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From Used Cooking Oil to biodiesel. Full Supply Chain demonstration

Conference Paper · November 2018

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 From Used Cooking Oil to biodiesel.
Full Supply Chain demonstration

Z.K. Gkouskos1, S.K. Tournaki1, M.P. Giamalaki1 and T.D. Tsoutsos1

1 Technical University of Crete/School of Environmental Engineering, Chania, Greece

aris.gkouskos@enveng.tuc.gr; stavroula.tournaki@enveng.tuc.gr; Theocharis.Tsoutsos@enveng.tuc.gr

KEYWORDS - used cooking oil, smart-bins, alternative fuel, biodiesel, sustainable mobility

ABSTRACT
Fostering a low carbon economy is a key pillar of EU policies for territorial sustainable
development and it is especially important for the mitigation of climate change in MED regions.
COMPOSE is an Interreg MED action aiming to increase the share of local renewable energy
sources in the energy mix and strategies in 11 Mediterranean regions. The project provides a
synthesis model for efficient RES development planning through the development of sustainable
energy supply chains and the enhancement of local businesses and implements 15 pilot
demonstration actions to enhance the use of RES and EE measures by exploiting the local potential.
3 of the demonstrations are implemented on the island of Crete, the one targeting to increase the
rate of Used Cooking Oil (UCO) recycling and to enhance its safe disposal in the city of Rethymno.
Recycling UCO to biodiesel offers a sustainable alternative for the exploitation of a
problematic waste and its transformation into an energy resource, contributing thus to the reduction
of environmental pollution and fossil fuel dependence (biodiesel from UCO could replace 1.5% of
today’s EU27 diesel consumption).
UCOs are classified as municipal wastes under the code 20 01 25 (edible oils and fats)
according to the European Waste Catalogue. They are actually oils and fats that have been used for
cooking or frying in the food processing industry, restaurants and at the consumer level, in
households. Inappropriate disposal of UCOs may generate major problems when discharged into
sewerage systems. EU members need to encourage the separate collection and the treatment of bio-
waste in a way that fulfils a high level of environmental protection. Even though UCO generated in
restaurants is often collected by authorized service providers, most countries lack efficient systems
to collect and treat UCO produced in households.
Through COMPOSE, the Renewable and Sustainable Energy systems Lab (ReSEL) of the
Technical University of Crete promotes the sustainable biodiesel production through local energy
production chains. A network of smart-bins is placed in Rethymno. The bins are equipped with
sensors combined with Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM) technology to transfer
real-time data via an online platform. Through this smart management system, the efficiency of the
collection system will be increased and operational costs are expected to be reduced. In addition,
fewer collection trips mean less fuel consumption and less greenhouse gas emissions. UCO will be
transferred to a small-scale biodiesel production demonstration unit that will also be set up in
Rethymno. The quality of the produced biodiesel will be tested through chemical analyses to be
undertaken by TUC. The pilot also aims to increase public interest in UCO recycling by motivating
a behavioural change among citizens.

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1 INTRODUCTION
When UCO is improperly disposed, it can cause significant environmental burden, however,
if collected and recycled it can be proven an efficient energy resource. While UCO generated from
restaurants and food industry is collected and treated, in most cases, by authorized service
providers, the most commonly met practice of disposing households’ UCO is to throw it in the
sewage system which can actually lead to several problems. UCO may clog the sewage system,
causing malfunctions in the filters and to oil/water separators. In several cases, the increase of the
water treatment cost, due to the oil fraction, has been estimated up to 25% [1].
UCO can be converted to biodiesel, a non-toxic liquid, safer than conventional diesel which
biodegrades four times more rapidly than petrodiesel [2]. In addition, biodiesel has the lowest
Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions among biofuels, ensuring 88% GHG emission savings [3].
The conversion of UCO into biodiesel can also be a crucial step towards a cleaner
environment within urban areas, in the long term, addressing the challenge of the European Union
to significantly reduce transport emissions and achieving the goals regarding climate change set in
the 2015 Paris Agreement [4].
This paper aims to summarize the essential steps that have been followed in order to set up the
pilot UCO collection network in Rethymno, as well as to sustainably convert the UCO collected to
biodiesel.

