French sentiments

and ideals, see the superiority of French culture, and work for the French. Others

were opposed to French being the only medium of instruction. They suggested that
Vietnamese be taught in lower classes and French in the higher classes. The few who

learnt French and acquired French culture were to be rewarded with French citizenship.

However, only the Vietnamese elite – comprising a small fraction of the population –
could enroll in the schools, and only a few among those admitted ultimately passed

the school-leaving examination. This was largely because of a deliberate policy of

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better-paid jobs. Usually, as many as two-thirds of the students failed. In 1925, in a

population of 17 million, there were less than 400 who passed the examination. School
textbooks glorified the French and justified colonial rule. The Vietnamese

were represented as primitive and backward, capable of manual labour but not of
intellectual reflection; they could work in the fields but not rule themselves; they

were ‘skilled copyists’ but not creative.

Looking Modern

The Tonkin Free School was started in 1907 to provide a Western style education.
This education included classes in science, hygiene and French (these classes were

held in the evening and had to be paid for separately). The school’s approach to
what it means to be ‘modern’ is a good example of the thinking prevalent at that time. It was not
enough to learn science and Western ideas: to be modern the

Vietnamese had to also look modern. The school encouraged the adoption of

Western styles such as having a short haircut. For the Vietnamese this meant a

major break with their own identity since they traditionally kept long hair. Resistance in Schools

Teachers and students did not blindly follow the curriculum. Sometimes there was

open opposition, at other times there was silent resistance. As the numbers of

Vietnamese teachers increased in the lower classes, it became difficult to control

what was actually taught. While teaching, Vietnamese teachers quietly modified the

text and criticised what was stated.

Elsewhere, students fought against the colonial government’s efforts to prevent the

Vietnamese from qualifying for white-collar jobs. They were inspired by patriotic

feelings and the conviction that it was the duty of the educated to fight for the

benefit of society. This brought them into conflict with the French as well as the

traditional elite, since both saw their positions threatened. By the 1920s, students

were forming various political parties, such as the Party of Young Annan, and

publishing nationalist journals such as the Annanese Student. Schools thus became

an important place for political and cultural battles.

The French sought to strengthen their rule in Vietnam through the control of

education. They tried to change the values, norms and perceptions of the people, to
make them believe in the superiority of French civilisation and the inferiority of the
Vietnamese. Vietnamese intellectuals, on the other hand, feared that Vietnam was

losing not just control over its territory but its very identity: its own culture and

customs were being devalued and the people were developing a master-slave

mentality. The battle against French colonial education became part of the larger

battle against colonialism and for independence. Hygiene, Disease and Everyday Resistance

When the French set about creating a modern Vietnam, they decided to rebuild

Hanoi. The latest ideas about architecture and modern engineering skills were

employed to build a new and ‘modern’ city. In 1903, the modern part of Hanoi was

struck by bubonic plague. In many colonial countries, measures to control the spreadFinish Line & Beyon
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of disease created serious social conflicts. But in Hanoi events took a peculiarly

interesting turn.

The French part of Hanoi was built as a beautiful and clean city with wide avenues

and a well-laid-out sewer system, while the ‘native quarter’ was not provided with
any modern facilities. The refuse from the old city drained straight out into the river

or, during heavy rains or floods, overflowed into the streets. Thus what was installed

to create a hygienic environment in the French city became the cause of the plague. The large
sewers in the modern part of the city, a symbol of modernity, were an

ideal and protected breeding ground for rats. The sewers also served as a great transport
system, allowing the rats to move around the city without any problem.

And rats began to enter the well-cared-for homes of the French through the sewage

pipes.

The Rat Hunt

To stem this invasion, a rat hunt was started in 1902. The French hired Vietnamese

workers and paid them for each rat they caught. Rats began to be caught in thousands.

For the Vietnamese the rat hunt seemed to provide an early lesson in the success of
collective bargaining. Those who did the dirty work of entering sewers found that if

they came together they could negotiate a higher bounty. They also discovered

innovative ways to profit from this situation. The bounty was paid when a tail was

given as proof that a rat had been killed. So the rat-catchers took to just clipping the

tails and releasing the rats, so that the process could be repeated, over and over

again. Some people, in fact, began raising rats to earn a bounty.

Defeated by the resistance of the weak, the French were forced to scrap the bounty

programme. None of this prevented the bubonic plague, which swept through the

area in 1903 and in subsequent years. In a way, the rat menace marks the limits of

French power and the contradictions in their ‘civilising mission’. And the actions of

the rat-catchers tell us of the numerous small ways in which colonialism was fought

in everyday life. Religion and Anti-colonialism

Colonial domination was exercised by control over all areas of private and public life.

The French occupied Vietnam militarily but they also sought to reshape social and

cultural life. While religion played an important role in strengthening colonial control,

it also provided ways of resistance. Let us consider how this happened. Vietnam’s

religious beliefs were a mixture of Buddhism, Confucianism and local practices.

Christianity, introduced by French missionaries, was intolerant of this easygoing

attitude and viewed the Vietnamese tendency to revere the supernatural as

something to be corrected.

From the eighteenth century, many religious movements were hostile to the Western
presence. An early movement against French control and the spread of Christianity

was the Scholars Revolt in 1868. This revolt was led by officials at the imperial court
angered by the spread of Catholicism and French power. They led a general uprising

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Ngu An and Ha Tien provinces where over a thousand Catholics were killed. Catholic

missionaries had been active in winning converts since the early seventeenth
century, and by the middle of the eighteenth century had converted some 300,000.

The French crushed the movement but this uprising served to inspire other patriots

to rise up against them.

The elites in Vietnam were educated in Chinese and Confucianism. But religious

beliefs among the peasantry were shaped by a variety of divergent traditions that

combined Buddhism and local beliefs. There were many popular religions in Vietnam

that were spread by people who claimed to have seen a vision of God. Some of these

religious movements supported the French, but others inspired movements against colonial rule.
One such movement was the Hoa Hao. It began in 1939 and gained great popularity

in the fertile Mekong delta area. It drew on religious ideas popular in anti-French
uprisings of the nineteenth century. The founder of Hoa Hao was a man called Huynh Phu So. He
performed miracles and helped the poor. His criticism against useless

expenditure had a wide appeal. He also opposed the sale of child brides, gambling

and the use of alcohol and opium.

The French tried to suppress the movement inspired by Huynh Phu So. They

declared him mad, called him the Mad Bonze, and put him in a mental asylum.

Interestingly, the doctor who had to prove him insane became his follower, and

finally in 1941, even the French doctors declared that he was sane. The French
authorities exiled him to Laos and sent many of his followers to concentration camps.

