Manufacturing Process

TM 091344 – Abrasive Machining

Jurusan Teknik Mesin

Fakultas Teknologi Industri
Institu Teknologi Sepuluh Nopember
 Introduction
 Abrasive machining is one of the
oldest forms of metal removal.
 Abrasive is small, non-metallic
hard particle having sharp edges,
and irregullar shape.
 Abrasive machining involves
material removal by the action of
hard, abrasive particles that are
usually in the form of a bonded
wheel or mixed with fluid.
 Introduction (Cont.)

 The size of an abrasive grain is identified by grit number; the

smaller grain size, the greater grit number
 Kinds of abrasive machining are grinding, honing, lapping,
superfinishing, etc
 Grinding is the common process using abrasive
 Characteristic of workpiece processed by using abrasive
machining:
 High surface finish and dimensional accuracy
 Hard workpiece material
 Brittle workpiece material
 Small material removal rate
Abrasives
 Abrasive commonly used in manufacturing process:
 Aluminium Oxide (Al2O3)
Conventional Abrasive
 Silicon Carbide (SiC)
 Cubic Boron Nitride (cBN)
Superabrasive
 Diamond
Abrasives (cont.)
 Friability is an important characteristic, that is an ability of
abrasive grains to fracture (break down) into smaller piece  self-
sharpening
 High friability indicates low strenght or low fracture resistance of
the abrasive, so a highly friable abrasive grain fragments more
rapidly under grinding force than one with low friability
 Natural abrasives, such as emery, alumina, quartz, garnet and
diamond, generally contain unknown amount of impurities and
posses nonuniform properties.
 As a result, abrasive now are made synthetically.
Types of Abrasives
 Syntetic aluminium oxide  is obtained by fusing bauxite, iron
filings, and coke.
 Devided into two groups: fused and unfused
 Fused aluminum oxides are categorized as dark (less friable), white
(very friable), and monocrystalline
 Unfused alumina can be harder than fused alumina
 Silicon carbide  is made with silica sand, petroleum coke, and
small amounts of sodium chloride (table salt)
 This types are devided into black (less friable) and green (more
friable)
 Generally have higher friability than aluminum oxides; therefore they
have a greater tendency to fracture and remain sharp
Types of Abrasives (cont.)
 Cubic boron nitride  when used as abrasive, cBN is
produced under the trade name Borazon by the General
Electric Company. Borazon grinding wheels are used for hard
materials such as hardened tool steel and aero space alloy
 Diamond  also known as synthetics or industrial
diamond. Diamond wheels are generally used in grinding
applications on hard, abrasive materials such as ceramics,
cemented carbide, and glass
 Bonded Abrasives (Grinding Wheel)
 High rates of material removal can be achieved only if a large number
of these grains act together
 This is done by using bonded abrasives, typically in the form of
grinding wheel.

Schematic illustration of a physical model of a grinding wheel showing its structure and
wear and fracture patterns.
Bonding Materials
 Desirable properties of the bond materials:
 Strength
 Toughness
 Hardness
 Temperature resistance
 Kinds of bonding materials:
 Vetrified bond
 Consists chiefly of baked clay and ceramic materials
 Strong and rigid, resistance to elevated temperatures, relatively unaffected by
water and oil
 Silicate bond
 Consists of sodium silicat (Na2SO3)
 Its applications are generally limited to situations in which heat generation must
be minimized such as grinding of cutting tool
Bonding Materials (cont.)
 Rubber bond
 Rubber is the most flexible of the bonding materials
 It is used as a bonding material in cut of wheels
 Resinoid bond
 This bond is made of various thermosetting resin materials, such as phenol-
formaldehyde
 It has very strength and is used for rough grinding and cut-off operations
 Shellac bond
 Relatively strong but not rigid
 Often used in applications requiring a good finish
 Metallic bond
 The common bond material for diamond and cBN grinding wheel
 Usually use bronze
 Particulate processing techniques are used to bond the matrix of abrasive
grains and bonding material to only the outside periphery of the wheel.(thus
conserving the costly abrasive materials)
Wheel Structure and Wheel Grade
 Wheel structure refers to the relative spacing of the abrasive
grains in the wheel.
 The volumetric proportions:

