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Craig Roberts
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PrinLcd 111 Mnlay•ia by Vivar Pru1tuig Sein. Bhcl.
Acknowledgenaent.~
r
Craig is a freelance tutor and author of psychology tex'tbooks. He has been
teaching for over 20 years and is an experienced examiner \vith a number of
National and International examination boards.
I sin1ply have to thank everyone \\tho has made an impact on my life and
'"ho support nie through every venture I take on. 111is indudes my family,
closest friends and cat! I could and \vould not be doing this \Vithout any of
you. A special thank you has to go to all the teachers I trained in Florida in
February 2014 for niaking niy first training event brilliant
r \VOuld also like to thank Matt Jarvis for his kind permission to use his
material from OCR AS Psychology.
I
To Mum & Dad. Ahvays love you.
•
CONTENTS
Approaches and perspectives in psychology .......................................... v
AS-.Le·vel Exam Centre .. ......... .......... .... ....... ....... ...... ..... ...... ..... .. .... ... l 07
•
APPROACHES
AND PERSPECTIVES
IN PSYCHOLOGY
There are n1any different ways in 1vhich psychologists try to explain
human and animal behaviour. 'These approaches and perspectives in
psychology forn1 the whole discipline of "psychology''. However, they
are all very diflerent and this chapter will cover ho1v these different types
of psychologist try to explain behaviour. TI1ere are five approaches and
two perspectives that CIE expect you to kno1v about. We will look at
each in turn highlighting their general assu n1ptions, the n1ain research
meLhodology they use and 1vhich studies from AS-level fit into each one.
Cognitive psychology
Cognitive psychologists are interested in ho1v 1ve process information. They
look into ho1v 1ve input information, then ho1v 1ve process that information
and finally ho1v 1ve retrieve and/or use that information. Some cognitive
psychologists believe that the brain 1vorks like a computer follo1ving the
procedure of input-process/storage-output. Areas of interest include
memory and forget ting, perception, language and attention.
The AS-level studies listed in the Cambridge syllabus under this section are:
1. Mann, Vrij & Bull (2002)
2. Loftus & Pickrell (I 995)
3. Baron-Cohen et al (200 I)
4. Held & 1-iein ( 1963).
The niain research 111ethod used in this approach is laboratory experin1ents.
•
The approach is useful 1n terms Comparing the human information
of being able to help improve processing system to that of
everyday life 1n humans by. for a computer 1s reduct1on1st. It
example. improving memory or ignores the role of emotional and
improving eyewitness testimony social factors on how we process
information.
-·--·
Social psychologists are interested in ho1v we '\vork" in the social 1vorld.
They look at ho1v individuals interact 1vith each other and ho1v 1ve interact
in "groups". Therefore, they look at the individual as an individual but also
as a group men1ber and see ho1v this affects behaviour. 'I hey also exan1ine
ho1v the role of culture and society aftects our behaviour. Areas of interest
include prejudice, obedience and confonnity.
The AS-level studies listed in the Cambridge syllabus under this section are:
1. Milgran1 (1963)
2. Haney, Banks & Zimbardo (1973)
3. Piliavin, Rodin & Piliavin (1969)
4. Tajfel ( 1970).
The main research methods used in this approach are questionnaires
and interviews.
Development sychol
Development psychologists are interested in ho1v 1ve "develop" as a
person fron1 birth to death. Nlany development psychologists focus on
"child development" and what sorts of things affect ho1v a child develops
psychologically and socially. They also look at ho1v physical development
might affect psychological development. Ho"•ever, there are other
psychologists 1vho 1vill examine development over a lifespan. Therefore,
they may examine development from adolescence through early adulthood
•
into late adulthood. Areas of interest include moral development, cognitive
development and social developn1ent.
The AS-level studies listed in the Can1bridge syllabus under this section are:
1. Bandura, Ross & Ross (1961)
2. Freud ( 1909)
3. Langlois el al ( 1991)
4. Nelson (I 980).
The main research methods used in this approach are observations and
longitudinal studies.
Physiological psychology
Physiological psyd1ologists are interested in ho\v our biology affects
our psychology. TI1ey look at the role of things like genetics, brain
function, horn1ones and neurotransn1itters have on our behaviour. Many
physiological psychologists believe that our behaviour can be explained via
biological mechanisms more so than psychological mechanisn1s. However,
others believe that it niay be an interaction between the t\vo. Areas of
interest include origins of n1ental disorders, treatments of mental disorders,
sleep, circadian rhythms and localisation of brain function (\vhich parts of
the brain are responsible for di ffercnt behaviours).
The AS-level studies listed in the Cain bridge syllabus under this section are:
1. Schachter & Singer ( 1962)
2. Dement & Kleitman ( 1957)
3. Maguire, Fracko,viak & Frith ( 1997)
4. Den1atte, Osterbauer & Spence (2007).
•
'fhe main research method used in this approach is laboratory experiments.
Strengths Weaknesses
The approach is very scientific as The approach can be seen as
1t uses methods such as laboratory being reduc1ion1st as it ignores
expenments, blood tests. brain the roles of social and emotional
scanning, etc. These are highly factors 1n our development.
controlled methods that can easily As many studies take place under
be tested for reliability. We can controlled laboratory cond1llons.
draw cause-effect conclusions many studies lack ecological
more easily as a resull validity and mundane realism.
As we are dealing with biological Therefore, some b1olog1cal
mechanisms, it 1s an excellent way reactions may be tnggered
to assess which of our behaviours because of being In a controlled
are due to nature and which are environment and may not
due to nurture. necessarily be the same in a real-
world setting.
"--~~~~~~~~~~~~--'-~
•
This approach can be useful in Findings from studies may have
explaining differences between limited generalisability as they are
individuals in the cause of focusing on the individual rather
behaviours. These can be useful than a group or people. The people
during, for example, therapy so being studied may be unique in
the treatment can be tailored lo some way and therefore findings
the individual rather than following have limited use.
general laws of behaviour. This approach can be seen as
being reductionist as it ignores
the way we behave in groups and
follow group laws or behaviour.
•
The behaviourist perspective
Behaviourist psychologists are interested in \vays in \vhich both humans
and animals learn. They look into general la\vs that can apply to all species
and ho\v the experiences \Ve have mould our behaviour over time. There are
Lhree main areas \Vithin this perspective:
~ learning by the consequences of our behaviour (operant conditioning)
~ learning through association (classical conditioning)
~ learning through observation, imitation and modelling (social
learning).
Strict behaviour ism follO\VS the idea that \Ve should "observe the observable"
and no t examine mental processes as they cannot be directly seen.
Behaviours can be directly seen so we have objective measures of behaviour.
Areas of interest include behaviour modification, therapies for mental
health disorders or for prisoners, etc. and develo pment of behaviours such
as aggression.
There are no nan1ed studies for this perspective but Bandura,
Ross & Ross ( 1961 ) can be used as an exan1ple of social learning.
The main research methods used in this perspective are laboratory
experin1ents and observations.
Strengths Weaknesses
The perspective 1s very Parts of this perspective ignore the
objective as 1t "observes the role or social. cognitive and emotional
observable" - this means aspects or behaviour. Therefore it can
that data is scientific and be seen as being reductionist in just
quantitative and likely not to be focusing on observable aspects and
biased. This makes f1nd1ngs 1gnonng internal mechanisms such as
from studies reliable. biology too.
The approach is useful 1n terms Some psychologists disagree that
or being able to help improve there are general laws that govern
everyday life 1n humans by, for animal and human behaviour -
example, reducing phobias or humans are more complex than
modifying a child's behaviour for rats, pigeons, dogs and cats so
the better. generalising findings from animal
research to humans may not be valid.
•
mental health d isorders (e.g. phobias), dreami ng and the trcatn1ent
of mental health disorders.
There are no named studies fo r this perspective but Freud ( 1909) is a
psychodynamic case study. The main research methods used in this
perspective are case studies and intervie\vS.
Strengths Weaknesses
The approach is useful 1n terms Ideas such as those relaling to the
of being able to help improve unconscious mind cannot be directly
every day life in humans such as tested and are therefore unscientific.
helping to understand why we How can you assess something
have a mental health disorder and that cannot be directly seen or
then helping to overcome it. manipulated? It is an abstract
Supporting evidence tends to concept that might not even exist.
come from case studies which are Many findings from this perspective
very detailed collecting qualitative are based on case studies.
data. This should improve the These findings may be difficult to
validity of findings as the whole generalise to a larger group of
person Is examined rather than people as the case studies may be
just one aspect of them.
~~~ .....
unique in some way.
~ ~~~~~~~~
•
HOW
PSYCHOLOGISTS
RESEARCH
There are 1nany different ways in \vhich psychologists Tndependent variable (IV)- the variable that
can collect information for their study. These are called psychologists choose to manipulate or change.
research n1ethods and it is up to psychologists to choose This represents the different conditions that are
the one they think is the n1ost appropriate for their being compared in any study. So, for example, if a
study. The 111ain ones are: psychologist wants t.o investigate 1ne1nory in school
experiments (laboratory and field) children, then the variable that requires "changing"
is age. Therefore, age is the IV. However, the IV
self-reports (questionnaires and interviews) requires some form of operationalisation. To do
case studies this, the psychologist must clearly define \vhat the
observations (naturalistic, controlled, participant). different conditions are. For the example of memory
in school children the operationalised lV could be:
As \veil as choosing the most appropriate research
le,·el I = 5-6 years old and level 2 = 7- 8 years old.
nlethod, psychologists have to decide:
Depe11de11t variable (DV) - the variable that
\vho the participants are (the sample) and ho\v they
psychologists choose to measure. It is ahvays
are going to recruit (the san1pling technique)
hoped that the IV is directly affecting the DV in
if they are using an experiment, \vhich design of an experi111ent. Also, the DV needs son1e form
study lo use (e.g. repeated measures, independent of operationalisation. To do this, psychologists
groups or matched pairs) must dearly define ho\v they will nieasure. For
v•bat the procedure of the study 1vill be for the example of men1ory in school children the
participants including what apparatus is needed operationalised DV could be the an1ount ofiten1s
that a child remembers fron1 a tray of objects
the type of data they want to collect
(n1axiJnum 25).
(e.g. quantitative or qualitative).
The psychologist 1\!iJI atten1pt to control as many
other variables as possible to try to ensure that it is
RESEARCH METHODS the IV directly affecting the DV. There are different
types of variable that can affect the DV that have to be
controlled if possible. One of these is called participant
variables. These are the traits and behaviours that
These take place in a situation or environment that participants bring to the study that may affect
is artificial to participants in the study. There are nvo
main types of variable that need to be considered when
the DV (e.g. level of intelligence, prejudices or 11'-1
any previous experiences). ....
running any experiment:
•
• • • • QUESTIONNAIRES
Laboratory experiments As laboratory When a study uses a questionnaire, it is asking
have high levels of experiments lake place participants to ans\ver a series of questions in the
control and so can be 1n an artificial setting, it \VTitten forn1. There are various types of
Quant
replicated to test for is said that they can lack question that a psychologist can use in a
reliability. ecological validity. questionnaire-based study:
As laboratory experiments Many laboratory
Likert scales: these are statements that participants
have high levels of experiments can make
read and then stale \vhether they strongly agree,
control, researchers can participants take part 1n
disagree, etc. For exa1nple, the statement might
be more confident 1l is tasks that are nothing
the IV directly affecting like real-life ones so they be "0\vning a pet is good for your psychological
the DV. lack what is known as health~
·mundane realism". Rating scales: these are questions or state1nents
where participants give an ans1ver in the form of
a nu1nber. For example: " On a scale of 0- J0, ho1v
FIELD EXPERIMENTS happy are you today?"
These are experin1enls that take place in participants' Open-ended: these are questions that allow
own natural environrnent rather than in an artificial participants to develop an answer and 1vrite it in
laboratory. The researcher still tries to n1anipulate their 01vn words. 111ey write sentences to ans1ver
or change an JV while n1easuring the DV in an the question. For example: "Can you tell me about a
attempt to see ho\v the IV affects the DV. There is an happy childhood n1emory?"
attempt to control other variables that could affect Closed: these are questions where there are a set
the DV. One of these is called situational variables. amount of anS\vers and participants choose which
These are variables from the setting that ans1ver best fits hO\V they 1vant to respond. For
. Field might affect the OV, such as the \veatber example: " Pick the emotion that best describes ho1v
or time of day. you feel today: happy, sad, cheerful, moody''.
As field experiments Situational variables can Participants may be Participants may give
take place In a be difficult to control so more likely to reveal socially desirable
realistic setting, it 1s sometimes 1t is difficult to truthful answers in a answers as they want
said that they have know if it is lhe IV affecting questionnaire as it does to look good rather than
ecological validity. the DV. It could be an not involve talking face giving truthful answers.
As the participants uncontrolled variable causing lo face with someone. This lowers the validity
wil l not know they the DV to change. A large sample of of findings.
are taking part in a As the participants will not participants can answer If the questionnaire has
study, there will be know they are taking part In the questionnaire a lot of closed questions
few or no demand a study, there are issues with in a short time. This then partic ipants might
characteristics so breaking ethical guidelines should increase the be forced into choosing
behaviour is more including informed consent representativeness and an answer that does not
likely to be natural and deception. generalisability of the reflect their true opinion.
and valid. findings.
•
INTERVIEWS m'{'i·iliB • •
These are similar to questionnaires but answers are in As psychologists As psychologists using
the spoken not \Vritten form. lntervie\vers ask a series using case studies case studies are focusing
of questions using the types listed above. They may are focusing on one on one 1nd1vidual (or unit
record the intervie\V so they can go back and transcribe individual (or unit of or individuals), the case
exactly \vhat participants said. Depending on \vhat the individuals) they can may be unique. This
psychologist is studying, there are three main types of collect rich, in-depth makes generalisations
iJ1tervie\v: data that have details quite difficult.
Structured: thi~ is when a set order of questions is This makes the f1nd1ngs As these partic1 pants
used. Each participant \viii be asked the questions in more valid. are studied in depth, an
Participants are usually attachment could form
that order.
studied as part of their between them and the
Semi-structured: there are certain questions that everyday life which psychologist which could
must be asked. Ho1vever, the intervie1ver can means that the whole reduce the objectivity of
ask then1 in a different order and/or ask other process tends lo the data collection and
questions to help clarify a participant's response. have some ecological analysis of data. This
validity. could reduce the validity
Unstructured: this is 1vhen the intervie1.ver has
or the findings.
a theme or topic that needs to be discussed.
The intervie1.ver may have an initial question
to begin the interview but each
Interview subsequent question is based on the OBSERVATIONS
response given by the participant.
This research method involves \Vatching and
observing people or animals and their behaviours.
There are many different types of observation, as
If the interview has a lot Participants might be highlighted belo"'· Ho1vever, some elements are core
of open questions then less likely to give truthful to observations in general. Prior to observing, the
participants will reveal answers (maybe due to
psychologist must create a belravioural clrecklist (calJed
more of the reasons why social desirability) as
an etlrogra111 if observing non-humans). This checklist
they behave 1n such a they are actually face to
way or have a certain face with the interviewer must name each behaviour that the psychologist is
opinion and might not want to be expecting see. Jn addition, a picture of the behaviour
judged negatively. happening and a brief description of it is useful. This
makes sure that if there is more than one observer,
they are looking for the san1e behaviours. The
behavioural checklist or ethogran1 nlust be "tested"
CASE STUDIES before the main observation to ensure that all potential
behaviours are covered tind the observers can use the
This is not a "true" research 111ethod as it utilises other checklist or ethogn1n1 successfully. 111is is called a piJot
methods to collect the data. A case study examines observation. Additional behaviours may be added to
a single person or a unit of people (e.g. a the checklist or ethogram after this process.
Case family) in depth. There may be so1nething
unusual about the "case" (e.g. a trauma
or a mental health issue). ·n1e psychologist \vill use
questionnaires, intervie\.vs and observations to collect These are observations that take place in a person's or
the data. anin1al's O\Vn natural environment.
•
that a psychologist can use to help recruit participants
from the TP. The main ones are highlighted belo\v.
These are observations that take place in a controlled
setting. An example could be in a laboratory roon1 '"ith
the observers being behind a one-\vay mirror so they •
cannot be seen observing.
This technique involves researchers recruiting
. .. participants \vho happen to be around at the time
they need participants. Once the correct number have
These are observations in \vhich psychologists become a been chosen and have con1pleted the study, no more
part of the group they '"ish lo observe. This can be overt participants are asked.
(the group of participants kno'" \vho the psychologist
is and that they are being observed) or covert
1!11 (the group do not kno\v that a psychologist is Self-selected or
~ in the group observing 1hen1). i
This technique involves researchers advertising for
' •
participants. It is frequently used in universities to
' I
recruit participants for a range of studies. Therefore.
If participants are If participants are aware participants choose whether they \Vant to participate
unaware that they that they are being
or not.
are being observed observed they may not
they should behave act "naturally" and may
"naturally". This show more socially
increases the desirable behaviours.
ecological vahd1ty of the This reduces the validity This technique involves every participant in the TP
observation. of the findings. having an equal chance of being chosen. If the TP is
As behaviours are It may be difficult to sn1all then potential participants can be numbered
·counted" and are replicate a naturalistic and chosen fro1n a hat. If the TP is large, all potential
hence quantitative, the study as many variables participants can be numbered but a random number
process 1s objective cannot be controlled. generator can be used to select the sample.
and the data can be This reduces the
analysed statistically reliability of the study.
with minimal bias. - •
•
• • varying conditions of your experiment.
Design
• There are three different designs.
t
DESIGN OF STUDY This is when a participant takes part in nil of the levels of
(EXPERIMENTAL OR the JV. This can 110/ be used if the IV is naturally occurring
PARTICIPANT DESIGN) (e.g. you cannot be a male and a fe111ale at the same
ti1ne!). Researchers musl use co1111terbala11cing, which is
ff psychologists choose to use an experiment, then they sometin1es called an ABBA design. For example, 50 per
have to decide on an e..xperimental (participant) design. cent of participants do level A then level B of the IV and
This refers to ho\v you allocate your participants to the the other 50 per cent do level B then A.
•
-..,...
.- .
• : ;
~
This is \Vhen participanls are matched on a variable
researchers \Vish to control for in 1he study. Exrunples
This design As all participants take of variables they may match participanls on include
eliminates part 1n all conditions, there gender, age and ethnicity. A good source of participants
any effect of 1s a chance of demand for this type of design is identical I wins (monozygotic
participant characteristics affecting hvins) as many variables are already matched
variables as the study - participants genetically. Once participants are matched, each
all parllci pants might work out the aim
member of the pair takes part in one level of the IV.
take part in of the study and behave
all conditions; in a way to fulfil that
therefore, they rather then showing their • •
•
ISSUES AND
DEBATES WITHIN:
PSYCHOLOGICAL
RESEARCH
This chapter will outline the different issues and debates ECOLOGICAL VALIDITY
that you need Lo kno\v for the exan1. The icons by each
issue \vilJ turn up, when relevant, in the 20 core studies This refers to the extent that the setting a study has been
for the AS qualification. You can then apply the relevant conducted in can be relevant to everyday life. A study
issues and debates to the study as required in son1e conducted in a laboratory using hurnan participants
exan1 questions. may be lo\v in ecological validity as it is not a setting
that humans are used to. Sometimes the task given to
participants might also not be son1ethi ng that happens
THE APPLICATION in everyday life - the term "n1undane realism" describes
OF PSYCHOLOGY TO this. If a task involves something that could happen in
EVERYDAY LIFE (ITS everyday life then \Ve say it has high mundane realism.
USEFULNESS) ~~~~~~~~~~~
• ' I I •
The main advantage 1s that 1t 1s can be used to Studies might be unethical to gain more valid results.
improve human behaviour in some way. For example. Studies need to be high in ecological validity to be of
1f we find a better way to treat a mental Illness then it more use to society but this can be quite difficult if
is useful to society as a whole. they are conducted 111 a laboratory. for instance.
•
in order to reduce demand characteristics. This is RELIABILITY AND
\vhen features of a study hint to participants \vhat
the aims are so they behave or ans\ver relating to VALIDITY
the hint rather than ho\v they \vould truly behave
or ans\ver. Reliability refers to \vhether researchers can test
something again to see if they gain similar results.
2. Deception. Participants should not be deceived Laboratory experiments, \vi th all of their
about aspects of a study unless the study controls, are said to be reliable as they can Reliable
\\'OuJd other\vise be useless due to demand be replicated quite easily to see if similar
characteristics. results are obtained.
3. Debriefing. Psychologists must explain the ful l Validity refers to ho"' accurate lhe findings
aim of the study (especially if they had to deceive are from a study (e.g. see ecological validity , EcoV
participants) at the end of the study. They should above).
'
•
NATURE AND NURTURE people. they can be behaviour II is supposed
seen as being more to measure? (e.g. Some
Nature refers to behaviours that are thought to be ob1ecttve and sc1enttf1c. psychologists beheve
hard-\vired into people pre-birth (innate or genetic). Comparisons can be that an IQ test does not
Nurture refers to behaviours that are thought to useful as people's measure intelligence.
develop through the lifetime of the person. Therefore, results are compared but instead measures
nature tends to be based on biological fac tors 1vhereas on the same, someone's ablhty to
standardised scale. complete an IQ test).
nurture tends to be based on sociaJ and
psychological factors. As they are If tests measure specilic
• cultural knowledge rather
standardised. they are
reliable measures - we than the behaviour they
•• are supposed to measure.
can use them again and
again to see 1f we get they will be seen as
The findings can be It 1s not always easy to similar results. ethnocentric.
very useful to society separate out what is nature
as a whole. If we find and what is nurture.
out which behaviours If behaviour is seen to
come from nature be purely down to nature QUANTITATIVE AND
and which from (genetics) this can be very QUALITATIVE DATA
nurture, we can help socially sensitive. Sections
to explain behaviour of society could use this Anything in the form of a number is quantitative data.
more clearly. to undertake a "eugenic'' You can analyse this data statistically. Qualitative data
If there is an movement to gel rid of
take the form of descriptions in \\'Ords, sentences and
interaction between people with "inferior genes".
paragraphs. They are rich in detail and allo1"
both sides of the This is clearly unacceptable. Quant
debate this is Studies might be unethical
participants to explain their ans,vers to
useful too. in order to gain more valid questions.
results.
• ••
•
THE USE OF CHILDREN Social environment - social species should be
kept together and non-social species kept apart.
IN PSYCHOLOGICAL
Caging - housing in cages should not lead to
RESEARCH overcrowding and increased stress levels.
We have already covered ethics above but there are
extra rules about using children in psychological We can conduct Due to the differences in
research: research on physiological and psychological
Children aged under 16 cannot give their 0\¥11 animals that 'make-ups' of animals and
informed consent to take part in a study. we cannot do humans it can be difficult lo
on humans for generalise from animal studies to
Children aged under 16 must get parental ethical reasons. human behaviour.
permission to participate in studies or loco
Child parentis permission (e.g. someone \vho looks
after them in a nursery or school). REDUCTIONISM
This is when a psychologist believes that a con1plex
THE USE OF ANIMALS behaviour can be explained by reducing it to one single
IN PSYCHOLOGICAL cause or a series of component parts. For
RESEARCH exan1ple, a researcher n1ight state that
- son1e aspect of personality is caused only
fteduct
There are ethical guidelines and rules for by biological mechanism. This could easily
Animal
using animals in psychological research. overlook social and psychological factors that could also
The 111ain ones are as follows: be affecting personality.
The la\v - psychologists must \Vork \vithin the la\v
about protecting animals. It allows research lo II averlooks other factors
Nun1ber of anin1als - this should be a kept to the be conducted that can that c ould be affec ting
nlinin1un1 an1ount to make statistical analysis analyse a specific area the behaviour of people.
n1eaningfltl. or behaviour in depth, so
how 11 affects humans
COGNITIVE
PSYCHOLOGY
Control
Each of the eight coded behaviours RESULTS
\vas changed into a format in which
suspects' truths and lies could be directly Table 3.1 shows the scores for six of the coded
con1parcd. For gaze aversion and pauses \Vhen telling behaviours split by truth and lying.
the tru th or lying, the total length oftin1e recorded for
these coded behaviours \vas divided by the total length Truthful Deceptive
oftirne of the truthful clips, Lhen n1u ltiplied by 60 to Behaviour M SD M SD
give a total length per rninute. ·n1is was repeated for
\Vhen l he suspect was lying. The frequency of blinks, Gaze aversion 27.82 9.25 27.78 11.76
head, arn1 or hand movements while telling the truth Blinks 23.56 10.28 18.50 8.44
or lying \Vas divided by the total length of time for
Head movements 26.57 12.34 27.53 20.93
each truthful or lying clip and 1nultiplied by 60 to give
a frequency per minute score. The total Hand/arm 15.31 14.35 10.80 9.99
Quant nun1ber of speech disturbances during the movements
truthful and lying clips " 'as divided by the Pauses 3.73 5.14 5.31 4.94
total number of words spoken during the truthful and Speech 5.22 3.79 5.34 4.93
lying clips then multiplied by 100 to give a "per 100 disturbances
"'ords" frequency score. A Table 3.1 Scores - truthful and deceptive
These 1vere the significant differences SO per cent moved their head up1vards and SO per cent
Quant
bet\veen the truthful dips and lying in terms moved it do1vn1vards when lying.
of behaviour:
TEST YOURSELF
I> Lying 1vas accompanied by a decrease in blinking
Outline two main findings from this study How
(81 per cent of suspects). reliable are these findings? WIT-/?
I> Lying 1vas accompanied by an increase in pauses
(81 per cent of suspects).
There 1vere individual differences as there was not one CONCLUSION
behaviour that all liars sh01ved. 1l1e only other coded
behaviour that came dose to significance was hand and The most reliable indicators of lying in a high-stake
arn1 nioven1ents 1vhich decreased n1arkedly for 69 per cent situation are a decrease in blinking and an increase in
of the suspects 1vhen they 1vere lying. Regardi11g head pauses 1vhen talking.
movement, behaviour 1vas evenly split in that
EVALUATION
Since Mann, Vrij & Bull used naturalistic observations as part of
their design, 1ve can use the general evaluations from Chapter I,
pages 3-4 and apply them directly to the study:
Strength If participants are unaware they The suspects did not know that the recordings were to be
are being observed they should used for lhe analysis of lying behaviours. Therefore. they
behave ·naturally". This increases were much more likely to be displaying real behaviours
the ecological validity of the making the findings of the study more vahd
observation.
Strength As behaviours are "counted" and All of the behaviours were coded quantitatively which made
so quantitative, the process is the whole recording process objective and more scientific
ob1ect1ve. The data can be analysed (see the examples above on how the data was converted).
statistically with minimal bias. The inter-rater rehab11ity exercise confirmed this.
Weakness It may be difficult to replicate the This study may be difficult to replicate due to the
study 1f ti 1s naturahstic as many observation techniques used: if the police know that
variables cannot be controlled. tapes may be used for analysis they may change the way
This reduces its reliability. they interview suspects. This cou ld reduce the validity of
these findings.
Other points to consider include the follo1ving: validity of the study: we can argue that
Reliable
they \Vere also accurately coded and
I> Ethics: suspects did not give infonned consent for
analysed.
their footage to be used in a psychological study.
Some 1vould argue that this breaks ethical
Ethics CHALLENGE YOURSELF
guidelines.
Evaluate this study in terms of individual versus
I> Reliability: as they conducted a successful inter- srtuattonal explanations and that quantitative data
rater reliability task, the behaviours recorded 1vere were collected. You may want to use a table like that used
those sho1vn by the suspects. This can also affect the for the observation evaluatton.
CHAPTER 3: COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
Exam centre
Try the following exa1n-style questions.
Paper 1 Paper 2
1. ln the t.1ann, Vrij & Bull study, \Vho \Vere the 1. Outline what quantitative data 1vere collected in
participants? (2 marks) the Mann, Vrij & Bull study. (3 marks)
2. Outline two controls that Mann, Vrij & Bull used 2. Redesign the t.lann, Vrij & Bull study using an
in their study. (4 marks) experiment as the research method. (I 0 marks)
3. Identify two of llie behaviours that \Vere coded in 3. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses
the Mann, Vrij & Bull study. (2 marks) of conducting observational research
4. Evaluate the Mann, Vrij & Bull study in terms of using the t.-Iann, Vrij & Bull study as
ho1v useful the study is. (I 0 marks) an example. (10 marks)
5 years old. These could not be traumatic events or
CORE STUDY 3.2 fan1ily events that could easily be recalled. Also, the
relative had to provide inforn1ation about a shopping
Loftus & Pickrell ( 1995) trip to a mall or departn1ent store that could have easily
happened. Relatives \Vere asked:
CONTEXT ~ where the family \vould have shopped
Control
when the participant \vas 5 years old
Psychologists have conducted many studies on ho\v ~ \vhich family members used to go on
our memories can be disrupted by things that \Ve shopping trips
did earlier (proactive interference) or things that
~ what type(s) of store(s) rnight have been appealing
\Ve experience after\vards (retroactive interference).
Recent studies have begun to focus rnore and more on to the participant \vhen he or she was a child
retroactive interference effects. New information that is ~ to verify that the participant had never been lost in
processed after an initial memory is forn1ed can become a shopping mall or department store \vhen he or she
incorporated into the recollection of the original event v.•as 5 years old.
to forin a "ne,v" n1en1ory that is not correct, but that a The lost event involving getting lost always follo\ved
person believes is real (kno,vn as false n1emories). the same format: participants \vcre lost for an extended
period of ti1ne, they cried, they were lost in a shopping
ASK YOURSELF
nlall or department store when they were 5 years old,
Do you think people can create false memories
and then believe them as if they are real?
they \Vere found and helped by an elderly \VOn1a11 and
then they \Vere reuni ted \Vilh their fan1ily.
AIM Participants
The study \Vas completed by 24 participants
To investigate whether it is possible to make people form
(3 males and 21 females) aged 18- 53 years. They \vere
a false me111ory of an event that never happened to them.
recruited via students of the University of
\Vashington. Each student gave details of Sample
EVALUATION
Since Loftus & Pickrell collected quantitative data, vie can use the
general evaluations from Chapter 2, pages 9- 10 and apply them directly
to the study:
Strength The data are ob1ective and can The data such as the confidence ratings, word length
be analysed stallshcally to draw of recollections and clanty ratings were numencal and
conclusions. could be analysed by calculating the mean scores
for true and false events. From these obiect1ve data,
suitable conclusions could be drawn.
-
Strength As the data are numerical, Loftus & Pickrell could calculate the number of true
comparison and statistical analysis and false events people recalled as being "factual" so
are easier (e.g. the average score of comparisons could be made - there could be very little
two different groups of participants mis1nterpretat1on as it was based on participants' initial
can easily be compared so there is recall in the booklet. Comparisons between the true
very little bias or misinterpretation). and false events could give a factual conclusion.
Weakness Numerical data miss out on valuable The confidence ratings were numerical. While they
information. If the answer is simply appeared low for true and raise events at both
yes/no or on a rating scale we do interviews, we do not know why participants fell
not know why participants chose the unconfident. The same applies to the clarity ratings.
answer they did.
CHAPTER 3: COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
'
Other points that can be used lo evaluate this study >- Ethics: protection. Some psychologists could argue
include the following: that this study breaks the ethical guideline of
>- Ethics: deception. Some psychologists could argue deception as participants did not leave the study in
that this study breaks the ethical guideline of the same psychological state as \Vhen they started it.
deception as participants \\lere dearly deceived in Remember that some participants did not pick out
the attempt to make then1 believe that they bad been the false event and n1ay nO\\I believe that they \Vere
lost in a shopping mall or department store indeed lost in a shopping maJJ department store
Ethics \\•hen they \\lere 5 years old. HO\\lever, Loftus \Vhen they \Vere 5 years old.
& Pickrell could argue that the deception
CHALLENGE YOURSELF
\\las crucial for their study to have any validity and
Evaluate this study 1n terms of 1t being a small-
that they did debrief participants at the end and scale long1tud1nal study and on tis usefulness.
explain the deception. You may want to use a table similar to that used for the
quantitative data evaluation.
Exam centre
Try the following exam-style questions.
Paper 1 Paper2
1. In the Loftus & PickrelJ study, outline ho\v the 1. Outline \\/hat quantitative data were colJected in
sample \\las recruited. (2 marks) the Loftus & Pickrell study. (3 marks)
2. Outline two aspects of the first interview in the 2. Outline how the interview method \\la5 used in the
Loftus & Pickrell study. ( 4 marks) Loftus & Pickrell study. (3 n1arks)
3. Outline how confidence or clarity \Vas measured in 3. Discuss the strengths and \\'eaknesses
the Loftus & Pickrell study. (2 nlarks) of ethical guidelines in research using
4. Evaluate the Loftus & Pickrell study in terms of Loftus & Pickrell as an example. (10 marks)
two strengths. (10 marks)
CORE STUDY 3.3
Baron-Cohen et al (200 I)
Forced choice between Forced choice remained
two response options but there were four
judges (equal sex). For the correct \vord and 4 completed a questionnaire to measure their
Control
' and its foils to be used in the ne\v eyes AQ. All participants 1vere asked to read through a
test, five judges had to agree 1vith the glossary and indicate any 1vords 1vere unsure of -
original choice. Also, if more than hvo judges picked a and they could revisit the glossary at any time during
foil over the correct 1vord, the iten1 had a ne\v correct the test.
1vord generated \Vith suitable foils and 1vas retested.
The data fron1 groups 2 and 3 (see belo\\•) 1vere merged
as they did not differ in perforrnance. This \Vas also a
check that the "correct" \vords had some
Reliable consensus - at least 50% of the group had
to get the correct 1vord and no more than
25% had to select a foil for it to be included in the ne1v
eyes lest. From the original 40 pairs of eyes, 36 passed
these tests and 1vere used. • Figure 3.3 Example or male pair of eyes used 1n the test
TEST YOURSELF
Outline two problems with the original version of
the eyes test and then describe how the research RESULTS
team attempted to overcome them.
1vith either AS or HFA. 1 hey 1vere recruited via a AS HFA adults 21 9 (6.6) 34.4 (6.0)
UK National Autistic Society nlagazine or support
group. Therefore, these participants 1vere volunteers. General population 26.2 (3.6) NIA
2. ln this group there 1vere 122 normal adults recruited Students 28.0 (3.5) 18.3 (6.6)
from adult community and education classes in
Matched 30.9 (3.0) 18.9 (2.9)
Sample Exeter or a public library in Cambridge - a
broad range of people. • Table 3.3 Mean and standard deV1at10n (in parentheses)
3. This group consisted of I03 normal adults scores for the new eyes test and AQ by group
(53 male and 50 female) 1vho 1vere undergraduates at
Cambridge University (7 1 in sciences and 32 in other The AS/HFA group performed significantly worse
subjects). All were assu1ncd to have a high IQ. than the other three groups on the eyes test. In
general, fen1ales scored belier on the eyes test than
4. This group 1vas forn1ed fron1 14 randomly selected
n1ales. Unsurprisingly, the AS/ HFA group scored
adults who were 1natched for IQ with group 1.
significantly higher on AQ than the other groups. The
correlation between the eyes test and AQ was negative.
The distribution of scores for the eyes test (all groups
Procedure n1erged) formed a normal bell curve.
All participants, irrespective of group, completed the
revised version of the eyes test. Eacll TEST YOURSELF
Control
participant co1npleted it individually in a Outline two differences between the different sets
quiet room. Participants in group l 1vere of participants used in this study in terms or their
asked to judge the gender of each image. Groups l, 3 performance on the eyes test.
CONCLUSION initial problems of the original version and the research
terun stated"... this therefore validates it as a useful test
\Vith \Vhich to identify subtle in1pairn1ents in social
The revised version of the eyes test could still
intelligence in otherwise normally intelligent adults"
discriminate bet\veen AS/HFA adults and controls from
Baron-Cohen et al (200 I: 246).
different sections of society as it replicated previous
findings. The ne\v eyes test appeared to overcon1e the
EVALUATION
As Baron-Cohen et al used a psychon1etric nleasure, \ve can use the
general evaluations from Chapter 2, page I 0 and apply them directly
to the study:
Strength Comparisons can be useful as people's The revised eyes test was used In all participants -
results are being compared on the this means that all comparisons between the groups
same, standardised scale. have some validity as we are companng on the same
set scale using the same questions, etc.
Strength P<s they are standardised, they are The revised eyes test can be used by other research
reliable measures - we can use them teams to see if they can replicate findings and test
again and again to see 1f we get similar for reliability. This study did find reliable results in
results. terms of performance or ASIHFA (low scores in both
studies).
Weakness There may be issues with validity. Is the Some psychologists could query whether the
test actually measuring the behaviour 1t revised eyes test 1s still actually measunng theory
1s supposed to be measuring? of mind traits or just the ability to complete the
eyes test
There could be sorne evaluations based around that can help people to understand the emotions of
usefu I ness: others. A study that assessed the sa111e as the eyes
~ The main advantage is that it is can be used to test but using a full face or a nioving in1age \vith
i1nprove human behaviour in some way. As it is verbalisation n1ight be even n1ore useful to assess
showing that AS/l-1PA adults appear to lack theory theory of n1ind.
of mind, psychologists could 110\V create therapies
(or training) to help these people i111prove their
CHALLENGE YOURSELF
social communication and social emotional skills to
Evaluate this study In terms of il being a snapshot
help them integrate better into society. study and also in terms of reductionism . You may
~ Ho,vever, tile eyes test does not take into account want to use a table hke that used for the psychometrics
the "full picture" of understanding emotions - in evaluations.
reality there are subtle cues such as body
Useful
language alongside other facial cues
CHAPTER 3: COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
Exam centre
Try the follO\ving exa1n-style questions.
Paper 1 Paper 2
1. In the Baron-Cohen et al study, identify two of the 1. Outline ho1v quantitative data 1vere collected in the
groups of participants used. (2 marks) Baron-Cohen et al study. (3 marks)
2. Outline ho1v the eyes test 1vas used in the Baron- 2. Outline one finding from the Baron-Cohen
Cohen et al study. (4 n1arks) et al study. (3 marks)
3. Outline two reasons 1vhy the Baron-Cohen et al 3. Discuss the strengths and \\•eaknesses of using
study was conducted. (4 marks) psychometric tests using Baron-Cohen et al study
4. Evaluate the Baron-Cohen et al study in terms of as an exan1ple. (10 n1ack.s)
one strength and one weakness. (LO marks)
1valk freely (\vith its neck in a holding device)
CORE STUDY 3.4
Held & Hein (1963)
1vhereas kitten P got moved by the rnotion of
kitten A. Kitten P could rnove its legs 1vithin the •
device but 1vas never in control of its O\Vn rnovements.
CONTEXT
Psychologists have debated for a very long time over
nature and nurture. Previous studies had examined
the role of exposure to stimuli and movenlent around
stimuli as a \vay of developing part of our perceptual
systen1. Both may be necessary to enable an organism
to perceive its \vorld correctly and cornfortably. Riesen
proposed an idea of sensory-sensory associations as
vital for the optin1al devclopnlcnt of an organis1n's
perceptual system. That is, one sense alone is not
enough to develop perceptual skil ls, so in th.is case
visual and kinaesthetic associations rnight be necessary.
A Figure 3.4 The killen ca rousel
What happens 1vhen an organisrn is deprived of these
Control
associations was the crux of this study. The kittens undertook three niain tasks:
ASK YOURSELF 1. VisuaJJy-guided paw placernent. Each kitten 1vas
How do you perc eive the world around you? How held in a researcher's hands by the body so that the
much have you been taught and how much was head and forelegs \vere free. The kitten \va5 slo1vly
natural lo you? moved for1vards and down\vard tO\vards the edge of
a table (horizontal surface). If its perceptual system
has developed in the usual \vay, then the kitten
AIM should reach \Vith its pa\VS to touch the surface.
2. Avoidance of a visual cliff. 'Ihe apparatus has a "deep
To investigate \vhether kittens have to see and move to side" which is a patterned surface about 30 inches
be able to develop skills such as depth perception. beJo,v a large plate of glass and a "shaJJo,v side" \vhere
the patterned surface is attached to the underside
of the glass. It was lit from beJo,v to make the glass
METHOD almost invisible. The kittens' behaviours \Vere noted.
3. Blinking to an approaching object. Each kitten \vas
Design placed in a device si1nilar to that used by the A kitten.
Held & Hein created a "kitten carousel" for their study as A large sheet of Plexiglass was placed in front of the
shown in figure 3.4. Each kitten had a distinct role. The kitten. A hand would be moved quickly tO\Vards the
one labelled A (active) was aJ101ved to \Valk kitten, stopping just before the Ple:dglass.
Control around the carousel to explore. The one
Tilere were other tests perforrned on the kittens:
labelled I? (passive) \vas placed i.n a device pupillary reflex to 1ight being shone in Lo it, ho\v they
1vhere its paws could not touch the ground, preventing reacted lo having their pa\vS placed on the top of a
kitten P fron1 \valking. HO\vever, the device that table and vis ual pursui t of a nloving object.
connected the two kittens nleant that kitten P rnoved
in a]] of the sarne directions as kitten A but 1vithout TEST YOURSELF
engaging in any \valking. The distance betv1een the Outline two of the tasks that the killens had to
kittens 1vas 36 inches. 111erefore, kitten A could move perform in this s tudy.
CHAPTER 3: COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
Participants RESULTS
The participants \Vere kittens. There \Vere 10 pairs of
kittens used (so a total of20) and each pair came from Table 3.4. shO\\IS findings fron1 the visual cliff
Quant
a different litter. They \Vere all aged bet\veen 8 and task.
12 \veeks.
Pair Age in Ratio of descents
number weeks• shallow/deep
Procedure A p
The ten pairs of kittens were split into groups X and Y: 1X 8 12/0 616
2X 8 12/0 418
~ The X group (eight oflh c pairs) \Vere reared in
darkness from birth until the kitten 3X 8 12/0 715
Illeliable 4X 9 12/0 6/6
assigned as A '"as at the minin1um size to
be used in 5X 10 12/0 7/5
the kitten carousel (age varied from 6X 10 12/0 715
8 to 12 weeks). lbe)' were then exposed to the 7X 12 12/0 517
apparatus for three hours per day. ax 12 12/0 8/4
~ TI1e Y group (two of the pairs) had three hours 1Y 10 12/0 6/6
of exposure to the patterned interior of the 2Y 10 12/0 8/4
carousel from about two \veeks old until ten \veeks •At the beginning of exposure In the experimental apparatus
old. After this they began a three hour per day
• Table 3.4 Results or the visual cliff task
exposure to the kitten carousel. When not on the
apparatus they 1vere kept in "lightless" cages with
their mother and litter mates. All the A kittens went to the shallow side but it '"as
almost "random" for the P kittens '"hich side tlley
>- There \Vere six pa\v-placement assessments each day
preferred. This indicates that the P kittens had not
after the exposures noted above.
developed deptll perception even in the Y group.