Movements like this always had a contradictory relationship with mainstream

nationalism. Political parties often drew upon their support, but were uneasy about their activities.
They could neither control or discipline these groups, nor support
their rituals and practices. Yet the significance of these movements in arousing anti-

imperialist sentiments should not be underestimated.

In the late nineteenth century, resistance to French domination was very often led by

Confucian scholar-activists, who saw their world crumbling. Educated in the

Confucian tradition, Phan Boi Chau (1867-1940) was one such nationalist. He

became a major figure in the anti-colonial resistance from the time he formed the

Revolutionary Society (Duy Tan Hoi) in 1903, with PrinceCuong De as the head. Phan

Boi Chau met the Chinese reformer Liang Qichao (1873-1929) in Yokohama in 1905.

Phan’s most influential book, The History of the Loss of Vietnam was written under

the strong influence and advice of Qichao. It became a widely read bestseller in Vietnam and
China and was even made into a play. The book focuses on two
connected themes: the loss of sovereignty and the severing of ties with China – ties

that bound the elites of the two countries within a shared culture. It is this double

loss that Phan laments, a lament that was typical of reformers from within the

traditional elite. Other nationalists strongly differed with Phan Boi Chau. One such was Phan Chu
Trinh (1871-1926). He was intensely hostile to the monarchy and opposed to the

idea of resisting the French with the help of the court. His desire was to establish a

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did not want a wholesale rejection of Western civilisation. He accepted the French
revolutionary ideal of liberty but charged the French for not abiding by the ideal. He

demanded that the French set up legal and educational institutions, and develop

agriculture and industries.

Influence of Japan and China

Early Vietnamese nationalists had a close relationship with Japan and China. They

provided models for those looking to change, a refuge for those who were escaping

French police, and a location where a wider Asian network of revolutionaries could be

established. In the first decade of the twentieth century a ‘go east movement’

became popular. In 1907-08 some 300 Vietnamese students went to Japan to

acquire modern education. For many of them the primary objective was to drive out the French from
Vietnam, overthrow the puppet emperor and re-establish the
Nguyen dynasty that had been deposed by the French. These nationalists looked for

foreign arms and help. They appealed to the Japanese as fellow Asians. Japan had
modernised itself and had resisted colonisation by the West. Besides, its victory over

Russia in 1907 proved its military capabilities. Vietnamese students established a

branch of the Restoration Society in Tokyo but after 1908, the Japanese Ministry of

Interior clamped down on them. Many, including Phan Boi Chau, were deported and

forced to seek exile in China and Thailand. Developments in China also inspired

Vietnamese nationalists. In 1911, the long established monarchy in China was

overthrown by a popular movement under Sun Yat-sen, and a Republic was set up.
Inspired by these developments, Vietnamese students organised the Association for

the Restoration of Vietnam (Viet-Nam Quan Phuc Hoi). Now the nature of the anti-
French independence movement changed. The objective was no longer to set up a

constitutional monarchy but a democratic republic.

The Communist Movement and Vietnamese Nationalism

The Great Depression of the 1930s had a profound impact on Vietnam. The prices of

rubber and rice fell, leading to rising rural debts, unemployment and rural uprisings,
such as in the provinces of Nghe An and Ha Tinh. These provinces were among the

poorest, had an old radical tradition, and have been called the ‘electrical fuses’ of

Vietnam – when the system was under pressure they were the first to blow. The

French put these uprisings down with great severity, even using planes to bomb

demonstrators.

In February 1930, Ho Chi Minh brought together competing nationalist groups to

establish the Vietnamese Communist (Vietnam Cong San Dang) Party, later renamed
the Indo-Chinese Communist Party. He was inspired by the militant demonstrations

of the European communist parties.

In 1940 Japan occupied Vietnam, as part of its imperial drive to control Southeast
Asia. So nationalists now had to fight against the Japanese as well as the French.
The League for the Independence of Vietnam (Viet Nam Doc Lap Dong Minh), which
came to be known as the Vietminh, fought the Japanese occupation and recaptured
Hanoi in September 1945. The Democratic Republic of Vietnam was formed and Ho
Chi Minh became Chairman.Finish Line & Beyond

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Partition of Vietnam

The new republic faced a number of challenges. The French tried to regain control by

using the emperor, Bao Dai, as their puppet. Faced with the French offensive, the

Vietminh were forced to retreat to the hills. After eight years of fighting, the French
were defeated in 1954 at Dien Bien Phu.

The Supreme French Commander of the French armies, General Henry Navarre had
declared confidently in 1953 that they would soon be victorious. But on 7 May 1954, the Vietminh
annihilated and captured more than 16,000 soldiers of the French
Expeditionary Corps. The entire commanding staff, including a general, 16 colonels

and 1,749 officers, were taken prisoner. In the peace negotiations in Geneva that

followed the French defeat, the Vietnamese were persuaded to accept the division of

the country. North and south were split: Ho Chi Minh and the communists took

power in the north while Bao Dai’s regime was put in power in the south.

This division set in motion a series of events that turned Vietnam into a battlefield

bringing death and destruction to its people as well as the environment. The Bao Dai
regime was soon overthrown by a coup led by Ngo Dinh Diem.

Diem built a repressive and authoritarian government. Anyone who opposed him was

called a communist and was jailed and killed. Diem retained Ordinance 10, a French

law that permitted Christianity but outlawed Buddhism. His dictatorial rule came to
be opposed by a broad opposition united under the banner of the National Liberation Front (NLF).
With the help of the Ho Chi Minh government in the north, the NLF

fought for the unification of the country.

The Entry of the US into the War

US entry into the war marked a new phase that proved costly to the Vietnamese as

well as to the Americans. From 1965 to 1972, over 3,403,100 US services personnel served in Vietnam
(7,484 were women). Even though the US had advanced
technology and good medical supplies, casualties were high. About 47,244 died in battle
and 303,704 were wounded. (Of those wounded, 23,014 were listed by the

Veterans Administration to be 100 per cent disabled.) This phase of struggle with the

US was brutal. Thousands of US troops arrived equipped with heavy weapons and

tanks and backed by the most powerful bombers of the time – B52s. The wide

spread attacks and use of chemical weapons destroyed many villages and decimated

jungles.Civilians died in large numbers.

Effect on US

The effect of the war was felt within the US as well. Many were critical of the

government for getting involved in a war that they saw as indefensible. When the

youth were drafted for the war, the anger spread. Compulsory service in the armed

forces, however, could be waived for university graduates. This meant that many of

those sent to fight did not belong to the privileged elite but were minorities and

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Role of Media

The US media and films played a major role in both supporting as well as criticising

the war. Hollywood made films in support of the war, such as John Wayne’s Green Berets (1968). John
Ford Coppola’s Apocalypse Now (1979) reflected the moral
confusion that the war had caused in the US.