2 EU EXPERIENCE IN UCO HOUSEHOLD COLLECTION

UCO collection at households is not yet developed in Greece, as in other EU countries, since
there are no specific municipal recycling points for UCO. The success of such collection systems
strongly depends on the participation of individuals and probably the most important issue is to
convince/enable citizens to recycle their used oil instead of simply disposing it with other Municipal
Solid Wastes (MSWs), or even pouring it to the kitchens’ sinks. On the other hand, the major
technical challenge of recycling household UCO is its collection, mainly due to the high costs in the
logistics cost of such a process [5].
Trying to overcome these obstacles an extended survey, to track practical but also cost-
effective elements for the “UCO to biodiesel chain”, has been performed. Previous EU actions (e.g.
RecOil project [3]), as well as relevant practices in other EU cities, have been studied to identify the
most appropriate elements for an efficient UCO collection system. The key success factors for a
sustainable system have been recorded and the most crucial are presented below:
 the motivation of citizens through setting up a “citizens’ friendly” UCO disposal scheme;
 focus on citizens’ awareness with regular, targeted, multi-channel communication activities;
 support from local administrations, the involvement of local municipal waste management
companies and engagement of the local stakeholders.
In UCO household collection two main methods are most frequently met [6]:
 public collection points, and
 door-to-door collection.
In the first collection method, UCO can be either poured directly in the public bins or
disposed after it has been bottled, in common plastic bottles, at home. Both collection methods do
have advantages and disadvantages that have been recorded during the RecOil project and briefly
presented in table 1.

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 The door-to-door collection systems can be organized, however, a detailed collection schedule
must be arranged. High management and logistics costs for the implementation is actually the main
disadvantage of this method.
Through an extended survey covering 900 households and more than 40 UCO collection
systems in Europe, the RecOil team concluded that the most typical collection method is by far the
establishment of public collection points, in easily accessible public places that may attract many
people, like schools, supermarkets, parking lots, municipal buildings and most visited squares.

Table 1 Advantages and disadvantages of different collection systems [7]

System Advantages Disadvantages

 UCO collector has direct contact with

citizens, so he may explain issues related to  Expensive and time-consuming collection
the required quality of the UCO (in order to process (dependent upon the number of
Door-to-door be recycled) and how to dispose households involved and the quantity of
collection inappropriate oils UCO per point)
 Potential to deliver biodiesel to consumers  Difficult to define a rewarding benefit
during the collection process

 No direct control over the quality of the

 Lower logistics costs feedstock
Public collection
 Citizens become more and more  High risk of UCO theft/vandalism events
points
familiarized and motivated to recycle  Limited hygiene of bins, which is linked to
spills or incorrect delivery of UCO

3 PILOT ACTION IN RETHYMNO MUNICIPALITY

According to the National Waste Management Plan, the UCO production in Greece is
estimated at 5 kg/person/year [8]. Considering that according to the latest census (2011) the
population of Rethymno Municipality is 55,525 inhabitants, it is estimated that UCO production is
about 277,625 kg. Taking into account that 40% comes from the households, the potential UCO
recovery from this sector amounts to 111,000 kg (123 m3) per year. By engaging citizens, this
amount can be significantly increased as a result of awareness campaigns and recycling rewards
schemes.
When setting up a “public collection points system” the following factors have to be taken
into account:
i. since the price of UCO in the market has been rising during the last years, one of the main
problems is UCO theft;
ii. large variations in the UCO quantity produced per household represents a barrier at the design
stage. Being difficult for the UCO collector to predict the fill level of the UCO bins, the UCO
collection routes are in most cases predefined regardless the fulfilment level of the UCO bins.
iii. the risk of UCO contamination with other kind of substances (liquids or solid wastes) is also
crucial, especially when used oils are collected in bulk.
Aiming to provide solutions to overcome the first two commonly faced obstacles, a research
study was focused on the “smart bin” solution referring actually to the intelligent monitoring of a
bin’s fill - level and the exact tracking of its location in a city.

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 This monitoring allows the analysis of the progressive filling data of UCO bins through an
online web platform, which can create alerts in case of unauthorised movements of the bins,
unexpected temperature increase and can support the optimisation of the UCO collector’s routes.
The bottled UCO collection compared to the bulk collection is preferred and it is estimated
that it can minimize the risk of contamination with other fluids or wastes (obstacle iii) as well as the
aesthetic degradation of the UCO bin and surrounding ambient.

3.1 COMPOSE Common Methodology

In order to develop a sustainable UCO collection system, the core steps of the Common
Methodology for Demonstration (CMD) (Figure 1), developed in the frame of the COMPOSE
action, have been followed. The COMPOSE methodology for local RES planning takes into
account not only technical but also socio-economic and environmental aspects [9].