~ As soon as one of the pairs of kittens sho'"ed tile
As soon as tile A kitten could sho1v pa\v-placement, tile
ability to "pa\\1-place" botll of tile pair \Vere tested
paired P kitten's ability '"as noted. None of them passed
on the visual cliff (placed in the central part and
this test. The A kittens could also pass the remaining
observed). They " 'ere then both retested on the
tests but the P kittens all failed. Follo,ving the 48 hours of
follo,\ling day. Then, the P kitten of each pair \\fas
continually lit living arrangements for the P kittens, \vhen
placed in a continuously lit room for 48 hours.
retested on the visual cliff tlley all went to the shallo\v
They were then retested. This applied to tile
side and they could all pass the paw-placement test.
X group.
>- The Y group did sornething slightly different.
On the first day tha t the A kitten sho\V'ed paw- CONCLUSION
place1nent skills, it was tested on the visual cliff
and then retested the day after. Ho1vever, the P To develop "typical" perceptual development, kittens
kitten si1nply kept getting exposed to the carousel need to be able to move around by thcn1selves witll
for 3 hours per day until it reached 126 hours. simultaneous visual feedback.
Only then \Vas it tested for paw-placement and on
the visual cliff. TEST YOURSELF
Outline two key results From this study. How
ethical was this study?
EVALUATION
Since Held & Hein used a laboratory experiment, \Ve can use the general
evaluations from Chapter I, pages 1- 2 and apply them directly to the study:
Strength Laboratory expenments have high The amount or time the kittens got exposed to the
levels of control and so can be apparatus. the tasks the kittens had to do and the kitten
replicated to test for reliabillty. carousel were all solid controls 1n this study. Therefore, a
different set or researchers could replicate this study to
test for reliability (however. whether this should be done Is
arguable - see animal ethics below).
Strength As laboratory experiments have With the controls 1n place (e.g. the kitten pairings, the
high levels of control, researchers conditions In which they were raised and the kitten
can be more confident it is the IV carousel) Held & Hein could conclude with confidence
directly affecting the DV. that the use or vision and movement affects the
perceptual development or kittens.
Weakness As laboratory experiments take Group X kittens were brought up in darkness and all
place 1n an artificial setting, some kittens spent time in a kitten carousel which are not usual
say they lack ecological validity. environments tor kittens. Therefore, it could be said that
the study lacked ecological validity
Weakness Many laboratory experiments can The tasks that the kittens had lo perform (e.g. the visual
make participants take part in tasks cliff and the paw-placement) are not tasks that kittens
that are nothing like real-life ones so in the natural environment would have to perform.
they lack mundane reahsm. Therefore. it could be said that the study lacked
mundane realism.
Number of animals this should be a Only 20 kittens were used for the entire study which allows for
kept to the minimum amount to make statistical analyses but 1s also a small number or kittens overall.
statistical analysis meaningful.
Caging - housing in cages should not Eight pairs of kittens were reared In darkness and two In lighlless
lead to overcrowding and increased cages which are not usual conditions. This could have Increased the
stress levels. stress levels of the entire litter (not just the kittens used in the study)
and the mother.
There should be general protection The findings did show impaired perceptual development in the P
from psychological and physical harm. kittens which can be seen as being harmful Also. being raised in
darkness could be seen as not protecting the kittens. The kitten
carousel could have been stressful tor the P kittens as they had no
control; the neckbrace ror the A kittens could have been stressful
too However. some psychologists might argue that the stress was
transient (short-lived) as the P kittens began to overcome their
perceptual deficiencies once placed 1n lit conditions.
CHAPTER 3: COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
CHALLENGE YOURSELF
Evaluate this study in terms of collecting
quantitative data and on the nature-nurture
debate. You may want to use a table similar to those used
for the laboratory expenment and ethics evaluations.
Exam centre
Try the follo1ving exam-style questions.
Paper 1 Paper 2
1. In the Held & I lein study, name two ofLhe Lests 1. Outline one finding fron1 the Held & Hein
the kittens had to perform after being in the kitten study. (3 n1arks)
carousel. (2 marks) 2. Outline how qualitative data could have been
2. Outline two controls that Held & Hein used in collected in the Held & Hein study. (3 marks)
their study. (4 marks) 3. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of using
3. Outline how group X kittens were raised in the animals in psychological research using
Held & Hein study. (2 marks) the Held & Hein study as an exa1nple. (10 n1arks)
4. Evaluate tl1e 1--leld & 1-!ein study in tern1s of one
strength and one 1veakness. ( 10 marks)
SOCIAL
PSYCHOLOGY
ASK YOURSELF
CONTEXT Why do you think the Holocaust hap pened?
Can you think or any modern-day examples or
~lost of the time '"e are told that obedience is a good thing. such atrocities?
But '"hat if you '"ere ordered to do something that caused
harn1 or distress to another person? 1his type of obedience
is called destructive obedience. Social psychologists such AIM
as Stanley Milgran1 have been particularly interested in
<lest ructive obedience. To investigate how obedient people wou Id be lo orders
As a mernber of a European }e\vish family that had left fron1 a person in aut hority that \vould result in pain
Europe for the United States, Milgram '"as profoundly and harm to someone. Specifically, the aim 1vas to see
affected by the atrocities committed by Nazi Germany. ho1v large an electric shock participants \l'Ould give
A key feature of these atrocities \Vas the extent to which lo a helpless man \vhen ordered to by a scientist in a
ordinary people obeyed destructive orders that led to the laboratory.
systen1atic mass murder of minority groups. including Je'vs,
Romanies. Communists, trade unionists and people 'vith
disabilities. METHOD
Early psychological research into the Holocaust focused
•
on the idea that son1ething distinctive about Gern1an
culture or personality led to the high levels of conforrnity Milgram described his original study as a
and obedience necessary for genocide to take place. This is laboratory experiment. Technically it might ..
kno\vn as the dispositional hypothesis. While Ivlilgram \Vas more accurately be called a pre-experiment, .,..
interested in this idea, he was also interested in the social because it had only one condition. The results
processes that take place bet\veen individuals and \\rithin frorn this condition then served as a baseline for a
groups. The idea that '"e can explain events such as the nun1ber of varialions in foU01v-up studies. Obedience 1vas
Holocaust by reference to the social processes operating operationalised as the n1axin1um voltage given in response
in the situation, rather than the characteristics of the to the orders.
•
words \Vent together. Each time the confederate-learner
n1ade a mistake, the experimenter ordered the teacher-
A ne\vspaper advertisement \Vas used to recruit 40 men
participant to give a shock. The shock got larger by 15V
aged 20- 50. The advertisement \Vas asking for people to
for each mistake. The confederate-learner did not really
take part in a study on memory. The
receive shocks, but there \Vas no \vay for the teacher-
S•mple sample was therefore mostly a volunteer or
participan t to kno1v this.
self-selecting san1ple. Respondents \\/ere
from a range of backgrounds and jobs: 37.5 per cent Up to 300V the confederate-learner did not signal any
\vere n1anual labourers, 40 per cent \vere \vhite-collar response Lo the shocks. Ho\vever, at 300V and 315V, he
\vorkers, 22.5 per cent were professionals. All \vere fron1 pounded on the \vall. He \\•as then silent and did not
Ne\v Haven, Connecticut, USA. respond to further questions. This suggested that he \vas
hurt, perhaps unconscious, or even dead. When teachers
Participants \vere recruited using a ne\vspaper
turned to the experimenter for guidance, they \Vere told
advertisement, so \vere a volunteer or self-selecting
to treat this as an incorrect response and to continue to
sample. They \vere promised $4.50 for turning up to the
give the shocks. When they protested, they \Vere given a
study; payment \vas not conditional on completing it
series of verbal prods to encourage them to continue:
Prod I - say 'Please continue' or 'Please go on'.
Prod 2 - say 'The experimenter requires you to continue'.
When each participant arrived at Yale University he was Prod 3 - say 'll is absolutely essential that you continue'.
introduced to a man he believed to be another
Prod 4 - 'You have no other choice, you must go on'.
participant. The l\vo men were then
llloli•ble briefed on the supposed purpose of the Teachers were considered to have con1pleted the
experiment, \Vhich \Vas described to them procedure \vhen they refused to give any more shocks,
as to investigate the effect of punishment on learning. or '"hen they reached the maximum of 4SOV. They
\Vere then interviewed and asked to rate on a scale of
In fact Lhe other man \Vas working for Nlilgram. He was
0-14 ho1v painful the last few shocks \Vere. Then they
a 47-year-old Irish-American accountant, selected for
were told that the shocks were not real, the learner \Vas
the role because he was 1nild-n1annered and likeable.
unhanned, and the real purpose of the study was to
People who help with experi n1ents in this way are
investigate obedience.
knO\VO as confederates or stooges.
The na"ive participant and the confederate were told ~ TEST YOURSELF
that one of them \vould play the role of teacher and the V Try to get the procedure down to eight "vital
other the learner. They dre\v slips of paper fron1 a hat to parts" that are essential for you to understand
what the participants had to do.
allocate the roles, but this \vas fiddled so that the naive
participant \vas aJ\,•ays the teacher and the confederate
\Vas always the learner. They were then immediately
taken to another room where the learner was strapped RESULTS
into a chair and electrodes \\'ere attached to him. Tuey
were shown the electric shock generator. lhis had Quantitative and qualitative data \vere gathered. ·1 he
S\vitches labeUed \vith a voltage, rising in 15-volt intervals "headline figures" were quantitative, in the form of the
from 15 V up to 450V. Teachers \vere told that the shocks average voltage that participants \vent up to,
could be extremely painful but not dangerous; they were and the nun1ber of participants giving each Qu•nt
each given a 45V shock to de1nonstrate. voltage. 111e average voltage given by
There \Vas a \Vall beh\'een the teacher and learner, so participants \Vas 368V; 100 per cent of
participants gave 300V or more; 65 per cent gave the
that the teacher could hear but not see the learner. The
full 450V. Psychology students had estilnated that only
procedure \vas administered by an
Control 3 per cent of participants 1vould do this. In their
experimenter, played by a 31-year-old male
post-experiment intervie1vs, participants' average rating
biology teacher. The participant (in the role
of ho1v painful the shocks were was 13.42 out of a
of teacher) read out \\'Ord pairs to Lest the confederate
(in the role of learner) on his recognition of which rnaximun1of14.
•
Qualitative data \Vere gathered in the form of the TEST YOURSELF
comments and protests participants made during the How generahsabte are the results? How easy
procedure, and in the form of observations oflheir would it be to replicate this study? Why?
body language. Most participants sho\ved signs of
tension, including groaning, s\vealing, biting Lips and
stuttering. Fourteen giggled nervously. One had a CONCLUSION
seizure and the procedure \Vas stopped. One
observer noled: Milgram dre\v nvo main conclusions from this study:
"I observed a mature and initially poised business 1. People are much more obedient to destructive
man enter lhe laboratory smiling and confident orders than we might expect. In fact, the n1ajority of
Within 20 minutes he \vas reduced to a twitching, people are quite \Yilling to obey destructive orders.
stuttering \vreck, who 'vas rapidJy
Qua I approaching the point of nervous collapse" 2. People find receiving and obeying des tructive
(Milgram, 1963: 377). orders highly stressful. They obey in spite
of their en1otional responses. The situation triggers
Most participants protested against the procedure, a conflict between hvo deeply ingrained tendencies:
although the verbal prods \Vere in most cases sufl1cient to obey those in authority, and not to harn1 people.
to get lhen1 to continue giving the shocks.
Results supported the situational hypothesis rather than
the dispositional hypothesis.
EVALUATION
Since Milgram used a laboratory experiment, \Ye can
use the general evaluations frorn Chapter l, pages 1-2 and apply them directly to the study:
. .. .
~ •
Strength Laboratory experiments have high The drawing or tots, the timing of when the scripted
levels of control and so can be responses were heard and the 15V increments were
replicated to test ror rehab1lity. all examples of controls. Thererore, lh1s study could
be replicated to test it for reliability (assuming ethical
guidelines did not prevent this).
Strength As laboratory experiments have high As there were so many controls (e.g. having a "test"
levels or control, researchers can shock, receiving prods at a certain time and the shock
be more confident it is th e IV d irecUy generator being the same for everyone), Milgram could
artecting the DV be confident that it was the situation that participants
were placed in that caused the obedience levels.
Weakness Many laboratory experiments make Having to shock somebody who gets a word-pair wrong
participants take part in tasks that is not a task that people come across In everyday lire.
are nothing like real-life ones, so they Therefore, the study is low in mundane realism.
lack mundane realism.
•
CHAPTER
. 4:
- s6CIAL
.
'
PSVC~OLOGY
- .
- ---------
Deception The teachers thought that they were giving learners a real electnc shock. Also, they were
told that it was a study about memory and not obedience.
Debriefing At the end of the study all was revealed to teachers so they left knowing that they had not
harmed learners. Milgram followed them up six months later to check if they were having
any psychological issues.
Right to withdraw The prods given by the experimenter did mean it was d1ff1cult for teachers to withdraw from
the study - some kept being convinced to continue even though they wanted to leave.
This is another point that can be used to evaluate the things such as genocide so \Ve can then find \\lays to
study: stop then1 happening.
Usefulness: the study did highlight that the situation
n1ay make people behave in the way they do rather CHALLENGE YOURSELF
Evaluate lhis study In terms or 11 being a
than it being individual (dispositional}. This
I
, Useful snapshot study, ethnocentric and using
is useful as Milgra1n was atte1npting to see if quantilalive or qualitative data collection. You may want
"Germans were different" and he did not to use a table similar to that used for the laboratory
find this. All of this could begin to help explain experiment evaluation.
Paper 1 Paper 2
1. Identify h vo fea tures of the sample used in the 1. Outline \vhat qualitative data \Vere collected in the
Milgrarn stud y. (2 marks) Milgram study. (3 marks)
2. Outline hO\\I the teacher and learner \vere assigned 2. Outline ho\v participants \Vere recruited in the
conditions in the Milgrarn study. (2 marks) Milgram study. (3 nlarks)
3 . ldentify four controls in the 3. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses
Milgram study. (2 marks) of ethical guidelines using Milgran1 as
4. Evaluate the Milgran1 study in tenns of ethical an example. (10 nlarks)
issues in psychological research. (10 marks)
•
grounds" housed the recording equipn1ent and several
observers.
Haney, Banks & Zi111bardo ( 1973) The design centred on participant~ in the role of
prisoners being in the simulated prison 24 hours per day
for the duration of the study. They \Vere placed tJ1ree in a
CONTEXT cell. Participants in the role of guards \vorked in three-
person shifts for eight hours per shift. During a shift they
A lot of people have a stereotypical vie"' of prison Hfe had to remain in the prison but at other times tJiey \Vere
and prisoners. This may include thinking that prisoners allo\ved to go about their usual lives.
are simply "bad" people and this is \Vhat makes prisons 111e unifor111s: The research tean1 \Vanted to promote a
"bad''. An alternative vie\v is that the situation of being feeling of anony1nity in both groups and the uniform
in prison turns these prisoners "bad" and not some helped to do this. For the guards it was a
characteristic \vithin the1n. ·1his is all focused around plain khaki shirt and trousers, a \Vhistle, a Control
the individual (dispositional) versus situational debate. wooden baton and reOecting sunglasses (so
Ho\v niuch of our behaviour is \Vi thin us and hov,r niuch it made it inipossible to niake known eye contact \Vith a
comes from the situations we find ourselves in? The US prisoner). The idea for the guards' uniforn1 \vas lo
Navy sponsored th is study. convey a 1nilitary altitude \vhile being deindividuated
Oosing tJ1eir sense of identity). The prisoners' uniform
ASK YOURSELF was a loose fitting 111uslin s1nock with their ID number
Do you reel that pnsoners are always bad on the front and back, no underclothes, a light chain and
people? Do prisons make them even worse once
they are serving their sentence?
lock on one ankle, sandals made fron1 rubber and a cap
made from a stocking. They \Vere allowed no personal
belongings. The idea for the prisoners' lmiform was to
deindividuate, humiliate and make them feel subservient.
AIM The ankle chain was lo remind them ho\v oppressive the
environment \Vas and the ill-fitting smocks \\•ere to make
To investigate \vhether the behaviour of non-prisoners tJiem feel a\vk""\vard at all times. The smocks \Vere worn
in a simulated prison environment is more affected by \vith no underpants, \Yhich made the prisoners assume
their disposition (individual factors) than the situation more female postures \Yhen sitting; tJi is \Vas an atten1pt
they are in. to emasculate them.
TEST YOURSELF
METHOD Wtry were participants in the roles or prisoners
and prison guards all given the same uniforms?
-
A sin1ulated prison was built in a base1nenl corridor at • •
Stanford University. Three s1nall cells (6 x 9 feet) were r
1nade fron1 converted laboratory rooms. There were 22 participants \vho took pa rt in tJ1e prison
Control There \vas one entrance door to the \vhole sin1ulation. They were chosen fron1 an initial pool of 75
prison. A cot with a 1nattress, sheet and people 1¥ho had answered a newspaper
pillo\v \Vas the only furniture in each cell (one per advertisement asking for rnale volunteers Sample
prisoner - three prisoners to a cell). The solitary to take part in a study about "prison life':
confinement facility was an unlit room of only for \Vhich they would be paid $15 per day.
2 x 2 x 7 feet. Several roon1s in an adjacent 'ving \Vere Every potential participant completed an extensive
used to accommodate participants in the role of guards, questionnaire about family background, physical and
plus there was a bedroom each for those in the roles of mental health history, prior experiences and attitudes
\Varden and superintendent. There \Vas also an tO\vards psychopathology (including involvement in
intervie\\•-testing room. Another room in the "prison crime). lnitially, 24 \Vere selected. They \Vere judged to
•
CHAPTER 4: SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
be the most stable physically and mentaUy, 1nost mature robbery, told then1 their legal rights, handcuffed them,
and least involved in any anti-social behaviour. They searclled then1 and took them to the police station.
\Vere randomly given the role of either guard or Once there, participants were fingerprinted and had a
prisoner. file prepared about them then \vere placed in a detention
All of the final 24 \\'ere healthy male college students from cell. The police officers acted as they usually \VOuld
Stanford, and strangers to each other. 1\venty-three \\'ere with a real criminal throughout. They did not ans\ver
Caucasian and one \VM Asian. Prior to the simulation, all any questions about ilie study. Once they had been
participants \vere given a battery of psychological tests transferred to the simulated prison, ilie prisoners \Vere
but none \Vere scored until after the simulation. T\vO stripped, sprayed \Vith a delousing deodorant spray and
participants \vere used as "stand-by" prisoners. One of the made to stand alone (naked). They \Vere then given their
guards decided not to participate just before the simulation uniform and had an ID picture taken. Finally, they were
so in total there \Vere 10 prisoners and 11 guards. put into a cell and ordered to remain silent.
They all signed a contract guaranteeing them a Prison routine: Once all of the prisoners had completed
minin1ally adequate diet, enough clothing, appropriate their induction and were in their cells, the guards read
housing and medical care plus the payment of$15 per out the rules of the prison (devised by the guards \vi th tile
day. Those who were prisoners were told to expect warden). They were told to memorise then1. They \Vere
little privacy and th;1t they 1nay have so1ne basic rights also told that tlley would be referred to only by the nun1ber
suspended but no physical abuse \vouJd occur. on their unifonn. Initially, each day, prisoners \Vere given
tllree basic 1neals, allowed three supervised toilet visits and
given t\vo hours for privileges such as reading or \Vriting
a letter. Work assignn1ents \Vere given to prisoners so
they could earn their S15 per day. There \Vere two visiting
Guards: Those \vho had been assigned as guards n1et
periods per week (scheduled). Three times per day the
one day prior to the induction procedure for prisoners
prisoners \\'ere lined up for a count, \vhich consisted of
(see belo\v). They were introduced to the research teain,
checking all prisoners \Vere present and that they bad
\Vho were called superintendent (auilior
Reliable learned their ID numbers and the prison rules.
of ilie study) and \Varden (a research
assistant). lhey \Vere told that ilie team ~ TEST OURSEL
\vanted to recreate a prison environment, ethicaUy. The V Outline the pnson routine that was expected from
guards' main task \vas to "maintain a reasonable degree the participants i n the study
of order \Vithin the prison necessary for its effective
functioning" (1 laney, Banks & Zin1bardo, 1973: 7).
The \Varden ran through the administrative duties of RESULTS
completing things such as shift logs, reporting any
criminal incidents and the administration of meals Below are the results.based on Haney, Banks &
to prisoners. They were then all involved in placing Zimbardo (1973).
the cots in the cells. They \Vere only given minimal
guidelines on how to "act" in order to capture genuine Overview: Overall, both sets of participants beca1ne
reactions to the si111ulation. The only thing they were n1ore and niore negative about the situation and their
prohibited to do was use ph)'Sical punishment or own en1otional state. Prisoners reported they wanted to
aggressive behaviours towards the prisoners. harn1 others 1norc and niore as the
simulation progres.5ed. Self-evaluations Qual
Prisoners: Those \vho had been assigned as prisoners indicated that all participants \Vere
followed a differen t procedure before they entered the beginning to internalise the situation.
prison. The Palo Alto City Police Department helped out Interactions ben,•een the l\vo groups tended to be
\vith the initial stage. Each prisoner \Vas "arrested" from negative and hostile. Prisoners becan1e passive very
his home (\vithout prior \Varning). A real quickly while !,'llards became more and more active.
Reliable police officer cllarged these participants Commands \Vere the n1ost frequent verbal
on suspicion of either burglary or anned communications from the prison guards and iliey were
•
also impersonal (e.g. ID nun1ber). A total of five amount of aggression from guards continued to
"prisoners" had to be released because of"extre.me increase even 1vhen prisoners had stopped resisting the
emotional depression" \vhich included crying. rage and demands placed on then1 - this was seen as a
high anxiety. Some of these symptoms \Vere seen on consequence of sinlply being put in a uniform of
day 2 ofthesinlulation in four of the prisoners. The po,ver. One guard placed a prisoner in solitary
fifth prisoner had to be released after being treated for a confinement and kept him in there overnight (against
psycl1osomatic rash that had developed Of the the rules) as he felt the researchers 1vere being too soft!
remainder, only t\vo \VOuld not give up their $15 per \Vhen questioned about their behaviours after the
day to be "paroled~ The sinlulat ion had to be study 1vas stopped, guards stated that they became
terminated on day 6 and the remaining prisoners \Vere increasingly aggressive because they 1vere sinlply
"delighted by their unexpected good fortune" (Haney, playing their role. A Catholic priest visited the
Banks & Zimbardo, 1973: IO). The guards ho\vever simulation and even then tJ1e prisoners referred to
were the complete opposite. They were enjoying the themselves by nun1ber rather than name. When some
extreme control and power and did not \vant to give it were interviewed by a public defender, many of the
up so soon. One of them did state that he felt upset remaining prisoners demanded to be bailed out. Some
about ho\v the prisoners were being treated and \vas prisoners would have given up the$ IS per day to be
going to ask to swap roles. I-le never did. All guards released. When they \\•ere told that this \vould have to
can1e to work on ti nie and on nu nierous occasions they be discussed they sin1ply allo,ved the111selves to be
worked extra hours after their assigned shift had ended. escorted back to their cells with no atten1pt at arguing.
There 1vere some individual differences reported in the The prison consultant, priest and public defender all
behaviours of people in each group. Half of the stated that the simulation 1vas pretty "real".
prisoners did endure the situation and not all guards Pathology ofpower: Those assigned to the guard role
were hostile. Some of the guards stuck within the rules held high social status in the prison, had a group
they had created \Vh ile others \Vent beyond them. identity of the uniform and had the freedom to control
Reality of the sin1ulation: So ho1v "real" \vas the prisoners. The aggression appeared to get stronger '"hen
simulation? There 1vere aspects that had to be absent prisoners becan1e a perceived threat (initially). Those
from this for ethical and legal reasons such as who \Vere the most hostile tended to become the leaders
involuntary homosexuality, racism, physical beatings of the guards. E\'en though guards spent 16 hours
and threats to life. Also, the prisoners had been given a a1vay from the prison every day, the level of aggression
nvo-\\1eek sentence (which 1vould not happen in reality). intensified and the different ways of sho\ving aggression
The 1narked psychological effects the simulation had on increased. It 11•as seen as a sign of a guard's \\•eakness not
participants was clear, especially as some of these to show hostility to prisoners. After day I guards had
developed after just two days (see above). The research changed prisoners' rights into privileges that had to be
team were clear in 1vanting to report behaviours and earned for being obedient.
incidences that occurred 1vhen participants believed 111e pathological prisoner sy11dro1ne: Initially, prisoners
they were not being observed (to decrease the potential could not believe what was happening, ho1v they had
effects of den1and characteristics). One example was lost their privacy, ho1v they \vere being constantly
the private conversations bet1veen prisoners. watched and the oppressiveness oft he \Vhole
Quant Of these conversations 90 per cent centred simulation. This soon passed and their next response
on prison life (e.g. food, punishments and was rebellion. This direct force cllanged to subtle
harassn1ents). This, of course, meant participants '"ere inethods including setting up a grievance co1nmittee.
truly "caught up" in the situation as they rarely did not vVhen all of this failed to change anything, prisoners
talk about it. The same happened \\lith the guards turned to self-interests at the expense of any group
during relaxation breaks - they spent the majority of behaviour. It did not take long for any prisoner cohesion
their time talking about prison life. From data analysed to dissolve. Prisoners see1ned to choose one of nvo
post-sin1ulation, when the guards 1vere out of view of \vays to cope: beco1ne sick or beco1ne obedient. For
recording equipment the harassment of prisoners 1vas example, the obedient ones sided with the guards \Vhen
greater than in the yard, 1vhich \vas monitored. The one prisoner 1vent on hunger strike and labelled him a
•
CHAPTER 4: SOC.IAL PSVC~OLO(:;Y
"trouble-maker''. Three elen1ents to Lhis syndron1e that lighting a cigarette and cleaning their teeth. All of
\\lere seen in the prisoners: these \\lere "privileges" and required pennission. In
terms of emasculation, the smocks rese1nbled dresses
1. Loss of personal identity. Prisoners '"ore the same
and guards \vould often call prisoners "sissies" or
uniforms, rarely spoke about life outside the simulation
"girls". Without under\vear, prisoners had to sit like
and all referred to each other by their ID number not
females \Vhich increased their en1asculation.
name. They had become deindividuated.
2 . Arbitrary control. Prisoners found it increasingly ~ TEST YOU SELF
difficult to cope '\lith the increasing stronger control V Outline four key findings from this study.
by guards, especially via the often "1nixed message"
approach (e.g., smiling at a joke could initiate as
n1uch punishment as ignoring a joke). As the prison
became more and 1nore unpredictable, prisoners just CONCLUSION
\Vent along \Vith everything (sin1ilar to a behaviour
called learned helplessness. See section 8.4, page 130 The situation that people find themselves in has
and section l 1.3, page 218). a stronger eft:ect on behaviour than individual
3. Dependency and en1asculation. Prisoners had to (dispositional) factors. In a novel situation, people adapt
depend on guards for virtually everything from toilet to ' "hat they think they should do in that situation
breaks (they were handcuffed and blindfolded), to rather than acting on internal factors.
EVALUATION
As Haney, Banks & Zimbardo used observations as the research
method, \Ve can use the general evaluations from Chapter 1, pages 3-4
and apply them directly to the i.tudy:
•• • I a a ' .
Strength If participants are unaware that they Although all part1c1pants knew they were 1n a
are being observed they should simulation, many appeared, rather quickly, to produce
behave "naturally". This increases the "natural" behaviour depending on their role. Remember
ecological validity of the observation. that the prison consultant noted how "real" the situation
was as well as the behaviour of pnsoners and guards.
Therefore, the study could be argued to have some
ecological validity.
Strength As behaviours are "counted" and The observers could easily count the number of limes
are hence quantitative, the process certain behaviours occurred and double-check with
is objective and the data can be the recorded footage of the simulation. The data are
analysed statistically with minimal bias. objective and can be analysed statistically so there is
minimal chance of misinterpretation.
Weakness If participants are aware that they are Even though the prison consultant said the situation
being observed then they may not act felt "real'', all participants were aware they were being
"naturally" but instead show socially observed by cameras and a research team. Some
desirable behaviours. This reduces the participants were acting in a way so as not to be
validity or findings. judged by the research team. Therefore, they were not
displaying true behaviour.
•
Belo'v are other points that could be used for Individual versus situational explanations: the idea
evaluation: was to see whether "bad" people make prisons "badn
Ethics: protection of participants. Even though the (e.g. it is dispositional). lbis study supports the idea
study 1vas stopped early, participants assigned as that the situation we find ourseh·es in
prisoners were subjected to harassment, can dramatically affect our behaviour Ind vs sit
Ethics as all participants had been found to
mental abuse and having to earn basic
rights (e.g. food and a bed) for five days. be psychologically stable.
It \vas very clear fro1n all of the qualitative data
CHALLENGE YOURSELF
collected that participants did not leave in the same
Evaluate this study 1n terms of 1nd1v1dual versus
psychological and physical state as they started. The
situational explanaltons and 11 being useful. You
sin1ulated arrest alone at the begilming of the study may want to use a table similar to the one used for the
1vould have also stressed participants assigned to the observation evaluation
prisoner role.
Paper 1 Paper 2
1. Outline the induction procedure for either the 1. Outline hO\V observations 1vere used in the Haney.
prisoners or the prison guards. (4 marks) Banks & Zimbardo study. (3 marks)
2. Outline one advantage of using observations in the 2. Outline one finding from the Haney, Banks &
Haney, Banks & Zimbardo study. (2 nlarks) Zimbardo study. (3 marks)
3. Outline one qualitative result from the Haney, 3. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of
Banks & Zimbardo study. (2 n1arks) individual and situational explanations of
4. Evaluate the Haney, Banks & Zimbardo study ill behaviour using Haney, Banks & Zimbardo
terms of two \veaknesses. (I 0 marks) as an exanlple. (I 0 marks)
•
CHAPTER 4: SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
CONTEXT ACTIVITY $
This study is concerned \vith bystander behaviour. The Kitty Genovese murder
Psychological research into bystander behaviour
Bystanders are people \vho \Vi tness events and have
was triggered by a murder that took place in Ne\v
to choose \vhether to intervene or not. Recently there York in 1964. Read the excerpts from the New York
has been a lot of debate over "have-a-go heroesM \\•ho Times article describing the incident.
put themselves at risk to intervene and attempt to
of the borough's detectives and a veteran or 25 years Airport. passed. It was 3:35 A.M. The assailant returned.
or hom1c1de inwstigations. He can grve a matter-of.fact By then, Miss Genovese had crawled to the back of the
recitation on many murders. But the Kew Gardens slaying bu1k:l1ng, where the freshly painted brown doors to the
baffles him - not because 1t 1s a murder. but because the apartment house held out hope for safety. The killer tried
·good people' failed to call the police. the first door; she wasn't there At the second door. 82-62
This is what the police say happened at 3:20 AM. in Auslln Street, he saw her slumped on the floor at the foot
the staid. middle-class, tree-lined Ausbn Street area: Twenty- of the stairs. He stabbed her a third t1m~atally.
eight-year-old Catherine Genowse, who was called Kitty by Some of the details of the story as it was reported at
almost everyone 1n the neighborhood, was returning home the time have since been challenged. Given the layout of
from her JOb as manager of a bar in Hollis. She parked her the block, it would not have been possible for anyone to
red Flat 1n a lot ad1acent to the Kew Gardens Long Island have seen the whole incident, so each person would have
Railroad Station, facing Mowbray Place. seen just fragments of the event. Also, the area was not
Miss Genovese noticed a man at the far end of the actually as quiet as the article implies - one neighbour
lot, near a seven-story apartment house al 82-40 Austin said that rows between couples leaving a local bar were
Street. She hailed. Then, nervously. she headed up common late at night. Given these facts, we cannot be
Austin Street toward Lcfferts Boulevard. where there Is a sure that 38 people really saw, correctly interpreted.
call box to the 102nd Police Precinct in nearby Richmond and chose lo ignore the murder. However, the Genovese
Hill. She got as far as a street light in front of a bookstore murder captured the public imagination and stimulated
before the man grabbed her. She screamed. Lights psychological research Into bystander behaviour.
went on in the 10-story apartment house at 82-67 Austin Source: New York Times. March 27, 1964
Street, which races the bookstore. Windows slid open
and voices punctuated the early-morning stillness. 1. How could you explain these events according
Miss Genovese screamed. 'Oh, my God, he stabbed to the individual and dlsposittonat hypotheses?
2. Wiat do you think you wouk:l have done?
me! Please help met Please help me!' From one of the
•
onsibilit} experimenter faked collapse on a train bet\vcen stops. in
order to see \vhcther he \va5 helped by other passengers.
Latane & Darley ( 1968) proposed that the key issue One particular stretch of track was targeted where there
in deciding \vhether we help or not is whether \Ve see was a 7.5-n1inute gap bet\veen two stations.
it as our personal responsibility to do so. One reason Experin1enters 1vorked in teams of four, t>vo fen1ales to
\vhy groups of people do not help individuals in need record tbe results and two n1ales who \vould play Lhe
is that responsibility is shared equally arnong the roles of victim and model helper. There
group so that each person has only a sn1all portion of Control
were four teams, one containing a Black
responsibility. Latane & Darley called this idea diffusion n1ale. There were t\VO conditions for the
of responsibility. 1n a series of laboratory experiments victim: drunk and ill. Each male taking the role of
they demonstrated that the more people \Vho are present victim took part in both drunk and ill conditions. The
in an emergency, the less likely people are to help. victim \vould stagger and fall 70 seconds after the train
left a station. He then lay still on his back \Vith eyes
ASK YOURSELF open, not moving until helped. Bet\\Teen six and eight
What factors would make you more or less likely
trials \Vere run each day, behveen 11 a.111. and 3 p.m.
to help someone who Is obviously rn trouble and
asking for help? Four IVs \>,1ere n1anipulated in the procedure:
the victiJ11's responsibility: operationalised as
carrying a cane (ill - low responsibility) or sn1elling
AIM of alcohol and carrying a bottle 1vrapped in a paper
bag (drunk - high responsibility}
To extend early studies of bystander behaviour in the victim's race: operationalised as Black or \.Vhite
several key \vays. First, the researchers \vanted to
the presence of a model: operationalised as 1vhether
study bystander behaviour outside the laboratory, in a
a 1naJe confederate; either dose to or distant fron1
realistic setting where participants \VOuld have a dear
the victim; helped after 70 or 150 seconds
vie\v of the victim. Second, they \vanted to sec vJhether
helping behaviour was affected by four variables: the the number of bystanders: operationalised as
victin1's responsibility for being in a situation '"here the ho\vever many people 1vere present in the vicinity.
person needed help, the race of the victin1, the effect of Four n1ales, aged 24-29, and identically dressed in
modelli ng helping behaviour and the size of the group. casual clothes, took the role of models of
helping behaviour. Four model conditions Reliable
were applied to both apparently drunk
METHOD and ill victims. The n1odel stood:
•
CHAPTER 4: SOC.IAL PSVC~OLO(:;Y
TEST YOURSELF
one intervening after l 50 seconds (three cases).
Outline four controls used 1n this study. How were Ho\vever, the researchers noted that because
the participants recruited? What ethical issues passengers helped spontaneously in the vast
are problems for this study? n1ajority of trials, there 1vere too few cases of
helping after modelling to analyse in detail.
Number of bystanders - there " 'as no evidence for
RESULTS diffusion of responsibility. There 1vas a mild effect in
the opposite direction - \vhen n1ore passengers \vere
Overall, a higher proportion of people hdped than \Vas present, people '"ere slightly more likely to receive help.
the case in previous laboratory experiments: 78 per cent Other observations - in a significant minority of
of victims received spontaneous help from trials (21 of 103), son1e passengers rnoved a\vay
quant passengers, and in 60 per cent of cases \Vhere
from the critical area. More comrnents \vcre niade
the victim \vas helped it was by more than in drunk trials, and rnore when no passenger
one person. Most helpers '"ere male. Table 4.1 sho\vs the spontaneously helped. The researchers interpreted
rnain result of helping behaviour by group. this as n1eaning the conirnents \vere in response to
• j '
passengers feeling uncon1fortable about the situation.
•
EVALUATION
Since Piliavin, Rodin & Piliavin used a field experiment, \Ve can use the
general evaluations from Chapter I, page 2 and apply them directly to the study:
a • I I • a
Strength As held experiments take place in a The setting was a subway train which is a real situation
reahst1c setting, 11 1s said that they have that many urban dwellers find themselves 1n dally. Even
ecological validity. the event is something that could easily happen so the
study does have ecological validity.
Strength As participants will not know they are As the setting is natural and no one was aware that the
taking part in a study, there will be whole situation was staged, there was very little chance
few or no demand characteristics so that anyone would have shown behaviour to fit the aim
behaviour is more likely to be natural of the study. The behaviour shown by participants was
and valid. natural and therefore valid.
Weakness Situational variables can be difficult The positioning or people in the carriages could not
to control so sometimes it is difficult be controlled for (this is just one example). Therefore,
to know if it is the IV affecting the D\/. they may not have noticed the incident or Ignored it
It could be an uncontrolled variable (e.g. because they were reading) so it may not have
causing the DV to change. been the type of victim that affected helping levels.
Weakness As participants did not know they are Participants in the train did not know it was a study so were
taking part in a study, there are issues deceived and obviously inf()(med consent was not taken.
with breaking ethical guidelines relating This goes against ethical guidelines (although formal
to informed consent and deception. guidelines were not around at the time or the study).
These are other points that can be used to evaluate the study: d\vellers \vho \Vere (presumably) used to •
Usefulness: the study told us that type of victim can travelling on a sub\vay train. People in
affect ho\v long people take to help or whether they urban areas are more used to deindividuating
help at all. This could be used to educate (losing their sense of identity) and feeling
'
Useful
people that in an ernergency we should help "anonymous" whereas people 1vho live in rural areas
others quickly no matter \vho they are: the or even a different city might act differently.
longer it takes to help. the more the victim may
suffer more in long tern1 (especially if medical CHALLENGE YOURSELF
Evaluate the Pillavin, Rodin & Pillavin study 1n
attention is needed). terms of ethical guidelines and individual versus
Generalisation: it \VOuld be difficult to generalise past silualional explanations. You may want to use a table
the sample itself as participants were all urban similar lo that used for the field experiment evaluation.
•
Try the follo\ving exam-style questions.
Paper1 Paper2
1. Outline two controls used in the Piliavin, Rodin & 1. Outline what quantitative data \Vere collected in
Pili~nsru~ (4mar~ the Piliavin, Rodin & Piliavin study. (3 n1arks)
2. Outline one of the "victin1s" used in the Piliavin, 2. Outline hO\V the Piliavio, Rodin & Piliavin stu dy
Rodin & Piliavin study. (2 marks) was high in ecological validity. (3 marks)
3. Identify t\vo features of the sample used in the 3. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of field
Piliavio, Rodin & Piliavin study. (2 marks) experiments using Piliavin, Rodin & Piliavin as an
4. Evaluate the Piliavin, Rodin & Piliavin example. (I 0 n1arks)
study in terms of one strength and
one \veakness . (10 marks)
•
• I
•
STUDY 4.4 Participants in this study 1vere 64 boys aged 14-15
Taj/el (1970) years. They \Vere all fron1 a comprehensive school in
Bristol, UK. They \Vere all from the same
Sample
"house" in the same form at this school.
CONTEXT
I
Psychologists have long been interested in why and
ho\v people develop prejudiced thoughts and then
I ld
This was the procedure for both parts of the study:
discriminate against people. One idea is that \Ve
develop a n1entallty of"us and them" (called in-group Boys \vorked in groups of eight. lhey entered a lecture
and out-group nientality) and \VCgroup people into room and 1vere told that the study \vas about visual
an in group and an out group. Those in the out group judgments. They had to look at 40 clusters of dots and
have different "features" from us and \Ve then develop estimate ho1v many dots \vere in each cluster.
prejudicial thoughts and then may act negatively towards In one of the conditions, boys 1vere
them (discrimination). ln addition, if resources are then told that people consistently
lin1ited and both groups want the san1e resource, this overesti1nate or underestilnate the
heightens the prejudice and discrin1ina1lon shown. nurnber of dots in a cluster.
Based on lhis, ho'" easy is it to get people lo discrilninate
In another condition, boys \Vere told that some
against members of an out group?
people are consistently more accurate at judging
AS 'OURSELF
than others.
What makes people prejudiced aga1ns1 others? All boys \Vere then told that the researchers \Vere
Are the causes the same for everyone? also inte rested in decision making too and that, as
the boys \Vere Lhere, they \vould like the1n to take
part in this phase too.
AIM Boys \vere told that they 1vould be split into
groups based on their performance on the dot
To investigate whether in-group favou ritisn1 and cluster visual judgn1ent task. Some were in
out-group discrimination can happen in a group of the "overcstirnators" group and some in the
people who already kno1v ead1 other. "underestimators" group (in the second condition
they "'ere "better" or ",vorse" accuracy groups).
Boys 1vere actually randomly assigned lo a group:
METHOD it '"as 1101 based on their visual judgments. This
created the in group and out group.
• I
I Boys 1vere then told they would fill in a book
There 1vere hvo parts to the study. lhe first part \Vanted of"n1atrices" to give rewards and punishn1ents.
to establish two groups. The second part 1vanted to These \VOuld be converted into real nioney at the
test whether the members of these groups "'ould then end of the study. Boys did not k.i101v tl1e identity
discrirninate against the out group. of the individual they l\'ere giving rewards and
First pnrl: The research team silnply created 40 clusters punishn1ents to, just the group they were in.
of dots that could be projected onto a screen for Boys 'vorked in their o\\rn cubicles to con1plete
participants to see and n1ake a judgment on. the booklet. They \Vere told that they \vould never
Second part: A booklet of"matrices" was created to be giving themselves a re1vard or punishment. An
allocate points to members of participants' in group or example of a matrix is sho,vn in table 4.2. The top
out group in a variety of different \Vays. row repre~ents the re1vard participants could give
and the bottom row is the "default" punishment they
would be giving as a result of their award choice.
•
r - 1:
-16
5
-13
4
-10
3
-7
2
-4
1
-1
0
,_...._ -
There \Vere hvo parts to the study. The first part \vanted
to establish l\vo groups. TI1e second part \vanted to
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 test \Vhether the n1embers of these groups \vould then
-1 -4 - 7 Gjo' 13 - 16 - 19 discrin1jnate against the out group.
Table 4.2 Reward and punishment matrix First part: The research team simply showed 12 pieces of
art, six reported to be by Paul Klee and the other six by
Six n1atrices \Vere used. Each each appeared Wassily Kandinsky (none had a signature). Boys 1verc
Quant three times in the booklet, representing asked which ones they liked.
three different assessn1ents: Second part: A booklet of"matrices" \Vas created to
1. In-group choices: the top and bottom rO\VS \vere to allocate points to members of the in group or out group
be a\varded to members of the in group only. in a variety of different \vays.
2. Out-group choices: the top and bo1101n rows were
to be awarded to n1en1bers of the out group only. ,.
3. lnterE,rroup choices: the top rO\'/ represented the
reward to a fello\v in-group n1en1ber whi le the Study 2 had the same characteristics as study 1 but
bottom row represented the punish1nent given to an different boys, and only 48 boys in total, participated.
out group member.