Policy Blunder by US

The war grew out of a fear among US policy-planners that the victory of the Ho Chi
Minh government would start a domino effect – communist governments would be

established in other countries in the area. They underestimated the power of

nationalism to move people to action, inspire them to sacrifice their home and

family, live under horrific conditions, and fight for independence. They

underestimated the power of a small country to fight the most technologically

advanced country in the world.

The Ho Chi Minh Trail

The story of the Ho Chi Minh trail is one way of understanding the nature of the war

that the Vietnamese fought against the US. It symbolises how the Vietnamese used

their limited resources to great advantage. The trail, an immense network of

footpaths and roads, was used to transport men and materials from the north to the

south. The trail was improved from the late 1950s, and from 1967 about 20,000

North Vietnamese troops came south each month on this trail. The trail had support bases and
hospitals along the way. In some parts supplies were transported in trucks, but mostly they
were carried by porters, who were mainly women. These

porters carried about 25 kilos on their backs, or about 70 kilos on their bicycles. Most of the trail was
outside Vietnam in neighbouring Laos and Cambodia with branch

lines extending into South Vietnam. The US regularly bombed this trail trying to disrupt supplies,
but efforts to destroy this important supply line by intensive

bombing failed because they were rebuilt very quickly.

The Nation and Its Heroes

Another way of looking at social movements is to see how they affect different groups in
society. Let us see how the roles of women were specified in the anti-

imperialist movement in Vietnam, and what that tells us about nationalist ideology. Women as Rebels

Women in Vietnam traditionally enjoyed greater equality than in China, particularly

among the lower classes, but they had only limited freedom to determine their future

and played no role in public life. As the nationalist movement grew, the status of

women came to be questioned and a new image of womanhood emerged. Writers

and political thinkers began idealising women who rebelled against social norms. In the 1930s, a
famous novel by Nhat Linh caused a scandal because it showed a

woman leaving a forced marriage and marrying someone of her choice, someone

who was involved in nationalist politics. This rebellion against social conventions

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Heroes of Past Times

Rebel women of the past were similarly celebrated. In 1913, the nationalist Phan Boi Chau
wrote a play based on the lives of the Trung sisters who had fought against
Chinese domination in 39-43 CE. In this play he depicted these sisters as patriots

fighting to save the Vietnamese nation from the Chinese. The actual reasons for the

revolt are a matter of debate among scholars, but after Phan’s play the Trung sisters

came to be idealised and glorified. They were depicted in paintings, plays and novels

as representing the indomitable will and the intense patriotism of the Vietnamese.
We are told that they gathered a force of over 30,000, resisted the Chinese for two years, and when
ultimately defeated, they committed suicide, instead of

surrendering to the enemy.

Other women rebels of the past were part of the popular nationalist lore. One of the

most venerated was Trieu Au who lived in the third century CE. Orphaned in childhood,
she lived with her brother. On growing up she left home, went into the

jungles, organised a large army and resisted Chinese rule. Finally, when her army

was crushed, she drowned herself. She became a sacred figure, not just a martyr

who fought for the honour of the country. Nationalists popularised her image to

inspire people to action. Women as Warriors

In the 1960s, photographs in magazines and journals showed women as brave

fighters. There were pictures of women militia shooting down planes. They were

portrayed as young, brave and dedicated. Stories were written to show how happy

they felt when they joined the army and could carry a rifle. Some stories spoke of

their incredible bravery in single-handedly killing the enemy – Nguyen Thi Xuan, for

instance, was reputed to have shot down a jet with just twenty bullets.

Women were represented not only as warriors but also as workers: they were shown
with a rifle in one hand and a hammer in the other. Whether young or old, women began to be
depicted as selflessly working and fighting to save the country. As
casualties in the war increased in the 1960s, women were urged to join the struggle

in larger numbers. Many women responded and joined the resistance movement.
They helped in nursing the wounded, constructing underground rooms and tunnels

and fighting the enemy.

Along the Ho Chi Minh trail young volunteers kept open 2,195 km of strategic roads

and guarded 2,500 key points. They built six airstrips, neutralised tens of thousands

of bombs, transported tens of thousands of kilograms of cargo, weapons and food

and shot down fifteen planes. Between 1965 and 1975, of the 17,000 youth who
worked on the trail, 70 to 80 per cent were women. One military historian argues

that there were 1.5 million women in the regular army, the militia, the local forces

and professional teams. Women in Times of Peace

By the 1970s, as peace talks began to get under way and the end of the war seemed

near, women were no longer represented as warriors. Now the image of women asFinish Line & Beyond

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workers begins to predominate. They are shown working in agricultural cooperatives,

factories and production units, rather than as fighters.

End of US Occupation

The prolongation of the war created strong reactions even within the US. It was clear

that the US had failed to achieve its objectives: the Vietnamese resistance had not
been crushed; the support of the Vietnamese people for US action had not been won.
In the meantime, thousands of young US soldiers had lost their lives, and countless

Vietnamese civilians had been killed. This was a war that has been called the first television war.
Battle scenes were shown on the daily news programmes. Many

became disillusioned with what the US was doing and writers such as Mary McCarthy,

and actors like Jane Fonda even visited North Vietnam and praised their heroic

defence of the country. The scholar Noam Chomsky called the war ‘the greatest
threat to peace, to national self-determination, and to international cooperation’.

The widespread questioning of government policy strengthened moves to negotiate

an end to the war. A peace settlement was signed in Paris in January 1974. This

ended conflict with the US but fighting between the Saigon regime and the NLF

continued. The NLF occupied the presidential palace in Saigon on 30 April 1975 and

unified Vietnam.