Figure 1: Indicative workflow of the Common Methodology for Demonstration

The formation of a Local Action Group (LAG), consisting of key stakeholders, is one of the most
vital elements of the methodology for the successful implementation of RES & EE projects. LAG
members’ engagement from the initial planning phase to the strategic decisions and the
development process is expected to act as a “driving force” for the implementation of the Pilot
Action in Rethymno. Stakeholders involved include the Municipality of Rethymno, the Waste
Management and Urban Environment Department, the Planning and Development Services
Directorate, the Municipal Enterprise of Water and Sewage, the Inter-Municipal Waste
Management Company; School Communities (schools that collect UCO, parent associations), the
Department of Education & Lifelong Learning and the HORECA related Associations.
LAGs’ fruitful discussions led to the approach, shortly presented in the simplified flowchart,
in Figure 2. Targeted LAG meetings mainly concerned the advantages and disadvantages of a
“public collection points” approach and efficient solutions to overcome potential barriers when

379
supported by a smart monitoring system, UCO bins’ optimal siting and labelling, behavioural
change and awareness raising campaigns etc.

Figure 2: Simplified approach followed in the “UCO to Biodiesel” demonstration project in

Rethymno

3.2 Setting up the UCO collection network

UCO bins selected for this pilot are equipped with: a rubber rosette on the lid to easily dispose
bottled UCO; a lockable lid to prevent theft; wheels to be easily located and relocated if needed;
enough free space on the lid so that the smart sensor could be installed; a secondary bin put inside
to keep the outside bin as clean as possible and avoid sensors’ damage during collection (Figure 3).

Figure 3: UCO bins and smart sensors’ installation

The strategic siting of UCO collection points, in open public areas, is really important to
make the process convenient for the citizens. A list of criteria has been prepared to optimize UCO
bins’ siting. Hence, UCO bins should be sited:

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 to locations easily accessible to a large number of citizens, for example, supermarkets, parking
lots, municipal/public buildings;
 to neighbourhoods where families with kids live;
 close to other waste bins (for MSW or recyclable materials);
 inadequately illuminated roads (to deter vandalism/theft);
 in areas that can easily be kept clean (to avoid aesthetic degradation and accidents);
 in spaces that will not cause problems to vehicles’ circulation (e.g. road turnings, bus stops,
traffic lights);
 at locations that will not hinder citizens walking or access to people with disabilities (e.g. close
to ramps);
 at an adequate distance from soil or water beds (potential leakages must not reach soil);
 at locations to be easily accessed by the UCO collector’s vehicle.
Based on these criteria the Municipal Department of Waste Management and Urban
Environment concluded to 30 priority locations that UCO bins should be placed.

4 SMART UCO COLLECTION SYSTEM

Smart sensors were installed, on the UCO bins’ lids, to measure the fulfilment level in
regular time intervals; however, these sensors continuously monitor the position of the bin and
instantly detect any significant changes. The online platform sends automated SMS or e-mail alerts
in case of UCO bin overfilling; unauthorised movement (away of the assigned area) or unexpected
temperature raise.

Figure 4: UCO bins monitoring through the web platform

Data recorded by the sensors are transferred wirelessly through GSM, in real time and are
monitored through the software application which enables the user to send work orders to the
drivers, with a list of the locations for collection and an optimal route. Summarizing, through the
online platform the UCO collector can:
 easily supervise the allocation of the UCO bins and be informed for unauthorised events

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 set/adjust the fulfilment level which will serve as a “collection time” alert
 observe the fulfilment level of the UCO bins and prepare optimized routes for its collection
 monitor the battery level of the sensor.

5 UCO TRANSFORMATION TO BIODIESEL

In order to close the “UCO to biodiesel” chain, a small-scale autonomous production unit is
procured to demonstrate locally the transformation of used cooking oils to biodiesel. Small-scale
machines do have great potential, when used by entities that have access to inexpensive feedstock
(UCO) of rather small however quantities [10]. This is actually the case of Rethymno Municipality
where collected UCO can be an ideal feedstock for such machines. The biodiesel produced can then
be used, as a fuel, to municipal diesel vehicles.

Figure 5: Autonomous small-scale biodiesel unit

Based on the experience gained through the RecOil Project [6], initial assumptions for the
potential UCO collection were made. In a moderate approach, a small scale unit with an annual
capacity of 30-35 m3/year can be considered sufficient for the aims of the demonstration project.
To produce 100L of biodiesel, there is a need of about 100L of UCO and approximately 17L
of chemicals (about 2L of catalyst and 15L of methanol). These numbers can slightly vary
according to the feedstock, however; a simple titration can provide the exact amount [11].