I
Once all boys had completed their booklets,
they were brought back together and given the
This \Vas the same as for study l but the boys \Vere
nionetary value of the re\vards that had been
allocated to them in the 1natrices. randomly split into a Klee and a Kandinsky group. lhe
matrices used \Vere different (four in total) to test:
TEST YOURSELF
Who were the participants in lhis study? How Maxin1un1 joint profit - this represented lhe largest
were they recruited? How generalisable is a1nount they could give both people.
lhls sample? Why? Maximu1n in group profit - this represented the
largest amount that could be given to a 1nen1ber of
the in group.
RESULTS (STUDY 1) Maximum difference - this represented the largest
difference that could be given behveen a member
The result from each matrix choice \vas scored on a of the in group and the out group. An example of a
scale of I to 14. A score of l represented giving a fello\v matrix is sho,vn in Table 4.3.
in-group member the minimun1 an1ount
Quant of points possible; 14 represented giving 23 22 21 20 19 18 17
the ma..ximum amount to a fello\v in-group
niember. l 5] 7 9 11 13 15 17
•
RESULTS (STUDY 2) TEST YOURSELF
------- Outline two key results from this study. How
When the data for the maximum in-group profit and reliable are these findings? Why?
EVALUATION
As Tajfel collected quantitative data, we can use the general evaluations
from Chapter 2, pages 9- 10 and apply them directly to the study:
• • • •
Strength As the data are numerical, comparison The matrices were quanlltabve in nature (there was
and statistical analysis are easier simply a choice of two numbers - a reward and a
(e.g. the average sc0<e of two punishment). Points given to the in group were easily
different groups can easily be compared to points given to the out group (as they
compared so there is very little bias or were p re-set matrices). No 1nterpreta1Jon was needed.
misinterpretation).
Strength The data are objective and can As the matrices were based on number pairs, the
be analysed statistically to draw amount of points awarded to each boy (as part of an
conclusions. in group) could be analysed statistically - add up the
points or find the average - so it was easy to conclude
that boys were supporting In-group members much
more than members of the out group).
Weakness Numerical data miss out on valuable The boys were never asked why they were allocating
information . If the answer is simply yes/ points in the way they did (for both studies). This is
no or on a rating scale we do not know missing out on the reasoning behind their choices -
why participants chose the answer we cannot be certain that they were allocating points
they did. based in the idea of in groups and out groups.
•
CHAPTER 4: SOC.IAL PSVC~OLO(:;Y
- ----- ---
These are other points that could be used for e\'aluation: was due to the boys being al that age or
Snap
Generalisations: it may be difficult to generalise some other factor. We do not knO\V if
these findings beyond the sample. The reason for the boys continued to favour in groups
. . this is that the boys \Vere from the same house throughout the rest of their adolescent years.
. . . . . in the san1e form from the same school in
CHALLENGE YOURSELF
Bristol, UK. There n1ay be son1ething unique
Evaluate this study 1n terms of ethnocentnsm
about these boys and ho\v they allocated points on and that it used a non-representative sampling
the matrices \vhich other people may not do. technique. You may want lo use a table Similar to that used
Snapshot study: it \Vas a study at one point in time in the quanbtalive evalual10n above.
so \Ve do not kno'v \vhether the allocation of points
Paper 1 Paper 2
1. How \Vere the participants in study 1 recruited in 1. Outline how questionnaires 1vere used in the
the Tajfel study? (2 marks) Tajfe1 study. (3 1narks)
2 . Outline ho'" Tajfel split the boys into different 2. Outline one finding fron1 the Tajfel study. (3 1narks)
groups for either of his studies. (2 marks) 3. Outline how the Tajfel study was looking into the
3 . Outline l\VO results from the Tajfel study. social approach to psychology. (3 n1arks)
(2 n1arks) 4. Discuss the strengths and 1veaknesses of the social
4. Evaluate the Tajfel study in terms of one strength approach using the Tajfel srudy as an example.
and one \\•eakness. (10 marks) (10 marks)
•
DEVELOPMENTAL
PSYCHOLOGY
AIM
Bandura, Ross & Ross (1961 ) Overall, to investigate observational learning of
aggression. Specifically, the study aimed to see whether
children \vould reproduce aggressive behaviour 1vhen
CONTEXT the model was no longer present, and to look for gender
differences in learning of aggression.
This study is concerned \vith the tendency of chjldren
to imitate adult social behaviour, specifically aggression.
Leaming behaviour by imitating others is called METHOD
observalional learning. Several earlier studies had
den1onstrated that children are influenced by witnessing
adult behaviour, but had tended to sho\v children
I nts
repeating adult behaviour in the sanie situation and in TI1ere were 72 participants: 36 male and 36 fe1nale.
the presence of the adult \vbo 1nodelled the behaviow-. All 1vere selected fro111 the nursery school ofStanford
One purpose of the study, therefore, was to te~t \Vhether Uruversily. Ages ranged from 37 n1onths Oust over 3 years)
children \Viii reproduce observed behaviour in a new to 69 months (5 years and 9 months). The mean age 'vas
situation and in the absence of the model. 52 months (4 years and 4 months).
ASK YOURSELF
There 1vere eight conditions in all. Children in each
Do you think that watching aggressive media condition 1vere 1nalched for their aggression levels, so that
makes someone aggressive? Are there other this did not becon1e a confounding variable.
factors that might make someone aggressive? This was achieved by lhe experimenter and Reliable
a nursery leacher independently rating 51
of the children on a scale ofO to 5. Very good agreement
bet,veen the two raters was achieved (0.89). The conditions attractive toys. Children played \Vilh these for around
'vere as follo,vs: two minutes, then told they were not allo1ved to play
An aggressive model \Vas sho1vn to 12 boys and with them any more as they were "the very best" toys
12 girls. Six boys and sLx girls saw aggression and had been reserved for other children.
n1odelled by a same-sex model, while the rest saw it 3. Testing for delayed imitation. Children \\'ere observed
modelled by an opposite-se.x 1nodel. playing for the next 20 minutes. The experimenter
A non-aggressive model 1vas sho\vn to 12 boys and was in the room occupied 1vith paper1vork. T\\'O more
12 girls. Six boys and six girls sa1v non-aggression observers \\'lltched through a t\\IO·l"3Y nlirror. The
n1odelled by a same-sex model, \vhile the rest sa\v it roon1 contained a range of toys indudi ng a smaller doll
modelled by an opposite-sex model. To help eliminate bias, the observers 1vere una\vare,
1vhile observing, \Yhich condition the child \vaS in.
A control group of 12 boys and 12 girls did not see a
1nodel display any behaviour, aggressive or otherwise. Three types of aggression 1vere recorded by observers:
imitative aggression - physical and verbal
aggression identical to that 1nodelled in stage I
p ure ~ partially imitative aggression - similar behaviour to
The procedure consisted of Lh ree sl'ages. that carried out by the model
1. tvfodelllng the behaviour. Children were brought • non-i1nitative aggression - new aggressive acts not
individ ually into a play roon1 to play a gan1e. This de1nonstrated by the nlodel.
lasted for ten n1inutes. In the first two
Control conditions there was an additional adult
in the room. In the aggressive condition, RESULTS
this adult \Vas aggressive tO\vards a five-foot tall
inflatable doll, kicking and hitting it, including 1vith Quantitative data were recorded. 'They sho,ved significant
a han1mer. The adult also said aggressive things, differences in levels of imitative physical and
such as "kick hin1 ... po\v ... sock hin1 on the nose': verbal aggression bet1veen the group that Quant
In the non-aggressive condition, the adult assembled witnessed aggression and the other l\vo groups.
toys and did not interact 1vith the doll. In the control To a lesser extent this \\'llS also true of partial imitation and
condition, no additional adult was in the room. non-imitative aggression. Significantly more non-aggressive
2. Aggression arousal. To annoy the children and play 1m recorded in the non-aggressive 1nodel condition.
increase the chances of aggressive behaviour, they Table 5.1 gives results sho1ving the different aggressive and
1\'ere taken to a different play roon1 1vith some very non-aggressive behaviours.
• • • ••
!
12.7
5.5
4.3
I 0.0
0.0
I 2.5
1. 1
1.2
1. 7
Female imitative verbal 2.0 13.7 0.0 0 .3 0.7
aggression
Male non-imitative aggression 36.7 17.2 22.3 26.1 24.6
Female non-imitative aggression 8.4 21.3 l 1.4
l 7.2 6.1
•
The overall results were as fo llows: CONCLUSION
Children \vho had \vitnessed an aggressive niodel
were significantly more aggressive themselves. Witnessing aggression in a model can be enough to
There \vas very little difference between aggression produce aggression by an observer. Children selectively
in the control group and in the non-aggressive imitate gender-specific behaviour. Thus boys are more
modelling condition. likely to imitate physical aggression, \vhile girls are
more likely to imitate verbal aggression. As the boys
Boys \vere significantly more likely to imitate
but not girls \vere 1nore likely to imitate aggression in a
aggressive male 1nodels. The difference for girls \vas
same-sex model, it could be concluded only cautiously
much smaller.
that children selectively imitate same-sex models.
Boys \Vere ~ignificantly more physically aggressive.
Girls \vere slightly 111ore verbally aggressive. TEST YOURSELF
Outline the sample used in the study and get
someone lo ask you for specific results.
EVALUATION
Since Bandura, Ross & Ross use d a laborator y experiment
as part of their design, we can use the general evaluations from
Chapter l , pages 1- 2 and apply them directly to the study:
Strength Laboratory expenments have A lot of controls were 1n place 1n this study (e.g. the time
high levels or control and so children watched a model for. the layout or the room and
can be replicated to test for which toys were available) Therefore, other researchers
reliabi hty. could easily replicate this study to test 1t ror reliability
Strength As laboratory experiments As the controls were high for both parts of the study (time
have high levels of control, watching the model, priming before entering the observation
researchers can be more room, etc.), the researchers could be confident that it was the
confident it 1s the IV directly actions of the model that caused the children's aggressive
affecting the DV. and non-aggressive behaviour.
Weakness As laboratory experiments The set-up was artificial because the children (especially the
take place in an artificial first stage) were in a setting not really familiar to them. As a
setting. it Is said that they resu lt, the findings could be argued to be low in ecological
can lack ecological validity. validity.
Weakness Many laboratory experiments Some of the tasks expected or the child were not usual (e.g.
make participants take part simply sitting there and watching an adult p lay with some toys
in tasks that are nothing like and not get involved in lhe play). Therefore, aspects of the
rea I-life ones so they lack study could be low in mundane realism.
mundane realism.
•
c·HAPTER 5: oE:Vi:LOPtJIENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
- -- - - - - ---
Other points that can be used to evaluate the study Ethics: protection. 111e children
Children
include: displayed aggressive behaviour and this
Quantitative data: this enabled clear comparisons may have continued after the study had
to happen bel\\leen all groups to see the effect the ended. The children did not leave the study in the
niodel " 'as having on behaviour. Therefore. san1e physical or psychological state in which they
Quant conclusions could easily be dra\\IO. HO\\lever, entered.
'"e do not kno'" why the children \\'ere
CHALLENGE YOURSELF
acting in the '"ays they did as no qualitative data
Evaluate this study 1n terms of ii being a snapshot
'"ere collected to explore Lh is. study and 11 using matched pairs. You may
want to use a table Stmilar to that used for the laboratory
experiment.
Paper 1 Paper2
1. In the Bandura, lloss & Ross study, ho'" \Vere the 1. Outline how independent groups were used in the
children matched for aggression? (2 marks) Bandura, Ross & Ross study. (3 marks)
2. Outline two controls that Bandura, Ross & Ross 2. Outline how the Bandura, Ross & Ross study
used in their study. (4 nlarks) is looking into the behaviourist perspective in
3 . Ho'" did Bandura, Ross & Ross get the children to psychology. (3 marks)
be aggressively aroused? (2 marks) 3. Redesign the Bandura, Ross & Ross study
4. Evaluate the Bandura, Ross & Ross study in terms of as a case study. (I 0 marks)
using children in psychological research. ( 10 marks) 4. Discuss the strengths and \Veaknesses of
laboratory experiments using Bandura.
Ross & Ross as an example. (I 0 marks)
•
ASK YOURSELF
STUDY 5.2 Why do you think people develop things such
as phobias? Could 1t be because of childhood
Freud ( 1909)
experiences or are there other fac tors 1n110lved?
CONTEXT
AIM
Sigmund Freud remains the most famous psychologist,
even more than 70 years after his death. Freud To give an account of a boy \11ho \11as suffering from a
\\rrote fron1 the 1890s until the 1930s. His approach phobia of horses and a range of other symptoms, and to
to psychological theory and therapy - called use this case to illustrate the existence of the Oedipus
psychoanalysis - forms the basis of the psychodynamic complex.
perspective to psychology. Freud had a number of
important ideas, so1ne 1nore controversial than others.
Most controversially of all he proposed that childhood METHOD
can be seen as a series of psyd1osexual stages. Each
stage is characterised by a fixa tion on an area of the Desi
body and a distinct pattern of relationships to parents.
The study \\las a clinical case study. This n1eans that the
The oral stage takes place in the first year of life. The participant is a patient undergoing therapy. In this case,
mouth is the n1:1in focus of pleasure at this stage, as Freud's direct input in the therapy was very limited.
children are suckling and \\/Caning. At this stage, they Accounts of ho'" often Freud sa'" Little Hans
are totally dependent on their main carer, and they vary a little, but it almost certainly \11as not
acquire the ability to accept nurture and have dose more than hvice. Hans' father conducted
relationships. From around I to 3 years of age, a child regular discussions \vith Hans and passed
goes through the anal stage. Here the focus of pleasure these on to Freud, \Vho analysed them in line \vith his
is the anus, as the child learns to retain and expel faeces theory. The results consist of Freud's analysis.
at \\•ill. This is also the time at \11hich the parents start to
exert control over the child's behaviour through potty-
training, and this is \11hen the child acquires a pattern of
relating to authority.
The participant '"as a je\11ish boy from Vienna, Austria.
The third and most crucial Freudian stage of He \Vas 5 years old at the start of the study, although
development is the phallic stage (from the word so1ue events \Vere recorded fron1 a couple of years
phallus, nleaning penis), \11hich lasts from around earlier. He was called Lillie Hans in the study; ho,vever,
age 3 to 6 years. In the phallic stage, children go through his real name, Herbert Graf, \11as " 'ell kno\<Vn. Little
the Oedipus complex. This involves the development Hans '"as suffering froni a phobia of horses. His father,
of a strong attachment to the opposite-sex parent, a fan of Freud's '"ork, referred the case to Freud and
and a sense of the san1e-sex parent as a rival for their went on to provide 111uch of the case infonnation.
affection. Freud came to this conclusion after a period
of self-analysis. I le revealed his O\vn Oedipus cotnplex
in a letter to a friend: y
"! have found in nly own case loo being in love \vitb n1y From around 3 years of age, Hans developed a great
mother and Jealous of n1y father, and now 1 consider it a interest in his penis - his '\viddler" as he called it -
universal event in early childhood." and it was reported that he played with it regularly.
One of Freud's most famous cases is that of Little Hans, Eventually, his mother became so cross that she
a young boy Freud believed to be going through the threatened to cut it off if he didn't stop. Hans was very
Oedipus complex. disturbed by this and developed a fear of castration. At
around the same time. Hans Sa\v a horse collapse and lhe anxiety Hans fe lt was really Qual
die in the street, and he \Vas very upset as a result When castration anxiety triggered by his
Hans was 3 and a half years old, his baby sister \Vas born mother's threat to cut off his "widdler"
and he \vas separated from her for a \vhile \vhen she \vas and fear of his father caused by his banishing Hans
hospitalised. from the parental bed.
Shortly after this, \vhen Hans \Vas 4 years old, he The giraffes in Hans' dream represent his parents.
developed a phobia of horses. Specifically, be \Vas afraid The large giraffe that cried out represented
that a \vhite horse would bite him. \>Vhen Hans' father objecting to Hans. The crumpled
Qua I
reporting this to Freud, Hans' father noted giraffe represented Hans' mother, the crumpling
that the fear of horses seemed to relate to their representing her genitals. The large giraffe, \Vith its
large penises. At around the same time as the phobia of erect neck, could have been a penis sy1nbol.
horses developed, a conOict developed benveen Hans The children fantasy represents a relatively friendly
and his father. Hans had been in the habit for some time resolution of tJie Oedipus complex in \vhich Hai1s
of getting into his parents' bed in the niorni11g and replaces bis father as his n1other's rnain love object,
cuddling his mother. Ho\vever, his father began to but the father still has a role as grandfather.
object to this. Hans' phobia worsened to the extent that
The plumber fantasy represents identification with
he 1votrld not leave the fan1ily house. At this point, he
the fath er. By this \Ve mean that Hans could see
also suffered attacks of generalised anxiety.
himself growing a large penis like his father's and
In addition, he reported the following dream: "In the becoming like him.
night there 1v:1s a big giraffe in tJ1e room and a crun1pled
one: and the big one called out because I took the
TEST YOURSELF
crumpled one away from it. Then it stopped calling out: Outline a few resulls that appear lo confirm
and I sat do1vn on top of the crun1pled one." that Lillie Hans was going through the Oedipus
By the time Hans \Vas 5 years old his phobia of horses complex How reliable are lhe results?
lessened, initially becon1ing limited to fear of \vhite
horses \vith black nosebands, then disappearing
altogether. The end of the phobia '"as marked by CONCLUSION
t \\'O fantasies:
Hans fantasised that he had several children. Hans suffered a phobia of horses because he \Vas
When his father asked \\•ho tlieir mother \Vas Hans suffering from castration anxiety and going through
replied "Why Nlummy, and you're the Granddaddy'' the Oedjpus complex. Dreams and fantasies helped
(Freud, 1909: 238). express this conflict and eventually he resolved his
Oedipus complex by fantasising hin1self taking on
The next day, Hans fantasised that a plumber had
his father's role and placing his father in the role of
con1e and removed his bottom and penis, replacing
grandfather.
thern with ne\v and larger ones.
RESULTS
Freud interpreted the case as an exan1ple of the Oedipus
Complex. More specifically, he noted these points:
Horses represented Hans' father. White horses \Vith
black nosebands were the most feared because
they resembled the moustached father. Horses also
make good father symbols because they have large
peruses.
•
EVALUATION
Since Freud used a case study, \ve can use the general
evaluations from Chapter I, page 3 and apply them
directly to the study:
Strength As the psychologist is focusing on The focus of the study was on Little Hans. Data were
one individual (or unit or individuals) collected though letters from Hans' rather which were
he or she can collect nch. in-depth detailed and contained a lot of 1nformat1on from Little
data that have details. This makes Hans himself. Therefore. the findings could be valid as
the findings more valid. they are based on looking at the whole situation In depth.
Strength Participants are usually studied as Little Hans continued to be a little boy throughout the
part or their everyday life which study and lived his life "as normal". His father would
means that the whole process tends ask him questions about things such as his dreams and
lo have some ecological validity. feelings and many parents would do that 1n everyday life
so the findings have some ecological validity. (Little Hans
was never take on out or his own home lo be "studied".)
Weakness As the psychologist is focusing The way that Little Hans developed his phobia of horses
on one Individual (or unit of may be unique lo him, maki ng generalisations d1ff1cult as
individuals), the case may be it may not help to explain horse phobias in other boys o f a
unique. This makes generalisations similar age.
quite difficult.
Weakness As participants are studied In There was no such bond between Freud and Lillie Hans,
depth, an attachment could form but Hans' father was a "fan" of Freud's work. This could
between them and the psychologist have made Hans' father only report aspects of the case
which could reduce the objectivity study to Freud that fitted 1n with Freud's own ideas about
of the data collection and analysis child development.
of data. This could reduce the
validity of findings.
Other points that can be used to evaluate the study and can be used to ex-plain \vhy Little Hans \\1as
include these: suffering from his phobia. Remember that this
Alternative explanation - son1e psychologists argue cannot be done with quantitative data. Ho\vever,
there niay have been interpretation bias by Hans'
that Little Hans' phobia \Vas 1101 due to the Oedipus
father (who wrote the leuers) and Freud (\vho
complex. They argue that when young, Little Hans
\vitnessed a horse collapse and die in the street in interpreted the letters) to fit in \vi th Freud's ideas.
front of hin1. He therefore associated the horse with
CHALLENGE YOURSELF
death and this then 111ade him fearful of horses.
Evaluate the Freud study in terms of ll being a
Qualitative data - all of the information from Hans' longitudinal study and how useful the case study
father was qualitative (in the fonn of letters of Is. You may want to use a table similar lo that used ror the
correspondence). ·1herefore, the data are in depth case study evaluations.
•
Try the following exa111-style questions.
Paper 1 Paper 2
1. Outline t wo examples that Freud believed 1. Outline \vhat qualitative data \Vere collected
sho\ved Little Hans \Vas experiencing ilie in ilie Freud study. (3 marks)
Oedipus complex. (4 marks)
2. Outline hO\V generalisable Freud's
2. Ho\v did Freud obtain the information about study \vas. (3 rnarks)
Little I lans? (2 marks) 3. Discuss ilie strengths and weaknesses
3. Outline the dream that Little Hans of case studies using Freud as an example.
reported. (2 n1arks) (IO marks)
4 . Evaluate the Freud study in terms of using case
studies in psychological research. (IO marks)
•
This study used I6 slides of \vOmen's faces and
16 slides of nien's faces. The researchers had used
Langlois et al ( 1991)
them before; half \Vere rated attractive and
half unattractive. The final slides had been Quant
selected from 275 womens and 165 men's
CONTEXT faces that had been rated for attractiveness by
40 undergraduates. AUof the slides that were rated
Here is one question that a lot of people want the attractive and unattractive were then looked at further.
answer to: is attractiveness relative or absolute? That The final slides that 1vere chosen had to show facial
is, is attractiveness individually specific in hu1nans or expressions, hair length and hair colour roughly evenly
do \Ve all find the same faces more attractive? When distributed across the attractive and unattractive groups.
do \Ve begin to sho'v any preference to attractive faces? All the males \\'ere clean shaven. Any clothing was
Earlier studies had sho\\•n that young infants appear masked and the person pictured had to have a neutral
to be dra'vn to faces that adults have rated as being pose. The mean ratings for attractiveness (out of5)
attractive over those rated not so attractive. This had were 3.46 (female attractive), 3.35 (male attractive),
surprised psychologists as they had not expected any 1.44 (female unattractive), 1.40 (male unattractive).
forn1 of discrin1ination based on attractiveness at such
a young age. One aspect of this Lhat had not been
tested was whether this phenon1enon extended across n (s )
faces of difference races and ages too. A total of 110 infants, '"ho "'ere 6 months old, \vere
recruited via the Children's Research Laboratory at the
AS YOURSELF University of Texas. A total of 50 of these
What makes someone auractive? Is 11 the \Vere eliminated from the final sample for Sample
person's face or is there more lo it than simply the follo\ving reasons: fussing too much
physical features?
(n = 41 ), con1puter failure (n = 3), experimenter error
(n = 3) parent looked at the slides (n = 2) and child \Vas
premature (n = l ). This left 60 children (35 boys
AIM and 25 girls) \vi th an average age of 6 months and 6 days.
Fifty three of the children \Vere Wb ite, five were
To investigate whether infant preferences for attractive Hispanic, one \Vas Black and one \vas Asian. All were
faces extended beyond those for adult fen1ale faces on tested \Vithin three \veeks of their sixth birthday.
to other types of faces (e.g. male and female adult White
faces, adult Black female faces and other young infants).
The aims of each study appear in its Design section.
Three studies \Vere conducted.
y
T\vo fuces, one attractive and one unattractive, \Vere
projected onto a screen next to each other. Each child
METHOD sat on his or her parent's lap around 35cm fron1 the
screen. lhe parent wore occluded glasses so he or she
could not see the faces. This prevented any of the parents
I 1) preferences being seen by the child. A light and buzzer
This first study investigated whether infants sho\v sounded to grab the child's attention every time a ne\v
Control preference to attractive 1nale and female adult pair of faces \Vas presented. Once the child had focused
faces compared to those rated unattractive. on the centre of the screen the pair of faces \VOuld appear.
The trial \\"JS labelled "began" \vhen the child first looked
at one of the slides. Each trial lasted for ten seconds.
Two sets of 16 slides \Vere used per child. ,. Mean attractiveness for attractive group
Reliable Quant
Each set \Vas divided into eight trial blocks was 3.41 (White raters) and 3.42 (Black
of t\vO slide~ each. In an attempt to control raters) and for the unattractive group it
for "side bias" in the child (e.g. prefers to look to the right was l.44 (\.Vhite raters) and 1.54 (Black raters).
naturally), slide pairs \\'ere alternated throughout the
procedure. All slide pairs \vere both niale or both female.
Slides \Vere presented in one of t\vo \vays: alternating
.. I
(pairs of males then females then males, etc.) or grouped A total of 43 infants, \vho \¥ere 6 months old, \Vere
(all male then all female). After every eight trial block recruited via the Children's Research Laboratory
I.here \WS a five- to ten-n1inute break to stop the dlild at the University of Texas. Three of these \\'ere
getti11g tired or bored. The order in whid1 slides appeared eliminated from the final sample for the follo\\ling
\Vas randomised for ead1 child. Trial length, slide reasons: fussing too much (n = 2) and equip1nent
movement and recording of data \Vere controlled by a failure (n = l). Thjs left 40 children ( 15 boys and
computer. 25 girls) \vith an average age of 6 months and 5 days.
The experimenter observed the visual fixations of each Thirty six of the chlldren \vere White, nvo \Vere
child in each trial on a video tnonitor connected to a Hispanic and t\VO 1vcre Black.
video can1era n1ounted just under the screen the slides
\Vere projected onto. 1l1e direction of looks and their
duration \Vere recorded. Using this televised in1age of ( 11 y,,
the child, the experi1nenler did not have to look at the The procedure was similar to that for study I but \vith
projection screen and the refore did no t kno\v which the foUo\ving changes:
of the t\VOslides \vas the attractive or unattractive
Presentation \Vas not alternatjng versus grouped as
one. Reliability was checked via a randon1ly selected
children onJy looked at Black \VOtnen's faces.
sample of recordings. As some of the infants' data \Vere
excluded as a result of them "fussing", the research team Each trial block consisted of four pairs of slides.
had to agree that the child had been engaged in this The faces of the infants' mothers were rated for
behaviour before \Vithdra\\ring the data for that trial. attractiveness by 49 undergraduates.
Finally, to examine \vhcther the child's preference
might be influenced by the attractiveness of the I
mother, photographs of each mother \Vere rated by
72 undergraduates. The design was sin1ilar to that for study I Control
but \Vith the follo1ving changes:
TEST YOURSELF The slides \\•ere of 16 infants \Vho \vere 3 months old
How were the faces on lhe slides chosen? How selected from a pool of 60 boys and 62 girls rated for
easy would it be to replicate this study? INhy?
attractiveness by 40 undergraduates.
Slides showing four tnales and four fen1ales \vho
had been rated attractive were used, as \vere slides of
e I t fo ur tnales and four females rated unat.lractive.
Control The design was similar to that for study l On tl1e slides all clothing \vas n1asked and the faces
but \Vith the follo\ving changes: had neutral expressions. Amount of hair \vas equally
The slides were of 16 Black \vomen from a pool of distributed across the allractiveness conditions.
197 faces rated for attractiveness by 98 White and
The mean attractiveness ratings \Vere
41 Black undergraduates. 3.02 for the attractive group and 1.69 Quant
Amount of hair and skin colour \\•ere evenly for the unattractive group.
distributed across conditions.
•
I t ct l They tended to look at same-sex faces for longer (only
significant for males) - see Table 5.3. No significant
A total of52 infants, \Vho were 61nonths old, were recruited
relationship \vas found bet\veen mother's attractiveness
via the Children's Research Laboratory at the University of
and the child's preference.
Texas. A total of 11 of these \\'ere eliminated from the final
sample for fussing too much (n = 1l}. T\vo more were
excluded as they \vere not tested \\lithin three \veeks of their
sixth birthday. This left 39 children ( 19 boys and 20 girls)
Sex of infant M SD M SD
\vith an average age of6 months and 15 days. Thirty seven
of the children were White and t\vo \\'ere Hispanic. Male 7.95 1.45 7.36 1.31
TEST YOURSELF
OuUine three main findings from these studies.
How valid are the r1nd1ngs? Why?
Type of face M SD M SD
Study 1: Male 7.82 1.35 7.57 1.27
and female faces CONCLUSION
Study 2· Black 7.05 1.83 6.52 1.92 All three studies sho\v that infants prefer attractive faces
female faces
compared to unattractive faces irrespective of gender,
Study3: 7. 16 1.97 6.62 1.83 colour of skin and age. Therefore, it \vould appear that
Children's faces children can discrilninate fro1n an early age bel\veen
attractive and unattractive faces. As the children had
Table 5.2 Mean fixation hmes for high- and low- not been exposed to 1nuch 111edia depicting what is
allracliveness slides attractive, it could be argued that these preferences are
inbuilt into humans.
Study I: Children looked significantly longer at
attractive faces unattractive ones. Sex of face had no
effect - children looked longer at any attractive face.
EVALUATION
Since Langlois et al used a laboratory experiment, \Ve
can use the general evaluations from Chapter L, page J
onwards and apply them directly to the study:
• •• • •
•
Strength Laboratory expenments have high There were many controls 1n this study (e.g. lhe
levels of control and so can be standardised procedure followed. the time the slides were
replicated to test for reliability. projected for and the masking of other cues in lhe slides).
Another research team could easily replicate this study to
test for reliability using a different sample.
Strength As laboratory experiments have As there were controls (e.g. the time the slides were
high levels of control. researchers projected for and how the slides were chosen) Langlois
can be more confident It is the IV et al could be confident it was attractiveness of the face
1
directly affecting the DV. that was causing the child to look at them for longer.
Weakness As laboratory experiments take Looking at a projector and having computer and video
place in an artificial setting, it is said equip ment nearby is not a usual setting for young children
that they can lack ecological validity. so it is difficult to know if they would prefer attractive faces
in a more natural setting. Therefore, the study has low
ecological validity.
Weakness Many laboratory experiments make In this study the child sat on the parent's lap, the parent
parllcipants take part in tasks that wore occluded glasses and then pairs of faces were
are nothing like real-life ones so shown to the child who was monitored on what he or she
they lack mundane realism. was looking at. These things do not happen to children in
Other points that can be used to evaluate the study Ethics: use of children in research.
Children
include these: Even though the parents gave
Quantitative data: 111ean fixation tin1es \Vere taken permission for their children to be
(and assessed via reliability tests) so the find ings are used in the study (they \Vere fro111 a bank of children
objective. 111e n1ean fixation tin1es across who could be used in research) \VC do not know
Quant alJ three studies could be reliably compared hO\V distressed, etc. it n1adc the children looking at
lo draw objective conclusions (e.g. young lots of pictures - remen1ber quite a fe\Vyounger
children do fixate n1ore often on faces that have children (especially in study I) were clin1inated as
been rated attractive th:1n those rated unattractive). they \vere "fussing too 1nuch''.
However, \Ve do nol know the reasons why this
happened as the data \Vere quantitative and the CHALLENGE YOURSELF
young children could not tell us any\vay. Evaluate this study 1n terms of the nature-nurture
debate and usefulness. You may want to use a
table like those used for the laboratory experiment and
evaluation above.
•
Try the following exa111-style questions.
Paper 1 Paper 2
1. In the Langlois el al study, ho\v \Vere the faces 1. Outline \vhat quantitative data \Vere collected in
chosen for the final slides? (2 marks) the Langlois el nl study. (3 marks}
2. Outline two controls that Langlois et al used in 2. Redesign the Langlois el nl study using self-report
their study. (4 marks) (e.g. questionnaires} or intervie\vS as the research
3. Identify two features of the any san1ple used in the method. ( 10 n1arks)
Langlois el al study. (2 marks) 3. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the
4. Evaluate the Langlois et nl study in terms of one nature-nurture debate using Langlois el nl as an
strength and one \veakness. (10 marks) example. ( 10 n1arks)
.- TUDY 5.4 Desi r 1)
Four versions of a story 1vere used. Each
Control
Nelson (1980) involved a boy throwing a ball (chosen as
pilot research had seen this as a neutral
act). Ho11•ever, the motive and outcome differed:
CONTEXT
Psychologists interested in the development of moral
behaviour have created theo ries that attempt to explain Good rriotive The boy was playirg wi1t> a ball. His
how children develop a sense of right and 1vrong. Piaget frierd did not have anything :o play
noted that in children under 10 years of age there v1ilh. I le wan.ed to throw the ball to
appeared to be no solid role of the n1otive behind the his frierd so 'l'ey could play.
behaviour in judging ho1v "1norally correct" a behaviour Bad motive The boy was playing with a ball.
is. After Lhe age of 10 years, children seen1ingly I le was angry with his friend . He
develop a sldll in morally judging behaviour based on wanted lo throw the ball at his friend
its motive. }lowever, research after Piaget developed to hit him on purpose.
these initial ideas sho1ved that children as young as
6 years old 1voulc.l often look al the 1notive behind a Good The boy lhrew Iha ball, his friend
behaviour before 1norally judging it. Studies had already outcome caughl it and they played happily.
tried to see 1vhether children as young as 3 years old Bad outcome The boy lhrew the ball but his
use motives to judge behaviours but they had been friend did not catch ii. The ball hit
methodologically Oa1ved, according to Nelson. They had his friend on the head and made
not allo1ved children to sho1" whether they understood him cry.
the motive behind behaviour before judging. Children
this young might believe that motives are in1portant but In addition to the story, there were nvo sets of dra1vings
fail to interpret them correctly or remember them 1vhen to accompany each story. The)' 1vere 25cn1 by 23cm
questioned - they may misinterpret the intentions of illustrating the motive, behaviour and outcome. An
the motive as set out by an adult. example is shown in Figure 5.1.
AS YOURSELF
I low do peop le d evelop a sense of what is right ,,
and wrong? Are we born with morals or do we ·'
learn them through experiences?
AIM
Figure 5.1 Drawings to accompany the story
To investigate '"hether children as young as 3 years
old use motives and outcon1es when morally judging Each set conveyed the motive in different 1vays. One set
behaviours that are explicit and relevant to them (and conveyed emotion via facial expressions only (implicit
are available 1vhen judging). 1notive) while the other set conveyed it explicitly by
connecting cartoon-like representations of the goal to
the head of the boy thro1ving the ball (explicit motive).
METHOD Children who judged the boy thro1ving the ball as
being "good" had to point at one of three
T1vo studies "'ere conducted. '
SJniling faces (5.5 to 75cm in size) 1vhich Control
represented "a little bit good" to "very good".
This technique 1v-.is also used, but 11~th frow11ing faces, if After children had made their judgn1ents, the pictures
a child judged the boy thro~ng the ball as being "bad''. were removed (in the picture condition groups) and
A seventh face, 4.Scrn in siu, represented "just okay" (a children were asked to re-tell the story aloud to the
term used as n1any children in a pilot used it to convey a intervie\\•er. If the motive or outcome \\'llS n1 issing fro1n
neutral judgn1ent). All of these 11-ere con1bined to create a their account, specific questions 1vere asked such as "Why
numerical score per judgment from I (very bad) through did the boy lhro\v his ball?"
to 7 (1-ery good).
TEST YOURSELF
a - I
Who were the part1c1pants 1n study 1 and how
were they recruited? Are there any ethical rssues
raised by study 1? Why?
There 1vere 60 pre-school children used for study 1, 1vith
a roughly equal split bet1veen males and females. They
1vere all 3-4 years old (average 3.4 years).
Sample In addition, 30 "second grade" children RESULTS (STUDY 1)
were used aged bet1veen 6 and 8 years
(average 7.4 yea rs). There 1vas a roughly Table 5.4 shows the mean ratings per '
Quant
even split between males and females. They were mostly com bi nation by age.
1vh ite, 1n id die-class and living in urban areas. Parents
gave consent for their children to take part.
•
outcomes than those in the older group. There •
•
\Vas no effect of presentation (verbal or picture)
on outcome recall errors, but for motive recall Good Bad Good Bad
errors there \Vere fewer errors \\ hen pictures \Vere
1 motive moti ve motive motive
presented. Additionally, there \Vere significantly
Verbal only 6.11 3.56 2.67 1.78
n1ore errors of recall in the younger group \Vhen
the motive and the outcome \Vere incongruent (e.g. Picture - motive 7.00 2.11 2.33 1.11
good motive but bad outcome). Finally, 40 per cent 1mphcit
of the younger group rated the boy thro\ving the ball
Picture - motive 7.00 3.56 4.22 1.11
negatjvely whenever there \Vas just one negative cue,
explicit
irrespective of its source (motive or outcome). A
furtller 28.33 per cent of tlle younger group ignored
Table 5.5 Mean rating per comb1natron of presentallon,
the outcome inforn1ation and based tlleir judgment outcome and motive
on tlle valence of the n1otive only.
These findings 1nay well suggest tllat younger The n1ain finding was that children in the verba l-
Quant
children understand the concept of bad before on.ly condjuon were less innuenced by 111otive than
they understand the concept of good. those in both picture conditions (see
the scores above). Also, even with the Quant
outcome preceding the motive, the effect
Desi-- t of motive on judgn1ents was not less than that of
This study \Vas based on the idea that in study l outcome (remember in study I the 1notive ca111e first
children in the younger group in the verbal-only and children could just have been basing judgments
story condition \Vere basing their entire judgment on on the first thing the)' heard). Children also made
the motive but not the outcome, perhaps because the more errors of recall when tlle motive and outcome
motive \Vas ahvays presented before the outcome. So, \Vere incongruent (e.g. bad motive, good outcome).
if younger children are more interested in valence (e.g.
good, bad, positive, negative) rather than its source TEST YOURSELF
(motive or outcome) then reversing the order (so Outline one main finding from both studies. What
outcome comes before motive), should mean younger do the studies tell us about moral de-.elopment
children should disregard the motive \vhenever there is (e.g. are they useful)?
a bad outcome. Th is is \Vhat study 2 tested. The design
\Vas exactly me same as study I but the outcome came
before the 1notive in the stories. CONCLUSION
Motive is a po,verfuJ tool used by younger children
i "' u 2) to n1ake a 1noral judgment. Also, the n1ode of
1\venty-seven pre-school children with a 1nean age of presentation affects the judgments of yo unger children
3.8 years participated in study 2. Each child \Vas randomly with verbal-only presentation of 1nal'erial; as soon as a
assigned to one of the three presentation types (verbal child hears something "bad" any further inforn1ation
only, inotive-implicit picture and 1notive-explicit picture). has limited impact on judgments. Ho\vevcr, if the
EverytlUng was identical to study I but the description of presentation involves pictures the judg1nents are based
the outcon1e can1e before that of the n1otive. on a con1bination of both outco111e (good and bad) and
motive (good and bad). Younger children are more
likely to recall information on moral judgn1ents n1ore
RESULTS (STUDY 2) accurately if congruence is experienced (e.g. good
motive and good outcome) rather than incongruence.
Table 5.5 highlights the mean ratings per combination
of presentation, outcon1e and motive.
•
EVALUATION
As Nelson collected quantitative data, \Ve can use the general evaluations
from Chapter 2, pages 9-10 and apply them directly to the study:
• •
Strength Numerical data allow easier Nelson could analyse. statistically, the different combinations
comparison and statistical analysis of motive and outcome (e.g. good motive, bad outcome) to
(e.g. the average score of two see which of the stories had the highest and lowest mean
different groups can easily be scores. All four combinations for both age groups could
compared so there 1s very little bias easily be compared to see the effects of age. motive and
or misinterpretation. outcome on moral judgments.
Strength The data are objective and can As children simply pointed at a face and this was converted
be analysed statistically to draw to a numerical score, there was no subjectivity. The
conclusions. measurement was objective for the child (no reasoning was
needed) so Nelson could analyse the scores statistically and
draw sensible conclusions about the effect of motive and
I outcome on moral judgments.
Weakness Numerical data miss out on As children simply pointed at a face. Nelson did not know
valuable 1nformat1on. If the answer why each child chose the face . Children were not asked for
1s simply yes/no or on a rating scale their reasoning which 1s important when it comes to moral
we do not know why participants judgments.
chose the answer they did.
Weakness Social desirability and/or demand Children may well have gone along with what they could
characteristics can affect remember from the two pilot stories rather than what they
quantitative data as it is simply a truly believed as they thought that was the desirable way to
number that 1s recorded. answer. This would affect the validity of the findings.
•
Try the following exa111-style questions.
Paper 1 Paper 2
1. In the Nelson study, who \Vere the nvo groups of 1. Outline ho\V intervie\\IS \1o1ere used in the
participants in study I? (2 marks) Nelson study. (3 marks)
2. Outline ho\V Nelson measured the moral 2. Outline one finding from the Nelson
judgments of the children in the study and outline study. (3 marks)
ho"' it \VllS scored. (4 marks) 3. Redesign the Nelson study as a
3. Outline one result fronl the Nelson case study. (I 0 1narks)
study. (2 nlarks) 4. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of
4. Evaluate the Nelson study in terms of using collecting quantitative data using Nelson
children in psychological research. (IO marks) study as an example. (I 0 nlarks)
•
PHYSIOLOGICAL
PSYCHOLOGY
that en1otion (e.g. ho\v \ve label it). Also, the researchers
CORE STUDY 6.1 ain1ed to see whether \vhen \\IC do have an appropriate
explanation for feeling a certain en1otion we always
Schachter & Singer ( 1962)
label it as the n1ost appropriate en1otion.
CONTEXT METHOD
Early ideas that looked into emotions focused on
purely physiological factors and assumed that ever}' Design
emotion has a distinct physiological state. When As soon as participants had agreed to an injection of
research was conducted in the late 1800s and early Suproxin (the name given to the "drug"), they \Vere
1900s, there \Vas no real evidence for this as many placed into one of the four groups:
emotions appeared to have similar physiological bases.
1. Epinephrine informed (Epi Inf):
This allo\ved psychologists to begin to assess the role Design
Participants in this group were injected
of psychological factors such as thoughts (cognitions)
with epinephrine and \Vere told that
in emotions and ho\v we experience them. Could it be
some people feel side effects of the drug and that
that some en1otions have a sin1ilar physiological basis
these \Vould last no more than 20 minutes. The side
but the \vay \VC are thinking at t11e time (e.g. \vhat \Ye are
effects that they \Vere told abou t \Vere hand shaking,
doing) makes us experience them as different emotions?
heart pounding and feeling \varm.
Therefore, are en1otions an interaction bet\veen
physiological and psychological fac tors? 2. Epinephrine ignorant (Epi lgn): The experin1enter
simply injected the participant and said nothing
ASK YOURSELF about any side effects and then left the roon1. As
Do you sometimes "feel" an emotion without the injection was happeni ng the experin1cnte.r
knowing why? What do you do If this happens (e.g. did n1ention that the injection would be mild and
how do you describe the emotion you are feeling at that harn1less \Vith no side effects.
lime)? Do we have to always have a label for our emotions?