U N I T IH I S T O R Y
NATIONALISM IN INDIA
1.How did the First World War help in the growth of national movement in India?
i.The First World War created a new economic and political situation. It led to a
hugeincrease in the war expenditure financed by war loans and increasing taxes.;
customs duties wereraised and income tax was introduced.ii.The price rise was
double during the war years. It led to severe hardship for thecommon
people.iii.Forced recruitment of soldiers in the rural areas caused wide spread
anger.iv.Failure of crops in 1918-19 and 1920-21 resulted in acute shortage of
food. This wasaccompanied by an influenza. 13 million people perished in this
famine and the epidemic. All theseled to the growth of national movement in
India.
2.What is meant by the idea of ‘satyagraha’?
i.The idea of satyagraha emphasized the power of truth and the need to search
for truth.It is suggested that if the cause was true, if the struggle was against
injustice, then physical force wasnot necessary to fight the oppressor.ii.With out
seeking vengeance or being aggressive,
a satyagrahi could win thebattle through non-violence. This could be done by
appealing to the conscienceof the oppressor.
iii.People – including the oppressors – had to be persuaded to see thetruth,
instead of being forced to accept truth through the use of violence. Bythis
struggle, truth was bound to ultimately triumph. Mahatma Gandhi believedthat
thisdharmaof non-violence could unite all Indians.
3. Mention some of the early political agitations of Mahatma Gandhiin India.
i.After arriving in India, Mahatma Gandhi successfully organizedsatyagraha
movements in various places. In 1916 he traveled toChamparan in Bihar to inspire
the peasants to struggle against theoppressive plantation system.ii.Then in 1917,
he organized a satyagraha to support the peasantsof the Kheda district of Gujarat.
Affected by crop failure and aplague epidemic, the peasants of Kheda could not
pay therevenue, and were demanding that revenue collection be relaxed.
iii.In 1918, Mahatma Gandhi went to Ahmedabad to organize asatyagraha
movement amongst cotton mill workers.
4. Write a note on the Rowlatt Act.
i.This Actgave the government enormous powers to repress politicalactivities, and
allowed detention of political prisoners without trial for two years. This Act had
been hurriedly passed through the Imperial Legislative Councildespite the united
opposition of the Indian members
ii.Gandhiji in 1919 decided to launch a nationwide satyagraha againstthe
proposed Rowlatt Act. He wanted non-violent civil disobedience againstsuch
unjust laws, which would start with a ‘hartal’
on 6 April.
iii.Rallies were organized in various cities, workers went on strike inrailway
workshops, and shops closed down. Alarmed by the popular upsurge,
and scared that lines of communication such as the railways and telegraphwould
be disrupted, the British administration decided to clamp down onnationalists.
iv.Local leaders were picked up from Amritsar, and Mahatma Gandhiwas barred
from entering Delhi. On 10 April, the police in Amritsar fired upon apeaceful
procession, provoking widespread attacks on banks, post offices andrailway
stations. Martial law was imposed and General Dyer took command.
5.What were the circumstances that led to the Jallian walla Baghmassacre? ( Why
was the
Rowlatt Satyahraha launched ? Why was itcalled off?)
i.The British Government passed the Rowlatt Act in 1919. It gave theBritish
officers wide powers to imprison people with out trial.
ii.Rowlatt satyagraha was organized in different parts of the countryagainst this
Black Act.
iii.On 13 April a crowd of villagers who had come to Amritsar to attenda fair
gathered in the enclosed ground of Jallianwalla Bagh. Beingfrom outside the city,
they were unaware of the martial law that hadbeen imposed.
iv.General Dyer entered the area, blocked the exit points, and openedfire on the
crowd, killing hundreds. His object, as he declared later,was to ‘produce a moral
effect’, to create in the minds of satyagrahisa feeling of terror and awe.
v.As the news of Jallianwalla Bagh spread, crowds took to the streets inmany
north Indian towns. There were strikes, clashes with the policeand attacks on
government buildings.
vi.The government responded with brutal repression, seeking tohumiliate and
terrorize people: satyagrahis were forced to rub theirnoses on the ground, crawl
on the streets, and do ‘salaam
’ (salute) toall sahibs; people were flogged and villages (around Gujranwala
inPunjab, now in Pakistan) were bombed. Seeing violence spread,Mahatma
Gandhi called off the movement.
Describe in brief the reactions of the people immediately after Jallianwalla Bagh
incident
. ( Write points v and vi above )
6. What was the Khilafat issue? How did it become part of the nationalist
movement?
i.The First World War had ended with the defeat of Ottoman Turkey.And there
wererumours that a harsh peace treaty was going to be imposed on theOttoman
emperor –the spiritual head of the Islamic world (the Khalifa).
ii.To defend the Khalifa’s powers, a Khilafat Committee was formed inBombayin
March 1919. A young generation of Muslim leaders like thebrothers Muhammad
Aliand Shaukat Ali, started this movement and they began discussingwith
MahatmaGandhi about the possibility of a united mass struggle on the issue.
ISB5
iii.Gandhiji saw this as an opportunity to bring Muslims under theumbrella of a
unifiednational movement. At the Calcutta session of the Congress inSeptember
1920, heconvinced other leaders of the need to start a non-
cooperationmovement in support of Khilafat as well as for swaraj.
7. What were the reasons for the launching of the Non-cooperation movement?
What wasGandhiji’s idea behind launching it as stated in his book Hind Swaraj?
i.The attainment of Swaraj: Self-rule became the goal of the Congress in 1906.
TheBritish had promised to give self rule after the First World War. However, it
was notachieved. The Rowlatt Act and the Jallianwalla Bagh massacre forced
Gandhiji tostart Non Cooperation Movement.ii.To support Khilafat Movement:
The Khilafat Movement was started by Ali Brothersto stop the injustice done to
Turkey. Gandhiji decided to work together with thismovement to bring the
Muslims to the nationalist movement.iii.To do away the economic distress: Many
sections of the Indian society sufferedconsiderable economic distress. In the
towns workers and artisans, the middle classhad been hit by high prices and
shortage of food and essential commodities. Therural poor and peasants were
victims of wide spread drought and epidemics. TheBritish were unmindful to
these developments.
In his famous book
Hind Swaraj(1909) Mahatma Gandhi declaredthat British rule wasestablished in
India with the cooperation of Indians, and had survivedonly because of this
cooperation. If Indians refused to cooperate, British rule in Indiawould
collapsewithin a year, and swaraj would come. Therefore, he started
NonCooperationMovement.
8. What were the stages proposed for the Non Cooperation Movement?
i.Renunciation of titles: Subhramanya Iyer and Ravindranath Tagore renounced
thehonorary title ‘Sir’ that they received from the British. Gandhiji returned his
‘Kaiser-e-Hind’ medal.ii.Resigning of important jobs: Many officers resigned their
jobs.iii.Boycott of legislatures: Many people refused to caste vote when the
elections to thelegislatures were held. It was followed by the boycott of schools
and colleges, lawcourts etc.iv.Nonpayment of taxes: This was a powerful method
of fighting an oppressivegovernment. They were not ready to recognize the Govt.