𝑃𝑔 + 𝑃𝑏 + 𝑃𝑝 = 1.0

Where: Pg=proportion of abrasive grains in the total wheel volume, Pb=proportion

of bond material, and Pp=proportion of pores (air gapes)
Wheel Structure and Wheel Grade
(cont.)
 Wheel grade indicates the grinding wheel’s bond strength in
retaining the abrasive grits during cutting (dependent on the
amount of bonding material present in the wheel structure, Pb)
 Grade is measured on a scale that range between soft and hard
A B C .................M N O....................X Y Z
Soft Medium Hard
 “Soft”  wheels lose grains readily (for applications requiring
low material removal rates and grinding of hard work
materials)
 “Hard”  achieve high stock removal rates and for grinding
of relative soft work materials
Standard Marking System for Aluminum-Oxide
and Silicon-Carbide Bonded Abrasives
Standard Marking System for Cubic-Boron-
Nitride and Diamond Bonded Abrasives
Grinding Wheels
Common types of
grinding wheels made
with conventional
abrasives. Note that
each wheel has a
specific grinding face;
grinding on other
surfaces is improper
and unsafe.
Grinding Wheels (cont.)

Examples of superabrasive wheel configurations. The annular regions (rim) are

superabrasive grinding surfaces, and the wheel itself (core) generally is made of metal or
composites. The bonding materials for the superabrasives are: (a), (d) and (e) resinoid,
metal, or vitrified; (b) metal; (c) vitrified; and (f) resinoid
Chip Formation by Abrasive Grain
 Chips in this process are formed by the same mechanism of
compression and shear as other machining processes.

(a) Grinding chip being produced by

a single abrasive grain: (A) chip,
(B) workpiece, (C) abrasive
grain.
(b) Schematic illustration of chip
formation by an abrasive grain
with a wear flat. Note the
negative rake angle of the grain
and the small shear angle.

Source: (a) After M.E. Merchant.

Chip Formation by Abrasive Grain (cont.)

 As the grains or abrasives

become dull, the cutting
forces increase. The increase
in the cutting force causes the
grains to plow and rub rather
than cut.
 As the plowing and rubbing
increases, the grains
fracture at the cutting edge
to revile a new cutting
edge.
Grinding Wheel Surface

The surface of a grinding wheel (A46-J8V) showing abrasive grains, wheel porosity, wear
flats on grains, and metal chips from the workpiece adhering to the grains. Note the
random distribution and shape of the abrasive grains. Magnification: 50x. Source: S.
Kalpakjian.
Analysis of The Grinding Process
Material Removal Rate
(MRR)
𝑴𝑹𝑹 = 𝒘 𝒅 𝒗𝒇
Dimana:
𝑤= lebar pemotongan
d = kedalaman potong

Cutting Speed (v)

𝒗 = 𝝅. 𝑫. 𝒏

Schematic illustration of the surface-grinding process,

showing various process variables. The figure depicts
conventional (up) grinding
Analysis of The Grinding Process
(cont.)
The average length of chip Force and Energy
𝑭𝒄 𝒗
𝒍 = 𝑫𝒅 𝑼=
𝒗𝒇 𝒘𝒅
Where :
U= Specific Energy (J/mm3)
Fc= Cutting Force