3. Epinephrine niisinformed (Epi Mis): Participants
were injected with epinephrine and told that some
people feel side effects of the drug and that these
AIM would last no more than 20 minutes. Ho\vever, the
side effects outlined \Vere incorrect. Participants
To investigate whether \vhen \\le are in a state of
were told that feet feeling numb, becoming itchy and
physiological arousal that has no immediate explanation
developing a headache were common side effects.
and \vbat role cognitive factors play in the experience of
CHAPTER 6: PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY
4. Saline: Participants in this group \Vere injected etc. As the questionnaire progressed, the questions
\Vith a saline solution (salt) and followed the same became more and more personal and concerning
procedure as the Epi Ign group. to anS\ver. For exan1ple, they \Vere asked to list
The study \Vas about hO\V psychological effects could childhood diseases so the stooge \vould complain
help us to understand and label emotions caused by that be or she could never remember the1n and at
physiological n1echanisms. 1\vo conditions \Vere used: 1vbat age the stooge had had them. Another
euphoria and anger. question, about father's income, irritated the
stooge. Subsequent questions took the form of
~ If participants \Vere in the euphoria group, as soon statements such as "does not bathe or \\lash
as they had been injected the e>."Perimenter left and regularly" and the stooge and participant 1vere
then returned \Vil h a stooge (a person 'vho poses as asked to name son1eone from their immediate
a true participant but is an actor and part of the family 1vho most closely fitted the statement. The
study). This person \vas introduced to the stooge angrily crossed out the statements. Further
participant. They \Vere both told that they had to questions included frequency of sexual intercourse
1vait 20 minutes before beginning the "tests of and at this point the stooge shouted "To hell 1vith
vision" to allo1v the Suproxin to be fully absorbed by it! 1 don't have to tell the111 all this!" then ripped up
the body. The room they 1vere in was not tidy and the questionnaire, thre1\I it on the Aoor, got his or
the experirnenler apologised for this. The
her books and left the room.
experin1enter left, saying the stooge and participant
could use the paper, rubber bands and pencils that TEST YOURSELF
were lying around the room. The stooge Outline the four conditions used In this study. What
I
Control then con1pleted a set procedure that 1vas role did the stooge play in euphoria condition?
designed (it 1vas hoped) to bring about a
feeling of euphoria. He or she dre1v fish on a piece of All four of the injection conditions experienced the
scrap paper and then complained that the paper \\135 euphoria procedure. Three conditions experienced the
no good so screwed it up and tried to thro1v it into anger procedure (not the Epi Mis).
the bin, ahvays missing, then trying to make it into a There 1vere hvo n1easures of emotion collected:
basketball game to get the true participant involved. ~ Observation - unbekno1vn to participants they \\!ere
The stooge "'ould then make things such as paper being \Vatcbed through a one-1vay 1nirror. The
airplanes and a slingshot from a rubber band to fire stooge 1vould engage in 14 standard
paper across the room, and tried to hula-hoop (all Quant
behaviours during the euphoria
\vit h ite1ns deliberately left in the room for th is condition. For each of these standard
purpose). If the true participant ever can1e up 1vith behaviours, the behaviour of the participant \Vas
gan1es that the stooge could take part in, he or she classified into one or more of four categories: I.
would always do so. joins in \Vith the activity; 2. Initiates a
~ Those in the anger group met the stooge in the ne1v activity that the stooge had not Reliable
sru11e way as the euphoria group. The stooge wd sho1vn; 3. Ignores 1J1e stooge; 4.
participant were told that they needed to use the Watches the stooge. There 1vas more
20 minutes to complete a questionnaire that 1vas than one observer to test for reliability (and they
handed to them. Just before beginning, the stooge agreed on 88 per cent of the observations).
1vould tell the participant that it was unfair that tJ1e ~ For the anger condition, behaviour was coded
experin1enter had not revealed the injection under six categories: I. Agrees 1vith the stooge;
beforehand and that it is difficult to refuse once 2. Disagrees 1vith the stooge; 3. Shows neutral
you say yes to a study. At regular points \vhen the behaviour; 4. Initiates agreement or disagreement
stooge \Vas completing the questionnaire the (e.g. says "1 hate this kind of thing" but not as a
individual 1vould raise issues \Vith it. The response to the stooge); 5. Watches the stooge; 6.
Control first fe\V questions \Vere standard ones Ignores the stooge.
about personal information, what you eat,
~ Self-reports - when the session with the stooge explained to them that the drug was Suproxin, they
had ended, participants were asked to con1plete a \Vere testing 1vhat effect it could have and that the
questionnaire asking then1 about a range of things. procedure was mild and harn1less. Participants \Vere
They '"ere asked to rate ho'" angry they felt. ho"' then asked if they would agree to the injection. Just one
good or happy they felt and if they felt any of the participant refused. After this, a physician entered the
"side effects" that they had been led to believe they room to give the injection. Depending on
Reliable
might. All of these questions used rating scales. the condition that the participant had
been placed in, the procedure follo,ved the
Design section above (e.g. if in the Epi lgn/euphoria
Participants group the procedures reported in the Design section
A total of 184 1nale students fron1 the University of were follo1ved ).
Minnesota (introductory psychology class) took part in After participants had co1npleted the questionnaires.
the study. Around 90 per cent of students in the researchers told them the experiment had no1v
Sample these classes volunteered to be in a subject been completed. They explained the deception element
pool. They received nvo extra points in their of the study and that it 1vas necessary. lhen they
final exan1 for every hour they took part in an experin1ent. asked if participants had been suspicious of the stooge
All participants '"ere cleared by the st·udent health service and learned that I J had been very suspicious. These
to checl< that they 1vould not be banned by the injection. participants' data were eliminated fron1 the analyses.
Procedure RESULTS
Participants \Vere told that the study 1vas about the
effects of a vitamin supplen1ent on vision. When they Table 6.1 shows the average pulse rating and self-rating
arrived they were taken to a private room and it 'vas of the different Mside effects" per group.
Euphoria
Ep1 Inf 27 85.7 88.6 1.20 1.43 0 0.16 0.32
Epi lgn 26 84.6 85.6 1.83 1.76 0 15 0 0.55
Ep1 Mis 26 82.9 86.0 1.27 2.00 0.06 0.08 0.23
Placebo 26 80.4 77.1 0.29 0.24 0.09 0 0.27
Anger
Ep1 Inf 23 85.9 92.4 1.26 1.41 0.17 0 0.11
Epi lgn 23 85.0 96.8 1.44 1.78 0 0.06 0.21
Placebo 23 84.5 79.6 0.59 0.24 0.14 0.06 0.06
In all of the epinephrine conditions, pulse rate increased In tenns of coin paring groups in tern1s of the self-
as expected. Also, those in the epinephrine groups reported emotions, the follo\ving main findings en1erged:
experienced 1nore palpitations and tremors. ~ Participants in the Epi Inf group '"ere signifi cantly
Quant ln five participants it was clear that the less euphoric lhw the Epi Mis group.
epinephrine 1vas having no effect whatsoever,
~ Participants in the Epi Inf group 1vere significantly
and 1vhile their data is presented above, the statistical
less euphoric than the Epi lgn group.
walyses belo'v did not include them.
CHAPTER 6: PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY
'
~ There was no difference benveen the placebo and None of the groups differed significantly fron1 each
Epi .Nlis group on levels of euphoria. other on these scores but the Epi Inf group sho\ved the
ln terms of behavioural indications of euphoria, highest levels of self-reported anger. It should also be
Table 6.2 highlights the average score on an activity noted that behaviourally (through the observation), the
index (how much participants engaged in euphoric Epi fgn group sho\ved the most overt anger of any group
behaviours) and the number of acts they initiated. (on average).
Overall, the follo\ving main findings can be reported:
~ When participants had a satisfactory explanation
for their physiological state of arousal they did
not label this state 1vith alternative information
25 0.98
that was available (in this case euphoria or anger).
Epi lgn 25 1.78 Those \vho 1vere injected with epinephrine and
were told exactly 1vhat they would feel and \vhy,
Epi Mis 28 1.90 did not show heightened levels of that en1otion
(e.g. did not becon1e niore angry). Those who did
Placebo 26 1.61
not have adequate explanation used the current
A Table 6.2 Self-report or emotional state in the euphoria situation they were in to ex.plain their heightened
conditions physiological stale.
As Table 6.2 sho\vS, the Epi Mis group engaged in the TEST YOURSELF
n1ost activities and initiated n1ore behaviours. The only Outline three key results from this study. How
significant difference was between the Epi Mis and Epi useful are they? Could this study be replicated
lnf groups. This could be taken as these participants easily? Why?
choosing to use psychological or behavioural cues to
regulate their behaviours.
For the anger analyses, the research tean1 analysed both CONCLUSION
the self-report and behavioural aspects. Ho\\•ever, more
\\•eight \Vas placed on the self-report data. The situation There are hvo factors involved in our experiences of
\vith the stooge generated anger to\vards the researcher en1otions: our physiological arousal or state and the
n1ore than anyone else because that person had made information or cognitions that help us to understand
participants complete the questionnaire. Ho\vever, even the behaviour \Ve feel. These interact and make us feel
the angriest student might refrain from venting this different emotions.
anger as the researcher would be the person marking
the end of tenn exam. Table 6.3 sho1vs the
Quant average anger score from the self-report per
condition.
22 1.91
Placebo 23 1.63
Strength Laboratory experiments have high Schachter & Singer had many controls (e.g the set order
levels of control and so can be of the stooge activities, what the person injecting said and
replicated to test for reliability. did, what was injected and how the observations were set
out and categonsed). This means another researcher could
easily replicate this study to test for reliability.
Strength As laboratory experiments have Again, as there were many controls (e.g. the instructions
high levels of control, researchers given to the four groups and how the stooge behaved),
can be more confident it Is the IV Schachter & Singer cou ld be confident that it was the
directly affecting the DV. information provided to participants that directly affected
the moods and emotions they reported.
Weakness Many laboratory experiments make Being injected with an "unknown" drug then sitting with a
participants take part in tasks that stooge as you attempt to complete a questionnaire 1s not
are nothing like real-hfe ones so a usual task in everyday life. Therefore, the study can be
they lack mundane realism said to be low 1n mundane realism.
Deception Participants thought that they were receiving a v1tam1n supplement called Suprox1n
(when 1t was actually eph1nephrine). They also thought that the stooge was another real
participant who had been injected and was completing the quest1onna1res
Protection Participants were injected, which could have caused physical pain Also, as they were in
situations that could bring about euphona or anger, they were not leaving the study 1n the
same psychological state as they entered.
Other points that can be used to evaluate the study wider population when it conies to
Sample
include these: the effects of cognitive factors on
~ Use of independent groups: the results may have emotional behaviour. Older adults
been affected by participant variables as they only may act differentl y as 1nay people fron1 other
took part on one of the conditions. cultural backgrounds.
Design Therefore, participants \Vho were "naturally"
more euphoric or angry could have been in CHALLENGE YOURSELF
Evaluate lhe Schachter & Singer study in terms
those particular groups and therefore it was not
of it being a snapshot study and individual
ahvays the labelling that \Vas affecting behaviour - versus s1tualional explanations. You may want to use a
participant \'ariables could not be controlled for. table s1m1iar to that used for the laboratory experiment
~ Volunteers: the sample \vas n1ade up of volunteer evalualion.
students " 'hich may not be representative of a
CHAPTER 6: PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY
Exam centre
Try the follo\ving exam-style questions.
Paper 1 Paper 2
1. Name the four conditions in the 1. Outline ho\v quantitative data \vere collected
Schachter & Singer study. (4 marks) in Schachter & Singer study. (3 marks)
2. Outline two controls that Schachter & Singer 2. Outline ho\v the Schachter & Singer study \vas
used in their study. (4 marks) from the ph)1siological approach. (3 marks)
3. Identify two behaviours the stooge sho,ved 3. To what extent are the findings of the Schachter &
in the anger condition in the Schachter & Singer study useful to society? (10 111arks)
Singer study. (2 marks)
4. Evaluate the Schachter & Singer study in terms
of one strength and one \veakness. (10 marks)
encephalogram) that shows brain "raves (see Figure 6.1 ).
CORE STUDY 6.2 These change 1vith the frequency and amplitude (i.e.
Dement & Kleitnzan ( l 957) the "height': \vhich indicates the voltage) of electrical
output from the brain over time. in REM sleep, the EEG
is relatively lo1v voltage, high amplitude. Non-REM sleep
CONTEXT has either high voltage and slow (low an1plit ude) waves,
or frequent "sleep spindles': which are short-lived high-
The topics of sleep and drean1ing are clearly hard to voltage, high-frequency 1vaves.
investigate because the participant is necessarily asleep
and so cannot comn1unicate with the researcher. Even
\\•hen participants are a\vake, only self-report data
can be obtained about dream content and these alone
might not be valid, as they are subjective. The study
of sleep and dreaming becan1e more scientifically
rigorous \Vith the invention of physiological
techniques to measure brain activity that indicated
dreaming (the electro-encephalograph, or EEG) and
allo\ved the electrical recording of eye niove1nents (the
electro-ocuJogrrun, or EOG) rather than Lheir direct
observation. These techniques \Vere used by Den1ent
& KJeilman to trace the cyclical changes that occur .A Figure 6.1 Measures such as frequency and amplitude of
in brain activity and eye moven1ents during a night's brain waves measured with an EEG are ratio scales.
sleep. The cycle alternates behveen a stage in "'hich
there are eye movements, and several stages during Modern EEG machines are entirely computerised,
1vh ich Lhere are none. whereas Dement and Kleitman's EEG bad continuously
running paper. The faster the paper moved, the 1nore
In the dream or rapid eye n1oven1ent (REM) sleep
detail could be recorded. The paper \Vas usually 1noving
stage, our eyes n1ove under the lids (hence "rapid eye
at 3m1n or 6mm per second, although a faster speed of
n1ove1nent"). In Aserinsk'Y & Kleitman's (1955) study,
3cm per second 1vas used for de tailed analysis.
participants 1voken fron1 this stage 1\lere n1ore likely to
report a vivid, visual drean1, than participants 1\loken To ren1en1ber the n1eaning of EEG it can help to break
fro1n non-rapid eye movement (nREM) sleep. Non- the word down:
REM sleep can be broken do1vn into four stages (I to 4), ;, electro (electric)
of \Vhich I is the lightest ruid 4 the deepest. ;, en cephalo (in bead)
REN! sleep resembles 1vakefulness in so1ne 1vays: ;, graph (1vriting).
our eyes move, 1ve often experience vivid (if bizarre)
thoughts in the form of dreams, and our brains are The same EEG electrodes and machine can also be
active. Ho1vever, in other ways it is very different fro1n used to record eye n1ovements. The output - called an
\Vakefulness: we are quite difficult to wake up, 1ve electro-oculogra111 (EOG) - indicates the presence or
are fairly insensitive to external stin1uli, and 1ve are absence of eye 111oven1ents, their size and their direction
paralysed. As REM sleep presents these contradictions, (horizontal or vertical).
it is also kno1vn as paradoxical sleep.
ASK YOURSELF
An electro-encephaJograph (EEG) detects ru1d records Do you remember your dreams? Do you always
tiny electrical changes associated \Vith nerve and remember certain types of dream?
n1uscle activity. The EEG machine produces a chart (an
CHAPTER 6: PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY
Den1ent & Kleitman described this series of studies as and \Vere fined \Vith electrical recording
experiments. Approach I \Vas a natural experiment in a apparatus. This included electrodes anached near the
. . . . . laboratory setting and approach 2 \vas a true eyes (to record eye movements) and on the scalp (to
-.i experin1ent, with each participant being tested record brain waves). Once the participant was in bed in
a quiet, dark room, wires fron1 the electrodes (which fed Participants described drearns often \vhen \voken in
to the EEG in the experimenter's room) were gathered REM but rarely from nREM sleep (although there
into a "pony tail" from the person's head, to \vere some individual differences). This pattern \vas
Control allo\v freedom of movement. The EEG ran consistent over the night. When a\vakened from
continuously through the night to monitor nRfilil, participants tended to describe feelings (e.g.
the participant's sleep stages and to inforn1 the pleasantness, anxiety, detachment) but this did not
experimenters \vhen the participant should be \voken relate to specific drea1n content.
up. Participants \vere \voken by a doorbell that \\'llS loud Table 6.4 sbo\vs dream recall following
enough to rouse then1 fron1 any sleep stage. This meant Quant
wakings from REtvl and non-REM sleep.
that the experin1enter did not have to enter the rooms
to \vake participants, and thus they \Vere alJ treated in Sleep stag,e REM-sleep Non-REM-sleep
exactly the sanie \vay. The doorbell \vas rung at various (level of IV) awakenings awakenings
times during the night and participants indicated
Dream No Dream No
\vhether they had been dreaming prior to being \voken recall recall recall recall
and, if so, described their dream into a voice recorder.
They then returned to sleep (typically \vithin live Number of limes 152 39 11 149
minutes). Occasionally, the experin1enter entered the participants reported the
roon1 after the participant had fi nished speaking, in presence or absence of
order to ask questions. When the narrative was a dream (DV)
analysed, it was considered to be a drean1 only if it A Table 6.4 Instances of dream recall following waking from
\Vas a coherent, fairly detailed description of the REM and non-REM sleep
content (i.e. vague, fragmentary in1pressions were not
scored as dreams). Waking patten1 did not affect recall. Specifically, WO
The patterns of REM and nREM \vakings differed was no less accurate despite being 1nisled, and DN was
bel\,•een different participants, \vhose initials are no more accurate even though he niight have guessed
used here. For PM and KC, \vakings \vere determined the pattern of \vakings. Recall of dreams during nREM
randomly to elinlinate any possibility of an sleep \vas much more likely \Vhen the participant \vas
unintentional pattern. \VD \Vas treated in the same \vay, \voken soon after the end of a REM stage.
although he was told that he would be \voken only from So, Rfil..l and nRE~l sleep differ as the vivid, visual
drean1 sleep. ON \Vas \\•oken in a repeating pattern of dreams are reported only from \vaking during, or a
three REM follo\ved by three nREM a\\•akenings. The short tin1e after, REM sleep.
\vaking of JR from REM or nREM \vas chosen by the
Results for approach 2
experin1enter.
Are subjective estimates of dream duration related to
the length of the REM period?
RESULTS lnitiaUy, the researchers had atte1npted to \vake
participants after various REM durations to ask them to
Quantitative and qualitative data we re gathered in estimate these. Although participants'
response to approaches l and 2. Only qualitative data responses weren't \vUdly \vrong, the task was Quant
were gathered for approach 3. too difficult. When asked instead whether
they had been in REM sleep for 5 or IS n1inu tes,
Results for approach 1
participants responded more accurately. TI1ey were
Does dream recall differ bet\veen REM and 88 per cent and 78 per cent accurate respectively for
nREM sleep? 5- or 15-minute REN! durations (see Figure 6.2).
CHAPTER 6: PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY
17 132
(a) If previous recordings 1vere not continuous, they
Number of wakings
conducted
may have failed to "catch" instances of dream
sleep in every participant (if short REM periods
Number of dreams 5 6 occurred bet1veen sampling intervals).
recalled
(b) Equipment might not have detected small eye
Percentage of 29 5 movements.
occasions on which (c) Participants in 1vho1n no dreaming "'as
dreams recalled identified rnight have had dreams that led to fe1v
A Table 6.5 Number of dreams recalled following wakings eye n1oven1ents, such as those about distant or
from nREM sleep after an REM stage static objects.
2. lt is often believed that drean1s happen in an instant.
Table 6.5 sho1vs that 1vhen woken fron1 nREM sleep, If the length of REM periods is proportional to
participants returned ton REM and the next REN[ stage
subjective estin1ates, this 1vou ld help to confirn1
was not delayed. When woken fron1 RENI
that the hvo are related and would provide son1e
quant sleep, participants generally did not dream
inforn1ation about the rate at 1vhid1 drean1ing
again un til the next REM phase.
progresses. "lhe findi11g that the length of an REM
period and its esti1nation by the participant are very
TEST YOURSELF
similar shows that dreams are not instantaneous
Oulline rour different results from this study.
events but rather they are experienced in "real time~
3. Eye movements during REM sleep correspond to
where, and at 1vhat, the dreamer is looking in the
CONCLUSIONS dream. This suggests that eye moven1ents are not
simply random events caused by the activation of
Dement & Kleitman drew three main conclusions from the central nervous system during drean1 sleep, but
this study, one in relation to each approach: are directly related to dream imagery. Furthem1ore,
they correspond in amplitude and pattern to those
1. Dreams probably (although not certainly) occur only \Ve experience \Vhen a\vake.
during REM sleep, 1vhich occurs regularly throughout
each night's sleep. Dreams reported when 1voken from
nREM sleep are ones from previous REM episodes. A.s
the REM phases are longer later in the night, dreaming
. ......
CHAPTER,. ....
6:;'1=?1-t)'SIOLOGICAL
·,····"'''"'•~~. ,... ..
~
PSYCHOLOGY
EVALUATION
Since Dement & Kleitman used a laboratory experiment, we can use the general
evaluations from Chapter I, page I and apply them directly to the study:
Strength Laboratory experiments have high Dement & Kle1tman controlled many variables (e.g. pre-study
levels of control and so can be levels of caffeine and alcohol, the doorbell sound, the EEG
replicated to test for reliability monitoring). This means that another researcher could easily
rephcate this study to test 1t for rehab1hly
Strength As laboratory experiments have The high level of control of variables (see above) meant
high levels of control, researchers that for each part of the experiment. Dement & Kle1tman
can be more confident It is the IV could confidently conclude cause and effect (e.g. that
directly affecting the DV. dream recall is affected by stage or sleep).
Weakness As laboratory experiments take Participants had lo sleep In an artlficlal setting (in a
place in an artificial setting, it is laboratory. with electrodes on their head) Therefore, the
said that they can lack ecological study has low ecological validity.
validity.
Weakness Many laboratory experiments make Being woken up and then asking to recall dream content
participants take part in tasks that or estimate dream length is not a normal activity for
are nothing like real-life ones so people. Therefore. the study lacks mundane realism.
they lack mundane realism.
Other points that can be used to evaluate the study include these:
I> Generalisability: only five people were studied "in reductionist as there are psychological
Reduct
detail" and four more used to confirm the findings. mechanisms that could be affecting
l!M This could make it difficult to generalise dream content.
. . . . beyond the sample of people because of the
sample si.ze. These five + four people may not CHALLENGE YOURSELF
represent a \vide cross-section of society in terms of Evaluate the Dement & Kle1tman study in terms
ho\v we dream and what we drean1 about. of it being a snapshot study and that it collected
quantitative and q ualitative data. You may want lo use a
I> Reductionisn1: the findings are all based around table similar to that used for the laboratory experiment.
biological mechanisn1s affecting our dreaming
state. Some psychologists 1nay see this as being
Exam centre
Try the follO\\ling exam-style questions.
Paper 1 Paper 2
1. Outline two aims of the Den1ent & Kleitman 1. Outline h0\\1 qualitative data \\/ere collected in the
study. (4 marks) Dement & Kleitman study. (3 marks)
2. Outline one quantitative finding of the 2. Outline h0\\1 the Dement & Kleitman study is
Dement & Kleitman study. (2 marks) testing the physiological approach to psychology.
3. Evaluate the Dement & Kleitman study in terms of (3 marks)
one strength and one weakness. (10 marks) 3. Redesign the Den1ent & Kleitrnan study using self-
report as the research niethod. (I 0 rnarks)
4. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of laboratory
experiments using the Dement & Kleitman study
as an example. (10 marks)
CHAPTER 6: PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY
I
intravenous bolus over a 20-second period
Control follo1ved by a 20-second saline flush. This
happened 12 times per participant. RESULTS
Prior to the experin1ental tasks, participants had to There \Vas no difference in the a1nounl of speech
co1nplete a questionnaire that asked about: recorded for the four n1ain tasks so no task den1anded
1. the areas of London that they 1vere familiar 1vith more of participants than the other tasks. When
2 . films that they thought they were "very fa1niliar recalling a route in London, there were very few
1vith" fro1n a list of 150 filn1s from J939 to the differences in routes chosen by participants. Below
present day are the regions of the brain activated during each task
compared to baseline:
3. 1vhich of201vorld-famous landmarks they could
visualise in their n1ind's eye and had visited.
From this inforn1ation, the research tean1chose1vhich
taxi routes they 1vanted them to describe and which film Extrastriate regions,
plots and famous landmarks were used medial parietal lobe,
posterior c1ngulate cortex.
~ TEST YOURSELF parahippocamal gyrus and
V Outline two controls that were used in the study nght h1ppocampus
How easy would 1t be to replicate this study? Why?
Landmarks Posterior c1ngulated cortex,
medial parietal lobe,
occ1pito-lemporal region and
Participants parahippocampal gyrus
A total of 11 right-handed qualified and licensed male Films Left frontal regions. middle
taxi drivers took part in the study. Their average age was temporal gyrus, left angular
45 years and none of then1 had any history of gyrus
neurological illness. The average time they had spent
being a London taxi driver 1vas 14.55 years
Sample (+I- 12 years). The shortest tune any The cerebellu1n was activated in all tasks compared
participant had been a taxi driver was three to baseline. 1he major difference bet1veen the
years. All participants gave infonned consent prior to topograph ical tasks was that the right hippocan1pus
taking part. All volunteered to take part. clearly played a role in the sequencing aspect of
topographical me1nories as this 1vas only ever activated
during the route in London task.
Procedure TEST YOURSELF
After the questionnaires had been completed about What were the main findings of this study? How
familiar routes, landmarks and films, each participant valid are these findings?
under1vent a PET scan. A pilot study using non-taxi
CHAPTER 6: PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY
EVALUATION
Since Maguire, Fracko\\•iak & Frith used a laboratory
experin1enl, we can use the general evaluations from
Chapter l, pages 1-2 and apply them directly to the study:
Strength Laboratory experiments have high There were many controls (e.g. lhe pilot questionnaire, the
levels of control and so can be routes chosen to describe, the landmarks). The study could
replicated to test for reliability. easily be replicated to test for rellabll1ty.
Strength As laboratory experiments have As there were many controls, the researchers can be
high levels of control, researchers confident that it is the type of task that directly affects
can be more confident it is the IV participants' brain function.
directly affecting the DV.
Weakness As laboratory expenments take Undergoing a PET scan in an artif1c1al environment is not
place 1n an art1f1c1al setting, it 1s something taxi dnvers usually do. Therefore, the study
said that they can lack ecological lacks ecological validity.
validity.
Weakness Many laboratory experiments make Being blindfolded while descnb1ng a route verbally during
participants take part in tasks that a PET scan is not a task taxi drivers usually perform.
are nothing like real-life ones so Therefore, the study lacks mundane realism.
they lack mundane realism.
There could be son1e evaluation based around sequential topographical men1ories might
generalisations: only be crucial in taxi drivers. 111e same
;. A strenb>th could be that as the study \Vas testing might not be true for other route tinders
out physiological 1nechanisms, the results could be (e.g. pilots or people trekking).
generalisable to a \vider population as we all have
the same brain regions explored in this study (e.g. CHALLENGE YOURSELF
Evaluate this study in terms of 11 using
right hippoca1npus).
repeated measures and then again In terms of
;. Ho,vever, as the sample \Vas restrictive in terms of reductionism. You may want to use a table similar to that
den1ographics (only London taxi-drivers), it could used for the laboratory experiment evaluation.
be argued that the role of the right hippocampus in
Exam centre
Try the follo\ving exam-style questions.
Paper 1 Paper 2
1. In the .Nlaguire, Fracko\\liak & Frith study, 1. Outline ho\v quantitative data \vere collected in
identify two of the tasks that taxi drh•ers the Maguire, FrackO\\•iak & Frith study. (3 marks)
had to co1nplete. (2 marks) 2. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of using
2. Outline two controls that Maguire, a repeated measures design using Maguire,
Fracko\\liak & Frith used in their study. (4 marks) Frackovviak & Frith as an example. ( l 0 marks)
3. ldentify two features of tJ1e sample used in tile 3. To \vhat extent are the findings of the
Maguire, FrackO\\liak & Frith study. (2 marks) Maguire, Fracko,viak & Frith useful in
4. Evaluate the Nlaguire, FrackO\\liak & Frith study in everyday life? ( I 0 1narks)
terms of one strength and one \veakness. (10 marks)
CHAPTER 6: PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY
Demntte, 6sterba11er & Spence (2007) 20 labelled lo1v attractiveness. Four odours
1vere chosen for the study: synthetic body odour, a n1ale
fragrance called Gravity, geraniun1 and rubber. A pilot
CONTEXT study confirn1ed that the Gravity and
geraniun1 sn1ells 1vere pleasant and the Reliable
Psychologists have been studying attraction for years, body odour and rubber 111ere unpleasant.
focusing on facial attracti veness and social reasons as A cornputer-controlled olfactometer \I/as used to deliver
to why people becon1e attracted to each other. Findings the odours. They \vere diluted as follows to ensure I.hat
from a range of studies have indicated that there are none had a n1ore intense sn1ell than the
others: body odour 0.33 per cent, geranium Design
individual differences in '"hat people see and find
"attractive" but also some common features such as LO per cent, Gravity 0.5 per cent and rubber
facial symmetry. However, \vhen looking at courtship in l.2 per cent (this \Vas confirmed via the pilot study).
other species, olfactory cues (smells) have been sho,vn The design was a repeated measures experiment (\vithin
to be very important in "attraction:· So, is it the same in participants). Each session consisted of 3 block.~ of 40
humans? Con1pared to n1any other species, our ability randon1ised trials (so each participant had lo complete
to detect sn1ells is limited (the Jacobson's Organ helps 120 trials in total). Every face was presented three tirnes,
detect sn1ells and \Ve have a small Jacobson's Organ in once with a pleasant odour, once \Vith an unpleasant
relation to our body size) but research has sho\vn that odour and once \llitb dean aiL The research learn
\vhen "'e do detect smells they play a role in \Vhether counterbalanced the combinations of face and odour by
1ve find something attractive or not. In addition, these creating four subgroups often faces (five attractive and
"sn1ells" are more important for \VOrnen finding a mate five less attractive) matched for mean att ractiveness and
attractive than men. these faces \Vere presented, randomly, as follO\VS:
1. ten 1vith clear air, geranium and body odour
ASK YOURSELF
How much do smells affect your perception or 2. ten \Vith clean air, Gravity and rubber
people and places? Are there certain smells that 3. ten wi th clear air, geranium and rubber
you find "attractive" and "unat1raclive"?
4. ten with clean air, Gravity and body odour.
The san1e odour 1vas never presented in consecutive trials.
AIM The 1vhole experin1ent lasted for SO rninutes per participant
computer screen. A chin rest \Vas used keep cross on the screen.
EcoV
the person's head stable. Figure 6.3 sho\vs the 2. They \Vere told to exhale as soon as they heard a
order of events for one trial. quiet tone.
a 100ms
Key
Clean air
Quiet tone
200ms
a 1 500ms
.. ~ Loud tone
I Odour presentation
.. , 200ms
a 5000ms
a Loudspeaker
a 1 OOOms
.. Face presentation
.. 500ms
a 2000ms
a until response
a 10000ms
3. They \Vere told to in hale through the nostrils as At the end of each session, participants had
Quant
soon as they heard a loud tone. to rate each odour on three dimensions
4. SOOms after they had perfonned step 3, one of the (intensity, pleasantness and familiarity).
four odours (or clean air) \Vas delivered. They used a labelled magnitude scale (LMS) - a line
with 0 at one end and I 00 at the other for then1 to
5. Participants had to decide if an odour had been mark \vith a pen \Vhere their response lay. The order of
presented or not. presentation of the scale and the odou r \vas randon1ised
6 . l 000111s after the odour had been delivered, the cross between participants.
disappeared on the n1onitor and a face appeared for
S001ns. When the face disappeared any odour that TEST YOURSELF
\Vas being delivered was replaced with clean air. Whal was the sample used In this study? How was
the attractiveness or the laces rated ? Whal were
7. The screen then turned black for 2 OOOn1s then the two "pleasant odours" used in the study?
participants were presented with a 9-point rating
scale. They had to rate the face for attractiveness
(I being least attractive and 9 being most attractive).
8. As soon as the response had been logged, the fixation
RESULTS
cross reappeared I 0 OOOms before the next trial began. Table 6.7 shows the mean attractiveness
Quant
9. There \Vas a rest period of 5 minutes after each block ratings across all odours.
of 40 trials.
CHAPTER 6: PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY
TEST YOURSELF
Describe the sludy lo a friend or Family member
In Lerms of a brief aim, what lhe researchers did,
what the key findings were and whal it all means.
Quant
'
Facial attractiveness Odour Mean (SD)
Clean air Geranium Gravity Body odour Rubber
- - -
High 5. 70 (0.21) 5.40 (0.23) 5.73 (0.24) 5.39 (0.21) 4.96 (0.25)
-
Low 4.10 (0.16) 4.06 (0.20) 4.15 (0.20) 3.64 (0.21) 3. 72 (0.23)
EVALUATION
Since Dematte, Osterbaucr & Spence a laboratory experiment, we can
use the general evaluations from Chap ter I, pages 1- 2 and apply
then1 direc tl y to the study:
Strength Laboratory experiments have high Controls for this study include the pre-rating of races for
levels of control and so can be attractiveness, the odour concentrations and the tnals •
replicated to test for reliability. standardised presentation. Therefore. the study could be
replicated to test for reliable results (e.g. using a different
sample).
Strength As laboratory experiments have high The standardised procedure including the delivery of the
levels of control, researchers can different smells means the researchers can be confident
be more confident it is the IV directly it was the odour presented that affected the ratings of
affecting the DV. attractiveness.
Weakness As laboratory expenments take The setting was artificial as participants sat on a chair with
place in an artificial setting. it is said their chin on a chin rest
that they can lack ecological validity.
Weakness Many laboratory experiments can Having an odour released near your face and then having
make participants take part 1n tasks to rate a picture on attractiveness is not something that
thal are nothing like real-life ones so would happen 1n everyday life.
they lack mundane realism.
Evaluation General evaluation (quantitative data) Related to Dematte, bsterbauer & Spence
Strength The data are objective and can be analysed The ratings g iven by participants were numerical
statistically to draw conclusions from them. (on a scale of 1 9) so averages could be
calculated to show the difference between the
attractiveness ratings per odour presented.
Strength As the data are numerical, comparison and The ratings were given by participants and
statistical analysis are easier (e.g. the average analysed for a mean score per presented odour.
score of two different groups can easily There was no room for misinterpretation of
be compared so there 1s very little bias or results or drawing the wrong conclusion. This
misinterpretation. made comparisons easy.
Weakness Numencal data miss out on valuable The researchers do not know lhe reasoning
information If the answer 1s simply yes;no behind participants' ratings of the faces so lose
or on a rating scale we do not know why some nch detail that could have been collected
part1c1pants chose the answer they did. via qualitative data.
Weakness Social desirability and/or demand Some participants may have worked out the aim
characteristics can affect quantitative data as of the study and recorded rallngs that fitted in
it Is simply a number that is recorded. with the study aims (demand characteristics), e.g.
they may have rated faces more attractive when
pleasant odours were delivered because they felt
that was expected. This reduces the validity of
the study.
This is another point that can be used to evaluate the study: conditions, participants n1ay have been able to work
~ Use of repeated rneasures rneans Lhat any out the ain1 of the study and give rati ngs based on that
participant variables have been controlled for. rather than their O\Vn personal judgments (demand
characteristics). This reduces the validity of the study.
This is because all participants rated all pictures
under unpleasant odour, pleasant odour and clean CHALLENGE YOURSELF
air conditions. This controlled for things such as Evaluate this study in terms or 1t being a
personal viev1s on attractiveness. snapshot study. You may want lo use a table like
those used for the laboratory experiment and quanmat1ve
~ Ho\vever, as they did rate all pictures under
data evaluatt0ns.
unpleasant odour, pleasant odour and clean air
CHAPTER 6: PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY
Exam centre
Try the following exa1n-style questions.
Paper 1 Paper 2
1. In the Oen1atte, Osterbauer & Spence study, \vhat 1. Outline ho\v quant ital ive data \Vere collected in the
\Vere the pleasant odours? (2 marks) Dematte, Osterbauer & Spence study. (3 marks}
2. Outline two controls that Dematte, Osterbauer & 2. Redesign the Den1atte, Osterbauer & Spence
Spence used in their study. (4 marks) study using self-report as the research
3. Identify two features of the san1ple used in the method_ (IO marks)
Dematte, Osterbauer & Spence study. (2 marks) 3. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of
4. Evaluate the Dematte, Osterbauer & Spence laboratory experi1nents using Dematte,
study in terms of one strength and one Osterbauer & Spence as an example. (I 0 nlarks)
\vealo1ess. (10 marks)
THE
PSYCHOLOGY
OF INDIVIDUAL
DIFFERENCES
ASK YOURSELF
TUDY 7.1 What do you know about how mental health
Rose11ha11 ( 1973) disorders are diagnosed? I nvesligate whether
you are correct.
CONTEXT
AIM
Psychologists have been arguing for many years about -
\Vhat behaviours can be regarded as abnormal. It is To investigate \vhether the sane can be reliably and
a controversial area because of the implications of accurately distinguished from tJ1e insane. Study l
diagnosing individuals as "abnormal" or "mentally iU" investigated \vhether normal, sane individuals \vould
on their subsequent treatment. be admitted to psychiatric hospitals, then if and how
Psychiatrists, \vho consider mental illness as equivalent to they " 'ould be discovered. Study 2 exainined \vhether
other forms of illness, have tried to classify abnormality genuine patients \vould be misidentified as "sane" by
various hospital staff.
formally. The medical model of mental illness tries to
determine the appropriate treatment for an individual
by establishing categories of symptoms that form an
identifiable disorder. Psychiatrists use the Diagnostic and
METHOD (STUDY 1)
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) to classify
abnorn1al behaviour and diagnose patients.
Rosenhan and others have criticised the medical model Eight pseudopatients were confederates over the age
of mental illness as parl of what is kno\vn as the "anti- of20 and included Rosenhan, a psychology graduate
psychiatry move1:nent''. While they accept that niental student in his t1venties, psychologists, a pediatrician,
suffering and deviant bellaviour exist, tJ1ey question a psychiatrist, a painter and a house,vife. Three \Vere
\Vhether tJ1e 1110St Useful way of understanding the1n fe1nale, five \Vere rnale. All used fa lse nan1es, ai1d
is through a rigid syste1n of classification. One of the those \Vith careers in mental heahh clain1ed lo have
most serious criticis1ns of psychiatry is that it actually an alternative occupation to avoid attracting any
increases tJ1e suflering of those \vho receive a 1ne11tal health special attention from staff. Rosenhan was the first
diagnosis, because it removei> control fron1 tJie patient, \vho pseudopatient and his involvement 1vas kno,vn only to
can then be nianipulated for political and social purposes. the hospital administrator and chief psychologist.
A second major issue for Rosen han \vas the reliability To make the findings generalisable, the study used
and validity of diagnosis: to \vhat extent can the sane be a variety of hospitals. Twelve hospitals \Vere chosen,
consistentJy and accurately distinguished from the insane? across five states in the United States. They ranged
•
CHAPTER l ; THE. PS'i'CHOLOGYOf
' .. . . ...
INDIVIDUAL.DIF.FERENCES
..
' .. . "" . . ... . •'
from old and shabby, to modern and new, and included RESULTS (STUDY 1)
public, private and university-funded hospitals. ----
Staff-to-patient ratios also varied greatly. The actual Both quantitative and qualitative data were gathered.
'participants' \\'ere the 1nembers of staff at each hospital Pseudopatients 1vere admitted at all 12 hospitals.
(doctors and nurses) and the real patients in each Despite sho,ving no symptoms of insanity once
hospital that a pseudopatient gained entry to. admitted, pseudopatients \Vere not detected by staff.
Failure to recognise sanity therefore 1vas not related
• to the quality of the hospital. AII except one received
diagnoses of schizophrenia. They were discharged 1\lith
After calling the hospital for an appointment, the a diagnosis of"schizophrenia in remission", so they
pseudopatient arrived at its admissions office and carried a label of mental illness beyond the hospital.
asserted that he or she had been hearing voices, '"hich The length of stay in hospital ranged fron1 7 to 52 days,
\Vere unclear but were saying "empty", "hollow" and the average stay lasting 19 days. During the first three
"thud". These words were chosen by Rosenhan as they trials, 35 out of a total of 118 genuine
\Vere thought to in1ply a crisis about one's existence patients voiced suspicions about the sanity Quant
but, at the time the study \Vas conducted, there was of the pseudopalients. They 1nade
no literature linking this to a kno,vn 1nental health accusations such as "You're not crazy ... you're checking
disorder. Pseudopatients all reported that the voices up on the hospital", while none of the staff raised such
\vere unfan1i liar and \Vere of the same sex. All other concerns. Rosenh:in found a strong tendency to\vards a
details of pseudopatients' lives, relationships and type 2 error in diagnosis, \Vhich is when a healthy
experiences 1vere given truthfully to staff, with the person is diagnosed as ill.
exception of their name, participation in the current
study and, in some cases, occupation. Rosenhan found that, once admitted \Vith a
diagnosis of mental illness, subsequent behaviour by
Pseudopatients entered the study understanding that pseudopatients 1vas interpreted in light of th is.
they had to be released from the institution by their Qua I
He calls this the "stickiness of psychodiagnostic
O\Vn means, by convincing staff they 1vere sane.
labels". These are examples of"pathological
On the \vard, pseudopatients behaved "normally" behaviour" from the observers' experiences:
and attempted to engage others in conversation. They When pacing in the hospital corridors fron1
indicated to staff that they \Vere no longer experiencing boredom, pseudopatients 1vere asked by a nurse if
any symptoms, obeyed the rules and routines of the "'ard,
they \Vere nervous.
and pretended to take prescribed n1edication 'vithout
fuss. Although pseudopatients found the experience as a When recording behaviour in notes on the \\lard,
1vhole distressing and unpleasant, staff recorded in their pseudopatients \Vere described by staff as "engaging
notes that pseudopatients were friendly and coopenllive. in 1vriting behaviour".
The study was a participant observation: researchers Waiting outside the cafeteria before lund1,
acted as genuine patients while keeping a written record pseudopatienls 1vere said to de1nonstrate the "oral-
of their personal experience in each institution. In four acquisitive" nature of their conditions.
hospitals, pseudopatients also observed staff responses to Experience of hospitalisation 1vas overwheln1ingly
a specifi c request. They asked: "When am J negative and unpleasant. Staff avoided interaction 1vith
likely to be discharged?" Responses were patients. On average, attendants spent only 11.3 per cent
recorded and compared to a control condition of their time mixing with patients in the dayroom,
at Stanford University, where a researcher approached a and even during this tin1e contact was n1inin1al and
faculty n1ember, asked a question such as "Do you teach might involve routine care-taki ng tasks, such as folding
here?" and recorded the response. laundry. The doctoral staff emerged even less often; on
average, they left the separate staff areas only 6.7 times
TEST YOURSELF a day.