legitimate.
9. How did Non-Cooperation Movement become a mass movement? Illustrate the
answer bynarrating the major developments.
i.The movement started with middle-class participation in the cities. Thousands of
students left government-controlled schools andcolleges, headmasters and
teachers resigned, and lawyers gave uptheir legal practices.
ii.Council elections were boycotted in most provinces except Madras,where the
Justice Party, the party of the non-Brahmans, felt thatentering the council was
one way of gaining some power – somethingthat usually only Brahmans had
access to.
iii.The effects of non-cooperation on the economic front were moredramatic.
Foreign goods were boycotted, liquor shopspicketed and foreign cloth burnt in
huge bonfires.iv.The import of foreign cloth halved between 1921 and
1922, its valuedropping from Rs 102 crore to Rs 57 crore. In many places
merchantsand traders refused to trade in foreign goods or finance foreign
trade.v.As the boycott movement spread, and people began discardingimported
clothes and wearing only Indian ones, production of Indiantextile mills and
handlooms went up.
10. Why was the Non-Cooperation Movement slowed down in thecities?
The Non-Cooperation Movement in the cities gradually slowed down fora variety
of reasons.
i.‘Khadi’ cloth was often more expensive than mass-produced mill clothand poor
people could not afford to buy it. So they could not boycottmill cloth for too long.
ii.For the movement to be successful, alternative Indian institutions hadto be set
up so that they could be used in place of the British ones. These were very slow to
come up. Consequently teachers andchildren started going back to schools and
lawyers started going backto their courts.
11. What were the causes for the peasant movements in Awadh? Howdid they
organize it? Whywere the congress leaders unhappy with it?
i.The movement in Awadh was against ‘talukdars’
and landlords whodemanded from peasants high rents and a variety of
other causes. The movement was led by Baba Ramchandra – a ‘sanyasi’ who
wentto Fiji as an indentured labourer.
ii.Peasants had to do begaar and work at landlords’ farms without anypayment.
As tenants they had no security of tenure, being regularlyevicted so that they could
acquire no right over the leased land.
iii.The peasant movement demanded reduction of revenue, abolition of ‘begar,’
and social boycott of oppressive landlords.
iv.In many places ‘nai – dhobi bandhs’ were organized by panchayats todeprive
landlords of the services of even barbers and washer men.
v.In June 1920, Jawaharlal Nehru began going around the villages inAwadh,
talking to the villagers, and trying to understand theirgrievances. By October, the
Oudh Kisan Sabha was set up headed by Jawaharlal Nehru, Baba Ramchandra and
a few others. Within amonth, over 300 branches had been set up in the villages
around theregion.
vi.So when the Non- Cooperation Movement began the following year,the effort
of the Congress was to integrate the Awadh peasantstruggle into the wider
struggle.
vii.The Congress leadership was unhappy with the peasant movement.As the
movement spread in 1921, the houses of ‘talukdars’
andmerchants were attacked, bazaars were looted, and grain hoardswere taken
over. In many places local leaders told peasants thatGandhiji had declared that no
taxes were to be paid and land was tobe redistributed among the poor. The name
of the Mahatma wasbeing invoked to sanction all action and aspirations.
12. Give an example to prove that the tribal peasants interpreted themessage of
NonCooperation Movement in a different way.
i.In the Gudem Hills of Andhra Pradesh, for instance, a militant guerrillamovement
spread in the early 1920s – not a form of struggle that theCongress could
approve. Here, as in other forest regions, the colonialgovernment had closed
large forest areas, preventing people fromentering the forests to graze their
cattle, or to collect fuel wood andfruits.
ii.This made the hill people angry. Not only were their livelihoodsaffected but they
felt that their traditional rights were being denied.
iii.When the government began forcing them to contribute
beggar
forroad building, the hill people revolted. The person who came to leadthem was
Alluri Sitaram Raju. Raju talked of the greatness of Mahatma Gandhi, said he was
inspired by the Non-CooperationMovement, and persuaded people to wear
‘khadi’ and give updrinking.
iv.But at the same time he asserted that India could be liberated only bythe use of
force, not non-violence. The Gudem rebels attacked policestations, attempted to
kill British officials and carried on guerrillawarfare for achieving swaraj. Raju was
captured and executed in1924, and over time became a folk hero.
13.What did ‘swaraj’ mean for the workers of the plantations? Whatdid they do
when they heard about the Non-CooperationMovement?
i.Workers had their own understanding of Mahatma Gandhi and thenotion of
swaraj. For plantation workers in Assam, freedom meant theright to move freely
in and out of the confined space in which theywere enclosed, and it meant
retaining a link with the village fromwhich they had come.ii.Under the Inland
Emigration Act of 1859, plantation workers were notpermitted to leave the tea
gardens without permission, and in fact,they were not given such permission.
iii.When they heard of the Non-Cooperation Movement, thousands of workers
disobeyed the authorities, left the plantations and wenthome. They believed that
Gandhi Raj was coming and everyonewould be given land in their own villages.
ISB8iv.They, however, never reached their destination. They were caught bythe
police and brutally beaten up.
14. Why was the Non-Cooperation Movement called off by Gandhiji?
In February 1922, Mahatma Gandhi called off the Non-CooperationMovement
because of the Chauri Chaura incident,in which 22policemen were killed by the
congressmen. He did not want tocontinue the movement in violent methods.
15. Give examples to prove that the term ‘swaraj’ means differentthings to
different people.
i.The term swaraj means self rule or dominion status for the Congresspeople. It is
the type of Government granted by the British in otherself-governing colonies of
Australia and Canada.
ii.To peasants in Awadh ‘swaraj’ means reduction in tax, abolition of ‘begaar’ or
forced labour and social boycott of oppressive land lords.iii.To plantation workers
in Assam, ‘swaraj’ means right to move freelyin and out the plantation where they
were enclosed and retaining alink with the village from, which they had come.
iv.To the tribal peasants of the Gudem hills of Andhra Pradesh ‘swaraj’meant right
to enter forest and collect forest products, graze cattleand give up forced labour.
16. With what aim was ‘the Swarajya Party’ set up?
i.Swarajya party or the Congress Khilafat Swarajya Party was set up by Motilal
Nehruand C.R. Das in 1923.
They were tired of mass struggles and wanted to participate inelections to the
provincial councils that had been set up by the Government of India Act of 1919.
ii.They felt that it was important to oppose British policies within thecouncils,
argue for reform and also demonstrate that these councils were not
trulydemocratic.
iii.They also wanted to keep the anti British spirit of the people alive since
NonCooperation Movement was suspended.
17. Trace two major developments in the Indian politics towards the late 1920s.
or Whatwere the two factors that shaped Indian politics towards the late 1920’s?
i.The first was the effect of the
worldwide economic depression
.Agricultural prices began to fall from 1926 and collapsed after 1930.As the
