RESEARCH METHODOLOGY - IX ​PRIYAL ARYA 22/14 

Question 3 and 4 
 
 
Question 3:  
Differentiate between Restricted and unrestricted sampling. 
  
  
Sampling​​ is the process of selection of a subset of individuals from within a statistical 
population to estimate a characteristic of the whole population. 
 
 
RESTRICTED AND UNRESTRICTED RANDOM SAMPLING 
 
Unrestricted sampling occurs when elements are selected individually and directly from the 
population, whereas, restricted sampling occurs when elements are chosen using a specific 
methodology as in probability sampling or complex probability sampling. 
 
 
Restricted Random Sampling: 
A method of sampling is described which is a compromise between systematic sampling and 
stratified random sampling. It has less potential for bias than systematic sampling and avoids 
the practical problems associated with stratified random sampling. 

 
Methods of Restricted Random Sampling: There are three methods of restricted random 
sampling. 
 
  
(i) Stratified Sampling: 

This is a method for getting a more efficient sample. 

In this method, the total population is divided into different groups or classes, which are called 
Strata. A sample is drawn from each stratum. The advantage is that an efficient sample is 
obtained by this method. However, note that there must be great homogeneity within each 
stratum. Also, note that there should be clear-cut differences between the strata. 

The method of stratified sampling has many advantages. Firstly, it is more representative of the 
entire population. That is because we are dividing the population into homogeneous groups so 
that none of the groups may be missed. Secondly, calculation accuracy is maximum, if the strata 
are homogeneous. Thirdly, different strata can be selected from one geographical area only; 
that would mean savings in terms of cost and time. 
But this method is not sans limitations either. Firstly, if the strata were not homogeneous, the 
results obtained from the analysis of the sample would not be reliable. Secondly, it 
 
may not be possible to select items from each stratum on a random basis because of the 
absence of skilled researchers. 
 

(ii) Systematic Sampling: 

In the process of systematic sampling, one unit is selected at random from the population. 
Additional units are selected at evenly spaced intervals until the sample has been formed. For 
this purpose, a complete list of the population should be made available to the researcher. 

This list may be prepared in an order-alphabetical, geographical, numerical, or some other. All 
the items are serially numbered. The first item is selected at random by the lottery method. 
Then, subsequent items are selected by taking every Kth item from the list where K is K = n/N. 

Here, K is called Sampling Ratio, N is the size of the universe and n is the size of the sample. 

There are many advantages of systematic sampling. Firstly, it is a simple and convenient 
method. Secondly, the time consumed by the researcher in sampling procedures is less. 
Thirdly, results obtained after analyzing the samples (obtained by this method) are satisfactory 
if care is taken to ensure that there are no periodic features associated with the sampling 
interval). 

Fourthly, if populations under study are sufficiently large, then this method of sampling can 
give results like those obtained through a stratified sampling procedure. However, the 
prominent limitation of this method in that it is less representative of the population if our 
population has periodicity hidden in it, or if the sample is taken by following a periodicity trend. 

(iii) Multistage Sampling: 

In this method, random selection is made of primary, immediate and final units from a given 
population or stratum. There are several stages in this sampling method. 

To begin with, the first-stage units are sampled by the random sampling method. Then, a 
sample of second-stage units is selected from the first stage units. The method of selection of 
second-stage units may be like or different from the method used for first stage units. 
We can add more stages if needed. 

There are many advantages of multistage sampling. Firstly, it is a flexible method; flexibility is 
lacking in other methods of sampling. Secondly, this method enables the researcher to use 
existing divisions and subdivisions of the population at different stages. 
Thirdly, fieldwork can be concentrated, and large areas can be covered. Fourthly, a subdivision 
of only those first-stage samples is done for selecting the second-stage that are included in the 
sample. Thus, we can conveniently divide the population into reasonably small sampling units. 
 
Sometimes, a limitation is also associated with this method. Multistage sampling is less accurate 
because of the involvement of several stages. Some researchers aver with confidence that a 
single-stage process might be more accurate than a multistage process. 