OuU1ne the procedure for this part of the study 1n
fM:! sentences - ptck the most relevant parts for The results of the separate observation conducted in
someone lo understand what happened in it. four of the hospitals directly measuring staff interaction
• •
1vith patients found that avoidance of a patient's patient 1vas a pseudopatient, and I 0 the strongest belief
questions 1vas high. Jn 1nany cases no response 1vas that that patient 11•as genuine.
given, in others only brief responses 1vithout eye contact
1vere given while staff were "on the move". In contrast,
in the university investigation, 1vhen staff members RESULTS {STUDY 2)
1vere directly approached by the researchers, virtually all
stopped and ans1vered their question. All staff who had close contact or responsibility for
Po1verlessness 1vas evident in each institution. patients nlade judgn1ents on the 10-point scale. This
In addition to the restricted contact 1vith staff, personal included attendants, nurses, psychiatrists, physicians
privacy 1vas inadequate (e.g. patients' rooms and psychologists. Of tl1e patients adn1itted during the
Qual
could be entered and examined by any three-month period, 41 1vere rated \Vith high confidence
members ofstaff 1vithout 1varning or to be pseudopat ients by at least one n1ember of staff.
justification. There "'as a lack of confidentiality; Of these, 23 1vere suspected by at least one psychiatrist,
patients' case notes were read openly by staff 1vho had and 19 1vere suspected by a psychiatrist and at least one
no therapeutic input Patients' personal hygiene and other staff me1nber.
1vaste evacuation 1vere monitored. 1bilet cubicles had No pseudopatients actually presented themselves to the
no doors. Even the initial physical exan1inations were hospital for admission during the period of this study.
conducted in a semi-public roon1. This secondary study lends e\ridence to Roscnhan's
Depersonalisation of patients 1vas also a key finding. argun1ent about the lack of reliability in diagnosis. 1n
Ward attendants physically abused patients in the this instance, psychiatric staff con1n1itted a type I error
presence of other patients. This behaviour ceased in the by identifying mentally ill patients as healthy.
presence of any credible 1vitnesses. ln one instance a
~ TESTYOURSELF
nurse undid her uniform to adjust her bra in full vie1v
of male patients. A total of2 I 00 pills 1vere adn1inistered
V Outline two findings from each study
•
CHAPTER l ; THE. PS'i'CHOLOGYOf
' .. . . ...'
INDIVIDUAL.DIF.FERENCES
.. .. . "" . . ... . •'
- ----- ---
EVALUATION
Since Rosenhan used observations as one of his methods
(participant), " 'e can use the general evaluations from
Chapter l, page 4 and apply them directly to the study:
I • a I I I
Strength If participants are unaware that they Staff were unaware that they were being observed
are being observed they should and so were most of the patients (some did have
behave "naturally." This increases the an idea the pseudopatient was not real). Therefore,
ecological valid ity or the observation. what was being seen was the usual behaviour of
par ticipants in their everyday surroundings so this
aspect ot the study has ecological validity.
Weakness II may be difficult to replicate the Different hospitals are run in d ifferent ways (e.g.
study if it is naturalistic as many have different admissions procedures) which makes
variables cannot be co ntrolled. This replication of this study in another hospital difficult.
reduces the reliability o f the study.
Strength The main advantage is that a study The findings from this study can be used to improve
can be used to improve human human behaviour in general, especially linked to mental
behaviour in some way (e.g. if we illness and how 1t 1s treated. They were used to improve
find a better way to treat a mental psychiatric care and diagnosis as the study highlighted
illness then it is useful to society as the problems or the systems at the time.
a whole).
Weakness Studies might be unethical in order There were elements or deception, the nght for the
to gain more valid results. pseudopatients to withdraw voluntarily and protection
from physical and psychological har m. However, all
of these were necessary for the study to achieve
valid results.
CHALLENGE YOURSELF
Evaluate this study in terms of individual versus
situational explanations of behaviour and
qualitative and quantitative data collection. You may want
to use a table similar lo lhose used for the observation
and usefulness evaluations.
•
Try the follo\ving exam-style questions.
Paper1 Paper 2
1. Outline \Vho the pseudopatients \\<ere and ho\v 1. Outline what quantitative data \Vere collected in
they got admitted to the hospitals. (4 marks) the Rosenhan stud)'· (3 marks)
2. Outline one finding from the Rosenhan 2. Outline ho'"' Rosenhan was testing out
study. (2 marks) the individual differences approach to
3. Outline one aim of the Rosenhao study. (2 marks) psychology. (3 marks)
4. Evaluate the Rosenhan study in terms of one 3. Discuss tbe strengths and weaknesses of
strength and one weakness. (10 marks) observations using Rosenhan as an exan1ple.
(10 1narks)
•
~SI< YOURSELF
Can someone really ha\<e, ror example. three different
T11igpen & Cleckley (1954) personali1es that think and reason 1n different ways?
CONTEXT AIM
Most of us experience forgetfulness on a regular basis. To give an account of the psychotJ1erapeutic experience
We n1ight forget son1ething when distracted and later of son1eone thought to have multiple personalities.
recall the information '"e '"ere trying to access. Some
psychologists believe that this dissociation occurs on a
continuum, 1\!ith alJ of us experiencing occasional, mild METHOD
dissociative episodes. However, the follo1ving study
involves a woman 1vith extreme dissociation, kno1vn as • •
niultiple personality disorder (MPD).
The participant \vas a 25-year-old married n1other 1vith
NIPD is a rare psychological condition. So Little is a 4-year-old daughter. Her real narne was changed in
known about the disorder that son1e professionals Thigpen & Clcckley's report to Eve White to preserve
doubt its existence. MPD is known as dissociative her anonymity. She was the oldest of three siblings and
identity disorder (DID) in the Diagnostic Statistical was employed as a telephone operator. She
Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM). was initially referred to Thigpen for therapy Case
DID is defined by DSM-JV as the presence of two or after complaining of severe and blinding
more distinct identitjes, or distinct identities that each headaches. At her first intervie1v she aJso mentioned
have their 01vn \vay of perceiving and thinkjng about experiencing blackouts folJo,ving these headaches.
the environment and self. According to the diagnostic
criteria, at least tlvo of these personality states recurrently
•
take cont rol of the individual's behaviour. Although
plural identities are present, it is in1portant to ren1en1ber This research is a classic case study. lt focuses on one
that they all exjst as nianifestations of one person. individual, Eve White, and explores her background,
Two or more personalities coexist, but only one is "in syn1pton1s and therapy in great depth. Case studies
control" of the person at a given time. The different employ a range of different methods for studying
personalities might not be a1vare of one another's participants. The case of Eve 1vas explored prin1arily
existence and experience. This means those 1vith the through psychotherapeutic intervie1vs. Some of these
disorder might experience dissociative fugues, and be \Vere done under, or f0Uo1ving, hypnosis, in order to
unable to recall inlportant personal information. "dra1v out" different personalities. The study took place
MPD is a neurotic disorder - it is not a form of over a period of 14 months, and material \Vas gathered
schizophrenia, although many people confuse the from approxjmately 100 hours ofintervie1vs.
t\vo conditions. Scmzophrenia is a psychotic disorder In addition, backgroLtnd information was obtained
characterised by the ilnprur111ent of one's sense of through interviews witJ1 fairuly n1en1bers and Eve's
reality, and can be accon1panied by visual or auditory husband. These were carried out to back up Eve's account
hall ucinations or delusions. MPD is a neurotic disorder, of events fro111 her childhood to adulthood.
1vhere the sufferer does not lose contact 1vith reality. Quantitative measures \Vere taken of Eve White Qual
The existence of MPD is highly contested. Not only is it and the second persona]jty, Eve Black, including
very rarely diagnosed, but its treatment often involves the psychometric tests of memory and IQ. Eve also underwent
use of hypnosis (a controversial technique in itself). Some two projection tests analysed by the researchers. These
cases have become notorious, as the psychiatrists involved included an exercise dra1ving human figures, and
have been accused of exploiting their patients for their interpreting Rorschach ink blots. Later, 1vhen
own purposes. the third personality "Jane" appeared, all three Quant
were given an electroencephalogram (EEG).
•
RESULTS While EB did not seen1 deliberately cruel, in early
- childhood she 1vould en1erge and cause trouble. EW
was forbidden from playing in the woods as a child;
one day EB took over and broke her parents' strict
Initially, the therapists report some slight progress rule. Upon her return, EW \\•as \vhipped for her
in treating Eve \Vhite's (E\\l's) symptoms follo\ving disobedience, much to her confusion and disn1ay. Her
discussion of some of her e111otional problems. EW \\'aS parents corroborated this story and also expressed their
thought to have personal frustrations and difficulties puzzlement at such out-of-character behaviour in their
1vith her husband (from \1•hom she \1•as currently normally obedient and honest daughter.
separated). During a session EW \Vas unable to recall Similar instances occurred in Eve's adulthood. Her
details of a recent trip she had n1ade. Hypnosis \vas husband recalled an incident 1vhere he discovered she
induced and her memory \vas restored. Several days had spent an enormous sun1 of money on clothes; he
later, a letter arrived from EW about this session, had abused her for being so careless and indulgent. As
\vritten in her handwriting \vith the exception of the it,vas EB \vho had indu lged in the expensive shopping
final paragraph, v;hich \Vas written in a childish scra\vl. trip, EW was deeply bewildered about this irresponsible
1he letter \Vas the first indication that anything was lapse in her behaviour. 111e therapists note that
unusual about EW's case, as she had presented herself as although it is unlikely Eve's n1arriage 1vould have been
a self-controlled and truthful person. At the next successful even without her condition, there is no doubt
session, EW denied sending the letter, but was EB's difficult behaviour contributed to the couple's
distressed and agitated and asked 1vhether hearing an difficulties.
in1aginary voice \vould indicate she 1vas To explore the extent of tl1e psychological dilferences
Qual "insane''. She said she had occasionally heard a bet\veen the tlvo personalities, Eve undenvent several
voice other than her O\Vn addressing her over psychometric and projective tests. These revealed
recent months. Before any response 1vas made, EW held differences in IQ and memory, as \Vell as key differences
her bands to her head as ifin pain and suddenly her in the defence mechanisn1s of repression and regression
entire manner and voice changed. She smiled and said that 1vere underlying Eve's t\\ 0 different personas.
1
•
CHAPTER '7 : THE PSYCHOLOGY OF INDIVIDUAL
.. . DIFFERENCES
.
later she looked around the roon1 confuseclly and asked to help her, but \vas reluctant to take over fully as a
\Vhere she was. Another transformation had taken place, maternal figure to EW's daughter as she did not \vish
\vith mannerisms and d1aracteristics highly distinct to interfere with their relationship.
from either EW or EB. "Janen - as she called herself -
\Vas more confident, interesting and assertive than timid TEST YOUP.SELF
E\V, but \Vithout the personality faults of EB. She \Vas Outline at least three differences between Eve
White and Eve Black.
a\vare of the behaviour of the other l\vo personalities, but
could not access their memories prior to her emergence.
The EEG conducted several \Veeks later on all three
personalities traced 33 minutes of recording, including CONCLUSIONS
intervals of at least 5 mlnutes of each personality, and
Despite the debate over the existence of MPD, Thigpen
some transitions bet1veen individuals. Tenseness \Vas
& Cleckley concluded that they had not been tricked by
n1ost pronounced in EB, next in EW, and least of all
Jane. Muscle tension \Vas greatest in EB, and the test a skilful actress but had observed the existence of three
indicated it was easiest to transpose from EB to EW. distinct personalities in one individual.
EB's results \Vere only borderline normal, \Vith son1e There \viii undoubtedly continue to be controversy
records sho\vi ng an association with psychopathic over the existence of MPD/DID. Thigpen & Cleckley
personality. Both EW and Jane's records we re norn1al. argue tha t \vhat they witnessed was genuine because
the length of tirne spent with EW, EB and Jane meant
Jane continued to emerge th rough EW only, but
that at least son1e mistakes or inconsistencies would
becan1e stronger over tin1e. She took over n1any of
EW's duties both at \Vork and at home in an effort have been noticed.
EVALUATION
Since Thigpen & Cleckley used the case study method,
\Ve can use the general evaluations from Chapter l, page 3
and apply them directl y to the study:
Strength As the study focuses on one The researchers focused on just the one person (Eve)
Individual (or unit of 1ndlvlduals) and ran many psychological and physical tests to assess
the psychologist can collect rich, the three "distinct" personalities: a lot or data were
in-depth data that have details. This collected to help differentiate between the three. This
makes the findings more valid. makes the findings more valid.
Strength Participants are usually studied as It could be argued that the study has some ecological
part of their everyday life which validity as Eve was in therapy and the assessment
means that the whole process tends followed what could happen In a therapeutic setting.
to have some ecological validity
Weakness As the psychologist is focusing on As Thigpen & Cleckley were only studying one actual
one individual (or unit of Individuals), person, she may be a unique case. Thrs would make
the case may be unique. This makes generalising difficult as she may not represent any other
generalisattons quite difficult. person who claims to have more than one personality.
•
. ' ~""=· . r.tr.'1':!'11;n1
Weakness As participants are studied in depth, Some psychologists could argue that Thigpen & Cleckley
they could rorm an attachment with got attached to Eve as a patient and lost obiect1vity
the psychologist. This could reduce because they wanted to find differences between the
the obiecllvity or the data collection three personalities. This could obviously reduce the
and analysis or data and so the validity or findings as they may have only reported data
validity of the findings. that confirm their ideas.
• • • •
Strength The data collected are in-depth The interviews and psychometric tes tin g was in
and in the words or the participant depth so a lot of detail was reco rded. All or it
so they are rich and in detail and represents w hat was actually happening to Eve In
represent what the participant her three personality "states" so Thigpen & Cleckley
believes. Therefore it can be argued were looking at as muc h data as possible. Therefore,
that It is not reductionist. the study is not redu ctionist.
Weakness Interpretation or the data could be The researchers may have only reported data that
subjective as we are dealing with confirmed what they believed as some of the data
words not numbers: psychologist collected were subjectively analysed (the interview
could misinterpret what the transcripts and w hat Eve was reeling). They may have
parti cipant meant to say or be biased also misinterpreted some or what Eve was trying to get
against some or the person's views. across in her interviews.
CHALLENGE YOURSELF
Evaluate this case study 1n terms of 1t being
longitudinal and its ethics You may want to
use a table similar lo those used for the case study and
qualitative data evaluations.
Paper 1 Paper2
1. Outline two differences bet\veen Eve W hite and 1. O utline how qualitative data were collected in the
Eve Black in the l h ib'Pen & Cleckley study. Thigpen & Cleckley study. (3 marks)
(4 marks) 2. Outline what quantitative data \Vere collected in
2. \.vhat was the aim of the Thigpen & Oeckley the Thigpen & Cleckley study. (3 marks)
study? (2 n1arks) 3. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of case
3. Eva luate the Thigpen & Cleckley study in terms of studies using Thigpen & Cleckley as an example.
one strength and one \veakness. (I 0 n1arks) ( IO marks)
•
CHAPTER 7; THE PSYCHOLOGY
. . OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
.
CONTEXT METHOD
:
Psychologists have long been interested in \vhy there
are gender differences in the rates of people studying There \vere two questionnaires and two performance
certain subjects at school, college and university. 'fbere tasks. All \Vere accessible and completed via a secure
has ahvays been a marked difference in the number of university \vebsite.
males and females choosing to study subjects such as
Questionnaire I: Systemising quotient- Quest
mathematics and sciences. Performance in these subjects
revised scale (SQ-R). It consists of75 items.
has also shO\\'Jl some gender differences even from
The score range on the questionnaire is 0-150.
an early age. However, psychologists have questioned
\vhether there is a true gender divide or \vhether there Questionnaire 2: En1pathy quotient (EQ). It consists
are other ractors, such as how we process inforn1ation, of 40 ite111s. The score range is 0-80.
that could account for the irnbalance of 1nales and From these questionnaires, participants could be
fen1ales studying science and malhen1atics. TI1is research classified as one of five brain types: type S (systemiser},
team \vere interested in ~cognitive style" and if they type E (empathiser}, type B (balanced), extreme type S
could explain gender differences (rather than finding and extreme type E. The extreme groups \Vere those in
that males are better than females in these subjects). the top 2.5 per cent \Vhen the difference \Vas calculated
T\vO exan1ples of cognitive style are en1pathisers (those benveen the SQ-Rand EQ scores for each participant.
\vho have the ability to identify another person's mental Task I \Vas the en1bedded figures task (FC-EIT). This
state and respond using a range of correct emotions) task involves seeing a series of 12 pairs or diagrams
and systemisers (\vho have the ability to analyse like the pair shO\Vll in Figure 7.1. Participants had
the rules underlying a syste1n in order to predict a to choose which of the t\vo nlore con1plex diagran1s
behaviour - systems include 1nachines, \veather systems, contained the s1naller shape \vithin it. lt was a
mathen1atics, maps, etc.). The research tcarn had already forced-choice task so participants had to choose just
developed a psychometric test to measure people's one oflhe more complex shapes. If the participant
empathy quotient and systemising quotient. fulled to respond in SO seconds then the task
automatically moved on to the next pair of shapes.
ASK YOURSELF
Why are you taking Cambndge AS level
Every time participants got the anS\''er correct they
Psychology? What other subjects are you taking? \vere a\varded I point. There \vas an additional bonus
Do you feel that certain types of people only study certain point added to participants' scores every time they
types of su b1ect at school and college? were in the fastest 25 per cent for that pair of shapes.
Therefore, the range ofscores was 0 to 24.
AIM
1. To see \Vhether there is still a gender difference in
the number of people studying the physical sciences
and hun1anities.
2. To see \Vhether nlales are more likely to be systemisers
and females n1ore likely to be empathisers.
3. To see \vhetber physical science students are more
likely to be systemisers and humanities students
Figure 7.1 Embedded figures task (FC· EFT)
1nore likely to be en1pathisers.
•
Source: Based on Biiiington. Baron-Cohen & Wheelwright, 2007
Task 2 \Vas the eyes test. 1 his task assesses cognitive
empathy by showing participants a pair of eyes
Female Physical 108 26
conveying a pre-chosen emotion. The participant
\ VllS given four d1oices of emotions and asked to
Humanities 104 25.1
choose the one that is the closest to the emotion that Total 212 51.1
the eyes are conveying. An example is sho'"n in Male Physica l 160 38.6
Figure 7.2. If the participant failed to respond in 20 Humanities 43 10.4
seconds then the task auto1uatically moved on to the
Total 203 48.9
next pair of eyes. There are 36 pairs of eyes to rate
and 1 point is a\varded for each correct Total Physical 268 64.6
Quant choice - the same bonus point systen1 \vas Humanities 147 35.4
used here as in the FC-EFT. Therefore, the Total 415 100
range of scores is 0 to 72.
Table 7.1 Percentage of par1tc1pants studying each
apologetic friendly degree category, by sex
ro
Those who volunteered to take part in the study could
visit the secure university website and complete the
questionnaires and tasks in any order. 1'hey did no t
have to con1plete both questionnaires and tasks in the
uneasy dispirited same sitting but they could only atten1pt each task and
Figure 7.2 Eyes test complete each questionnaire once.
TEST YOURSELF
What were the various measures that were taken RESULTS
of each part1c1pant? Choose one and ouU1ne how
the data were collected Overall, there '"as a significant gender difference in
degree choice: 59. l per cent of physical science studei1ts
were male and 70.1 per cent of humanities students
• \vere female.
For this study 415 participants were recruited. They Table 7.2 shO\VS the mean and standard deviation scores
'vere either studying for a physical sciences degree or a for each gender split by degree choice for the
two questionnaires. Quant
humanities degree. Physical science subjects included
mathematics, physics, engineering a11d astronomy
1-rumanities subjects included classics, law, theology and
history. The average age of the participants was 21 years ',
(standard deviation of2.5 l years). Oft he participants, I
87.7 per cent of the participants 1vere right-handed, SQ-R 61.23 51.54 65.46 58.65
I 0.6 per cent were left-handed and 1.7 per cent \Vere (20.60) (19.18) (18.17) (21.17)
ambidextrous. They were recruited
Sample through an en1ail post and advertisements EQ 43.48 46.82 35.59 40.56
across the university \vith a prize draw (12.56) (12.07) (10.39) (10.33)
incentive. Therefore, participants volunteered to take Table 7.2 The two questionnaires - mean and standard
part. Table 7.1 sho,vs the distribution of participants per deviation scores for each gender split by degree choice.
degree per sex. Standard deviations are 111 parentheses
•
CHAPTER l ; THE. PS'i'CHOLOGYOf
' .. . . ...
INDIVIDUAL.DIF.FERENCES
..'.. . "" . . ... . •'
Table 7.3 shows the mean and standard deviation scores Overall, males tended to be categorised more
for each sex split by degree choice for the nvo tasks. as systen1isers whereas females tended to be
categorised more as empathisers.
• Overall, physical sciences students tended to be
categorised more as systemisers \Vhereas hun1anities
F~ 15.05 14.07 15.03 14.14 students tended to be categorised more as empathisers.
EFT (3.05) (2.40) (3.14) (2.63) The research team conducted a logistic regression
Eyes 32.86 46.82 31.83 33.79 analysis to examine \Vhich of the factors \Vas the best
test (6.65) (12.07) (7.23) (8.00) predictor of degree choice. All of the main predictors
Table 7.3 The two tasks - mean and standard deviation could predict degree choice but there \Vas a rank order:
scores for each sex spht by degree choice. Standard
deviations are In parentheses
1. Brain type \vas the strongest predictor (type E,
type$, etc.).
These were the main results based on these figures: 2 . Performance on the FC-EFT task was Lhe
There was a significant relationship bel:\veen gender next predictor.
and cognitive style: 66 per cent of n1ales were 3. Perforn1ance on the eyes test was the next predictor.
categorised as type Sor extreme type S (only 4. Gender 1vas the weakest predictor (but was still
28.8 per cent of fen1ales}; 36.8 per cent of fen1ales
significant).
\vere categorised as type E or extreme type E (only
10.3 per cent of males). TEST YOURSELF
Fen1aJes performed significantly better than males Oulllne the differences between the students
on the eyes test. who studied humanities and those who studied
physica I sciences.
There \Vas no significant gender ditlerence in
participants' performance in the FC-EFT.
Of the physical science students, 56.3 per cent of CONCLUSION
them had type Sor extren1e type S profiles (only
29.4 per cent of humanities students). With the It \vould appear that the ~gender differences" in degree
hun1anities students, 41.5 per cent had type E choice benveen physical sciences and humanities is less
or extreme type E profiles (only 14.2 per cent of of an actual ~gender difference" but of a cognitive style
physical science students). difference. Students \vith certain brain types (systemisers
Physical science students perfonned significantly better and empathisers) tend to pick their degrees differently -
on the FC-EFT' con1pared to hu1nanities students. systen1isers pick physical sciences in the main 1vhile
empathisers pick hun1anities subjects in the main.
EVALUATION
As Billington, Baron-Cohen & Wheelwright used
questionnaires, we can use the general evaluations from
Chapter l, page 2 and apply the1n directly to the study:
• • • • • •
Strength Participants may be more likely Participants completed the questtannaires by themselves
to reveal truthful answers in a and did not have to answer questions in rront or anyone
questionnaire as it does not involve so were more likely to give truthful answers.
talking face to race with someone.
•
e I I •
Strength A large sample of participants A total of 415 participants look part In the study over a
can answer the questionnaire in short period or time giving a wide spread of results that
a short time span which should could be applied to students of physical sciences
increase the representativeness and and humanities.
generahsabihty of the findings.
Weakness Participants may give socially desirable As they completed the questionnaires by themselves,
answers as they want to look good some participants may have chosen answers that made
rather than g1v1ng truthful answers - them "look good" rather than how they truly process
this lowers the validity of findings. information (e.g. as a systemiser).
Weakness If the questionnaire has a lot of There may have been some questions that participants
closed questions participants might had to choose an answer for that was not how they
be forced into choosing an answer truly process information but was the c losest answer
that does not renect their true to how they do It - therefore, ii may not be a fully true
opinion. representation of their cognitive style.
• • • -' • •• •
• • ; • •
Strength Large numbers of participants can A total of 415 participants came forward to participate
be obtained relatively quickly and (the researcher simply advertised) and they could
easily. complete the study when it was convenient for them (so
they were more likely to complete 1t).
Strength People are more likely to participate No drop-out rate figures were given so we can assume
1f they have already volunteered so that most participants completed all fou r tasks.
the drop-out rate should be lower.
Weakness Ga1n1ng a wide variety of participants Only motivated students of physical sciences and
to allow for generalisation is unlikely humanities would have come forward to participate, so it
(for opportunity you will go for one might make generalisation a bit difficult for those who are
type of person in the main whereas less motivated to take part in a study but are completing
for "1)1unteer it is only a certain type similar degree programmes. We cannot be certain that
of person who will "1)1unteer to do those who chose not to participate followed the same
research for a particular study). general pattern s for systemisers and empathisers.
The following other points could be used in evaluation: (FC-EFT and the eyes test) to test for reliability \vith
·n1e researchers use psychometric tasks in the study a different sa1nplc.
which means con1parisons can be useful as people's
CHALLENGE YOURSELF
results are being compared on the same, Evaluate the Billington, Baron-Cohen & Wheelwright
Psychom Mandardised scale - therefore, the study in terms of ii being a snapshot study and
differences found by cognitive style and also in te<ms of Individual versus situational explanations.
gender are rneaningful and more likely to be valid. You may \vant to use a table hke those used for the
questionnaire and volunteer sampling evaluations.
The study can be easily replicated using Lhe
same standardised psychometric tests
•
CHAPTER
'
l ; THE. PS'i'CHOLOGYOf
.. . ' . ... INDIVIDUAL.DIF.FERENCES
.. .. . "" . . ... •' .
Paper1 Paper 2
1. In the Billington, Baron-Cohen & Wheehvright 1. Outline ho\v quantitative data \Vere collected
study, \Vhat \Vere the t\vo questionnaires completed in the Billington, Baron-Cohen & Wheelwright
by au participants? (2 marks) study. (3 marks)
2. Outline one psychometric task used in the 2. Outline one finding from the Billington, Baron-
Billington, Baron-Cohen & Wheelwright study. In Cohen & Wl1eehvright study. (3 marks)
your ai1s,ver include ho\v it \Vas scored. (4 marks) 3. Discuss Lbe strengths and weaknesses of volunteer
3. Outline one reason why the Billington, Baron- sampling using Billington, Baron-Cohen &
Cohen & Wheehvright study \Vas conducted. Wheehvrightasan example. (10 rnarks)
(2 marks)
4. Evaluate the Billington, Baron-Cohen &
Wheelwright study in terrns of
two weaknesses. {l 0 n1arks)
•
debated (e.g. the cognitive behavioural 111odel suggests
that mirror gazing in BOD helps to increase self-
consciousness and selective attention hence maintaining
Veale & Riley (2001 )
the BOD condition in patients - they can constantly see
\vbat they do not like).
• ••
Length of Participants were asked the average duration of "long" sessions 1n minules (during the previous
time mirror month). They had to estimate the maximum a mount of time on one occasion that they had
gazing spent in front of a mirror in hours and minutes. They were asked the average duration of
frequency of "short" sessions during the previous monlh In minutes.
Motivation This was a 12-llem section where par ticipants had to rate how much they agreed with each
before statement (strongly agree, agree, neither disagree or agree, disagree and strong ly disagree).
looking in a Example statements were: " I have to make myself look my best", "I need to see whal I like
mirror about myself" and " I have to know w hat I look like and I can't until I look in the mirror". They
answered the items for a "long" session then repealed it for a "short" session. At the end they
could note anything else that motivated them to mirror gaze.
Focus of Participants were asked to rate their concentration levels on the mirror during both "long" and
attention "short" sessions. The scale was from + 4 to - 4 with + 4 representing "I am entirely focused on
an impression or feeling that I get about myself" and 4 representing "I am entirely focused
on my reflection 1n the mirror".
•
CHAPTER l ; THE. PS'i'CHOLOGYOf
' .. . . ...
INDIVIDUAL.DIF.FERENCES
..
' .. . "" . . ... . •'
Distress Participants had to rate the level of distress they felt before and after a "long" and "short"
before and session. The scale was 1-10 where 1 represented "not at all d istressed" and 10 represented
after looking "extremely distressed". For both the "long" and "short" sessions, they had to rate three limes:
into the mirror (a) before looking in the mirror
(b) immediately after looking in the mirror
(c) after resisting the urge to look in a mirror (this was not taken for "short" sessions in error).
Behaviour 1n For both "long" and "short" sessions, participants had to estimate the percentage of time they
front of the engaged 1n a range of nine behaviours while mirror gazing. Participants had to ensure that the
mirror total reached 100. The nine behaviours were:
1 Trying to hide my defects or enhance my appearance by the use of make-up
2. Combing or styling my hair
3. Trying to make my skin smooth by picking and squeezing spots
4. Plucking or removing hair or shaving
5. Comparing w hat I see in the mirror w ith an image that I have In my mind
6. Trying to see something d ifferent in the mirror Quant
7. Feeling the skin with my fingers
8. Practising the best position to pull or show in public
9. Measuring parts o f my face.
They could then list other behaviours not listed above.
Type of light They were asked whether type of light was important for mirror gazing on a visual analogue
preferred scale from "natural daylight" to "artificial light".
Type of They were asked if they used a series of mirrors or any other reflective surface for gazing
reflective (e.g. the backs of CDs).
surface
Mirror They were asked if they avoided any types of mirror or situations involving mirrors.
avoidance
TEST YOURSELF
Outline three behaviours the researchers were All participants \Vere asked to complete the self-
Interested In. Describe how they measured each
one. How easy would it be to replicate this study? Why? report n1irror-gazing questionnaire. They \vere told
that the questions were about behaviours from the
last or previous month. They were also asked, prior
to completion, \vhether they had engaged in a "long"
p r •
I
•
session in front of the n1irror in most days \vithin
Participants were 52 patients diagnosed with BDD the last or previous month. If so. they con1plcted the
(they fulfi lled the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of questionnaire based on "long" sessions; then they
1\llental Disorders for BDD). A group of 55 control repeated the same process but for "short" sessions.
participants (non-BDD) were recruited from personal
contacts of the authors. The groups \Vere
Sample
matched on age and sex.
•
RESULTS 45/52 (86.5 per cent) of BOD patients and 43/55
(79.6 per cent) reported having one or nlore
Quant
in the last or previous month. Table 7.5 shows
A total of 44/52 BOD patients (84.6 per cent) and 16/54
the characteristics of the BOD sample and the
controls (29.6 per cent) reported having a "long" session in
the last or previous month. In terms of"short" sessions, controls.
: '' . • ..
Age 30.1 (8.6) 33.4 (8.9)
Distress after long session (1- 10) 7.63 (2.2) 2.40 (2.3)
Distress resisting gaze for long session ( 1-10) 6.82 (2.6) 2.38 (2.5)
Table 7.5 Characteristics of BOD patients and non-BOD participants (the controls)
Length or The mean duration time for a long session for BOD was 72.5 minutes but only 21.3 for the
time mirror controls. The duration of a short session was 4 .8 minutes for the BOD group and 5.5 for the
gazing controls (not a significant difference).
Motivation BOD patients were more likely to at least agree with all 12 items. Controls were much more
before looking likely to be interested In being presentable. BOD patients were more likely to use the mirror if
in a mirror they felt depressed.
•
CHAPTER l ; THE. PS'i'CHOLOGYOf
' .. . . ...
INDIVIDUAL.DIF.FERENCES
..'.. . "" . . ... . •'
Focus or Only for a "long" session did BOD patients, compared to controls, locus on internal impressions
attention and feelings rather than the external reflection they were gazing at. BOD patients were more likely
to locus on 1ust one part of their face rather than the whole face compared to controls.
Distress For both types of session, BOD patients rated themselves significanUy more distressed than
before and controls. For "long" sessions. BOD patients continued to be more distressed compared to controls
after looking after mirror gazing. They also reported more distress if they resisted gazing compared to controls.
into the mirror
Behaviour in BOD patients and controls estimated the same proportion of time engaging 1n using make-up.
front of the combing/styling hair. picking spots and feeling skin. BOD patients were more hkely to compare
mirror what they saw with an image in their mind about how they should Ideally look and trying to see
something different in the mirror. These were for "long" sessions.
For "short" sessions BOD patients were more likely to use the mirror for checking make-up.
practising the best position to show in public and comparing what they saw with an image 1n
lhelr mind about how they should ideally look.
BOD pallents listed many other behaviours they engaged in (e.g. washing rituals, combing
eyebrows and squashing features to see how things would look if they had plastic surgery).
Type of For "long" sessions, BOD patients were more likely to use a senes of mirrors (52.43 of
reflective patients) compared to controls (6.7~). For "short" sessions. both groups used shop windows
surface to gaze. However. BOD patients reported a wide variety or surfaces they would use including
cutlery. vehicles, TV screens. car mirrors and taps.
Mirror Two-thirds of BOD patients and 14'7< of the control group reported avoiding certain mirrors.
avoidance There were four types of selective avoidance or mirrors noted by BOD patients:
1. To avoid looking at a specific "defect" (e.g. if the nose was seen as a defect they would
1 avoid mirrors where it could be seen, choosing smaller hand-held mirrors to hold above
the nose.
2. To avoid mirrors labelled as "bad" or "unsafe" as they had been associated with a specific
bad Image.
3. Only using private mirrors; avoiding those in public as they could be too upsetting.
4 . A "flip" between avoidance and gazing - patients may gaze and pick skin and keep
gazing until the skin heals. Then they would avoid mirrors and not pick skin again until they
felt the urge.
Table 7.6 Results per section or the Veale & Riley questionnaire
TEST YOURSELF
Outline three differences in the behaviour of the
BOD patients and the participants 1n the control
group 1n this study. What ethical issues does this study
raise? Why?
•
CONCLUSION BOD does not follow a simple nlodel of ... compul sive
checking ... (and) is best co nce ptuali sed as a ser ies
of idiosyncra tic and co mplex safe ty behaviours, that
The researchers co ncluded : "BOD patients ho ld a
is designed to preven t a feared ou tco n1e .. :• (Veale &
number of p roblematic beliefs and behaviours in their
Riley, 200 1: 1389).
nlirro r use compared to controls. M i r r or gazing in
EVALUATION
As Veale & Riley used questionnaires, \Ve can use
the general evaluations fro1n Chapter I, page 2
and apply them directly to the study:
..
Strength Participants may be more likely BOD patients were probably more likely to admit to all
to reveal truthfu l answers in a of their mirror-gazing activities as they did not have
questionnaire as it does not involve to reveal lhem to a person face to face. This should
talking face to face with someone. increase the valld1ty of the findings.
Weakness Participants may give socially As mirror gazing is core to BOD, some or all or the
desirable answers, as they want to participants may have given answers that made the
look good, rather than giving truthful psychologists judge them in a "'better light". They may
answers. This lowers the validity not have revealed all of their mirror-gazing behaviours
or the findings. to give the impression that their behaviours were not
strange or different.
Protection The psychologist must It could be argued that making BOD patients reflect on what they do
ensure that partlcipants and complete questionnaires makes their condition wo1Se as they are
leave the study in the now answering a lot of questions about 1t. BOD patients might engage in
same physical and mirror gazing more often as a result of the study. It could be argued that
psychological state the BOD patients were not truly protected In this study (e.g. writing about
as they entered it. the mirror gazing and that they do it because of depression could make
the depression worse).
CHALLENGE YOURSELF
Evaluate this study in terms of other ethical
guidelines and issues and also in terms of
generalisation or reductionism. You may want to use a
table like those used for the questionnaire evaluation.
•
CHAPTER
'
l ; THE. PS'i'CHOLOGYOf
.. . ' . ... INDIVIDUAL.DIF.FERENCES
.. .. . "" . . ... •' .
Paper1 Paper 2
1. In the Veale & Riley study, \vho \vere the t\vo 1. Outline ho'v quantitative data \Vere collected in tl1e
groups of participants and \vhat \vere they Veale & Riley study. (3 marks)
matched on? (2 marks) 2. Outline one difference in behaviour of t11e BDD
2. Outline two results fron1 the Veale & Riley study. patients con1pared to the controls in the Veale &
(4 marks) Riley study. (3 marks)
3. Outline one reason \vhy the Veale & Riley study \\'3S 3. Discuss Lbe strengths and weaknesses of using
conducted (2 marks) questionnaires in research using the Veale & Riley
4 . Evaluate the Veale & Riley study in terms of two study as an exan1ple. (10 1narks)
strengths. (10 n1arks)
•
E M CENTRE (AS LEVEL)
The questions, example ani.wers, nlarks a\varded and/or comments that appear in
this book/CD \Vere written by the author. In examination, the \vay marks would be
awarded to ans\vers like these may be different.
Stage 2: Cond1t1oning
•
~ CHALLENGE YOURSELF created so the student \vorks through at his or her O\vn
V You have been asked by your local school to pace getting rewarded at appropriate ti1nes.
create some new rules and regulations about
behaviour 1n the classroom. The school has asked you to TEST YOURSELF
base it on operant conditioning What will you propose? Explain why programmed learning is linked to
operant cond1t1oning.
® EVALUATION
•
behaviourism quant
Behaviour-modification
i
•
useful
These techniques also follo\v the idea of operant
conditioning. They are based around the idea of
reinforcen1ent and punishment that shape the student's
behaviour to be better (e.g. in attempts to control a
APPLICATIONS (BASED disruptive student in the classroon1). By shaping we
ON THE BEHAVIOURIST mea11 changing the behaviour of a student (in rhis
exan1ple) to be more desirable by only rewarding
PERSPECTIVE) aspects of behaviour \Ve want repeating and ignoring or
punishing those behaviours that \Ve do not \Vant to see.
I ning Specific ideas include the follo\ving:
This type of learning is based around reinforcen1ent. The Use of sticker charts - \vhen first starting school,
\\!hole technique is based around "steps to learning~ children can be re\varded with a sticker each
The student is given a question and asked to and every li1ne they display good behaviour (e.g.
respond. The follo\ving two things can happen: cooperating, being friendl y). \Vhen children have
The student is correct. If this is the case then praise, reached a certain set number of stickers on their
re\vard or appropriate feedback is given, and the chart they are re\varded \Vith something that they
student moves on to the next question. The positive like (e.g. more playtin1e, a S\veet). The stickers
reinforcement motivates the student to continue to are called secondary reinforcers as they can be
the next question. This continues until all questions exchanged for things that a child \\!ants.
have been ans\vered correctly. The naughty corner or step can be used to try to
The student is incorrect. If this is the case then get rid of undesirable behaviour. For example, if
the student may be given additional information children are disruptive or aggressive they can be
or questions that essentially guide the individual given a set amount of time in an area designated for
towards the correct answer. This is designed so that "naughty children" (in a corner of a roo1n or on a
the student begins to understand why the response special chair). As this is punishn1ent, it is hoped that
'"as incorrect. As soon as the guidance allo\vs the the child will decrease the undesirable behaviour.
student to get the question correct, he or she n1oves ~ Use of tokens - th is follows a sin1ilar pattern lo the
on to the next one. use of sticker chart·s. Children gain tokens (e.g. a
Some psychologists (e.g. Lefrancois) have stated plastic chip) for different desirable behaviours. Then
that this type of learning does not apply to 111odern once they have collected enough they can exchange
educational practices but so1ne of the principles such as them for a privilege (e.g. extra play tune, goi11g
reinforce1nent and reward do. Ho,vever, some modern to use the library). Each privilege has a different
practices in certain schools emphasise the use of IT and "value''. For exan1ple, to gain e>..1ra playtime it costs
virtual learning. Both of these can use programmed five tokens and extra use of the library might cost
learning effectively as the learning n1odule can be just l\vo tokens. In some cases, tokens can be taken
a\\•ay fron1 children for undesirable behaviour.
•
CHALLENGE YOURSELF APPLICATIONS (BASED
Create a token chart with different values for
different privileges. What will be the privilege with
ON HUMANISM) -"-~~~~~~~-
® EVALUATION
usefl.il behaviourism
All of this is based around the idea of a non-co1npetitive
environment for learning. In traditional schools many
students are ahvays in con1petition 1vith each other to
a.chieve goals. Cooperative learning allo\vS students to
quant ethics
work together in teams to achieve their potential. Here
is an exan1ple:
Groups of up to six students are set a task that
requires face-to-face interact ion.
HUMANISTIC Roles are assigned and the provision of tasks is
APPLICATIONS TO divided among the group so everybody is working
LEARNING towards their strengths. This is called positive
interdependence.
This approach lo learning was not covered at AS level. Group n1ernbers are expected to share, cooperate
TI1e basics ofhurnanisn1 centre on the uniqueness of and learn th rough out the task set.
every individual. 'TI1erefore, there are no general laws
~ 1he end rewards and the uh irnate goal can only be
that apply to aU individuals. Overall, we are the product
of our own experiences and as these are different for achieved if all group men1bers contribute.
everyone, \Ve are all different. It develops interpersonal skills such as taking turns,
collaboration and positivity.
So, overall, the \vhole idea encourages positive
Underlying th ory interdependence, individual accountability (all must
contribute), interpersonal skill development and face-
to-face social skills.
The idea of humanism stems from Rogers and bis ideas
about client-centred therapy. The basics include that \ve
are unique individuals \vho have all had different life
patb,vays and this makes us all different We also have Learning circles and the
free \Vill over our O\vn behaviour and create our own I r--
path,vays in life. Sorne other characteristics include the An open classroon1 is a core idea of hurnanisn1. Open
follo,ving: classroon1s are about individual gro\vth and goal setting
What 1ve perceive as real is unique so no other where the n1ost in1portont person is ahvays the student.
person can truly understand us as no other person There is no curriculun1 as such and there can be
has had the san1e experiences. students of all ages in the same classroon1. There is a low
We all need to self-actualise - this means \vorking student-teacher ratio \vith very little control or elernent
towards a goal we have set ourselves that \viii make of con1petition. In an open classroorn, a teac.her could
us feel '\vhole''. set up learning circles in t\\IO main ways:
We are who \Ve are due to life experiences. Learning together - th is is si1n ilar to cooperative
learning in that a group of four to six students \vork
We \viii behave in 1vays that support the idea we together on the same \vorksheet to get it completed.
have about ourselves. The n1aterial encourages the entire group to help
each other. Praise is given for cooperation and
•
for completing Lhe task correctly. There is no children begin to thi nk a11d reason but find it difficult
competition bet\veen the groups \vho are given the to see the world from the vie\\•poinl of son1eone else.
same task. They also tend to find logical tasks difficult. At the
Student teains achievement division - this is also concrete operational stage (7- 11 years old) the child
based on cooperative learning, but initially the begins to develop more aduJt-like thinking patterns
groups have a mixture of ability in them. Any and appreciate logic more. I lo\vever, sometin1es their
ne\v materiaJ that is vital to the task is "taught" to logic is not based on hO\V an adult would think. ln the
students in a traditional \vay. While students are final stage, the formal operational stage (11 + years
encouraged to " 'Ork as a team, they chose \vhether old) logical and abstract thoughts are developed and
to do so - therefore, some n1ay complete the task children can begin to think for themselves.
individually then give feedback to the group. The idea of schemas (or schemata) is also useful.