demand for agricultural goods fell and exports declined,peasants found it difficult
to sell their harvests and pay their revenue.
ii.The Simon Commission
was appointed and came to India in February, 1928. It wasappointed to look in to
the working of the Government of India Act of 1919 and to suggest further
reforms in the system of administration. The members of the commission were all
Englishmen andnot a single Indian was included in it. It led to Simon go back
agitation.
iii.Lahore session decision ( Answer 19)18. Why did Simon Commission visit India?
Why was it boycotted?
i. The Simon Commission was appointed in 1927 and it came to India in February,
1928.It was appointed to look in to the working of the Government of India Act of
1919 andto suggest further reforms in the system of administration.ii. The
members of the commission were all Englishmen and not a single Indian
wasincluded in it .ISB9
iv.The composition of the commission confirmed the fear of Indian people that
thegovernment was not willing to accept the demand for Swaraj. So it was
boycotted.
19. What were the two important decisions taken at Lahore Session of the Indian
NationalCongress in 1929? or Discuss the significance of the Congress session in
1929 in thefreedom struggle of India.
The Lahore session of Indian National Congress of 1929 was held under the
presidentship of Jawaharlal Nehru. The two important decisions taken were the
following:a.The attainment of complete independence: It was declared in this
session that thechief goal of the Indian National congress was the attainment of
complete independence. b.It was decided to launch the Civil Disobedience
Movement under the leadership of Gandhiji to get the complete
independence..c.It was decided in this session to celebrate 26
thJanuary as the Independence Day allover the country. Because of its
significance the same day was chosen as the Republic day of India.
20. Why did Gandhiji start the civil disobedience movement? or Under what
circumstancesdid Gandhiji start the civil disobedience movement?
i.Complete independence became the goal of the Congress at theLahore session
in 1929. It was decided to launch civil disobediencemovement to get complete
independence.
ii.On 31 January 1930, Gandhiji sent a letter to Viceroy Irwin statingeleven
demands. Some of these were of general interests; otherswere specific demands
of different classes, from industrialists topeasants. The idea was to make the
demands wide-ranging, so thatall classes within Indian society could identify with
them andeveryone could be brought together in a united campaign.
iii.The most stirring of all was the demand to abolish the salt tax. Saltwas
something consumed by the rich and the poor alike, and it wasone of the most
essential items of food. Mahatma Gandhi found in salta powerful symbol that
could unite the nation.
iv.The tax on salt and the government monopoly over its production,Mahatma
Gandhi declared, revealed the most oppressive face of British rule. Since the
demands were not accepted Mahatma Gandhistarted his famous Dandi march
accompanied by 78 of his trustedvolunteers.
v.The march was over 240 miles, from Gandhiji’s ashram in Sabarmatito the
Gujarati coastal town in Dandi. The volunteers walked for 24days, about 10 miles
a day. Thousands came to hear MahatmaGandhi wherever he stopped, and he
told them what he meant byswaraj and urged them to peacefully defy the British.
vi.On 6 April, he reached Dandi, and ceremonially violated the law,producing salt
by boiling sea water. This marked the beginning of theCivil Disobedience
Movement.
What was the salt satyagraha? ( Write points iv, v and vi above)
21. How was the Civil Disobedience Movement different from theNon
CooperationMovement?
i.The Non Cooperation Movement was started in 1920 to get swaraj andto
support the Khilafat movement. The Civil Disobedience movement was started
in1930 to get complete independence.
ii.The Non Cooperation Movement was the first mass movement startedby
Gandhiji in which large number of peasants participated where as in
Civildisobedience movement a large number of women participated.iii.Hindu
Muslim unity was achieved its best during Non CooperationMovement since it
supported the Khilafat Movement where as in CivilDisobedience Movement a
large number of Muslims were alienated.
iv.During the Non Cooperation movement, people were asked not tocooperate
with the British where as in Civil disobedience movement people wereasked not
to cooperate and to violate colonial laws.
22. Describe the civil Disobedience Movement. How did it become amass
movement? Or How was the civil disobedience movementorganized?
i.The Dandi march marked the beginning of the Civil DisobedienceMovement.
People were now asked not only to refuse cooperationwith the British, as they
had done during Non CooperationMovement, but also to break colonial
laws.ii.Thousands in different parts of the country broke the salt
law,manufactured salt and demonstrated in front of government saltfactories.
iii.As the movement spread, foreign cloths were boycotted, and liquorshops were
picketed. Peasants refused to pay revenue and‘chaukidari’
taxes, village officials resigned, and in many places,forest people violated forest
laws by going into Reserved Forests tocollect wood and graze cattle.iv.Worried by
the developments, the colonial government beganarresting the Congress leaders
one by one. This led to violentclashes in many palaces.
v.When Abdul Ghaffar Khan, a disciple of Mahatma Gandhi, wasarrested in April
1930, angry crowds demonstrated in the streets of Peshawar, facing armoured
cars and police firing. Many were killed.
vi.When Mahatma Gandhi was arrested, industrial workers in Sholapurattacked
police posts, municipal buildings, law courts, and railwaystations –all structures
that symbolized British rule.
vii.The frightened government responded with a policy of brutalrepression.
Peaceful satyagrahis were attacked, women and childrenwere beaten, and about
100,000 people were arrested. In such asituation, Mahatma Gandhi decided to
call off the movement.
Why did Gandhi call of civil disobedience movement
? ( Writepoints v, vi, and vii above)
23. Why did Gandhi re-launch civil disobedience movement?
iIn December 1931, Gandhiji went to London to attend the SecondRound Table
Conference, but the negotiations broke down and hereturned disappointed.
iiBack in India, he discovered that the government had begun a newcycle of
repression. Ghaffar Khan and Jawaharlal Nehru were both in jail, the Congress
had been declared illegal.
iiiA series of measures had been imposed to prevent meetings,demonstrations
and boycotts. With great apprehension, MahatmaGandhi re-launched the Civil
Disobedience Movement.
24. Describe the participation of different social groups in the
CivilDisobedienceMovement. Why did they join the movement?
i.In the countryside, rich peasant communities – like the Patidars of Gujarat and
the Jats of Uttar Pradesh – were active in the movement.Being producers of
commercial crops, they were very hard hit by thetrade depression and falling
prices.
ii.Indian merchants and industrialists wanted protection againstimports of foreign
goods and a rupee sterling foreign exchange ratiothat would discourage imports.
They wanted to end colonial controlover Indian economy. They joined Civil
Disobedience Movement andgave financial assistance and refused to buy or sell
imported goods.
iii.Another important feature of the Civil Disobedience Movement wasthe large-
scale participation of women. During Gandhiji’s salt march,thousands of women