Methods of Unrestricted Random Sampling: In this method, each unit of the population has an 
equal opportunity of getting selected in the sample. The personal bias of the market researcher 
does not enter the selection process. That is because chance only determines which items 
would be included in the sample. 

Suppose that we have a universe with a total of 'N' elements. We want a simple random sample 
of 'n' elements. Then, the following statements 'R' any of the following must be true: 

(a) All the items of the sample are selected independently of one another. 

(b) All the N items of the population have the same chance of being included in the sample. 

(c) After each selection procedure, all the remaining units of the population have the same 
chance of being selected for the sample. 

If we make a sample in such a way that each unit selected from the population is returned 
before selecting the next unit, then each item has a probability of 1/N for its selection. If the 
selection is done in such a manner that each unit, which is selected, is not returned to the 
population before making the next draw, then the probability of selection at first draw is 1/N, at 
the second draw, 1/N-land at the third draw, l/(N-2) and so on. All possible samples of a given 
size n are equally likely to be selected. 
  
Unrestricted Random Sampling This method assumes that each site has an equal chance of 
being part of the sample selected. Make a list of all project sites, perhaps by alphabetical order. 
Every project site is given a number. Random sampling isn’t always the most convenient 
method for choosing a sample. 
  
  

Unrestricted random sampling: 

 

(i) Lottery Method: 

In this method of unrestricted sampling, all the items of the universe are numbered, named on 
separate slips of paper. These slips are folded (to ensure privacy and exclusion of sampling 
bias). These are put in a drum. The drum is rotated and then, the required number of slips is 
taken out of it at random. This method is popular in lottery draws, but paper slips should be of 
same size shape and colors. 
 
(ii) Tables of Random Numbers: 

Random numbers are obtained by some mechanism which, when repeated many times, ensures 
roughly equal frequencies for various combinations of numbers like 00, 01, 99, 999, etc. 

Several tables of random numbers are available in markets. Tippet’s Random Number Tables 
have 41,600 random digits. Fishers and Yates have developed a table of random numbers with 
15,000 random digits. Rand Corporation has also issued a table of random members. These 
numbers are selected by the researcher at random. Tippet’s numbers have been subjected to 
many tests and investigations. Their randomness has been proved. 

There are three advantages of the method of sample selection by random numbers. Firstly, 
there is no personal bias of the researcher (or selector of numbers) because of the procedure of 
random selection. Secondly, the random sample represents the universe in a better manner, if 
we compare this method with judgment sampling. Thirdly, the researcher can check the 
accuracy of his data because sampling errors follow the principle of chance. 

This method has some limitations too. Firstly, we have to keep complete information about the 
entire universe. Secondly, the size of the sample is very large as compared to that in stratified 
sampling. Thirdly, the cost of collecting data is high because the population is normally living in 
a large area. Fourthly, time for collecting data is very long. 

Fifthly, random sampling by this method can produce many non-random results. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Question 4: Write short notes on  
 
 
a) Design of a Research Project 
 
The designing of a research project involves - 
 
1. Stating a topic and problem, with appurtenant questions and/or hypotheses  
2. Identifying the type of research called for in the topic  
3. Learning more about the type of research selected  
4. Organizing a library search for information related to the topic  
5. Foreseeing needed data and their potential sources  
6. Making a list of steps to be taken in conducting the study  
7. Noting the procedures and tools required for collecting data  
8. Anticipating the kinds of analyses the data will need  
9. Drawing up conclusions from the data analysis  
10. Selecting the appropriate format for reporting the research 
 
The process includes -  
 
The Research Question 
 
It dictates the goal of the study, a summary of what is to be achieved, the methodology and the 
type of analysis. Research Question should be Feasible, Ethical and Relevant. 
 
Qualitative Research 
 
Dictates the issues be clarified and the policies or practices that will be influenced. 
 