Ho\vever, all students are encouraged to help each Schemas are "packets of information" about a certain
other. Tean1 scores are calculated and the tean1 that object, idea, experience, etc. Children develop these over
has progressed the most since the last task gets the time and they change depending on the experiences a
most recognition (so it is not ahvays the best score child has. For exan1ple, initially a child will have a niental
that wins). Overall, this 1neans that the students are representation of a "tree" in his or her head. Initially, all
more in control of their progression than the teacher. "trees are trees''. However, over tin1e and with education,
the child learns there are different types of tree so will
EVALUATION develop a schema for an oak, a fir and a n1aple tree.
Education can help develop these schen1as so children
•
usefUI Ind vs sit
can then fully understand the world around them.
Other concepts that are useful are under the
'J\pplications" heading below.
s h
Visit http://\V\vw.su111 merhillschool.co.uk/ and make
notes on ho\v the school runs and \vhat a typical day/
APPLICATIONS
term is for a student
i
..
This idea \\'CIS proposed by Bruner and the idea \\laS that
COGNITIVE it can help out in the classroom to educate students. It
APPLICATIONS TO follo\VS the idea that students are not presented with all
LEARNING of the material "there and then" (which can be called
spoon feeding) but they are to organise it the1nselves
This approach \Vas covered at AS level and the basics with cognitive effort. Students niust be ready to learn and
can be found on page V. This approach to education discover new things by looking for relationships between
is based around the 1vay students think and process diJferent bits of information. Students need to be in a
infor111ation in order to learn. motivational state that is optin1um (not over- or under-
aroused). Students need to be exposed to inforn1ation
fro1n a range ofsituations - this allows thc1n to look for
Underlying theory relationships between them \Vithout simply "being told".
Finally, students have to be ready to go out and discover
(P ) ne\v materials and information that is asked of then1. Again,
The basic idea of Piaget is that a child develops in stages this helps them to see relationships bcl\veen different bits of
that are linked to the child's age. During a sensori- information. Other aspects include the follo''~ng:
n1otor stage (up to 2 years of age) children have a simple Choosing the correct mode of representation - this
focus on developing their senses and moving around can be related to both the age of students and how
to learn. At the pre-operational stage (2-7 years old) complex a11 idea is. Children move from enactive
•
(senses and motor learning) through iconic take ilie form of lesson objectives using key terms of
(concrete facts and ideas) to symbolic (abstract ideas that the lesson '"ill be about or contain.
ideas) representation. Discriminability - a teacher should try to use
Spiral curriculum - the programme of learning correlative subsumptions more than derivative ones
should involve returning to core ideas that are as they require more cognitive effort and a student
looked at in increasing depth each time so students is more likely to retain that information.
get a more solid unde rstanding of them. So, for ~1aking it meaningful - there should be sufficient
example, for this course it may be a return to the background material already presented and stored
issues and debates or research n1ethods each time so that the student can then be prepared to learn
they are relevant to a topic. ne\v ideas (e.g. the context of the core studies
Students need to be encouraged to have "educated at AS level mean that, you, as a student, have an idea
guesses» and teachers need to use a range of tech niques '"hY the study took place so it becon1es n1eaningful).
to allov.• cognitive progression in au students.
•
exercise or an exercise matching terms to definitions giving some guidelines on how to \Yritc it. For
by connecting the111 with a line. The fill-in-the-gaps exan1ple, the handout may hint at \vhat the question
exercise might have all of the \YOrds given to students is asking. \\•hat material is usefu I and even give an
in a box: they then place each one in the correct gap. example evaluation to show students how it is done.
"Templates" that break information down could be Ho\vever, students \YOuld still have to \Yrite the essay
provided for students. An example \\'Ould be templates themselves ai. this is the skill that is being taught.
for the AS level core studies you looked at last year.
You \vould be given a template that has sections for @ EVALUATION
you to write the aim, design, participants, etc. This cognitive usefUI Ind vs sit
\\'Ould ensure that you look at each section in turn.
Students n1ight be asked to \vrite an essay-style
answer lo a question. A handout \vould be provided
•
The Department for Children, Schools and Fan1ilies in
s.2 .s p;e c1AL the United Kingdom (2008) defined giftedness as:
ASK YOURSELF
DEFINITIONS, TYPES Do you agree with these definrtions? Can you
think of an example that may not fit into these?
AND ASSESSMENT OF
SPECIAL EDUCATIONAL
NEEDS (INCLUDING TYPES OF SPECIAL
GIFTED CHILDREN) EDUCATIONAL NEEDS
Definitions of special Dysl i
educational needs and V>/e \viii focus on dyslexia here as an exan1ple of a special
educational need. The British Dyslexia Association's
9 dn definition is:
The Departn1ent for Education in the United Kingdom
Dyslexia is a con1bination of abilities and difficulties
defines special educational needs as follo\vs:
that affect the learning process in one or n1ore
Children have special educational needs if they of reading, spelling and \Vriting. It is a persistent
have a learning difficulty which calls for special condition.
educational provision to be made for the1n.
Table 8.2.1 shO\VS a list of characteristics of dyslexia
Children have a learning difficulty if they:
broken do\vn by age.
(a) have a significantly greater difficulty in learning
than the majority of children of the same age; or
Persistent Children who have dyslexia:
(b) have a disability \Vhich prevents or hinders them
(so not have •good" and "bad" days for no
from n1aking use of educational facilities of a kind linked to reason
generally provided for children of the same age in age of
schools within the area of the local education authority confuse directional words such as
child)
"up" and "down"
(c) are under compulsory school age and fall \Vilhin
can find sequencing difficult (e.g.
the definition at (a) or (b) above or would so do
pulling beads In an order)
if special educational provision was not made for
them. Children n1usl not be regarded as having a have problems with numbers and
learning difficulty solely because the language or adding up "in their head"
forn1 of language of their home is different from have a short attentJon span
the h1nguage in \Vhich they \Viii be taught. Special have problems organising themselves
educational provision means: Pre-school have delayed speech development
(a) for children of two or over, educational jumble up phrases (e.g. saying
provision which is additional to, or other\vise "beddy tear" instead or "teddy bear"
different fron1, the educational provision made have difficulties expressing
generally for children of their age in schools themselves through speech
maintained by the LEA, other than special schools, have d1ff1culty with rhyming words
in the area (b) for children under t'<VO, educaUonal and phrases
provision of any kind.
have difficulty in remembering labels
See Section 312, Education Act 1996 for objects (e.g. chair, bed)
•
,. Impairment of social communication - a 1vide
range of communication skills rnay be affected.
Early have difficulty learning sounds
Many children with autism fail to develop "useful
school of letters
speech~ Even after their language skills improve,
years show unpredictable spelling they n1ay find it dHficuh lo use it to con1municate
have difficulty in copying written 1vith others. There may be a lack of intonation in
words and sentences the voice and non-verbal comn1unication such as
can confuse letters such as "b" and "d" eye contact and use of gestures is very limited or
have poor ·word attack skills" - the non-existent.
ability to process and make sense Impairment of social imagination - those affected
of unfamiliar words by breaking have great difficulty thinking irnaginatively. Pretend
them down
play is either absent or they play the san1e thing over
Middle have a slow reading speed and over again.
school have problems with correct spellings Other features 1nay include repetitive behaviour, a focus
years
have problems recognising and on very specific topics to collect inforrnation about and a
understanding new words. lack of attentional gestures such as pointing or showing.
A Table 8.2.1 Characteristics of dyslexia broken down by age Asperger syndrome is a form of autis1n. Lt is sin1Uar
Source: Adapted lrom NHS and British Dyslexia Association to \vhat is outlined above but people with Asperger
Information syndron1e appear to have fe\ver speech problems and
tend to have above average intelligence. They also usually
Assessn1en1 can be completed at school using a have specific learning difficulties (e.g. dyslexia, dyspraxia
computerised test that will assess all of the above or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder - ADHD).
(depending on the age of the child). A second opinion
Assessment tends lo be through the DSM via a trained
rnay be sought from an educational psychologist \vho
physician.
can run some face-to-face tests on the child.
~ TEST YOURSELF
CHALLENGE YOURSELF V OuU1ne the main characteristics of auhsm.
A local school has asked you to assess its
students for dyslexia What sort of tasks would
you gel the students to perform 1n order for you to assess
who may have dyslexia? ..
According to the Department for Children, School and
Families, general characteristics of gifted and talented
Autism spectrum children include the follo\ving:
di They are good readers and verbally fluent for their
Autisn1 spectrum disorders is a tenn given to a group age. They rnay also verbally respond very quickly.
of "disorders" that cover a wide spread of social and _. They have a \Vide general knowledge, learn quickly
intellectual issues. "01ese include autisn1 itself and and have interest in topics that older children are
Asperger syndrome. ·nre Dingnost ic and Statistical studying.
1Wan11al of Mental Disorders (DSM) has diagnostic
They con1n1unicate well with adults and show
criteria for autism and Asperger syndrome but the
"novel" approaches lo problem solving. Also, they
follo1ving are the n1ain characteristics of autism:
prefer verbal ac ti vities to written activities.
ln1pairn1ent of social interaction - those affected
They have a good memory.
have difficulty 1vith reciprocal social interactions.
This rnay co111e across as being disinterested. They are probably musical and/or artistic.
Also, some may like the social contact but fail to Assessment can be achieved in a variety of ways from
reciprocate it. teacher nomination to checklists of the above to
•
assessing students' 1vork and testing their abilities 1vith ln terms of effects, the main characteristics are highlighted
psychometric methods (e.g. an IQ test). Please refer to on page L18 and, in addition, dyslexics may well sho1v
the IQ section on page 137. elements of dyscalculia (atypical n1athematical ability),
dyspraxia (problems 1vith motor coordination of limbs,
CHALLENGE YOURSELF etc.) and dysgrapl1ia (difficulty 1vriting).
A local school has asked you to assess its
students for giftedness. What sort of tasks would fA\ TEST OURSEL
you get the students to perform 1n order for you to assess
who may be gifted?
V Outline potential causes of dyslexia.
~ EVALUATION
CAUSES AND EFFECTS
~--
quant
OF ONE SPECIFIC
LEARNING DIFFICULTY
OR DISABILITY
STRATEGIES FOR
ys EDUCATING CHILDREN
Recent advances in this area have focused on a WITH SPECIAL NEEDS
biological cause for dyslexia. It would appear that if a -
person has been diagnosed 1vith dyslexia then there Int gration versu
is a 40- 60 per cent chance that the person's child or
children will also develop dyslexia. i n
Johnson & Jones (1999) highlighted some pros and cons
It 1vould appear that there could be "faults" in the
for integrating students 1vith autistic spectrum disorders
phonological processing centres of the brain in
dyslexics. The specific areas could be: into mainstream schools:
broca's area, which is involved in the production of Pros: there were increased chances of social
interactions; easier access to resources; specialist
speech and 1vriting
teaching methods; broader opportunities for
the parietotemporal region, 1vhich is thought to be qualifications; opportunities to spread a1vareness of
involved in analysing a 1vritten 1vord or sentence their need to others; a better understanding of social
the occipitoten1poral region, 1vhich is thought to be rules in a real-world every day context.
involved in looking at 1vords and then identifying Cons: there 1vere too many people to deal with
1vh at they a re. socia!Jy; the curricuJu1n n1ay have been too
Also, an area of the brain called the cerebelJum could inflexible; staff \Vere less likely to have been trained
play a role in dyslexia as this area controls elen1ents of on the disorder; there 1vere fe1ver opportunities to
language production but also coordination and balance explore the social \.vorld "s;ifely''.
1vhich can also be lacking in people 1vit11 dyslexia. The Council for the Registration of Schools Teaching
Genetic analysis has shown that genetic variants may Dyslexic Pupils (CReSTeD) is a UK-based organisation
account for some of the reading difficulties and other that lists schools that have specialist provision for
factors linked to dyslexia. For example, Wilcke et al students \Yith dyslexia. In 2013 it had 78 schools listed
(2012) reported that a variant of the genetic n1aterial with specialist dyslexia units and 1Tiost of these schools
labelled FOXP2 may well be able to account for some will integrate dyslexics inlo 1nainstream education but
of the phonological processing difficulties that dyslexics also have provision for specialist lessons and help where
display. Elbert et al (2011) also reported that a certain it is needed for a student.
region of the K!AA03 I 9 gene could contribute to the
reading difficulties displayed by many dyslexics.
•
TEST YOURSELF
Type 1 activities \vere designed to expose students
What are the arguments in ravour of integraUng to a range of hobbies, occupations, places, etc. that
students with special educational needs into are not covered in the curriculum. Type 2 activities
mainstream schools? \vere designed to promote things such as problem-
solving skills, "how-to" skills and oral and visual
communication skills. Type 3 activities 'vere designed
For gifted students, so that students could choose an area of interest to
pursue \Yilh extra curricular lime. Types I and 2 \Vere
acceleration or available to the top 20 per cent of an ability group \Yith
•
Type 3 given to Lhe top 3 per cent of students (or more
depending on the model adopted by a specific school).
There has been a debate as to v•hether gifted students
are n1ore often accelerated (placed in a class for older
students or given niore stretching \VOrk) or enriched
(given extra activities in and out of the classroom). 0- I
A variety of strategies can be used in schools (and at
The Department for Children, Schools and Fatnilies
home) to help students who have dysleida:
recommends a con1binatlon of the t\vo including:
The Alpha-to-Omega method for reading, \Yriting
stretching targets for a gifted student taking into
and spelling is a schen1e based on phonetics. It
account previous kno\vledge and skills
introduces \VOrds, gran11nar, punctuation, etc. in a
providing learning acti vities that stretch the student series of logical steps to help dyslexic students begin
through acceleration and enrichment to read words Lhen \vrite them and get the spelling
1' making opportunities for independent learning correct. Pictures are used so Lhat students have to
match sou11ds and \VOrds to the correct picture.
enabling learning in settings beyond the classroom
providing individual support for aspects such as Colour can be used - n1any dyslexics have been
found to find \vhite paper quite "glaring" n1aking it
language to st retch and challenge the student
difficult to read text. As most scl1ools in the UK no'v
ensuring rich provision of educational activities. have interactive \vhiteboards this can be problematic
Renzulli ( 1977) created an enrichment triad model for dyslexics in the classroom. 'rhe use of cream or
\vhich \Vas used in schools in the United States in the pastel shades of paper or background to an interactive
J 970s. The n1odel is sho,vn in Figure 8.2.1. board can help to reduce the glare and the words
appear clearer. Son1e dyslexics prefer a coloured
overlay on a piece of paper (a plastic coloured
Type 1 Type2
sheet) or they wear I inted reading glasses \vi th their
General Group preferred colour as their lenses. The colour~d filters
exploratory training are said to help \vith the visual stress of reading. An
activities activities
intuitive colourin1eter can be used by an optometrist
to find dyslexics' preferred colour. Pinally, the
choice of colour for the text is crucial - some colour
combinations such as red text on 1vhite background
v Type 3
Individual and small-group
Investlgation of real
can 1nake the \VOrds "invisible" to some dyslexics.
Phonics can be used to help dyslexics. There are six
problems
stages to this:
1. Phonemic a'vareness - this helps students to
recognise different phone1nes and what they
sound like.
Figure 8.2.1 The enrichment triad model
2. Phonic instruclion - this teaches students how words and their meanings and are asked the
to ~sound out" a printed \VOrd by recognising meanings of previously learned \VOrds.
Lhe different leuers in a \VOrd.
3. SpeUing and \vriting instruction - this
encourages students to combine letters to make
® EVALUATION
useful ind vs sit ethics
'
\VOrds and then say the1n.
4. Fluency instruction - students practise reading
" 'ords correctly. They are also encouraged to CHALLENGE YOURSELF
read faster each tin1e. You have been asked by a local school to help
5. Vocabulary instruction - this allo\vs students to students who have been diagnosed with dyslexia.
The school wants you to devise a programme that can
begin to recognise Lhe words they have already be followed by these students to help them. What will you
learned. include in your programme and why?
6. Co1nprehension instruction - students are
encouraged to ask questions abou t uncertain
•
effectiveness ofho\v that student learns on that day.
8.3 LEARNING AND Therefore, there is unpredictability here.
Formal and Informal confused \vith formaJ and informal teaclling methods.
S 1 I76) @ EVALUATION
Early ideas about teaching styles focused on ho"'
usetul quantlqual
formal or informal the classroom setting was. These are
the t\\IO styles:
•
ind vs sit
Formal style this is a teacher-centred approach to
delivery. lhe teacher is in control of the lesson and
decides '"hat is being taught, how it wiU be taught, \Vho
sits where and how the classroon1 is arranged. This is CHALLENGE YOURSELF
son1etin1es called a "traditional" method of teaching. Using one or the learning or teaching styles
above, explain how you would use it Lo make
informal style - this is a student-centred approach learning more effective In a local school.
to delivery. The lesson is a negotiation between the
student and the teacher in tenns of 1vhat is taught,
ho1v it is delivered and how the assessn1ents \vork.
MEASURING LEARNING
Bennett noted that 1vhen lessons are about acaden1ic
content then the formal style brought about better
AND TEACHING STYLES
results than the informal. This suggests that having
So. ho\v do teachers and educational psychologists
structure to lessons, brought in by the teacher, allows
measure preferred learning and teaching styles? We 'viU
students to understand concepts better and then use
look at \vays in \Vhich they can measure both.
Lhen1 at a later date.
•
being syllabus-bound (relying on the teacher for TEST YOURSELF
learning objectives), improvidence (showing strong What are the main features of the ASt?
attention to detail) and fearing failure.
Achieving orientation - this includes taking a
"strategic approach" (students are a\vare of the
academic demands of a subject) and showing Teacher-centr d and
achievement motivation (being quite competitive
\vith confidence).
student-centred styles
Non-academic orientation - this includes having (Kyriacou & Williams,
disorganised study methods, having negative 9
attitudes to studying in general, "globetrotting" We have already discussed the ideal of forn1al and
Qumping to quick conclusions not based on all the informal teaching styles but ho\v can these be measured
facts available) and extrinsic n1otivation (\vanting to statistically? Kyriacou & Willian1s ( 1993) devised
get qualifications). an inventory that could be con1pleted by teachers. lt
All students 'vho co1nplete the ASJ get a score on all measured the degree in which teachers were student- or
four orientations (and each s1nall section within an teacher-centred in their job. Teachers have to co1nplete
orientation) so the score can then highlight to them a series of statements by simply ticking how it best
what strategies they can use \vhen it comes to studying describes ho\V they \vork (see Figure 8.3.1 ).
(e.g. for exa1ns).
Figure 8.3.1 Some of the bipolar terms used to measure teacher-centred and student-centred teaching styles
Source: Adapted from Kyriacou & VVilklns, 1993
An overall score can be calculated that tells us the extent All of these styles are measured using a learning styles
to \vhich a teacher prefers teacher-centred or student- questionnaire '"here students tick all of the statements
centred styles of teaching. that they feel describe ho''' they learn. From that, a
score can be generated and then each student can be put
into one of the four main categories.
Kolb's (1984) learning
EVALUATION
•
psychom
Kolb began working on his learning styles ideas in 1984
and they \Vere published in 1984 and I986. He believed
that there are four main learning styles, as highlighted ind vs sit useful
by Figure 8.3.2.
Concrete
experience CHALLENGE YOURSELF
Feeling You have been asked Lo give a talk to some
teachers about teaching and learning styles. They
want some practical advice about what things they can do
§ in Lhe classroom to make learning more interactive. What
Accommodating ~ Diverging advice would you given Ihem and on what psychology is
feel and do § feel and watch your advice based?
(.)
Active Processing Continuum Reflective
experimentation - ---=-+----- observation
Doing c: Watching
Converging ..
0
Q.
.
Asslm1latlng IMPROVING LEARNING
think and do e
<1> think and watch EFFECTIVENESS (STUDY
cf SKILLS)
Abstract
conceptualisation Now you have learned about different learning and
Thinking
teaching styles and ho'v to rneasure them, ho\\' can
Figure 8.3.2 Kolb"s learning sty1es all of the information be used to try to improve ho'"
effectively we learn? We will look at three methods.
The four styles can be described as folJo,vs:
Accommodating - students \Vho like to do things
and get involved in the experience of learning ' "ill The 4-m t syst m
be in this category. Accommodators may be risk " 1
takers and do thi ngs via "trial and error~
There are four stages to lesson planning \Vhich in theory
Assin1ilating - asshnilators Lend to be motivated can enhance learning experiences in the classroon1:
by asking questions such as "What is there to
1. Motivation - students may be asked to devise
kno\\•?" ll1ey are more interested in abstract ideas
a lesson individualJy about a particular topic.
than concrete ones. They Ii ke accurate, structured
Similarities and differences are noted via a
delivery of information.
discussion bet~veen the students.
Converging - students in this category like the
2. Concept development - all of the students' lesson
practical application of any idea and like logical
plans are discussed so that a lesson can cover \vhat
progression of topics.
all students like in terms of the way they learn. This
Diverging- students in this category like to be means that the teacher can direct the learning to
i1naginative \vhen learning. They Like to vie'" ideas appropriate tasks. For example, for some a textbook
from many angles and like material presented in a might be the favoured method of delivery \Vhereas
systematic '"ay. for others some onJine material might help.
•
3. Practice - all students engage in practical activities There are three main stages lo SPEL1':
in the classroo1n to develop a deeper understanding 1. Phase 1: students are taught about the different
of the topic areas. techniques (e.g. problem-solving, men1ory,
4. Application - students 'viii be given a novel organisation techniques) by a teacher using a formal
situation or experience and they have to use the style of delivery.
kno,vledge they have already gained from the first 2. Phase 2: students "try out" a number of techniques
three stages and apply it to this ne\v situation. and then evaluate them in terms of effectiveness for
them. The delivery moves towards an informal style
of delivery as each student can \\'Ork individually at
his or her own pace.
This method is about improving the effectiveness of 3. Phase 3: students begin to use the strategies that
learning through the use of textbooks. The idea is to do they evaluated favourably in different situations or
more than sin1ply "read" the material in a textbook by classes. They continue to evaluate their effectiveness
doing the follo1ving: and the delivery of session is no1v informal.
1. Preview - the idea here is lo "skin1 read" a chapter Psychologists and teachers have been very positive
by focusing on words in bold, the headings and about the SPELT 111ethod as it gives students a
subheadings used and readi ng any introduction, "cognitive toolkit" \vhich they can use in any subject
sun1 niary or bullet-poinL sections. depending on the demands of any given task.
2. Question - students go back and look at any
headings or subheadings again, then they need to
turn these headings into questions.
® EVALUATION
useful quantlqual
3. Read - students read each section carefully, maybe
highlighting or making notes in the margin. The
•
ind vs sit validity
que~tions generated in stage 2 should be a focus and
students should try to find the answers to them as
they read.
TEST YOURSELF
4. Self-recitation - students recall the information OuUine the SPELT method to improve learning.
after each section either out loud or to themselves.
5. Test - \vhen a chapter is completed, students try to
recall as mud1 of the chapter as possible using the CHALLENGE YOURSELF
questions to help them recall. Outline one way In which you would improve
the effecbveness of learning 1n a group of
students who say they are "bored with JUSl reading from
a textbook".
The SPELT method
I ~ 1 )
The final n1ethod is called strategies for effective
learning and th inki ng (SPELT). The idea is that if
teachers can get students lo understand and appreciate
ho~v they learn then teachers can in1prove students'
ability to learn. This can then turn into students
becon1ing autono111ous learners who kno1v exactly the
best 1vays in which they learn. Teachers must have a
range of techniques that can help any students (e.g.
problen1-solving, memory, logical and organisational
techniques).
One idea fron1 humanism that atten1pts to explain
motivation \~S proposed by NlaslO\\'. He created a
hierarchy of needs that starts at basic needs and 1noves
up to higher-level "meta needs~ This is shO\Vn in
Figure 8.4.1 . A student 1nust \VOrk up the hierarchy of
We have already looked at w·ays in \Vhich students needs to achieve self-actualisation - this is realising and
learn differently and how potentially to improve the read1 ing one's full potential.
effectiveness of learning in the classroom. Ho,vever, one
other factor that can affect educational performance is
motivation. ln this section \Ve look at different types of
nlolivat ion, ho\V to improve nlOt ivation and issues that Self-
affect motivation. actuallsallOn
needs
~ ASK YOURSELF
Esteem needs
~ List anything that you think would mollvate a
student to do beller at school.
Social needs
Safety needs
DEFINITIONS, TYPES PhyS1olog1caJ needs
AND THEORIES OF
MOTIVATION Figure 8.4.1 Maslow's hierarchy of needs
•
TEST YOURSELF Praise is given but success is attributed to ability
What are lhe s1m11an1Jes and differences between alone or external factors (e.g. luck).
the humanistic and cognilive approaches lo • Praise is used as a sy1nbol of po1ver.
motrvahon?
Some psychologists have criticised the idea of motivation
being con1pletely based around praise and that it is
encouragement that is the key to success. Tapp & Lively
IMPROVING MOTIVATION
- did report though that 1vhen praise is used effectively,
behavioural gains can be very quick and effective.
Behavioural: effective
r 1 ® EVALUATION
•
behaviourism useful
It may appear logical that praise is a good thing in
the classroom and that it motivates students to work
harder. Wh ile this is probably the case, Brophy noted
that there are such things as ineffective and effective CHALLENGE YOURSELF
praise. It is not just the act of praising that motivates, it Using lhe idea of effective praise. outline a
is about how it is delivered. Brophy had noted that only programme you would set up at a school that
would encourage teachers lo use It more often. What
about 6 per cent of class ti me is devoted to praise - and would you tell the teachers?
this is not enough. According to Brophy these are the
ingredients for effective praise:
Praise should only be delivered in response to • •
specific behaviour.
9 I I I I
\<Vhile there are many biological drives that 1notivate
The target behaviours that 1vill be praised need to be
us to perform certain behaviours (e.g. hunger, thirst),
defined clearly to all students. McClelland believed that a need for achievement \YaS just
Praise should appear lo be sincere, credible and as powerful as a motivator. He defined it as"... a stable,
spontaneous (so teachers do not need to think learned characteristic in 1vhich satisfaction is obtained by
on their feet). striving for and attaining a level of excellence~
Perforn1ance shou Id only be praised 1vhen a student People 1vith a high need for achievement 1vill seek
meets clearly defined standards set out by the teacher. out situations in which they can compete against a
Praise should be informative: students should kno1v "set standard". In education these could be grades or
1vhy they have been given it performing better than last time on a task. They may
also avoid tasks that appear to be "too easy': They lviU
Praise can be individually specific - so it should be
choose tasks that are seen as a challenge to them.
given for the recognition of hard 1vork and effort
1vith di fficu It tasks. People \vith a lo1v need for achievement tend to be more
motivated by a desire to avoid failure. 111ey will seek out
,. Praise should attribute success lo effort over
easy tasks so they can avoid failure. They may also seek out
anything else.
very ditlicult tasks 1vhere failure appears ll1e only option as
Brophy also noted these exan1plcs of ineffective praise: aln1ost everyone will fail. 'TI1ey will avoid tasks that other
Praise is given randon1ly. people may succeed at due to this fear of failure.
Generic, bland, positive con1n1enls are given that Overall, achievement 1notivation consists of the need
are not specific to the student or the task that the for achievement nnd the fear of fai lure.
praise is based around.
CHALLENGE YOURSELF
Re1vards given are not related to performance. How could you mohvate a student that has a IO\V
Praise is used 1vhen con1paring student 1vith student. need for achievement. What activities could you
do with them?
Praise is not linked to effort.
•
Cognitive-behavioural: MOTIVATION ISSUES:
I ATTRIBUTION THEORY
Bandura (I 977) developed the idea of self-efficacy. It is a AND LEARNED
n1easure of the belief about our O\Vn ability to con1plete HELPLESSNESS
tasks successfully and achieve goals. There are four
main components: Sometimes, students do have problems and issues \vhen
Persona] accon1plishments - previous success in it con1es to motivating themselves lo co1nplete work
a particular task increases our self-efficacy. If \Ve or sit an exa1n. Why is this the case? We \Vill look at
have succeeded before there is no reason to think tv.•o \vays in \Vhich \Ve could explain \Vhy this happens:
that \Ve \viii not do the same again. Ho\vever, attribution theory and learned helplessness. We \Vill
failure \vilJ lo\ver self-efficacy. lf \Ve continue to then also look at bo\v changing attributions nlight have
succeed at tasks and our self-efficacy remains high, a positive effect on motivation in students.
then the occasional failure at a task will have little
impact on us.
Vicarious experience - this is based around Attributing c uses to
watching others succeed or fail at a task. Bandura beha I rs
believed that if we watch other people succeed Weiner (1984) noted that there are three 1nain factors
without any negative consequences that it may well that can affect motivation based around ho\v \Ve
strengthen our own self-efficacy and we will be attribute success and failure to a certain task:
more likely to \vant to try harder next time.
Locus of control - this \Vas developed from an idea
Verbal persuasion - this is based on the idea that by Rotter. An internal locus of control is about us
verbal praise from someone else about a student's feeling \Ve have control over \vhy \Ve perform ·\veU (or
potential ability to succeed can help and can instil not) on a task. An external locus of control is about
confidence in the student. It is not as strong as us feeling something outside of us make us perform
direct experience but it can help if the student has \Veil or badly on a task (e.g. luck or fate).
repeatedly failed at a task previously.
Stability - this is concerned \Vith hO\V much \Ve
Emotional arousal - the level of anxiety and perceive an attribution to be affecting us over
stress that a student feels can have an effect on the tin1e. For example, if " 'e attribute a success to luck,
student's self-efficacy. If the student has too much this is dearly an unstable force as it is unpredictable.
or not enough anxiety or stress then he or she can Ho\vever, if \Ve attribute success or failure to
have IO\V self-efficacy and therefore may easily fail something stable (such as our own ability) this can
a task. A moderate amount of aiLxiety and stress be consistent over ti1ne and it motivates us n1ore.
is optimal for self-efficacy to work \veil - feeling
Controllability- this is about how much we
nervous before an exam might actually help you feel
feel. co11trol over any factor that could affect our
more positive about your potential ability compared
perforn1ance on a task. Elements that are controllable
to crying and not wanting to enter the exani room!
include students carefully planning revision for an
® EVALUATION
cognitive useful ind vs sit
exam or d1oosing to con1plete a ho1ne\vork task.
However, so1netimes things are uncontrollable as they
are "out of our hands" (e.g. catching a cold before an
exani) and this makes a student underperforn1.
TEST YOURSELF
Outline one psychological way of trying to explain
h()f1 we could improve motivation 111 the classroom.
On what psychology is your chosen way based? Seligman first developed the idea of learned helplessness
\vith research using dogs. He found that \vhen a dog
•
could not escape the negative experience of electric underperforn1ed that move away from internal
shocks no n1atter where they stood in a cage, they simply blaming. They could explore this further 1vith role
gave up tr)ring to escape and lay do1vn. When they 1vere play. Tead1er-111odel/i11g is a technique where teachers
then put in a si1nilar situation 1vhere they could escape give exan1ples of 1vhen they \Vrongly attributed failure.
by jumping into part of the cage 1vhere they 1vould get no Another technique is stude11t-111odelli11g by inviting
shocks, they did not - they had learned to be helpless. previous students back to talk about tlieir successes,
So, ho1v can this relate to education? lt all depends on especially those '"ho no\v feel internally motivated
ho'v students are attributing their failure. Ifstudents Finally, teachers could get students to anaylse success,
attribute any failure to their 01vn ability then this can which is something they may never do.
develop into learned helplessness. They 1vill al\\•ays Attribution-change techniques can be used.
perceive any task as being one they 1vill fail at and 1vill Students should be discouraged from believing that
simply give up and not perform to the best of their ability all success is do1vn to ability- saying something like
or try at all. They become passive and helpless even in " I succeeded because I am a competent person and
ne11r situations and ch;1llenges as they believe they will worked hard" is a better attribution style. 1'eachers
ultimately fnil because this is what has happened (or been need to help students 1\lhO attribute failure to ability
attributed) previously. There may be gender differences by talking about the potential that the failure 1vas
here too - girls tend to attribute fuilure to lack of ability because of lack of effort. A teacher can also arrange
1vhile boys tend to au ribute failure to lack of effort. tasks so that students 11•ho work hard can attain and
It is not just students' internal perceptions that can affect then begin to allribute son1e success to ability rather
learned helplessness. The feedback that a teacher gives than luck. Finally, a teacher can give feedback to
can also pron1ote (or get rid of) learned helplessness. even good pieces of work with a message that yes,
If tl1e feedback is constantly negative 1vithout anything students worked hard, but their best is yet to come
constructive or any action poi11ts or areas to in1prove on, so tl1ey should continue on this gro1vtl1 path1vay.
then students 1vill develop learned helplessness. As a result, This should begin to ensure that students continue
students 1vill not make an effort on future tasks as they will to attribute results to internal and controllable
expect failure based on their previous ability and feedback. factors or move to1vards beginning to attribute in
this \\ray.
TEST YOURSELF The D1veck 1vay can be used: teachers should
Outline learned helplessness using examples from sin1ply avoid using person-oriented phrases such
educatt0n.
as "I am proud of you" or "You really are good at
this" as these 1vill 1nake students feel that all of
their ability is do1vn to personal attributes rather
n n u~--·~ tlian effort. Jnstead, teachers should use process-
One 1vay in 1vhich students may overcome negative oriented phrases like "You really tried hard on that
ideas and feedback is to change ho1v they attribute task" or "Now, that \Vas a good 1vay to do it" as
success and failure in the classroo1n and in their these promote more stable, internal effort-based
academic perforn1ance. Students show more effort attributions. As a result, students 1vill begin to
1vhen they attribute success to internal and unstable change their attributions of success and of failure.
factors that they can control or if there are stable
internal factors that 1vere out of their control for that @ EVALUATION
specific task. Therefore, teachers should move towards useful behaviourism cognitive
pron1oting 1nore of the internal attributions in their
students. How can this be done?
Attribution re-training can take place. \.Vith this, CHALLENGE YOURSELF
tead1ers can e1nploy a range of stralegies. Tuey can You have been asked to try to change the
discuss the attributions of failure \vith students attnbullons of children who have negallve views
or their success in a local school. How would you do this?
and explore other reasons \Yhy students failed or
•
disrupting other students \vho are trying to 1vork or
• simply 1valk out of the classroom.
The effects of these behaviours include do1nination
conversations, preventing other students fron1 learning
and thinking, preventing other students from 1vorklng
on tasks set by the teacher, bullying others and giving
the teacher a lot of unnecessary stress!
TYPES, EXPLANATIONS
AND EFFECTS OF
DISRUPTIVE BEHAVIOURS Imm turity and verbal or
There are many examples of disruptive behaviours in This usually takes the form of b11llyi11g and 1ve 1vill
the classroom. These are behaviours that the teacher return to tl1is later as the one disruptive behaviour
finds unacceptable and that can stop the flo\v of a you need to kno1v about for the exam. Bullying can
lesson. In any given day, a teacher can expect students be verbal (calling people nanles), physical (actually
to talk "out of turn': be late for lessons, rnake noise hitting or kicking sonleone) and/or emotional (n1aking
and break the school rules. 11liS section looks at someone feel bad abou t 1vho the person is). 1 hese forn1s
different types of disruptive behaviours with a focus of bullying can happen face to face in or outside of a
on bullying for the main behaviour you need lo classroon1 or via "cyber bullyi ng" 1vhich is bullying
learn about. via technology (e.g. sending abusive texts or posting
horrible things on social media sites).
ASK YOURSELF
Which drsruptive behaviours have you
experienced al school?
Attention deficit
hyperactivity disorder
ndu H )
111is is one type of "broad" disruptive behaviour. It ADHD is characterised by some of the following
consists of a range of things students can do: behaviours: being restless, getting easily distracted,
shouting out ans1vers, having difficulty in follo1ving
They n1ay distract other students. A student may
1vant to settle do\vn to \Vork but another one is instructions, interrupting others and not appearing
to listen to others. It appears to happen much more
constantly talking next to the student or trying to
often in boys than girls. The above behaviours \\•ill be
steal a pen, etc.
very disruptive in the classroon1 and the effects will
They may be attention-seeking. These behaviours be the same as in the "Conduct" section above. Also,
are used to make sure that people kno\v 1vho the students ivith A.OHO 1vho want to learn might also
students are and they strive for attention. This is find ii difficult to acquire ne1v skills as they cannot pay
because they want to be the centre of attention in attention for long enough to follow instructions.
lhe classroon1.
There have been quite a few explanations and ideas
Calling out can be a proble1n. 1lliS involves a about causes and a lot focus around biology:
student either ans\vering a question 1vithou1 being
Genetic - there may be a faulty gene that causes
asked or just generally shouting out 1vords and
ADH 0 as the prevalence rates in identical l\vins is
comments to others 1vhen they are trying to 1vork
high and the condition tends to "run in fan1ilies";
(or even 1vhen the teacher is trying to teach).
this suggests that AOHO is encoded in genetics.
They may sho1v out-of-seat behaviour. This is \vhen
Neurotransmitters - students 1vith ADHD
students choose not to sit 1vhere they have been
asked to. They may walk around the classroom might have a che1nical imbalance in the brain;
•
neurotransmitters (e.g. dopan1ine and noradrenaline) disruptions make them deviate fron1 1vhat they had
have been linked to ADI-ID as these help to regulate planned for the lesson.
behaviours such as impulsivity and lack of attention. They are not ''group-alerting": they are failing to use
Physiological arousal - tJ1ere are t\\'O ideas here. The random questions so students have to be attentive.
first is tllat those \Vilh ADHD have an over-aroused Unpredictability can make students more attentive.
central nervous system that causes them to be They are not providing "stimulating seat\vork": they
"stimulus-hungry" all the time to fulfil this over-arousal are not prO\'irung a range of activities that make
and this leads to a range of disruptive behaviours. The students "stay in their seat" as they are engaged and
second idea is tlle complete opposite - it is about the \vanting to learn.
central nervous system being under-aroused and ho'"
this leads to students not paying attention or being
able to 1naintain attention as they are not "stimulated CAUSES AND EFFECTS
enough". The use of a drug called ritalin, \vhich can
"calm down" a student \Vith ADHD quite effectively,
OF ONE DISRUPTIVE
sho\vs that it might be the "over-arousal" explanation BEHAVIOUR (BULLYING)
that is stronger as this is \1•hat ritali11 does - it calms the
student down physiologically. a
We will focus on bullying here by looking at some
r.B\ EVALUATION
'& . useful
•
factors that 1nay cause bullying and what the effects of
bullying are. In terms of causes, there appear to be a fe,v
theories, including these:
Attachn1ent style: Rigby (20 13) noted that a bully
TEST YOURSELF tended to have been insecurely attached as a child.
Outline the main characteristics or ADHD and There are two types of insecure attachment that
one potential cause.
can be seen in children: avoidant, where the child
appears to be emotionally detached from the
mother; and resistant or ambivalent, 1vhere the
child appears to \\•ant comfort and form a bond but
Some psychologists believe that a poor teaching style then may stubbornly resist \Vhen the n1other 1vants
can n1ake students disruptive. Any given class can to hug the child, etc. It \vould appear that those
contain such a \vide range of students from different children \vho sho'v an avoidant attachment style are
backgrounds and \Vitll different abilities that sometimes more likely to be bullies at school as tlley have not
it can be difficult for the teacher to react correctly to all formed an en1otionally stable bond.
of the behaviours being sho1vn. According to Kounin, Fan1ily functioning: Rigby (20 13) noted that the
there are five characteristics of an effective teacher that ways fa rnilies functio n on an en1otional level n1ay be
\¥ill decrease the rate of disruptive behaviour. Therefore, linked to whether a child bullies at school. Research
teachers n1ay not be using effective techniques and had sho\VL1 that children who reported that they did
instead doing the foll o1ving: bully at school tended to re port that their fam ily
·n1ey n1ay not sho'" "withitness": they do not kno;v did not appear to sympathise \Vith then1 when they
what is going on in every part of the classroom felt sad or that the fan1ily did not 1vork as a "unit" to
and do not act upon the disruptive verbal and overcome problems at home.
non-verbal behaviours. IJ. Parenting styles: Rigby (2013) noted that an
They may no t be "overlapping": they are failing to authoritarian style of parenting is strongly Iinked
multi-task in the classroom. to bullying behaviour. lhis style of parenting sets
out strict rules on being obedient, respecting
"Smoothness and momentum" may be missing:
elders no matter \vhat they say or do and tolerating
they are not sticking to objectives and then they let
questioning. If children fail to do any of these,
they may be severely punished. One of the issues CHALLENGE YOURSELF
here is that the authoritarian parent does not A school has asked you to run some tra1nrng ror
explain the rules - they are rules and that is that. its teachers. The school wants you to explain what
They may impose high demands on their children causes people to bully and what the long-term effects of
but rarely respond to 1vhat children feel they need bullying can be. Create a presentation ror this
in terms of support and guidance. Laeheem (2013)
also found that a strict upbringing 1vas associated
with bullying at school but the largest predictor CORRECTIVE
1vas a child being exposed to parental violence
at hon1e.
AND PREVENTIVE
Socio-economic status: Jansen et al (2012)
STRATEGIES
reported that children from disadvantaged family There are t\\'O core \vays in \\•hich disruptive behaviour
backgrounds with a lo1v socioeconomic status 1vere can be challenged and changed. Corrective strategies
more Ii kely to be bullies. are ones that are used as the disruptive behaviour is
Teaching environment: Laeheem (2013) discovered happening or has just happened. Preventive strategies
tha t an authoritarian classroon1 rnanagen1ent style are ones that are used to stop the disruptive behaviour
leads to niore bullying - the rnore students are from happening iJ1 lhe first place.
exposed to inflexible rules and pu nishrnent the
rnore likely they are to turn to bullying.
Pr ventive: effectiv
@ EVALUATION
dis
•
useful ind vs sit
Cotton ( 1990) revie\ved studies from around the 1vorld to
see 1vhat preventive strategies are common but, n1ost of
all, 1vhich ones \\•ork in effective schools. Seven core ideas
were found:
ff
There has been some research tha t has examined Comrnitment - the entire staff of a school needs to
the long-term effects of being bullied and on people be con11nittcd to any policy in the school. This would
1vho engage in bullying. The results are highlighted cover appropriate behaviours in the classroorn.
below: High behavioural expectations - the policy must
Ttofi & Farrington (2012). A longitudinal study have clearly high standards of behaviour that must
suggested that around one third of bullies engage be adhered to.
in criminal behaviour after leaving school. Also, Clear rules - the rules and punishment for
those 1vho are bullied are nvice as likely to become disruptive behaviour must be very clear and so1ne
depressed later in life compared to those 1vho have schools get their students to help produce these so
never experienced bullying. everyone is involved and knows what is expected of
Sesar et al (2012). In a sample of 249 college then1. Students are more likely to "stick to ru les" if
studen ts, those 1vho had experienced being bullied they arc involved with the production of then1.
had higher levels of anxiety, sleeping problen1s A '\varrn" cli1nate - staff rnust take personal interest
and depression compared to those 1vho had never in students and their ach ievernents, goals, etc. and
been bullied. give support whenever it is necessary.