came out of their homes to listen to him. Theyparticipated in protest
marches, manufactured salt, and
picketedforeign cloth and liquor shops. Many went to jail.
iv.There were strikes by railway workers in 1930 and dockworkers in1932. In 1930
thousands of workers in Chotanagpur tin mines wore Gandhi caps and
participated in protest rallies and boycottcampaigns.
25.Why did the rich peasant communities join the Civil disobedience movement?
Why did not they join when it was re-launched in 1932 ?
iIn the countryside, rich peasant communities – like the Patidars of Gujarat and
the Jats of Uttar Pradesh joined the movement
ii Being producers of commercial crops, they were very hard hit by thetrade
depression and falling prices. As their cash income disappeared,they found it
impossible to pay the government’s revenue demand.
iiiThe refusal of the government to reduce the revenue demand led towidespread
resentment. These rich peasants were active inorganizing their communities, and
at times forcing reluctantmembers, to participate in the boycott programmes
ivFor them the fight for swaraj was a struggle against high revenues.
vBut they were deeply disappointed when the movement was calledoff in 1931
without the revenue rates being revised. Therefore, whenthe movement was
restarted in 1932, many of them refused toparticipate.
26.Why did not the poor peasants join the civil disobediencemovement? Why was
therelationship between the poor peasants and the Congressremained uncertain
duringcivil disobedience movement?
i.The poorer peasants were not just interested in the lowering of therevenue
demand. Many of them were small tenants cultivating landthey had rented from
landlords.
ii.As the Depression continued and cash incomes decreased, the smalltenants
found it difficult to pay their rent. They wanted the unpaidrent to the landlord to
be remitted.
iii.They joined a variety of radical movements, often led by Socialistsand
Communists.
iv.Congress did not want to upset the rich peasants and landlords, andwas
unwilling to support ‘no rent’ campaigns of the poor peasants inmost places. So
the relationship between the poor peasants and theCongress remained uncertain.
27. Why did the business class support the civil disobedience movement?
Why did theindustrial working classes not participate in the Civil Disobedience
Movement in largenumbers?
i.Indian merchants and industrialists wanted protection againstimports of foreign
goods and a rupee-sterling foreign exchange ratiothat would discourage
imports.ii. They wanted to end colonial control over Indian economy. They joined
Civil Disobedience Movement and gave financial assistanceand refused to buy or
sell imported goods.iii.Most businessmen came to see swaraj as a time when
colonialrestrictions on businesswould no longer exist and trade and industry
would flourish withoutconstraints.
iv.As the industrialists came closer to the Congress, workers stayedaloof. The
Congresswas reluctant to include workers’ demands as part of its programme of
struggle. It feltthat this would alienate industrialists and divide the anti-
imperialforces.
28. How did the Indian merchants and industrialists protect theirinterests?
i.To organize business interests, they formed the Indian Industrial andCommercial
Congress in 1920 and the Federation of the IndianChamber of Commerce and
Industries (FICCI) in 1927.
ii.Led by prominent industrialists like Purshottamdas Thakurdasand G. D. Birla, the
industrialists attacked colonial control over theIndian economy, and supported
the Civil Disobedience Movementwhen it was first launched. They gave financial
assistance andrefused to buy or sell imported goods.
ISB13
29. Why didn’t the business class support the civil disobediencemovement when
it wasre- launched?
i.After the failure of the Round Table Conference, business groups wereno longer
uniformly enthusiastic in the civil disobedience movement..
iiThey were afraid of the spread of militant activities, and worriedabout prolonged
disruption of business, as well as of the growinginfluence of socialism amongst
the younger members of theCongress.
30. .Describe the participation of women in the civil disobediencemovement.
I An important feature of the Civil Disobedience Movement was thelarge-scale
participation of women. During Gandhiji’s salt march,thousands of women came
out of their homes to listen to him.
Ii They participated in protest marches, manufactured salt, andpicketed foreign
cloth and liquor shops. Many went to jail.
iiiIn urban areas, these women were from high-caste families; in ruralareas, they
came from rich peasant households. Moved by Gandhiji’scall, they began to see
service to the nation as a sacred duty of women.
31. Why did the participation of women in large numbers in themovements not
bring anyradical change in the position of Indian women?
i. Gandhiji was convinced that it was the duty of women to look afterhome and
hearth, be good mothers and good wives.ii. And for a long time the Congress was
reluctant to allow women to holdany position of authority within the
organization. It was keen only ontheir symbolic presence.
32. ‘Dalit participation in the civil disobedience movement waslimited’ Give
reasons.
i.For long the Congress had ignored the Dalits, for fear of offending theSanatanis,
the conservative high-caste Hindus.
ii.Many Dalit leaders had different political solution to the problems of the
community. They began organizing themselves, demandingreserved seats in
educational institutions, and separate electoratesthat would choose Dalit
members for legislative councils. Thereforetheir participation in the civil
disobedience movement was limited.
What was the political solution to the problems of the Dalitcommunity according
to itsleaders?
( write point ii above)
33. How was Gandhiji and Dalit leaders different in their views of the solution to
the
problems of the Dalits?
i.Mahatma Gandhi called the ‘untouchables’ as harijan,
or the childrenof God, He organized satyagraha to secure them entry into
temples,and access to public wells, tanks, roads and schools. He wanted
tobring them to the main stream.
ii.He himself cleaned toilets to dignify the work of the bhangi (thesweepers), and
persuaded upper castes to change their heart andgive up ‘the sin of
untouchability’.
iii.Many Dalit leaders had different political solution to the problems of the
community. They began organizing themselves, demandingreserved seats in
educational institutions, and separate electoratesthat would choose Dalit
members for legislative councils.
34. Why did Gandhiji and Dr. Ambedkhar come into a conflict in theSecond
Round TableConference? What was the result? Or Explain the
circumstancesleading to the PoonaPact of 1932. What are its provisions?
iDr. Ambedkhar demanded separate electorates for dalits. Gandhijiopposed it.
Gandhiji believed that separate electorates for Dalitswould slow down the
process of their integration into society.
iiWhen the British government granted Ambedkar’s demand, Gandhijibegan a fast
unto death. Ambedkarultimately accepted Gandhiji’sposition and the result was
the
Poona Pact of September 1932.
iiiIt gave the Depressed, reserved seats in provincial and centrallegislative
councils, but they were to be voted in by the generalelectorate.
35. What were the limits of the Civil Disobedience Movement?
I For long the Congress had ignored the Dalits, for fear of offending theSanatanis,
theconservative high-caste Hindus. Therefore ‘Dalits’ did not participatein the
movement.iiSome of the Muslim political organizations did not respond to the
civildisobediencemovement since Congress is more associated with