5.1 Quality testing

The Renewable and Sustainable Energy Systems’ Laboratory (ReSEL) of the Technical
University of Crete has performed, in the past, quality testing for the biodiesel produced from UCO
collected in Crete. Initial results from the ReSEL scale biodiesel production are presented in Table
2. Biodiesel produced through the new autonomous production unit will be implemented in the
forthcoming period and is expected to be optimized in order to fulfill the criteria set by the common
European standard for biodiesel EN 14214 “Automotive fuels - Fatty acid methyl esters (FAME)
for diesel engines - Requirements and test methods” [12].

382
 Table 2 Properties of biodiesel produced in ReSEL
Property Unit Measurement Minimum Maximum Test Method
Ester Content % (m/m) 91.20 96.50 0.00 prEN 14103

EN ISO 3675
Density at 15 °C kg/m³ 888.20 860.00 900.00
EN ISO 12185

Viscosity at 40 °C mm2 5.33 3.50 5.00 EN ISO 310

Flash Point °C 88.00 > 101.00 - ISO / CD 3679

Cetane Number - 53.40 51.00 - EN ISO 5165

Water Content mg/kg 1413.00 - 500.00 EN ISO 12937

Total Contamination mg/kg 22.30 - 24.00 EN 12662

Copper Strip Corrosion (3hr

rating 1.00 Class 1 Class 1 EN ISO 2160
at 50 °C)

Oxidation Stability, 110°C hours 4.7 6.00 pr EN 14112

Acid Value mg KOH/g 0.16 - 0.50 pr EN 14104

Iodine Value - 112.0 - 120.00 pr EN 14111

Linolenic acid methyl ester % (m/m) 1.9 - 12.00 pr EN 14103

Polyunsaturated (≥ 4 double
% (m/m) < 0.6 - 1.00 -
bonds) methylesters

Monoglyceride Content % (m/m) 0.9 - 0.80 pr EN 14105

Diglyceride Content % (m/m) 1.8 - 0.20 pr EN 14105

Triglyceride Content % (m/m) 4.1 - 0.20 pr EN 14105

pr EN 14105
Free Gylcerol % (m/m) 0.009 - 0.02
pr EN 14106
Total Gylcerol % (m/m) 0.9 - 0.25 pr EN 14105

Phosphorus Content mg/kg < 0.5 - 10.0 pr EN 14107

6 CONCLUSIONS
UCO can have a significant negative impact on the environment when disposed to the ground
or the cities’ sewage systems. A solution for UCO proper management can be the energy recovery,
as it can be converted to biodiesel by simple chemical processes. Thus, the collection of UCO and
its transformation into biodiesel represents an opportunity for the EU to decarbonize its transport
system and to address the environmental problems that the wrong disposal of UCO may produce.
The potential UCO recovery from households in Rethymnon Municipality, is estimated at
123m3/year. Besides the behavioural change and awareness raising campaigns, a reliable and
convenient (for both citizens and collector) UCO collection system needs to be set up. A “smart
approach” is considered that can work efficiently to optimize UCO collection process and recover
the maximum available UCO quantities.
Smart sensors installed on the UCO collection bins can provide information on bins’ location
and fill level providing the UCO collector the ability to optimise the collection routes. Within this

383
demonstration project, 30 “smart bins” have been installed in Rethymno and 20 additional is
expected to be located soon at schools.
Over recent years, small autonomous biodiesel units are commercially available at relatively
low cost, capable to produce certified output suitable for use in conventional diesel engines. These
units may be proven an efficient “tool” for small municipalities, to enhance the local transformation
of UCO to biodiesel. UCO collected from households in Rethymno will be the feedstock for the
small-scale autonomous biodiesel production unit installed at Rethymno. The biodiesel produced
will be tested by ReSEL TUC.
Still, various barriers at EU and national level are limiting the use of UCO as feedstock.
Appropriate policies and supporting measures can lead to the efficient implementation of the UCO
to biodiesel chain and can facilitate the expansion and replication of such initiatives. It is important
that policymakers are aware of the benefits of UCO use as a raw material to the biodiesel
production, so as to encourage and facilitate the implementation of the UCO to biodiesel chain, at
the local level, adopting also a bottom-up approach.

Acknowledgments
This study is supported by the INTERREG MED programme, within the framework of the project
"COMPOSE - Rural communities engaged with positive energy" co-funded by the European
Regional Development Fund (Project No: 1001 / MED 2014-2020). The sole responsibility for the
content of this paper lies with the authors. The European Commission is not responsible for any use
that may be made of the information contained therein.

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