The Number of Chip Formed per Time

𝒏𝒄 = 𝒗𝒘𝑪
Where:
𝐶= grit per area on the grinding wheel surface
(grits/mm2)
Approximate Specific-Energy
Requirements for Surface Grinding
Temperature at The Work Surface
 Most of the heat energy generated remains in the ground surface,
resulting in high work surface temperatures
 Possible effect:
 Surface burns,
 Crack
 Softening of the work surface
 Residual stress in the work surface
 Surface Temperature
0.5
𝑟𝑔 𝐶𝑣
𝑇𝑠 = 𝐾2 𝑑0.75 𝐷0.25
𝑣𝑓
Where: K2 = a constant of proportionality
Wheel Wear
 The principal causes of wear in grinding
 Grain fracture occurs when a portion of the grain breaks off,
but the rest of the grain remains bonded in the wheel.
 Attritious wear  involves dulling of the individual grains,
resulting in flat spots and rounded edges.
It is caused by similar physical mechanisms including friction
and diffusion, as well as chemical reactions between the abrasive
material and the work material in the presence of very high
temperature
 Bond fracture  occurs when the individual grains are pulled
out of the bonding materials.
It is caused the grain has become dull due to attritious wear, and
resulting cutting force is excessive.
Cutting Fluids
 Cutting fluid is an important factor in the grinding process.
 It assists in:
 Washing away chips
 Keeping the wheel from becoming clogged
 Reduces operating temperatures
 Reduces friction
 Types of grinding fluids : grinding oils and emulsified oils (or
mix with water)
 Workpieces and Operations Used in
Grinding

The types of workpieces and operations typical of grinding: (a) cylindrical surfaces, (b)
conical surfaces. (c) fillets on a shaft, (d) helical profiles, (e) concave shape, (f) cutting off
or slotting with thin wheels, and (g) internal grinding
Grinding Operation and Machines
 The basic type of grinding operation
 Surface grinding
Involves grinding flat surfaces and is one of the most common
grinding operations

Schematic illustrations of various surface-grinding operations. (a) Traverse

grinding with a horizontal-spindle surface grinder. (b) Plunge grinding with a
horizontal-spindle surface grinder. (c) A vertical-spindle rotary-table grinder
(also known as the Blanchard type.)
Grinding Operation and Machines
(cont.)

Schematic illustration of a horizontal-spindle surface grinder.

Grinding Operation and Machines
(cont.)
 Cylindrical grinding
Also called center-type grinding and used for rotational parts.

Examples of various cylindrical-grinding operations. (a) Traverse grinding,

(b) plunge grinding, and (c) profile grinding. Source: Courtesy of Okuma
Machinery Works Ltd.
Grinding Operation and Machines
(cont.)

Plunge grinding of a workpiece on a cylindrical grinder with

the wheel dressed to a stepped shape
Grinding Operation and Machines
(cont.)
 Internal cylindrical grinding
A small wheel is used to grind the inside diameter of the part

Schematic illustrations of internal grinding operations: (a)

traverse grinding, (b) plunge grinding, and (c) profile grinding
 Grinding Operation and Machines
(cont.)
 Centerless grinding
Centerless grinding is high-
production process for
continuously grinding
cylindrical surface in which
the workpiece is supported
not by centers or chucks, but
by a blade

Schematic illustration of centerless grinding operations: (a)

through-feed grinding, (b) plunge grinding, (c) internal grinding,
and (d) a computer numerical-control cylindrical-grinding
machine. Source: Courtesy of Cincinnati Milacron, Inc.
Grinding Operation and Machines
(cont.)
 Creep feed grinding
Grinding operation with high the wheel depth of cut
The wheel are mostly softer – grade resin bonded, and with
open structure, to keep temperatures low and improve
surface finish
The machine for creep feed grinding:
 Power up to 225kW
 High stifness
 Highdamping capacity
 Variable spindle and work table speeds
 Ample capacity for grinding fluids
Grinding Operation and Machines
(cont.)

(a) Schematic illustration of the creep-feed grinding process. Note the large wheel
depth-of-cut, d. (b) A shaped groove produced on a flat surface by creep-grinding in
one pass. Groove depth is typically on the order of a few mm. (c) An example of
creep-feed grinding with a shaped wheel