Hinduassociations.iiiThe relationship between the poor peasants and the
Congressremained uncertain during this period. Congress did not want to
upsetthe rich peasants and landlords, and was unwilling to supportcampaigns of
the poor peasants in most places.
36. What were the main features of the Gandhi-Irwin Pact?
i.Gandhi-Irwin Pact which was signed in March 1931, was the result of the effort
made by the Viceroy Irwin to persuade the Congress to join the Second Round
Table Conference.ii.According to the agreement the govt. agreed to release all
political prisoners. Gandhijishould attend the 2
nd Round Table Conference and he should call off the Civil
DisobedienceMovement. The congress agreed to take part inthe Second Round
Table Conference.
37. What were the means of creating a feeling of nationalism orcollective
belonging in theminds of the Indian people?
Or
What were the icons and symbolsused during thenationalist movement in
unifying people and inspiring in them afeeling of nationalism?
i.The sense of collective belonging came partly through the experienceof united
struggles. But there were also a variety of cultural processesthrough which
nationalism captured people’s imagination. History andfiction, folklore and
songs, popular prints and symbols, all played apart in the making of nationalism.
ii.The identity of the nation is most often symbolized in a figure orimage like the
Bharat Mata.This helps create an image with whichpeople can identify the nation.
iii.Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay wrote ‘Vande Mataram’in 1870sas a hymn to
the motherland. Later it was widely sung during theSwadeshi movement in
Bengal. Moved by the Swadeshi movement,Abanindranath Tagore painted his
famous image of Bharat Mata Inthis painting Bharat Mata is portrayed as an
ascetic figure; she iscalm, composed, divine and spiritual.
iv.Ideas of nationalism also developed through a movement to revive
Indian folklore. In late nineteenth-century India, nationalists beganrecording folk
tales sung by bards and they toured villages to gatherfolk songs and legends.
These tales, they believed, gave a truepicture of traditional culture that had been
corrupted and damagedby outside forces. It was essential to preserve this folk
tradition inorder to discover one’s national identity and restore a sense of pridein
one’s past.
vAs the national movement developed, nationalist leaders becamemore and
more aware of such icons and symbols in unifying peopleand inspiring in them a
feeling of nationalism. During the Swadeshimovement in Bengal,
a tricolour flag(red, green and yellow) wasdesigned. It had eight lotuses
representing eight provinces of BritishIndia, and a crescent moon, representing
Hindus and Muslims.
vi.By 1921, Gandhiji had designed the Swaraj flag. It was again atricolour (red,
green and white) and had a spinning wheel in thecentre, representing the
Gandhian ideal of self-help. Carrying the flag,holding it aloft, during marches
became a symbol of defiance.
vii.Another means of creating a feeling of nationalism was through
reinterpretation of history.
By the end of the nineteenth centurymany Indians began feeling that to instill a
sense of pride in thenation, Indian history had to be reinterpreted. They wrote
about theglorious developments in ancient times when art and
architecture,science and mathematics, religion and culture, law and
philosophy,crafts and trade had flourished. These nationalist histories urged
thereaders to take pride in India’s great achievements in the past andstruggle to
change the miserable conditions of life under British rule.(any four points)
38. Why did the political leaders differ sharply over the question of separate
electorates?
i.Many leaders had different political solution to the problems of theirrespective
communities. They began organizing themselves, with out joining Congress,
demanding reserved seats in educationalinstitutions, and separate electorates
that would choose them forlegislative councils.ii.Leaders of the Congress like
Ganghiji believed that separateelectorates for such minority communities would
slow down theprocess of their integration into society. He wanted a
nationalistmovement in which all sections of the society participate in it.
39. Give examples to prove that the Congress continuouslyattempted to resolve
differencesand ensure that the demand of one group did not alienate theother.
i.The differences between the Muslim community and the Congresswere solved
when Gandhiji started Non Cooperation Movement tosupport Khilafat
Movement. Actually, these movements wenttogether. The Hindu Muslim unity
was achieved its best at this time.
ii.Even though different social groups participated in Non Cooperationmovement
and they had different goals they were all united underthe banner of the
Congress forgetting their differences.
iii.When the British government granted Ambedkar’s demand to haveseparate
electorate for the Dalits, Gandhiji began a fast unto death.Ambedkar ultimately
accepted Gandhiji’s position and the result wasthe Poona Pact of September
1932. It gave the Depressed class,reserved seats in provincial and central
legislative councils, but theywere to be voted in by the general electorate.
40. When and where was the resolution of Non-cooperationmovement adopted
by theCongress?
It was adopted at the congress session at Nagpur in December 1920.
41. Quote the Independence Day pledge on 26
thJanuary 1930.We believe that it is the inalienable right of the Indian people, as
of any other people, tohave freedom and to enjoy the fruits of their toil and have
the necessities of life, so thatthey may have full opportunities of growth. We
believe also that if any governmentdeprives a people of these rights and
oppresses them, the people have a further right toalter it or to abolish it. The
British Government in India has not only deprived theIndian people of their
freedom but has based itself on the exploitation of the masses,and has ruined
India economically, politically, culturally, and spiritually. We believe,therefore,
that India must sever the British connection and attain Purna Swaraj or Complete
Independence.’
42. Why did Mohammed Iqbal , the president of the Muslim league demand
separateelectorate for the Muslims? (Source Question)
He demanded it to safe guard their minority political interests. The
generaleconomic inferiority of the Muslims, their enormous debt, especially in
thePunjab, and their insufficient majorities in some of the provinces, increased
hisISB17anxiety to retain separate electorates.’
43. How did Mohammed Iqbal justify the demand of separate electorate for
theMuslims in India? (Source Question)
The units of Indian society are not territorial as in European countries … The
principleof European democracy cannot be applied to India without recognizing
the fact of communal groups. The Muslim demand for the creation of a Muslim
India within Indiais, therefore, perfectly justified…. India is a land of racial and
religious variety. Thegeneral economic inferiority of the Muslims, their enormous
debt, especially in thePunjab, and their insufficient majorities in some of the
provinces, increased hisanxiety to retain separate electorates.’
44. Why does the Hindu think that separate electorates are contrary to the spirit
of nationalism according to Mohammed Iqbal?(Source Question)
The Hindu thinks that separate electorates are contrary to the spirit of
nationalism because he understands the word “nation” to mean a kind of
universalamalgamation in which no communal entity ought to retain its private
individuality.Such a state of things, however