Quantitative Research 
 
Data Collection Techniques - Interviews, Surveys, Observation 
 
Measurements and Outcomes 
 
Analysis -  
Data Cleaning, Descriptive Statistics, Advanced Analysis, Results 
 
Reporting -  
Tables and Figures, Interpretations, Scientific Writing  
 
Proofreading 
 
 
 
b) Ex post facto research 
 
 
Ex post facto study or ​after-the-fact research​​ is a category of research design in which the 
investigation starts after the fact has occurred​​ without interference from the researcher. The 
majority of social research, in contexts in which it is not possible or acceptable to manipulate 
the characteristics of human participants is based on ex post facto research designs. 
 
This refers to those studies which ​investigate possible cause-and-effect relationships​​ by 
observing an existing condition or state of affairs​​ and ​searching back in time for plausible 
causal factors​​. 
 
Despite studying facts that have already occurred, ex-post facto research shares with 
experimental research design some of its basic logic of inquiry. 
 
 
Example 
 
A situation in which there has been a ​dramatic increase in the number of fatal road accidents 
in a particular locality. An expert is called in to investigate.  
Naturally, there is no way in which he can study the actual accidents.  
 
However, he can ​study statistics, examine the accident spots​​, and ask the victims and 
witnesses. So the expert will be in a position to ​identify possible determinants of the accidents​​. 
These may include excessive speed, poor road conditions, careless driving, frustration, 
inefficient vehicles, the effects of drugs or alcohol and so on.  
 
On the basis of his examination, he can formulate hypotheses as to the likely causes and form 
the recommendations. These may include improving road conditions, or lowering the speed 
limit, or increasing police surveillance. 
 
Therefore, in identifying the causes retrospectively, the expert adopts an ex-post facto 
perspective. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
c) Components of the Research Problem 
 
 
1 - ​Research Consumer 
 
There must be individuals or groups which have some difficulty or problem. The 
individuals or the groups themselves may be researchers. 
 
2 - ​Research-Consumer’s Objective 
 
There must be some objectives to be attained and the research consumer must have some goal 
he wants to achieve. 
 
3 - ​Alternative Means to Meet the Objective 
 
There must be alternative means or the courses of action for attaining an objective one wishes 
to obtain. 
 
4 - ​Doubt in Regard to the Selection of Alternatives 
 
The existence of alternative courses of action is not enough. To experience a problem the 
researcher must have some doubt as to which alternative to select. This means that research 
must answer the question concerning the relative effi​ciency of the possible 
alternative. 
 
5 - ​There must be one or more Environ​​ments  
 
There must be some environments to which the difficulty or problem pertains. A change in the 
environment may produce or remove a problem. A researcher may have doubts as to which will 
be the most efficient means in one environment but may entertain no such doubt in another. 
 
Thus, a research problem is one which requires a researcher to find out the best solution for the 
given problem so that the object can be attained optimally in the context of a given 
environment. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
d) Rephrasing the Research Problem 
 
As a researcher one should rephrase the research problem. Once the following steps have been 
followed, 
 
1 - Understood the nature of the problem 
2 - Studied the environment of the problem 
3 - Discussed the problem with experts 
4 - Surveyed and examined the available literature 
 
Researcher needs to ​rephrase the problem into analytical and operational terms​​. 
 
Points should be kept in mind while rephrasing a research problem 
 
1 - ​Technical terms​​, words or phrases, with special meaning in a statement of the problem 
should be clearly defined. 
 
2 - ​Basic assumptions or postulates​​ (if any) relating to the research problem should be clearly 
stated. 
 
3 - ​The scope of investigation​​ on the limits within which the problem is to be studied must be 
mentioned explicitly in defining the research problem. 
 
 
Example  
 
Initial research question  
Why is productivity in Japan so much higher than in India? 
 
Rephrased research question  
What factors were responsible for the higher labor productivity of Japan’s manufacturing 
industries during the decade 1971 to 1980 relative to India’s manufacturing industries.