It 1vould appear that bullying (for both the bully and A supportive headteacher - the headteacher needs
the bullied) brings about longer-tern1 negative effects in to be "seen around school': caring for students too
adulthood. Therefore, strategies must be put into place and sho1ving some informal behaviour to1vards
to try to combat bullying in schools. them 1vhen necessary.
•
Delegation of responsibility - the headteacher Through the use of rewards and punishn1ent, students'
oversees everything but individual teachers are behaviour can be shnped away fron1 disruptive to
responsible for each and every class they take in more appropriate behaviour. This could be run in the
terms of behaviour and sticking to policies. following \vay:
Close ties \Vith the local community - parental Students have to kno\V \Vhat the problem
involvement in the school \vitb a solid f!o\v of behaviours are (e.g. what disruptive behaviours
information is important so that everyone knows are too common). They 1nust also be made a\vare of
\vhat is happening in the school. \vhat behaviours are not happening that should (e.g.
All of these measures appeared to bring about lo,v leveJs of those on the list of appropriate behaviours). While
disruptive behaviour. All of them are preventive measures it is not necessary, students could be involved in
as the students have clear boundaries before they start the defining the behaviours.
school and about \vhat they can or cannot do in lessons. Teachers may also keep a "count" ofhO\\! often the
Wang, Berry & Swearer (2013) interestingly noted that disruptive behaviour is happening to rnake students
having the "warn1" and "positive" clin1ate appears crucial fully aware of \Vhat they are doing.
in the success of a prevention progran1 for bullying. In Teachers and students niay discuss \vhat could
addition, Cross et nl (20 11 ) reported 011 the Friendly be causing the disruptive behaviour to see if they
Schools Progra1n noti ng that if everyone '"as committed are seeing it frotn "the Sarne angle''. They need
to it with support from the local con1n1unity (usually to identify potential triggers for the disruptive
through parents) then there \Vas significantly less behaviour and then see if anything is actually
bullying even 36 nionths after the programme started reinforcing it. Remember that reinforcing a
(based on data from 29 schools). behaviour is increasing the probability it \vill
happen again; so this is about identifying \Vhat is
reinforcing the disruptive behaviour.
Effective classroom Teachers need to find strategies through selective
n reinforcement to reinforce the appropriate behaviour
and punish or ignore the disruptive behaviour.
The Kounin features on page 133 cover elements of
Ren1en1ber that punishment can be a fonn of
effective teaching and classroom manage1nent that a
attention and therefore students may perceive it as
teacher can use. In addition, teachers may need to:
a reinforcer rather than a punishn1ent. Teacl1ers
have high expectations for correct behaviour \vith a may choose to use a re\vard chart for appropriate
\vann, friendly approach to all students behaviour where slickers or tokens are added (or
have clearly established rules and expectations that removed) depending on \vhich behaviours are being
are nlivnys followed (including potential punishments) seen in particular students.
make sure that rules are acted upon promptly and Teachers must n1onitor ho\v effective the
fairly if a student breaks one or more of them progran1111e is and change reinforcers if necessary.
111aintain a good pace in lessons so students are
always actively engaged in tasks ratl1er than tryi ng
lo be disruptive. Cognitive behaviour
modification (self·
Corrective: behaviour ti n I u I)
Cognitive behaviour modification is based on the idea
1-- that changing someone's thoughts can then change the
Behaviour 1nodification tends to be based around way the person behaves. The nvo concepts are linked.
the n1echanisms of operant conditioning. Students One such technique is called self-instructional training
can learn fron1 the consequences of their behaviours. and is based around the follo,ving steps:
1. Cognitive modelling - teachers n1ust conduct tasks The idea is that this teaches students that they can
\vhile "talking out loud" - they need to cover \vhat \vork quietly on a task 1vithout disrupting other
they are doing, \vhy they are doing it, etc. Thjs, students. It also sho1vs them that they can be
in theory, should allow students to focus on what successful at these tasks using this technique so they
needs to be done, as not listening means they miss begin to associate the "talking th rough instructions
out on vital information. to self" \\"ilh "success at a task". It is hoped that this
2. Co-\vorking - target students are asked to repeat \viii then mean that they \viii be less disruptive in
the task above and also say out loud what they are subsequent tasks.
doing. Teachers can still guide target students so
that these students experience success. @ EVALUATION
useful ethics behaviourism
3. Imitation - target students then reproduce the task
but without any help from teachers. They still say
out loud what they are doi ng. cognitive ind vs sit
•
8.6 INTEiL LIGENCE
The French government com1nissioned Alfred Binet
to create a test that would detect which children 1\lere
This section looks at a range of aspects related to "too slo1v intellectually" to benefit from a regular
intelligence. This has probably been one of the most school curriculum so other measures for them could
controversial areas in psychology for many years
be out into place (previously those labelled "slo\\•" were
as Lhere has been a lot of debate as to the origin of kept at home and not allo\ved to attend school!). He
intelligence and the best 'vays to measure it. based his test on the idea that intelligence \vas more
to do 'vith mental reasoning and proble1n solving
ASK 'OURSELF
Whal is intelligence and how do you think we than motor skills. He devised a test and kept refining
should measure 11? it before a final version \Vas released in 1911 to help
test children. Children scored on a scale depending on
ho'" 1vell they perfonned in each section of the test to
give then1 a mental age. This could then be compared
CONCEPT, TYPES to their mental age lo see 1vho was "slo\v".
AND TESTS OF Lewis Terman fron1 Standford University took Binet's
INTELLIGENCE ideas and developed then1 further \vith a test for US
children, hence the Stanford-Binet test. ln 19 16 he
ln this first area 1ve look at what intelligence is and \vhat released the US version of the test that could be used in
tests are used to n1easure it. schools to assess children. This test has been continuaUy
revised up untiJ its latest version from 1986. AU of the
test items are devised \Vith the idea that the majority of
Concept of intelligence children, at that age, should be able to answer then1. The
current version of this test has four components: verbal
reasoning. abstract or visual reasoning, quantitative
There have been many attempts to define intelligence
reasoning (ability to "handle" numerical data) and short-
by a range of psychologisLS. One that appears to sum it
term memory.
up in terms of it being in line \vi th \vhat the majority of
psychologisLS believe is from Sternberg: ·:..(it is) mental
activity directed tO\vard purposive adaptation to, and
selection and shaping of, real-,vorld environn1ents
relevant to one's life". (I 985: 45). ll1erefore, it is about
using the kno,vledge and skills \ve have to help us tackle Weschler developed a ne1" lest of intelligence back in
problems and tasks in every day life. 1939 as he felt that the Stanford-Binet test relied too
IQ stands for intelligence quotient. Tt is a quantitative much on language ability, phis it was only for children.
n1easure of a person's inteUigence based on the person's The Weschler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) and,
perforn1ai1ce on an IQ test \vhich is designed to measure some 20 years later, the Weschler Intelligence Scale
a range of capabilities. The overall score is based on the for Children (WISC) 1vere devised to improve on the
foUo,ving equation: Stanford-Binet test.
mental age Both the WAIS 3l1d WISC are divided into l\vo parts:
IQ = x 100 a verbal scale and a perfonnance scale. Obviously the
chronological age
WISC version has questions and tasks that arc n1ore child
Therefore, the average score is I00 no matter what
appropriate.
chronological age you are so it is an attempt at finding
a standardised n1easure of intelligence. Ho,vever, belo\v The verbal scale consists of the follo1ving tests:
1\le \\!ill cover different tests that have been created to information. This test consists of general kno1vledge
measure a person's IQ. questions about the \VOrld.
CHAPTER 8: PSYCHOLOGY AND EOUCAllOf'l
Comprehension. 'TI1is assesses practical infonnation sho\vn son1e search groups of symbols and has to say
and abi lit y to use past experiences to ans\ver whether any of the target symbols appear in it.
questions. A person's IQ is calculated based on ll1e individual's
Arithn1etic. Verbal problems that are number based performances across all of these tests. Ho\vever, one
are given in this test. advantage of the WA IS and vVISC is that you have
Similarities. This test asks questions about \vays in score for each person on each test - therefore, you can
\\•hich t\\IO objects or concepts are similar. see a person's strengths and \veaknesses on certain
tasks, '"hich can help 'vith support at school, for
Digit span. A series of numbers are presented
instance.
verbally and then the person must repeat them
for\vards and back\vards in order.
Vocabulary. This test has questions about definitions THE BRITISH ABILITY
of words, etc. SCALE {BAS)
Letter number sequencing. Letters and number
are presented orally in a rnixed-up order (e.g. This is now in its third version and is divided into
Hl F7S9P4). The person has to then recite the early years and school age forrnats. There are three
nun1bers in numerical order then the letters in brief assessment scales that are quick measures of
alphabetical order. nurnber, spelling and reading abilities (see ·rable 8.6.1 ).
The perforrnance scale consists of the However, the n1ain clement of the BAS is its cognitive
follo1ving tests: scales \Vhich are divided into t1vo categories:
Digit symbol. Points on various shapes are given The core scales - these are six cognitive tests that
numbers and then the person is asked to recall what measure verbal ability, non-verbal reasonjng
shape a certain number is (or part of a shape). ability and spatial ability. There are t\vo for each
ability. The Lest scores are simply added together
Picture con1pletion. The missing part of a picture
to generate a general conceptual ability (GCA)
must be discovered and named.
score. Therefore, an overall score is generated but
Block design. Designs seen on pictures must then be there are component scores that can be looked at
built with blocks. separately.
Picture arrangement. A series of comic-strip pictures The diagnostic scales - these can be used to measure
must be placed in order to tell a story. specific cognitive abilities such as object recall,
Matrix reasoning. A geon1etric shape has to be recognition of pictures, speed of information
selected from a range of alternative in terms of processing and number concepts.
similarity. Therefore, like the WAIS and WISC, the BAS gjves an
Object assembly. Pieces of a puzzle Lnust be overaJI score (the GCA) but the advantage is you get
assembled into a complete object. component scores and if sornethjng else needs assessing
then there are tbe diagnostic scales that can help pinpoint
Syn1bol search. Paired groups of target symbols
the strengths and weaknesses of a child's abilities.
are sho\vn to the participant. ·n1e person is then
•
VERBAL Picture arrangement
The pictures below 101 a story. P\Jt 1hem in 1he right
General information
What day 0( the year 1s Independence Day? order to lell the slory.
Similarities
In what way arc wool and COiton alike?
Arithmetic reasoning
II eggs cost 60 cenlS a dozen. whal does 1 egg cost? Block design
Vocabulary Using the lour blOCkS, make one JUSI hke ttus
Tell me Ille meaning of corrupl .
Comprehension Object assembly
Wtty do people buy fire insurance? II these pieces are pvt together correctly, lhey will make
something Go ahead and put lhem together as quickly
Digit span
Listen carefully. and when I am through, say lhe numbers
as you can.
nght after me.
1 3 4 1 e s
Now I am going Lo say some more numbers, but I want you
Lo say lhem backward
3 e 4 1 s
PERFORMANCE
Picture completion
I am going to show you a pie lure wilh an important
part missing. Tell me what Is missing.
Digit-symbol substitution
'85
SUN MOH lU! weo
1 [II 3 4 5 6 7
8 9 10 11 12 13 14
THU "II SAT
Test
Code I~ I ~ I ~ I~ I 8
5 I
15 16 17 18 19 20 21
22 23 24 25 26 27 28 6 8 6 0 8 6 8
29 30 l 1 lxl o l l 1 lx l 1 J
Recognition of 45 45
designs
Word definitions 52
Pattern 45 45
construction
Matrices 34 34
Verbal 51
similarities
Quantitative 36 36
reasoning
••
Percenttle 55 4 27 18 8
Spatial ability
I 74
91
Low
Average
•
In a comprehensive revie\v on the field in the 1990s.
liiB\ EVALUATION
Sternberg, Grigorenko and Bundy ( 1991 ) reported that
\5'
•
psycho usefUI quant
there may be some kind of link. Studies had sho,vn
a correlation ofbet\veen +0.40 and + 0.50 bet\veen
IQ scores and educational attainment. Ho\vever.
TEST YOURSELF Sternberg \vas quick to poi11t out that there were vast
Outline what is involved in either lhe WAIS, WISC differences in these correlations depending 0 11 the
or BAS test of Intelligence. san1ple, t11e tests used and \\lhat \Vas being used to
measure educational performance. Sternberg revie\ved
29 studies and found that between 10 per cent and
Rell bility, validity and 22 per cent of variance in specific subject achievement
• at school can be accounted for by IQ. Ho\vever, the
research team did note that there had not been any
We have already covered these concepts in the issues research that had assessed the Link bet\veen IQ and
and debates section. ReliabiJity refers lo the consistency academic performance using a representative national
of son1ething - in this case, testing whether \Ve san1ple (outside of samples used to standardise the
score the san1e in an intelligence 1neasure over tin1e. test). Therefore, we still do not fully kno\v \vhat
Validity refers to the accuracy of a measure - in this the relations hip is between IQ and educational
case. \vhether the test actually measures intelligence. perfonnancc.
Predictive validity refers to a test's ability to predict
More recent research has attempted to link different
a specific behaviour that the test is supposed to be
aspects of intelligence to educational performance.
measuring. Therefore, in this case it \VOuld be looked
Abu-Hilal and Nasser (2012) noted that there \vas an
at by correlating the score on an intelligence test with
indirect link bet,veen IQ and mathematics ability for
intelligent behaviour in real life (e.g. educational
boys and not girls. They found that boys \vith a high
performance or job aptitude).
IQ exerted more effort \\rhen studying mathen1atics
Myers (1998) noted that for the Stanford-Binet test, and this led to better results con1pared to low IQ
the WA IS and the WISC, the reliability scores are boys who did not exert much effort. .HO\Vever, for
+ 0.90 - this n1eans that when retested on tJ1e san1e girls, tJ1e high and IO\ V IQ groups exerted the sa111e
scale, n1os t people score virtually the same (the amount of efl'ort but the high IQ group performed
111aximun1 reliability score is + 1.00). better at mathematics. This sho\vS that there niay be
A \vay to measure reliability is called a test-retest other factors that interact \Vith IQ that can explain
method. For this, you get a sample of participants and educational perforn1ance.
test them on the same measure one or f\vo months A longitudinal study by Duck\vorth, Quinn &
apan. The results are correlated and if there is a strong Tsukayruna (2012) reported that IQ predicted
positive correlation then the measure is said to be changes in standardised achieven1ent test
reliable. This is because people are scoring roughly the scores over tin1e 111ore than "self-control" factors
same both tin1es they complete it. (e.g. home\vork and classroom conduct). Emery &
Bell (2009) reported that scores on one section of the
TEST YOURSELF
bion1edical admissions test used by the University of
How would you test the reliability and predictive
validity of an IQ test? Can1bridge called "Scientific kno\vledge" correlated
strongly with high examination scores once these
students had been accepted and were studying at
the university.
Intelligence and
--u "onal a nee liiB\ EVALUATION
\!!I
•
Ln terms of predictive validity, can IQ tests and other usefUI ind vs sit
tests of intelligence and skills predict lhings such as
educational perfonnance?
THEORIES OF Multiple Intelligences
INTELLIGENCE r r
Gardner (1983) took the idea of the factor-analytic
There are nlany ideas from psychologists about \vhat theories a stage further by stating lhat there are seven
intelligence actually is. We have looked at \vays of different types of intelligence in a person. They are:
measuring it, but '''hat is intelJigence anY'vay?
linguistic: speech production, syntax and semantics
musical: our ability to create and understand sounds
Factor-analytic approach such as pitch, rhythm and timbre
_..:·-i.-1 -
There is a common underlying idea for any factor-analytic
logical-n1athematical: the use or logic and
n1athematics to help solve problems
approach to intelligence (there arc many theories for spatial: our ability to perceive spatial information
intelligence): there are different "clusters" ofi11telligent and recreate visual images in our "mind's eye" plus
behaviours and skills that can be nieasured on any our ability to rotate shapes visually
test. Factor-analysis allows a psychologist to interrelate bodily-kinesthetic: our ability to use n1ovement and
(correlate) aspects of a test to see which iten1s or sub-scales our body to solve problems (use of motor skills)
link toget·her strongly. Factol' analysis is a co111plex: statistic
intrapersonal: this covers understanding our own
technique that does th al job - it allov1s psychologists to see
feelings and intentions
which elen1e11ts of a test relate strongly to each other and
from that each "factor" that is found can be named (e.g. interpersonal: this covers understanding and
verbal intelligence, problen1-solving skills). recognising the beliefs, behaviours, feelings and
intentions of others.
Spearman originally had an idea that there was one factor
\Vithin intelligence. He called it g for general intelligence. The theory has recently been modified further to
He believed this because he found that virtually all items incorporate environmental, moral and spiritual
on an intelligence test correlated \vith one another strongly. intelligences.
hence there \\'35 just one genera.I factor of intelligence.
Thurstone did note that the g factor \Vas evident through a
range of different tests but that they differed in the amount Triarchic theory
I
ofg that \Vas being shO\\'TI via the correlations. He stated
that there were seven factors including nun1erical ability,
While Sternberg ( 1988) agreed with the ideas of Gardner,
spatial ability and verbal fluency.
he stated that instead of seven areas of intelligence, there
Cattell (1963, 1971) proposed another theory based are three main areas of"practical" intelligence:
on factor analysis. There are just two main forms of Acade1nic problem-solving - these are skills
intelligence: assessed via tests such as an IQ tesL. The questions
Crystallised intelligence - this is intelligence based are well structured and there is ahvays a single
on previous kno\vlcdge and skills. Therefore, tests correct ans,ver.
that include vocabulary and reading con1prehension
are testing this type of intelligence.
> Practica.I - these arc skills that are often needed for
everyday tasks. These tasks may not be very \veil
Pluid intelligence - this is intelligence based on novel defined and have nlultiple solutions \Vhere you have
1vays of thinking. Therefore, tests that ask for the next to choose which one is best lo solve an issue, etc.
number in a sequence test this type of intelligence.
Creative - these are the skills and behaviours that
Cattell believes that crystallised intelligence appears to we sho\v \vhen trying to cope and tackle with novel
be maintained in a person throughout life \Vhereas fluid situations (\ve 111ay, for exarnple, dra\V on previous
intelligence begins to decline at the age of 40. knowledge that could be applied to a novel situation) .
•
® EVALUATION Creativity and unusual
t
••
validity useful
Probl m olving: A lily pad grO\\IS so that each day it doubles its size
means-end an lysls, (area). On the 20th day of its life, it completely
covers the pond. On \vhat day of its life \\fas the
planning strategies and pond half covered?
b h g
Problen1 solving has also interested psychologists for Children \Viii often use backward searching \Vhen trying
niany years. to solve a maze. They may start fron1 the exit point and
Means-e11d analysis is a problen1-solving try to move backwards to\vards the starting point.
strategy where the problen1 solver has to
divide the proble1n into a smaller nu1nber of
"sub-problems" in order to reach the goal. Each
@ EVALUATION
•
useful cognitive
"sub-problem" should reduce the difference between
the starti ng point and the end point. Therefore, we
ind vs sit
figure out die "ends" of a problem and then figure out
the "means" by \vhich \Ve \Viii do it - hence means-
end analysis. Some psychologists have tried to use
•
Answer to the lily pad problem
EXAMPLES OF HOW TO they are something else - this may then affect ho\v they
are educated. In addition to this, there could be an issue
EVALUATE of validity in terms of people may answer questions in
one way on paper that does not really represent ho\1•
For the 12 n1ark question in Paper 3, you 1vill be asked they actually behave when in the classroom or trying to
to evaluate one of the topics covered in this section. Yo u learn. Therefore, predictive validity niight be lo1v.
'"ill have noticed that after each topic in this chapter
there are the icons for the different issues, debates, Improving motivation
approaches, perspectives and research methods that One problem 1vith using praise with children in
could be used to help you ans,ver the 12 niark question the classroom is based around its 11seful11ess. vVhilst
in the examination. Belo1v are three examples of the behavioural psychologists \vill argue that using re1vards
types of things you could \vrite in the examination. increases the probability of repeating that behaviour,
You should aim to make at least four different others may argue that this only changes the observable
evaluation points for the 12 mark question. Our behaviour and not the thought processes that are
accon1panying Revision Guide has a series of student happening behind the behaviour. Also, if a teacher
ans,vers " 'ith marks and examiner comn1ents attached does not consistently give praise to all students for the
to them. san1e behaviours or level of performance then it 1vill be
difficult to implement as it could de-n1otivate students
Measuring learning styles who are sho,ving good behaviour but do not receive a
Learning styles can be nieasured using psychornetrics. re1vard of some form.
This is an advantage as they are standardised on a
large sample of people, they can be seen as being more Corrective and preventive strategies
objective and scientific. 111erefore, En1vhistle's ASl Preventive strategies for dealing 1vith disruptive
allows a direct co1nparison between students in a group behaviour have been seen to be useful. Wang, Berry
or class to directly show which of the 4 din1ensions & Swearer (2013) interestingly noted that having
each student is stronger on. 111ere is no need for any the 'war111' and 'positive' clin1ate appears crucial in
interpretation. Ho1vever, there niay be issues wiili the success of a prevention progra111 for bullying. In
validity. Is the test actually nieasuring the behaviour it is addition, Cross et al (2011) reported on the Friendly
supposed to be nieasuring? For exan1ple, with Kolb, ho1v Schools Program and how it 1vas successful if everyone
can 1ve be sure it is exactly nieasuring accom1nodators, was committed to the Program with support from the
divergers etc. Also, these measures have to rely on local community (usually through parents) then there
people being honest 1vith their ans\vers. This can was significantly less bullying even 36 months after
affect the validity of the final scores on the scales and the Program started. Therefore, it can be useful
therefore a student may be incorrectly labelled \\rith a within schools to improve student behaviour that is
type of learning style (e.g. accon1modator) '"hen in fact a problem.
•
CHAPTER 8: PSYCHOLOGY AND EOUCAllOf'l
Try the follo,ving exam-type questions. (d) Evaluate what psychologists have discovered
about corrective and preventive strategies for
Section A disruptive behaviour and include a discussion
(a) Explain, in your O\vn '"ords, '"bat is meant on usefulness. (12 marks)
by the tenn 'learning style'. (2 marks)
Section C
(b) Explain, in your O\Vn \vords, 'vhat is meant
by the term 'intelligence'. (2 marks) (a) Describe one way '"e can measure
learning styles. (6 marks)
(c) Describe hvo \vays in which you could
improve motivation in students. (4 marks) (b) Suggest ho\v you '"ould test the reliability
and validity of a rneasurement of
(d) Outline one special educational need. (4 marks)
learning styles. (8 marks)
Section B (c) Describe one strategy that can be used
(a) Describe '"hat psychologists have to help children '"ho have been labelled
discovered about cognitive approaches as 'gifted'. (6 marks)
to learning. (8 marks) (d) Suggest how you niight help a child witl1
(b) Describe 1vhat psychologists have discovered dyslexia at school. (8 marks)
about rnotivation and education. (8 marks)
(c) Evaluate what psychologists have discovered
about intelligence and include a discussion on
the use of psychometrics. (12 marks)
•
PSYCHOLOGY
AND HEALTH
shoulders and using arms arc all exan1ples. Doctors reluctant to stop the doctor and ask for clarification as
can use these to try to get "a point home" to a patient they do not 1vant to be seen as being less intellectual.
but they must be a\vare of cultural differences. For Other factors that can affect verbal communications in
exan1ple, a thu111bs up might mean "good" in some interactions include the follo1ving:
countries but other cultures might not see it as thaL
I> The volume of information conveyed is a factor. Ley
I> Personal space invasion is another non-verbal ( 1988) stated that patients tend to remember just
communication. We cover this in the next chapter over 50 per cent of the information given to then1 in
(see page 193 ). a consultation.
I> Appearance can be another powerful non-verbal I> Primacy effect plays a part - patients tend to be
cue as to \vhether a patient will listen to and trust better at remembering and recalling infonnation
a practitioner. A doctor \vho appears to be \veil fron1 the beginning of the consultation.
dressed and tidy \viii be trusted more than one "'ho
I> Patients who have son1e 1nedical knowledge tend to
is casually dressed and a little untidy (Russell, 2005).
recall more of the consultation.
Ho\vever, when the patient is a child, a doctor \vho
is casually dressed may relax a child nlore than a I> Patients remen1bcr and recall only 1vhat they feel is
very forina lly dressed doctor. in1portant "to then1" in the consu ltation.
I> Instructions are 1nore likely lo be forgotten if presented
TEST YOURSELF orally (1vhich is why 1nany are printed on drug labels).
Outline two different non-verbal communications
that a practihoner could use in a consultation. In
CHALLENGE YOURSELF
addition, highlight actual examples of how these could be
A local surgery has told you that It wants to
used by a practihoner
improve pract1t1oners' communication skills Devise
® EVALUATION
ind vs sit useful qualitative
a training programme ror practitioners to achieve this.
PATIENT AND
PRACTITIONER
DIAGNOSIS AND STYLE
Verbal communications
Verbal communications are based around the speech A practitioner can use differing styles to diagnose a
used by a doctor to try to gain access to relevant patient. The styles differ in the way that inforn1ation is
information about a patient's condition and then the collected and used to make the diagnosis.
potential treatment.
lv1edical jargon is one potential hindrance when it comes Practitioner-style: doctor
to verbal comn1unications between doctor and patient.
McKinlay (1975) was the first to note that niedical and patient-centred
jargon can affect what the patient understands about the Byrne and Long ( 1976) anillysed aboul 2 500 recorded
consultation. He tested won1en's knowledge of 13 regularly 111edical consultations across 1nany countries and
used "1nt.-dical tern1s" and found that aln1ost everyone discovered two nlain "styles":
could nol understand 1vords such as "protein': "u.mbilicus~ I> The doctor-centred style 1neant that the doctor
"purgative" and "suture''. Ho1vever, tern1s such as "navel" asked questions that were closed so that the
and "breech" were understood by many. Only just over patient could only answer "Yes" or "No''. When
one-third of patients understood each of the 13 ternlS the patient attempted to expand on answers or
correctly, but this rate \YaS higher than the doctors had tried to give 1nore information, this \vaS mainly
anticipated - \vhich makes us wonder \Vhy the doctors ignored. It \vould appear that the doctor wanted to
used jargon. One issue that Russell (2005) noted \Vas make the symptom- diagnosis link \\•ith no extra
that, 'vhen a doctor does use jargon, many patients are
cornmunication and everything \vas based on "fact" ~ wants a certificate for an illness that the doctor does
rather than any discussion. Therefore, the patient not believe the patient has
\Vas passive in the conversation. ~ makes sexual re1nar~ lo the doctor.
~ The patient-centred style n1eant that the doctor The above can stop a consultation "in its tracks". A
asked open questions so that the patient could patient may sho\'' a real concern about a condition
explain and expand on answers. The doctor would that is only minor or sho\v no concern for a condition
try to limit the use of medical jargon to ensure that is major. The doctor still needs to get the correct
that the patient understood the diagnosis and information out of the patient to make a diagnosis.
potential treatment. The doctor would encourage Different patients \viii describe sy1nptoms of the same
patients to express themselves ho"' they \vished illness in vastly different \vays, \vhich can also make
and \vould ask for clarification as and \vhen it \Vas it difficult for the doctor to n1ake a reliable and valid
needed. 1berefore, the patient was active in the diagnosis. Sarafino (2006) noted that this nlay be the
conversation. case as patients sin1ply interpret sympton1s differently
from each other (or have a different hierarchy of \vhat
TEST YOURSELF
they feel are the "main syn1pton1s" of an illness). Also,
\/Vhal is the difference between doctor-centred and
patient-centred styles? Use examples in your answer. some patients n1ay wish to "pla)' down" sy1nploms that
may point towards a n1ajor ill ness. Finally, patients 1nay
not have the requisite vocabulary to describe accurately
the syn1pto1ns they are feeling.
Practitioner diagnosis:
type I and type 11 errors
There are occasions \Vhere a doctor \Viii get son1ething
® EVALUATION
ind vs sit useful reductionism
\vrong. There are two types of error that can happen
(you \viii be fan1iliar \Vith these from the Rosenhan
study at AS level, Core study 7.1 on page 87):
1. Type I error. This is \\•hen the doctor diagnoses MISUSING HEALTH
somebody to be healthy \vhen the patient is actually SERVICES
physically or psychologically ill. Many believe this to
be the most serious of the nvo errors as the patient There are a variety of \vays in \Vhich a palient may
does not get any treatment and the condition \vorsens. misuse health services. We \viii look at son1e of
2. Type 11error.111is is \Vhen the doctor diagnoses these below.
somebody to be ill \vhen in fact the patient is
healthy (this is \vhat Rosenhan discovered). TEST YOURSELF
Before reading on, make a list of all the reasons
you can think of as to why people may delay
seeking medical treatment.
Disclosure of information
For a diagnosis to occur, t.he patient does have to give
some information to the doctor. Howeve1~ as tbe doctor
\Vill have an array of patients who have their O\Vn styles
Delay in seeking
of commwlication, reaching the correct diagnosis can treatment
sometimes be quite diJficult. Saralino (2006) noted that the Safer et al ( 1979) devised a model after interviewing
patient can hinder the communication \Vhen the patient: nlany patients that tried to explain \vhy patients delay
~ 1vants to criticise the doctor or becomes angry treatment. There are three stages lo this:
~ clearly ignores \Vhat the doctor is saying 1. Appraisal delay - this refers to the time taken
for a person to interpret a physical symptom as
~ insists on more tests and medication \vhen the
a potential indicator of illness. This is affected
doctor says there is no need
CHAPTER 9: PSYCHOLOGY AND HEALTH
by immediate sensory inforn1ation - something assume it is a very serious problem. '!hey ahvays
bleeding or making a person experience 1najor think they have the worst illness possible given the
levels of pain \viii be interpreted much more symptoms.
quickly as "so1nething wrong" than a small pain, for Gropalis et nl (2013) noted a cognitive-behavioural
instance. element to the condition. Hypochondriacs might have
2. illness delay - this refers to Lhe time taken bet\veen faulty information processing in the brain. Those \\•ho
people recognising that they are ill and actually have high anxiety 1vhen it comes to health-related
seeking some fonn of medical attention. This issues ahvays direct their attention tO\vards any source
is affected by familiarity - a ne\v and different of health threat. They can also easily access men1ories
symptom \viJl create a faster reaction and help of illnesses. This may make them think that certain
seeking behaviour than an old symptom that minor symptoms are something much more serious.
re-occurs. Sch\venzer & Mathiak (2012) reported that the
3. Utilisation delay - this refers to the tin1e taken cognitive bias described here could be a "general" bias
bet\veen deciding to seek medical altention and tO\Vards "less positive» vie1vs. In their study, participants
actually doing so. 'I his is affected by a nun1ber of without any kno\vledge of Chinese language characters
factors such as cost, how severe the pain is and had to guess, just by looking at the characters, 1vhether
\vhether the person feels that going to get help they portrayed a positive or negative meani ng. 'TI1is \vas
would cure the illness. used to see what biases lie in processing inforn1ation
that is dearly not related to illness in any \vay. 'TI1ose
People can easily ignore illnesses without iinmediate who had higher hypochondrias is scores on a scale rated
pain and therefore can have illnesses such as the characters as being less positive Lhan the people
hypertensioll and cancer for n1ore than, for example, \vith low hypochondriasis scores. Therefore, a "general
three months before they decide to go and get n1edical distrustful attitude to,vards familiar procedures should
attention and advice. be considered in bypochondriasis" (2012: 178).
ASK YOURSELF
Why would a patient not adhere to medical Rational non-adherence
advice? List as many reasons as possible and
There are patients who choose not to adhere to medical
then see how many turn up in this chapter.
advice as it appears rationnl for thel1t to do this. By this, we
mean that they have conducted a cost-benefit analysis and
it appears lo them "costly" to adhere to the treatn1ent being
TYPES OF NON- given to then1 or asked ofthen1. Laba, Brien & Jan (2012)
ADHERENCE AND wanted to try to understand rational non-adherence using
REASONS WHY a comn1unity sample of patients in Australia. The patients
were given a discrete choice online survey that \\lanted to
PATIENTS DO NOT estimate the importance of eight medication factors \vith
ADHERE regard to non-adherence. The factors \vere:
I> immediate medication harn1
Types and extent of J> immediate medication benefit
non-adherence I> long-term medication harm
Clarke (20 13) noted different types of adherence that J> long-term medication benefit
've can reverse to discover different types of non- J> cost
adherence, \vhich are:
J> regimen
I> not follo1ving short-term advice (e.g. to take three
pills per day, five hours apart, for one 1veek) J> sy1npton1 severity
Cardiac testing 11 5 0 4
Ultrasound 55 7 1 5
Nole: Numbers refer to number of patients
£. Table 9.2.1 Adherenc e rates (Zang & Fish, 2012)
We can see that no reminder \Vas necessary for some ~ Do it now - as soon as a cue is present take the pills
of the treat1nents in Table 9.2. 1. Ho\vever, for all of there and then. Even a five-second delay can cause
the treatn1ents listed, people did respond to a letter forgetting and non-adherence.
re1ni nding them of the in1portance of the treatment ~ Introduce imple111entatio11 intentions - n1ake it all
\Vhich led to lhen1 attending the relevant health clinic. specific, so rather than patients thinklng ·~round
Fron1 lhe data in Table 9.2.l, those sent a second letter breakfasl tin1e I will take 1ny pills" gel tJ1en1 to tJlink
about the need for a colonoscopy responded well, "Wilh my first cup of tea of the day I will Lake 1ny pills''.
\vith another 14 people corning forward. 111e high
~ Teach - ask - \Vail - ask again - wait - ask again.
levels of non-adherence to both the colonoscopy and
This allows patients to rehearse intentions and,
man1mogran1 highlight that some people simply do not
respond to rein inders. Research into \vhy these people according to lnsel et al, leaving a sufficient gap at
the second '\vait" (as long as 15 minutes) can help
do not respond needs to be conducted.
improve memory for intention.
It \vill be intriguing to see if the system does improve
MEMORY INTERVENTION adherence rates to anti hypertensive drugs.
•
userul reduct
(e.g. a scratch or a touch). When there is activity in
these fibres the gale lends to close as the pain is IO\\I
level and not dangerous.
TEST YOU ~SEL,
~ t.lessages fron1 the brain are also a factor. Outline one theory of pain
lnfonnation such as excitement and anxiety can
affect ho\v much the gate is opened or closed.
Sarafino (2006) noted conditions that can open or close
the gate in the spinal cord. The gate can be opened by:
MEASURING PAIN
~ severe injury This next section will exarnine the different ways
~ anxiety, \\lorry, depression, etc. in 11•hich pain can be n1easured by a practitioner or
~ focusing too niuch on the pain, plus boredon1. psychologist.
Self-report measures
These are usually questionnaire-based methods that aJIO\\I the person experiencing the pain to rate ho\v severe it
is. Common exan1ples arc the use of a box scale, a verbal rating scale or a Like rt-type scale. Examples of these are
given in Figure 9.3.1.
Box scale:
Likert-type scale:
The exan1plc questions below would be answered using the options of:
Strongly agree, Agree, Don't kno1v, Disagree, Strongly disagree.
1. The pain usually gets 1\lorse at night.
2. Pain relief helps me control my pain.
A Figure 9.3.1 Scales for recording pain - box rating, verbal raltng and Likert-type scales
Patients ma)' also be asked to keep a pain diary, as sho\vn in Figure 9.3.2, so the practitioner can monitor when the
pain is happening and ho1v the patient feels.
CHAPTER 9 : PSYCHOLOGY AND HEALTH
Time Pain rating and Activity at start of What medication Pain rating after Comments/other
body position pain did you take and 1 or 2 hours problems
how much?
~ .. 51 lower ball: Leaned over and ~1rin (2.) 4 - nelped a Gould f>tand up
pain drag9ed d1nin9 lhair little better
awai from table
11.00 p.m. 2/ lower ball: L'f in9 flat on balK in Ibuprofen (2.) I- ne\ped lroub\e 9ettin9 to
dull alne tile bed f>leep: 9ot to £>1eep
at around i .oo a.m.
Psychometric measures per class. The further do\vn the list in each sub-class
the 1vord is, the more points it scores so that an
and visual rating scales overall pai11 rati ng index can be calculated.
One standardised psychometric measure of pain is the 3. The patient has to describe the pattern of pain from
McGill Pain Questionnaire (M PQ). This questionnaire three sub-classes of words and then produce son1e
co111es in four parts: qualitative data aboul 1vhat things relieve but also
1. A diagran1 of a body is presented to the patient, increase the pain.
\vho sin1ply has to mark 1vhere the pain is localed 4. The final parl asks Lhe pal ient to rate the strength
around the body. of the pain via six questions. 111e scores fo r th e
2. There are 20 sub-classes of descriptive 1vords fro1n questions are added up to create a present pain
1vhich the patient has to choose a n1axi1num of one intensity score.
Part I. Where Is Your Parn? Part 2. What Does Your Pain feel Like?
Please 1Park on lhe drawing below the areas where you Some or lhe words below describe your present pain.
reel pain. Put E ii external. or I if internal. rear Lile areas Circle ONLY lhose words that best describe il. Leave out
\Vhich you mark. Put El ii both external and internal. any category that is not suitable. Use only a single word
in each appropriate category - the one that applies best.
1 2 3 4
Flickering Jumping Pncking srarp
Quivering Flashing Bonng Culling
Pwlsirg Shooting Drilling Lacerating
Throbbing Slabbing
Beating Lancinating
Pourding
5 6 7 8
Pinching Tugging Hot Ting ling
Pressing Pulling Burning Itchy
Gnawing Wrencl1rng Scalding Smarting
Cramping Searing Slinging
• Crushing
- 9
Dull
Sore
Hurting
10
l ender
Taul
Rasping
11
l iring
Exhausling
12
Sickening
8ullocating
Aching Splilling
Heavy
\ I 13 14 15 16
Fearful Punistung Wretched Annoying
Frightful Gruelling Blinding Troublesome
Terrifying Cruel Miserable
Vicious Intense
Killing Unbearable
17 18 19 20
Spreading Tight Coot Nagging
Radiating Numb Cold Nauseating
Penetrating Drawing Freezing Agonizing
Piercirg Squeezing Dreadful
Tearing Torturing
Part 3. How Does Your Pain Chanae Wilh Time? Part 4 . I-tow Strong Is Your Pam?
1. Which word or words would you use lo describe the People ag ree that the following 5 words represent pain of
oatlern or your pain? increasing intensity. They are:
1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5
Continuous Rhythmic Brief Mild Discomtorllng Distressing Horrible Excruciating
Steady Periodic Momentary To answer each question below. write lhe number of the
Constant Intermittent Transient most appropriate word in the space beside the ql1estion.
2. What kind of things reljeve your pain? 1. Which word describes your pain right now? _ _ _
2. Which word describes il al its worst?
3. Which word describes il when it is least?
3. Whal kind of things increase your pain? 4. Which word describes the worst toothache
you ever had?
5. Which word describes the worst headache
you ever had?
6. Which word descnbes the worst stomach-
ache you ever had?
Visual rating scales can come in the form of visual simiJar to the MPQ, a picture of a person so they can
analogue scales as shown in Figure 9.3.4. indicate where the pain is (see Figure 9.3.6).
No pain {----------------------------/ Worst pain possible
The UAB Pain Behavior Scale
A Figure 9.3.4 Visual analogue scale ror recording pain
Parameters
The physician can rneasure (\vith a ruler) the distance ( 1) vocal complaints verbal (2) verbal complaints non-
along the scale to get a numeric measure ofho\v intense verbal (groans, nioans, gasps, etc.) (3) do\vntime (time
the pain is - other questions and bi-polar adjecthres can spend lying do\''n because of pain per day from 8.00 a.m.
be used on these scales too. to 8.00 p.m.) (4) facial grimaces (5) standing posture
(6) mobility (7) body language (clutching or rubbing
site) (8) use of visible support equipment (brace,
Behavioural or crutches, can, leaning on furniture, etc.) (9) stationary
movement (ability to stay still) (IO) medication use.
observational scale
The University of Alabama at Biriningham (UAB) Total score = SUM for all 10 itenis
Pain Behavior Scale can be used by nurses to assess Interpretation: minimum score= O; niaxinium score = 10
the degree of pain patients are in through observing The higher the score the rnore n1arked the pain-associated
their behaviour. The patient \viii be asked to perforrn behaviour and the greater the level of inipairnient.
several activities such as \Valking around, sitting down
then standing up and the nurse rates each of these to
give a total score of ho\v n1uch the pain is affecting the Parameter Points Finding
patient's behaviour. Figure 9.3.5 lists the parameters and
verbal complaints none 0
shows the method of scoring some of them.
ln addition, structured clinical sessions can also be occasional 0.5
used and these can be tailored to the pain condition a frequent 1
patient has. The patient can be asked to perform a series
of tasks linked to their pain (e.g. if it is lo\ver back pain non-verbal none 0
one of the tasks may be to tie their shoe laces). All of the complaints
tasks are recorded for observation. A trained observer occasional 0.5
then \Yatches the recording and scores the patient so an
overall pain score can be calculated. frequent 1
CONTROLLING PAIN reducing acute pain in the short term as they act
directly on the central nervous syslern. Examples of
Patients can manage and control their pain levels in a these drugs are codeine and 1norpl1i ne.
variety of 'vays. These range from biological to cognitive ~ Local anaesilietics - these can be applied locally
and alternative techniques. to the site of pain (or be injected) to give almost
CHAPTER 9: PSYCHOLOGY AND HEALTH
immediate relie£ They block the nerve cells at the TEST YO RSELF
site of damage. An exan1ple of this type of drug is Outline one medical technique or one
novocaine. psychological technique for controlling pain.
,. Indirectly acting drugs - these are used [or other
conditions but can also help in pain n1anagen1ent.
For exan1ple, antidepressants can help reduce Alternative techniques
psychological aspects of depression but they can
A variety of alternative techniques can be used \\lith a
also help relieve pain.
patient experiencing any degree of pain, including
the follo\ving:
® EVALUATION
physio reduct valid
individual may believe "No matter \vhat I do, if I am
going to get stressed, I \viii get stressed'.'
Work
ind vs sit
Johannson et al (1978) aimed to study Lhe physiological
and psychological stress responses in the t\VO categories of
high-risk and low-risk 1vorkers. There were two groups:
TEST YOURSELF
~ The high-risk group 1va~ made up of 14 'vorkers
Outline phys101oglca1 mechanisms involved 1n
stress. who had a complex job and 1vorked at a set pace
governed by the production line.
~ The low-risk group contained I0 workers
1vho worked at their O\Vll pace as cleaners or
Causes of stress maintenance staff.
