1. How does genetic info encoded in DNA get translated into making traits in an organism?

It is DNA that contains the genetic code that is used to make proteins. In turn, it is the structure of proteins
that determines many of the biological functions and physical characteristics of an organism

2. How does genetic information get copied and transmitted during the cell cycle to produce new cells identical
to the parent cell?

The genetic information is stored in the DNA molecule and is replicated and transmitted in the cell cycle.

3. How does the knowledge of genetics explain patterns of inheritance?

Most genes have one or more versions due to mutations or polymorphisms referred to as alleles. Individuals
may carry a ‘normal’ allele and/or a ‘disease’ or ‘rare’ allele depending on the impact of the mutation/polymorphism
(e.g., disease or neutral) and the population frequency of the allele. Single-gene diseases are usually inherited in one
of several patterns depending on the location of the gene and whether one or two normal copies of the gene are
needed for the disease phenotype to manifest.

The expression of the mutated allele with respect to the normal allele can be characterized as dominant, co-
dominant, or recessive. There are five basic modes of inheritance for single-gene diseases: autosomal dominant,
autosomal recessive, X-linked dominant, X-linked recessive, and mitochondrial.

4. What are the advantages and disadvantages of Asexual and Sexual Reproduction

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Advantages:
-the population can increase rapidly when the conditions are favourable
-only one parent is needed
-it is more time and energy efficient as a mate is not required
-it is faster than sexual reproduction

Disadvantages:
-time and energy are needed to find a mate
-it is not possible for an isolated individual

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Advantages;
-it produces variation in the offspring
-the species can adapt to new environments due to variation, which gives them a survival advantage
-a disease or change in environment is less likely to affect all the individuals in a population

Disadvantages;
-it does not lead to variation in a population
-the species may only be suited to one habitat
-disease may affect all the individuals in a population

5. What controls growth and development during the life stages of an organism?

Cells control the growth and development of the organisms through cell division.

6. How does sexual reproduction result in offspring with gene combinations that vary from those of their
parents?
Crossing over - homologous chromosomes pair up and exchange parts with each other.
Independent Assortment - process in which each homologous chromosome in a pair goes into a separate gamete.
Thus, each gamete has only one copy of each gene and that copy may be a different version of the same gene that
is in another gamete.

7. How does genetic variation that results from sexual reproduction give members of a population advantage?

The species can adapt to new environments due to variation, which gives them a survival advantage. a disease
or change in environment is less likely to affect all the individuals in a population.

8. How is biochemical evidence used to determine evolutionary relationships?

Scientists collect information that allows them to make evolutionary connections between organisms. Similar
to detective work, scientists must use evidence to uncover the facts. In the case of phylogeny, evolutionary
investigations focus on two types of evidence: morphologic (form and function) and genetic. Basically, they are using
our current animals to prove that all of us animals came from one specific ancestor

9. How are genetic materials and reproductive processes manipulated to make desirable organisms and
products, diagnose and treat disease, and identify individuals?

1. DNA and RNA Extraction

To study or manipulate nucleic acids, the DNA or RNA must first be isolated or extracted from the cells. This
can be done through various techniques. Most nucleic acid extraction techniques involve steps to break
open the cell and use enzymatic reactions to destroy all macromolecules that are not desired (such as
degradation of unwanted molecules and separation from the DNA sample). Cells are broken using a lysis
buffer (a solution that is mostly a detergent); lysis means “to split.” These enzymes break apart lipid
molecules in the membranes of the cell and the nucleus. Macromolecules are inactivated using enzymes
such as proteases that break down proteins, and ribonucleases (RNAses) that break down RNA. The DNA is
then precipitated using alcohol. Human genomic DNA is usually visible as a gelatinous, white mass. Samples
can be stored at –80°C for years. RNA analysis is performed to study gene expression patterns in cells. RNA
is naturally very unstable because RNAses are commonly present in nature and very difficult to inactivate.
Similar to DNA, RNA extraction involves the use of various buffers and enzymes to inactivate
macromolecules and preserve the RNA.

2. Gel Electrophoresis

Because nucleic acids are negatively-charged ions at neutral or basic pH in an aqueous

environment, they can be mobilized by an electric field. Gel electrophoresis is a technique used to
separate molecules on the basis of size using this charge and may be separated as whole chromosomes
or fragments. The nucleic acids are loaded into a slot near the negative electrode of a porous gel matrix
and pulled toward the positive electrode at the opposite end of the gel. Smaller molecules move
through the pores in the gel faster than larger molecules; this difference in the rate of migration
separates the fragments on the basis of size. There are molecular-weight standard samples that can be
run alongside the molecules to provide a size comparison. Nucleic acids in a gel matrix can be observed
using various fluorescent or colored dyes. Distinct nucleic acid fragments appear as bands at specific
distances from the top of the gel (the negative electrode end) on the basis of their size.

3. Molecular and Cellular Cloning

Molecular cloning reproduces the desired regions or fragments of a genome, enabling the manipulation
and study of genes.