Lack of control The research team measured adrenaline (through
Rotter (1966) identified a personality variable he called urine samples) and body temperature checks on arrival
the locus of control. People \vho attribute control to at \VOrk and at four other times throughout the day,
factors they cannot govern, such as chance or the self-rating of mood and alertness and caffeine and
behaviour of other people, are described as having an njcotine consumption. Baseline measurements \\'ere
external locus of control. 1hose \vho believe that they taken at the sai11e times of the day '"hen the \vorkers
are responsible for themselves have an internal locus of were at home.
control. Wallston et al (1978) developed the health locus The following resultl> were reported:
of control scale. lhis measure, \Vhich looks specifically ~ It \vas found that 1vorkers in the high-risk group
at individuals' beliefs about the factors that determine bad adrenaline levels t1vice as high on arrival at
their health outcomes, assesses three di1nensions: work than when they \Vere at home and their levels
~ Internal health locus of control - this is the extent conti nued to rise throughou t the day. In contrast,
to which individuals feel able to be responsible for the low-risk group had adrenaline levels 1.5 times
their own stress levels. For example, a person may the amount recorded at ho1ne and their levels
state "My O\Vn lifestyle choices are \vhat 1vill affect lowered thro ughout the day.
my stress levels:· ~ From the self-report it \Vas 1nade apparent that the
~ Po\verful others' control over health - this refers to high-risk group felt more rushed and irritated and
individuals' belief that other, in1portant, people (such also rated themselves lo1ver on a scale of 1vellbeing.
as doctors, fan1ily and friends) play an important role
in their experience of stress. For example, a person Life events
may hold vie\VS such as "Whenever I feel stressed, I Holmes & Rahe (1967} constructed a questionnaire
should consult a trained professional:'
called the Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS)
~ Chance health locus of control - this refers to sho\m in Figure 9.4.2. The questionnaire is used to
the role that individuals assign to pure "luck~ An measure the amount of stress a person experiences over
a certain amount of ti1ne (usually one year). Holmes scored over oae year. Th is generated a total of LC Us
& Rahe initially conducted research into ho\v different that could be used as an indicator of the level of stress
life events are perceived in tern1s ofho\v stressful they ex-perienced Holn1es & Rahe noted that people \vho
are. Each of the 43 life events \vere given a score out of scored more than 300 LCUs in a given year \\!ere much
100, \\'hich '"ere called the life change units (LCUs). n1ore likely to become ill due to the amount of stress
People simply had to add up all the LCUs they had they experienced.
A Figure 9.4.3 Excerpt from the Hassles and Uplifts Scale questionnaire
Source. Delongis, Folkman & Lazurus (1988)
@ EVALUATION Self-report
useful quest ind vs sit questionnaires
People can complete questionnaires that give a numerical
'
reduct ind dirts valid measure of stress (e.g. the SRRS and the Hassles and
Uplifts Scale shown in Figures 9.4.2 and 9.4.3).
reliable
@ EVALUATION
quest physiol useful valid
TEST YOURSELF
OuU1ne at least two differenl psychological
causes or stress. In your answer use examples
from everyday hfe.
MANAGEMENT OF
STRESS
MEASURES OF STRESS People can manage their stress using a variety of
techniques, ranglJ1g froin n1edical to psychological.
1l1ere are various physiological and psychological
n1easures that psychologists can use to assess the levels
of stress a person is experiencing.
Medical techniques
These may focus around the use of medication to reduce
Physiological measures: the body's automatic response to stressors. There are
l:\vo main types of drug that can be prescribed to people
recording devices and who are suffering from stress:
sample tests ~ Benzodiazapines - these are a group of drugs
The following are so1ne of the techniques used to (including valium) that directly affect stress
n1easure stress physiologically in people: reactions in the central nervous systen1.
~ Blood pressure monitors are used to measure ~ Beta-blockers - these are a group of drugs that
both systolic and diastolic pressure. Each reduce the anxiety and blood pressure linked
pressure is given a number and the result is to stress. They act on the peripheral nervous
\Vritten as 115/75 for example (this is an ideal syste1n and block activity from ephinephrine and
reading). lfa person has a reading of 185/ 125 then norepinephrine.
this indicates severe hypertension likely to Drugs should only be used as a short-term, temporary
be caused by extreme stress. measure for dealing \vith stress. For longer-term
~ Blood and urine tests can be used to measure control, it is better to use psychological techniques to
levels of cortisol in our body. Cortisol is a slress teach people ne1v 1vays of coping.
honnone. Higher levels indicate tht1t the body is
physiologically stressed.
~ Galvanic skin response devices have electrodes that Psychological
are attached to a person's ti nger tips. They 111easure techniques: biofeedback
the amount of electrical resistance in the skin.
Higher levels of skin response can be an indicator of
and imagery
autono111ic nervous system arousal \Vhich is linked Biofeedback is a technique that attempts to get
to stress. people to take control of their own physiological
CHAPTER 9: PSYCHOLOGY AND HEALTH
state. Usually, people arc connected to devices that they are doing it. Clients are then encouraged to
nieasure key physiological processes such as heart rate, see perceived stressors as being problems to be
blood pressure, muscle tension, etc. The equip1nent solved rather than as a negative experience. They
gives individuals instant and continuous readings are introduced to different coping mechanisms and
of these key physiological measures. The idea is that strategies they can then use. They are also taught to
individuals take vo/1111tary control of their physiology break do'"n stressors into short-term, intermediate
using the idea of re\\lards. If people are attempting to and long-term coping goals.
reduce their resting heart rate and they can see that 2. Skill acquisition and rehearsal phase - this is \vhen
deeper breathing and relaxation is doing this instantly the elements from stage I have been taught and
then they are more likely to 'vant to do the same clients have to put them into practice. The skills
next time. Sarafino (2006) noted that there is a lot of are initially practised \vith the trainer in the clinic
evidence for the usefulness of biofeedback techniques but then clients are encouraged to try then1 in the
for stress-related illnesses such as tension headaches, real \vorld. Some of the coping n1echanisms could
even \vith children. include relaxation training, cognitive restructuring,
lmagery can also be used to reduce stress in people: interpersonal communication skills and using social
1nental i111agery is used to distract people fron1 thinking support to help clients in lin1es of need.
about any stressors they have. In addition, the y n1ay 3. Application and follow-through phase - this is
be taught relaxation techniques to help with tJ1e when there are opportunities for clients to apply all
distrac tion. 'I hese may include visual imagery to take of the coping skills to increasing levels of stressors.
then1 "a,vay from their stressors" and deep-breathing Additional techniques, such as iinage ry, rnodelling,
exercises or even yoga and n1editation. People using role playing and rehearsal, are used in the fonn of
1nental imagery \viii have to i1nagine a variety of "personal experiments" so that clients can show that
situations that have nothing to do \vith the stresses they they can cope \vith any level of stressor. These help
are CLLrrently experiencing. Ensuring that people are not to consolidate the skills they have already learned.
focusing on current stressors aLIO\\IS them to calm do\vn They are also given follo\v-up booster sessions to
and take control of their O\\l'n physiological state. ensure that the entire process is \VOrking.
CHALLENGE YOURSELF
The \Vhole technique is flexible and can be a simple
Produce a leaflet that can be displayed 1n a local 20-minute session for people \vho are just about to go
surgery that tells people ways 1n which they can into surgery, or 40 one-hour " 'eekly sessions for people
try to control stress. who cannot cope '"ith any level of stress.
@ EVALUATION
Preventing stress useful reduct Ind vs sit
® EVALUATION
usefUI ethics ind vs sit
quitting smoking or 1veight management, for example.
Employees are then follo\ved for a year to see if they
are follo\ving their progran1me. In addition to this, the
workplace has exercise areas and nutritional food is
served in its cafeterias. Studies have been conducted in
TEST YOURSELF
the company that show e1nployees 1vho take part in the
Outline one psychological method of promoting Live For Life Progran1 increase their physical activity
health. levels, decrease in weight and are n1ore likely to quit
smoking con1pared to e1nployees \vho do not take part
in the progran1n1e.
HEALTH PROMOTION IN
SCHOOLS, WORKSITES Communities
AND COMMUNITIES One dassic example of a community-based 1vellness
progr=e \Vas that of a study of three comn1unities in
Health psychology has 10 be applied to real life for it the United States (Farquhar et al, 1977). The aim \Vl!S to
to 1vork. Belo1v 1ve look at attempts to promote healthy get conununities to change their health-related behaviour
behaviour in schools, at the 1vorkplace and in the in an attempt to reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease.
community.
1hree communities in Northern California \vere ~ What messages \vere in the information given?
selected for being very similar den1ographically. (Specific examples \vould be excellent here.)
T\vO of them shared the same television and radio ~ Was the campaign successful?
stations \vhereas the third did not (and acted as a
control comparison). The hvo that shared the san1e You may also wish to see if the people running the
media were subjected to a two-year can1paign about campaign used any of the methods of promoting health
cardiovascular disease that included warnings but also already covered in this chapter.
information on changing diet, increasing exercise and One study that has exan1ined promoting a specific
the disadvantages of smoking. !J1 all three con1munities, problen1 is Britt, Silver & Rivara ( 1998). 1l1ey 1vanted
a random selection of males and females were chosen to to evaluate the effectiveness of a bicycle heln1et safety
be follo,ved. The researchers interviewed them annually pron1otion progra1n that had been set up to target
and also took measurements such as \veight, cholesterol children from lo1v income backgrounds. It \Vas part of a
level and blood pressure to be used as predictors for Preschool Head Start Program. There \Vere 18 different
cardiovascular disease. The control community sample sites used in the study covering 880 children \Vith a
sa\v risk increase over the duration of the study \vhile control group of200 children who did not receive any
the hvo communities subjected to the campaign showed helmet pro1notion activities.
so1ne moderate decreases. Longcr-tern1 follo,v-up The Program comprised of the folJo,ving:
checks we re conducted and the largest success came
~ Classroom activities for the children abou t heltnet
from those 1vho were older. 111e sn1allest levels of
safety
success ca1ne from those 1vho \Vere younger and had the
least an1ount of education. ~ Education of parents during son1e school meetings
@ EVALUATION
'
~
~
Home visits to ensure everything \Vas OK
Fitting ofhcln1ets to ensure the children could use
I
useful ethics them effectively
~ A skills and safety event
qual/quan reduct
~ Children 1vere required to wear the helmet when
riding in their school grounds
CHALLENGE YOURSELF The research team 11•ould schedule hon1e visits to
Create a campaign (featuring leaflets, adverts, observe the child riding their bicycle. These \vere
etc.) that can promote healthy lifestyles at school, conducted before and after the helmet promotion
1n a works1te or in the community.
campaign. The use of a helmet n1ore than doubled in
the hehnet pron1otion group from 43% to 8996. 1he
control group rose too but from 42% to 60% It \VOuld
PROMOTING HEALTH OF appear that a targeted helmet promotion campaign
A SPECIFIC PROBLEM works to increase bicycle safety.
Examples of individual
and system errors TEST YOURSELF
USlng examples from real accidents, outline
We \Viii cover the main features of each of the accidents the differences between theory A and theory
below. You may \Vant to investigate one or t\VO of these B factors.
further, so you have examples ofho\v the accidents 1vere
researched.
ACCIDENT PRONENESS Human error and the
AND PERSONALITY illusion of invulnerability
Human error and the illusion of invulnerability have
It may be that some of the theory A factors that are been covered earlier; there may be other causes of
predicted to cause accidents could be do\vn to certain accidents that can be used to argue against both of
personality types. them. These causes include:
>- Cognitive overload - this is \Vhen a person cannot
cope \vith the psychological demands of a work
Personality factors in situation. This is usually when there are con1peting
accident proneness tasks that need psychological attention and the
It \vould appear that there are certain individuals 'vho person cannot process all ofihc information
have more accidents than others and some believe it simultaneously.
is because they have an accident-prone personality. >- Shift work patterns (see section 12.5, page 262).
Farn1er & Cha1nbers ( 1926) defined it as follov.•s: People \VOrking on the night shift are n1ore likely
"accident proneness is a personal idiosyncrasy of to have accidents as bet v1ee11 3 a. 111. and 6 a.m. we
relative pern1anence predisposing the individual to a are in a "cognilive lo,v" and our reaction times and
higher ra te of accidents" ( 1926: 3). Research up until dexterity are at our lowest performance level.
the 1970s attempted to test whether such a personality
exists, whether it is inherited and \Vhether it is stable
over ti me. Research failed to uncover an actual
@ EVALUATION
valid useful reduct
accident-prone personality but it did unearth other
personality traits that could contribute to accidents.
A recent revie'v of research (e.g. Clarke &
Robertson, 2006) revealed the follo\ving:
REDUCING ACCIDENTS
JI; People lo\v in conscientiousness appeared to be
involved in 1nore accidents. That is, people \vho are
AND PROMOTING
low in social responsibilities and/or thoroughness in SAFETY BEHAVIOURS
their job tend to have more accidents.
Psychologists may be able to help reduce the number
>- People Jo,v in agreeableness appeared to be involved
of accidents and promote safer behaviour in the
in more accidents. That is, people \vho are lo'v in
\vorkplace in a number of ways. So1ne of these are
pleasantness, tolerance and helpfulness tend to have
covered belo'"·
111ore accidents.
>- People high in extraversion appeared to be involved
in more accidents. This is slightly different as Reducing accidents at
it appears that people who are outgoing and
boisterous do get involved in 111ore traffic accidents
work: token economy
but no 111ore occupational accidents than introverts. Token economies are an exan1ple of behaviour
modification using rewards to increase the likelihood
Another recent finding about accidents showed that it
that someone ,vilJ perform a desired behaviour. These
may not be personality as such that causes accidents
can be conducted in a variety of 1vays as long as there is
but handedness (Bhusham & Khan, 2006). They
an incentive to perform \vell. In classic token econon1y
investigated 80 locon1otive drivers and their accident
scenarios, plastic tokens or points are given for desired
records. There appeared to be a higher accident rate
behaviour and these can be exchanged for a reward of
among those \vho \Vere left-handed and left-footed.
some form.
Ho,vever, it may be that the design of locomotive cabs
nlakes it more difficult for left-handers and left-footers Haynes, Pine & Fitch ( 1982) reported on one such
to use them effectively. programme that attempted to reduce the number of
CHAPTER 9: PSYCHOLOGY AND HEALTH
® '
EVALUATION
useful valid reliable
CHALLENGE YOURSELF
A local company has asked you to help ii reduce
the number of accidents at work. II also wants
advice on ways to improve safe behaviours al work.
Devise a programme for the company to follow based on
psychology.
EXAMPLES OF HOW TO not take into account the en1otional side of a patient. By
getting patients to go through the teach - ask - 1vait -
EVALUATE ask again - 1vail - ask again, it 1n ight have the opposite
effect as the patient is having to con~lantly think about
For the 12 mark question in Paper 3, you \vill be asked their blood pressure which might be upsetting and as
to evaluate one of the topics covered in this section. You they are focusing on the einotional side they then forget
1vill have noticed that after each topic in this chapter to take their pill!
there are the icons for the different issues, debates,
approaches, perspectives and research methods that Measuring pain
could be used to help you ans\\•er the 12 mark question One 1vay of measuring pain is via questionnaires. This
in the examination. Below are three exan1ples of the niay i111prove validity as people niay be more likely
types of things you could 1vrite in the examination. to reveal truthful answers in a questionnaire as it
You should ain1 to make at least four different evaluation does not involve talking face -to-face \vith someone.
points for the 12 mark question. Our accompanying Therefore, a patient using the McGill questionnaire
Revision Guide has a series of student answers 1vith may give niore accurate results on where the pain is
marks and examiner co1nn1enls attached to them. located on a picture (especially if it is in a sensitive
part of the body) rather th:in in front of a doctor.
Improving adherence Therefore, this could lead Lo quicker and 1nore
There is evidence lo suggest that using techniques effective treatment. .Ho1vcver, patients n1ay give socially
like simple text messaging is usefttf. Le1vis et al (2013) desirable ans\vers as they \Vant to look good rather
reported on a scheme that sent tailored text messages than giving truthful ans\vers. Some people may \Vant
to people currently undergoing HIV treatment. After to appear stronger and more resistant to pain than
being assessed prior to receiving text messages, the they actually are so again on the McGill questionnaire
patients received reminder texts, answered 1\•eekly a person may choose descriptors that do not truly
adherence texts and for those who adhered to treatment describe their actual pain feelings instead choosing
they received tailored messages. The adherence to descriptors that are not 'as strong'. This could have an
medication (self-reported) improved significantly effect on getting the most appropriate treatment.
during the three n1onths receiving the texts. Objective
n1easures of adherence like viral load confirmed Management of stress
that these patients had been adhering to treatn1ent. Using just n1edical treatment is reductio11ist. They assun1e
Therefore, this technique is very useful at improving that the stress is caused by biological problems and
adherence to HIV treatment. However, using cognitive it ignores the psychological and e1nolional aspects of
techniques like n1emory intervention could be seen stress. Sin1ply 'n1asking' the biological syn1ptoms ofstress
as reductionist. Con1paring the hu1nan information does not help lo solve the cause of the stress and this is
processing syste1n to that of a con1puter is reductionist. what needs managing. Taking pills 1vill not get rid of a
lt ignores the role of e111otional and social factors on n1ajor life event that is actually causing the stress in the
ho\v we process infonnation. lnsel's six stage technique first place. Psychological 1reatn1ent is better for directly
to help people adhere to blood pressure treatn1ent does dealing \vi th the problen1 that is causing stress.
CHAPTER 9: PSYCHOLOGY AND HEALTH
Exam centre
Try the following exa1n-type questions. (d) Evaluate \Vhat psychologists have
discovered about methods of
Section A promoting health and include a
(a) Explain, in your O\\'n \\'Ords, \vhat is discussion on ethics. (12 marks)
meant by the term "non-verbal
, ,
commun1cat1on.
n
(2 marks) Section C
(b) Explain, in your 0\\111 \vords, \vhat is (a) Describe one \vay to introduce a
meant by the ter111 "pain". (2 marks) health campaign about a specific
problem that you have studied. (6 marks)
(c) Describe two \vays in which you could
1neasure adherence to medical advice. (4 marks) (b) Suggest how you \\'Ould i1nprove
the health campaign described in
(d) Outline one theory of accidents in the question (a). On \vhat psychology
\vorkplace. (4 n1arks) (8 marks)
is your suggestion based?
Section B (c) Describe two non-verbal
(a) Describe '"hat psychologists have communication skills that a
discovered about the managen1ent practitioner n1ay have. (6 n1arks)
of stress. (8 marks) (d) Suggest how you \vould in1prove the
(b) Describe \vhat psychologists have verbal communication skills of
discovered about 1nisusing health practitioners. On \vhat psychology is
services. (8 marks) your suggestion based? (8 marks)
• •
I n
A siJnple definition for noise is an " un1van ted
sound". Ho\vever, as we 1vill see in this section, not
DEFINITIONS AND all noise is un1vanted. It could be said tha t noise is a
sound that has a psychological component (1vhether
SOURCES it is 1vanted or not) and a physical component
(processed via the ear and brain). Also, a noise
ASK YOURSELF has to be detectable and this can va ry bet1veen
How would yo<J define noise? Think about times individuals. Noise can be measured in decibels (dB)
when a noise has annoyed you. Why did it annoy
and Figure I 0. 1.1 shows the decibel levels of va rious
you? Also think about times where noises have been
pleasant. Why were they pleasant? objects and scenarios.
70 Fast traffic
60 Busy office
50 Conversation Quiel
40 Residen tial area at night
30 Clock ticking Very quiet
20 Leaves rustling
10 Normal breathing
0 I fearing threshold
•
CHAPTER 10: PSYCHOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT
- •
EVALUATION
are generated by motor vehides, trains, planes, etc. One useful ind vs sit
of the main reasons it is unpleasant is because it can be
very loud. Mace, Bell & Loomis ( 1999) \vanted to see
if transportation noise from an aircraft \vould affect
how much people enjoyed a natural landscape. They
used a laboratory sin1ulation in which helicopter noise Factors that make noise
\Vas played at 40d B or 80dB \vhile the participants were
\Vatching slides of tranquil vie\YS of natural landscapes. There are three n1ain factors that can make noise
Participants \Vere asked to record their feelings \Yhile annoying according to Roberts & Russell (2002):
\Vatching and listening and they also rated the slides
for beauty. The louder the noise the n1o re annoyed the Volume - higher intensity sounds are 1nore
participants beca1ne and it also had a negative impact disruptive and anything over 90dB can be perceived
on tranquillity and freedom. Even the rati ngs of the as disturbing. There is an interaction here bet1,veen
slides for beauty \vere IO\Vered \vhen the 80dB noise was volun1e and loudness. Volurne is the actual physical
played. Therefore, it would appear that aircraft noise level of noise as measured in decibels whereas
is a source of annoya nce and it reduces the pleasure of loudness is the subjective experience of the sound.
vie\vi ng nalural landscapes. Therefore, the context o( the sound can affect
annoyance (sounds appear louder 1,vith a quiel
Occupational noise refers to u11pleasant sounds that background environment), as can habituation (people
are generated in the work environn1ent (e.g. from can get used to a repetitive, monotonous sound - for
niachinery and even \\•Ork colleagues). It can be instance, people living near a raihvay track).
disruptive for t\YO reasons:
Predictability - if a noise is predictable and
People may be trying to concentrate but the noise expected then \Ve are less likely to find it annoying
demands attention and also increases physiological compared to a noise that is unpredictable and
arousal 1naking concentration much 1nore difficult. not expected. It is easier to ignore or get used to
The noise can be what psychologists call "\vide- something that is predictable. Corali & Boffa ( 1970)
band», i.e. it is coming from a variety of sources and exposed participants 10 a loud noise either with or
is constant. Roberts & RusselJ (2002) noted that without prior \Varning. Those \vho did not get the
\vorkers can be exposed to longer-term noises warning found the noise mud1 more annoying than
due to machinery such as aircraft mechanics those who had been 1,varned - in the first group
(up to 120dB), coal miners (IOSdB) and even pig the noise 1vas unpredictable whereas in the second
farmers (I IOdb especially at feeding time). Look at group it was predictable.
Figure 10.1.1. to see where these would be placed on Perceived control - if we arc able lo control a noise
the decibel scale. then this reduces the an1ount of annoyance we
Riggio (2000) noted how occupational noise n1ay have feel. An y strategy that puts us "in control" lessens
an irnpact on 1vorkers: the effect of annoyance so, for instance, if \Ve can
It would appear that noise does nol affect close a window to reduce a noise we find ii less
performance if ii is belo1v 90d13 unless sonJeone is annoying. However, i( a s trategy fails to reduce
carrying out a con1plex verbal 1vork task. the annoyance \VC are n1ore likely to be even more
annoyed by the noise.
Unpredictable and intermittent noises are much
more disruptive than a constant, steady noise. TEST YOURSELF
High-pi1dled noises interfere more \Vith Oulline. using examples, lwo factors lhal make
performance on a \VOrk task than lo\v-pitched noises. noises annoying.
•
NEGATIVE EFFECTS in a laboratory for a fe\v minutes. During this time the
confederate sat and read a journal in the same roorn,
NO\Y 11'e will examine \vhether noise can have a negative with other papers and materials balanced on his or her
effect on the social behaviours of adults and the lap. 'IVhen the experimenter came into the roo111 to get
educational performance of children. the participant, the confederate got up and accidentally
dropped the 1l1aterials right in fron t of the participant.
The frequency of helping behaviour was recorded. A
•
i I h total of72 per cent of the participants helped when the
noise was of a normal level. ln contrast, 67 per cent
One anti-social behaviour that could be affected by
helped \vhen the noise \vas 65dB and only 37 per cent
noise is aggression. It has been predicted that as noise
helped \Yhen the noise \vas 85dB.
increases arousal, any behaviour that requires arousal
\viii becorne more intense when noise is present. Geen In the field study a confederate would drop a box of
& O'Neal ( 1969) tested this by sho,ving participants books \vhile getting out of a car. In half of the trials, he
either a violent boxing film or a non-violent sports \VOre a cast on his arm. Noise was also manipulated so
filrn. After watching either film, participants were given that half of the trials were under "norn1al background
an opportunity to be aggressive towards a confederate levels" which were measured to be 50dB whereas in
"victirn" using an electric shock apparatus. They \vere the other half a confederate used a .lawnmo\ver that
told that the higher-nw11bered buttons gave a larger generated 87dB of noise. 'TI1e a1nount of passers-by that
shock and that the shock would last for as long as they helped \Vas nieasured in four conditions. 111e results
held the switch do\vn. Jn reality, no one was actually sho\ved that noise had little in1pact on passers-by
shocked. During this shock phase the participants \Vere when the person \vas not \vearing a cast - around
either exposed to \vhatever noises \vere naturally in the 15 per cent of people helped out. Ho\vever, noise had
laboratory or a two-minute blast of 60dB \Vhite noise. an impact on helping behaviour \vhen the person
The participants exposed to the \vhite noise delivered \Vore a cast. When the noise \vas at background levels,
more shocks to the confederate. In addition, those \vho 80 per cent of passers-by helped out. Ho\vever, \vhen
had watched the violent boxing film and \vere exposed the noise \Vas loud (from the la\vnn10\ver), helping
to the white noise gave the highest number of shocks behaviour decreased to 15 per cent. It would appear that
and for the longest duration. loud noises lead people to not pay attention to cues that
indicate a person may need help.
@ EVALUATION
@ EVALUAT ION
usefUI ethics
lab exp field exp
validity lab exp
useful reliable
i I h r TEST YOURSELF
How does noise affect anti-social or pro-social
Mathews & Canon (1975) ran two studies to test behaviour? Evaluate the evidence you use in your
\vhether noise affects pro-social behaviour (behaviours answer.
that include, for example, helping others). One study
\vas in a laboratory and one \Vas in the field.
•
For the laboratory study participants were split into
three groups. They \\'ere exposed to either 48dB of There have been studies examining \vhether noise can
norrnal noise or 65dB or 85dB of white noise played affect the educational performance of children. Cohen,
through a speaker. When they arrived for the study they Glass & Singer {1973) examined children living in a
\Yere greeted by a confederate \vho asked then1 to \vait high-rise apartment block that \Yas directly above a
•
high\vay. 1 hose \vho lived on the lower floors were •
obviously exposed to a higher level of noise than those
Frenchw1ne 40 12
on the upper floors. Unsurprisingly, the children on the
lower floors had poorer hearing discrimination than German wine 8 22
the children on the upper floors. This could have had Table 10.1.1 Wine purchases by type of music p layed
a direct effect on their reading skiJls - the children on
the lower floors had significantly poorer reading skiUs As can be clearly seen, more \vine was purchased
for their age. Also, Bronzaft & McCarthy ( L975) tested from the country fro1n 1vhich rnusic 1vas being played.
the reading ability of two sets of children from the same Ho\vever, only one participant actually noted that
school. One class \Vas situated near a railroad track the music had influenced the person's choice of wine
1vhile the other class \vas on the opposite, quieter, side purchased. A further five people did say that the music
of the school. Around 11 per cent of teaching time \Vas could have affected their decision. Therefore, it 1vould
lost due to noise in the railroad class and the children appear that music can affect ho'v "'e think, 1vhich in
here had significantly poorer reading ability than the turn affects our consumer behaviour.
children in the class on the quiet side of the school.
Yeah & North (20 10) examined the role of"musical
fit" on the ability of consu n1ers to recall products. By
"musical fit" the researchers nieant that the niusic fits in
POSITIVE USES OF with the product (as above \vith the wines). A total of
SOUND (MUSIC) 144 students fro1n Malaysia (24 each of Malay, Indian
and Chinese) 1vere played either tvlalay music or Indian
So far 1ve have looked at noise being un1vanted and a music. They 1vere then asked to list as many Malay and
nuisance, but have psychologists found ways of using Indian foods as they could and were given as much time
sound and noise in a more positive \vay? as they needed to do this. The niean amount of food
items recalled can be seen in Table 10.1.2.
- •
..
North, liargreaves & McKendrick (I 999) exan1ined
whether in-store music affected 1vine selections. •• •• : .
During a two-week period, a display was set up at the I •
•
® EVALUATION
useful reduct
cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT). A total of
17 patients formed the sample. Nine of these received
group music therapy and the remaini ng eight 1\lere
the control group (but ii should be no ted that they
1vere offered the music therapy after completing the
CHALLENGE YOURSELF study). All patients had previously not responded to
A supermarket has approached you to help CBT. Participants' PTSD sy1nptoms \Vere assessed
1110 use music to make consumers buy more using the Events ScaJe (revised version) pre- and
products. Wnte a report, based on evidence, that you can
posl-inlervenlion. Tue group \vho underwent music
present to the manager of the supermarket.
therapy had a significant reduction in the severity of
their PTSD symptoms ten \Veeks after starting the
• therapy. The patients vie\\led the music tJ1erapy as
being very helpful.
Han et al (20 I0) reported on the effects that music Finally, Kushnir et al (20 12) noted that if \VOn1en \Vere
intervention had on stress responses in patients who allo\ved to choose their favourite rnusic to listen to
\Vere undergoing n1echanical ventilation in hospital. A prior to a caesarean section, their experience was n1ore
total of 137 patients were randomly assigned to either a positive, they perceived less th real from the situation
group listening to music without headphones, a group and their blood pressure reduced compared to the
\vearing headphones or a control group. Physiological control group.
1neasures of heart rate, respiratory rate, oxygen
levels and blood pressure were taken pre- and post-
[ntervenlion. There 1vas a significant reduction in heart
® EVALUATION
valid Ind V5 i;lt U5eful
rate and respiratory rate in the group listening to music
\vithout headphones con1pared to a significant increase
in the control group. There \Vere no significant changes
in the groups \vearing headphones. This sho1\1S that
music can be used as a short-term "therapy" for patients
undergoing mechanical ventilation. Shih, Huang & Chiang (2012) examined \vhether music
Carr et al (20 12) examined the role of music therapy with or \vithout lyrics affected attention perfom1ance. A
for patients \Vho had persistent post-traun1atic stress total of 102 parlicipants fron1 Taipei County University
disorder (PTSD). They used a sa1nple of patients took part in the study. They \Vere randornly allocated to
\'•ith PTSD \vho had not responded positively to one ofhvo conditions as shown in Figure 10.1.2.
:·------------------·
. Testing attention :' ~---·-····------·-·· ·
Testing attention ' Analysis of the
; performance in a : performance in a :' difference between
; quiet environment ! voice environment : two conditions (no
•
(music with lyrics) :' background music Belween
Group 1 ...,_.___ _ _ _ ___._--i ..'' at alVbacKground groups
music with lyrics) analysis of
(n 49) ' d1trerences 1n
··--·--··---·----···' attention
N =102 ..---------- -------· scores
! Testing attenuon ! Analysis of the (between no
! performance in a ! difference between music and
Group 2 ...,_.,.._______,.__,: voice environment ,...:_ ___,~ two conditions (no background)
(n = 53) : (music without i background music
i lyrics) at all/background
: music without lyrics)
·------~--------·
Figure 10.1.2 Participants In one of two test conditions: group 1 (music with lyrics), group 2 (music without lyncs
Source: Based on Shih, Huang & Chiang (2012)
•
CHAPTER .10: i:"SYCHOLOGY-AN.D ENVl~ONMEt.JT.
•
Cohesive or spectator cro1vds consist of people 1vith
10.2 DENSITY AND shared interests (e.g. supporting the same team or
attending a pop concert).
CROWDIN,G Participatory cro1vds are cro1vds of people 1vho are
all involved in an event (e.g. a charity run).
Escape or trampling cro1vds occur 1vhen people are
DEFINITIONS, trying to get a1vay from danger (e.g. 1vhen there is
MEASUREMENTS AND an emergency evacuation).
ANIMAL STUDIES Violent cro1vds are cro1vds attacking other groups or
individuals (e.g. during riots).
AS YOURSELF
Think about a lime when you were part of a TEST YOURSELF
crowd . Whal did you like about It? What did you Using examples. explain th e difference between
d islike about 1t? crowding and density.
•
Social and spatial A I I
• Calhoun (1962) examined the role of crowding and
I
social density on the behaviour of rats. He placed a
Psychologists are interested in t\vo types of density:
small nuniber of male and female rates into a "universe"
Social density - this refers to \vhen the amount of or "rat city". (See Figure 10.2.I on page 184.)
individuals in a set space is varied. For example,
Calhoun allowed the rats to reproduce al their 01vn
1ve could study the behaviour of rats by having
rate and soon the rat city becanie overpopulated. The
a 20 square-foot cage for them lo live in but one
apparatus had been designed to house 48 rats quite
condition has 20 rats in the cage and the second
comfortably but the population gre1v to be much
condition has 40. The population changes but the
larger than that. As Figure I0.2.1 shows, there 1vere
physical space does not.
four quadrants to the city 1vith ramps bel\veen them,
Spatial density - this refers to 1vhen the amount of except numbers l and 4 1vere not connected. These were
space is varied but not the group size. For example, labelled "end pens". When the population 1vas less than
1ve could study colonies of 20 rats; one group gets 48, males easily established their 01vn harems, mating
20 square feet of cage but the second group gets with then1 and defending their pen successfully. The
40 square feet of cage. The physical space changes females tended to their young and built nests for them.
but not the population size. There was very little aggression in the colony. Ho1vever,
Both social and spatial density can be researched as the social density continued to increase there was
using laboratory conditions to help monitor and alter a dramatic change in the rats' behaviours. Jn pens I
the densities or via naturalistic observations to assess and 4 the rats still attempted to continue their usual
density in real-life settings. social behaviours and \Vere successful to an extent
because there 1vas only one entrance to these pens.
The niales who lived in pens 2 and 3 bccanie very
aggressive, no harems \Vere successfu lly defended and
A cro1vd is a gathering of people (usually a large n1ales 1vould mate 1vith any fernale. The fen1a le rats
amount) that forms a cohesive group. The term became ineffective at nurturing their young by fa iling
cro1vding refers lo situations 1vhen people come to provide suitable nests or move them out of danger.
The infant mortality rate becan1e as high as 96 per cent
together to form a group - so it is the act of becoming
a cro1vcl There are many different types of crowd in these pens. Calhoun called this area a "behavioural
including the f0Uo1ving: sink". Therefore, as social density increased, usual social
behaviours decreased especially in the behavioural sink.
•
• 1
4
_;J
3
•
Figure 10.2.1 The "rat city" used to study the effects of high density on rats
® EVALUATION
animals ' ethics
TEST YOURSELF
Describe and evaluate one animal s tudy Into
' d ensity.
EFFECTS ON HUMAN
Cro,vcroft & Ro,ve (1958) examined the role ofsocial HEALTH, PRO-SOCIAL
density on the reproductive capabilities of the \vild
house-mouse. They created seven colonies of one
BEHAVIOUR AND
adult n1ale and t\VO adult females. Each colony had a PERFORMANCE
pen 1neas uring six square feet. When the pens became
cro,vded the n1ouse population tended lo level off as So far 1ve have examined how cro1vding affects non-
the reproductive capabilities of the fen1ales declined hu1nan anilnals. Arc humans affected in the same
rapidly (e.g. due to inactive ovaries). 111is could not \vays? Belo1v \ VC look at how cro,vds affect hu1nan
be down lo stress as there \V3S no aggression sho1vn in behaviour.
the pens. Some of the colonies \\•ere then transferred
lo very large pens (100 square feet ) and it did not take • •
Jong for the reproductive capabilities of the females to
return to norrnal levels and the populat ion increased as Bickman et al ( 1973) assessed \Vhether crowding
a result. It 'vould appear that it1 this species of mouse a affected pro-social behaviour in students.
self-regulatory mechanism bas evolved for lintiting the Experimenters accidentally dropped envelopes that had
population 1vhen social density gets too high. an address and a stamp on the1n into tl1ree di fTerent
•
dormitories to see \Vhether students would help out
by placing them in a mail box. One dormitory \vas of
Paulus et al ( 1976) examined the perforn1ance of
fo,v-density population, one of mediun1 density and one
of high density. The amount of envelopes placed in a participants in solving a maze 1vhile the researchers
manipulated either spatial density or social density. 1be
mailbox was n1easured. Table J 0.2.1 sho,vs the results.
nun1ber of errors per participant was recorded and the
It would appear that \vhen density is high, pro-social
behaviour decreases. results are shown in Table l 0.2.2.
•• ••
Low 34.20 32.13
88 79 58 High 37.44 I 39.50
Table 10.2.1 Envelopes mailed by students hVlng in
Table 10.2.2 Performance 111 solving a maze as affected
different density conditions
by spallal and social density
•
CHAPTER .1 0: i:"SYCHOLOGY-AN.D ENVl~ONMEt.JT.
I
Bedrooms Bathroom Bedrooms Lounge
DI I I ~~ L---,
r T'
-.
Bedrooms
. ....
r
...
,
- - _ ,,.._ _
TT
... - • • - IP
_,Bedroom
Lounge
Bathroom
they were forced into un1vanted interactions which increase the perceived size of the room. Evans & Wener
increased their sense of being cro1vded. Therefore, (2007) noted tbat people use window seats as a visual
dorm itories need to be designed to contai n smaller escape on buses and trai ns so a better design is to have
amounts of students 1vho share facilities. two seats rather than th ree scats so everyone has a
Other aspects are as follov1s: clear vie1v of a 1vindo1v. If the vie1v is partially blocked,
having a series of televisions for people to watch \vould
Positioning furniture around lhe edge of a room help as it distracts people from feeling overcrowded.
rather than in the centre deceases the sense of
cro1,1ding (Sinha et al, 1995).
•
Having bright colours on the wall or enhanced
lighting can reduce the feeling of being cro1vded One \vay in 1vhich people may be able to cope 1vith
(Nasar & Min, 1984). overcro1vding is via cognitive control. This, according
® EVALUATION
usefUI valid ind vs sit
to Bell et al (2001), is 1vhen there is an "increased sense
of predictability or controllability that people gain 1vhen
given prior 1varning or information about a situation"
(2001: 329). Langer & Saegart (1977) researched
whether this is actually the case. Participants 1vere
CHALLENGE YOURSELF either given inforn1ation about levels of cro1vding in a
Design a living space that can accommodate six grocery store and bow they would feel before entering
people with a bedroom each, some communal it, or given no such inforination. Prior to cnteri ng the
space and a dining area. Using psychological research, store they 1vere also given a task of findi ng their \vay
wrile a brief report justifying your design.
around it to locate a nun1bcr of iten1s. In high-density
conditions, perforn1a11ce was poor on the task but those
who had been given inforn1ation so they 1vere expecting
Vi I the store to be busy did pcrforn1 better on the task and
Baun1 et al ( 1976) noted that having types of visual reported more positive emotions co1npared to those
escape can reduce the feelings of being cro1vded. These who \Vere not given any cognitive control.
include having a 1vindow in every room so there is the Another 1vay of coping 1vas highlighted by Karlin,
opportunity to look out, pictures that can help people Rosen & Epstein (1979) in the form of cognitive
"escape from their roo1n" and mirrors that can help to reappraisal Participants \Vere people 1vho 1vanted to
•
reduce their anxiety related to feeli ng crowded on Group 4 participants were simply told to "relax"
public transport. They \Vere split into four groups: without any further instructions.
Group I participants 1vere given musde relaxation Participants in group 2 (cognitive reappraisal) reported
Lraining. the most success and positive responses to crowded
Group 2 participants 1vere given cognitive transportation situations.
reappraisal. Th is involved them being told they
could improve their mood and anxiety levels by @ EVALUATION
•
CHAPTER .10: PSYCHOLOGY-AND
' . . . ... ENVIRONMENT
. - . . .... -
BEHAVIOURS DURING
EVENTS, AND
I
METHODOLOGY
- •
;>
1980; The Hansh1n-Awaji earthquake
technological disasters the Chernobyl nuclear power
plant accident, The Exxon Valdez oil spill.
® EVALUATION
lab exp · valid useful
• •
CHALLENGE YOURSELF
Sattler, Kaiser & Hittner (2000) examined disaster
Research one or two natural disasters and preparedness at the peak of the hurricane season in
technological catastrophes and see whether the United States. In one of their studies, they gave
elements such as contagion and scnpts were reported by questionnaires to 257 participants who \Vere preparing
surv1110rs or witnesses. for "Hurricane En1ily''. Questions were asked about
demographics, the extent of property dan1age from a
previous hurricane, the a111ount of distress felt after a
PSYCHOLOGICAL previous hurricane and preparedness for the irnpending
INTERVENTION BEFORE Hurricane Emily. The questionnaires were completed
AND AFTER EVENTS one or two days before Hurricane Emily was due to hit
Charleston, where the survey "'as taking place. One
of the measures taken \\laS people's preparation for the
hurricane. About half of the participants (59 per cent)
Balluz et al (2000) examined the predictors for had fuel for the car , 57 per cent bad flashlights, 52 per
people's responses lo a tornado \Varni ng. A total of 146 cent had bottled water, 51 per cent had candles and
participants \Vere questioned about their actions during matches, 51 per cent had batteries and 49 per cent had
the tornado \\!arning. Demographic details \Vere also canned or dried food. The researchers also correlated
taken. A total of 64 participants responded positively to demographics and previous hurricane experience \Vi th
the warning by seeking shelter, \vi th 58 of those doing so the degree of preparation for Hurricane Emily. lhc
\Vi thin five minutes of the siren. Balluz et al discovered following factors correlated strongly \vi th preparation in
that four factors were associated with seeking shelter: th is sample of US residents:
having graduated from high school Age - the older the participants, the niore prepared
having a basement in one's house they \\•ere.
hearing the siren Income - the higher their income, the more
prepared participants \Vere.
having prepared a plan of response once a siren
is heard. Participants had follo\ved the news broadcasts on
the television as part of their preparation.
Fro1n this study it is clear that a pre-plan of action is
necessary for increased safery in a tornado-prone area. Participants had prepared for the situation by
Also, local public health officials should educate people maki11g sure they kne\v the evacuation rou te.
more about \vhat to do \Vhen a siren is heard as only 45 The distress level from a previous hurricane \vas a
per cent of this sample responded positively to it. Finally, factor - the more distress experienced, the more
emergency-management officials should plan some form prepared people \Vere.
of protection measures for vulnerable areas as people
have limited time to respond to the siren. Officials could
strategically erect shelters to reduce the time taken bm\!een
@ EVALUATION
useful ind vs sit
people starting to respond to their reaching a place ofsafety.
-
I
Loftus ( 1972) examined a sub,vay systen1 after a fire to
assess the evacuation plans that \vere in place. It would
appear that the best evacuation plans should include
these features:
There hould be a 'vay of gaining people's allention
without causing panic.
Messages should be short and to the point so that After: treating post-
they are quick to read in an emergency.
Any unportant messages should be repeated.
traumatic stress
•
The plans must give people trying to escape some
confidence. Chemtob et al ( 1997) examined the effectiveness of
psychological intervention after Hurricane lniki in
If any of the plans are presented orally then the
Ha,vaii. T'vo groups of participants (n= 43 overall)
accent n1ust make all instructions clear.
who had been exposed to the hurricane \Vere assessed
Tamima & Chouinard (2012) reported on "in progress" before and after being involved in a "multihour
evacuation plans in Montreal, Canada, shouJd an debriefing group''. This allowed participants to discuss
earthquake occur. They noted that the follo,ving are their feelings about the hurricane and to be educated
crucial for success: about the norn1al psychological reactions to disasters.
Assess the vulnerability of the built environment to To provide son1e control for the passage ofti1ne,
kno\v \vhat could happen to buildings and then plan the two groups overlapped their debriefing, so the
the evacuation aro und these potential eventualities. assessment before the debriefing of the second group
took place at the same tin1e as the assessn1ent after
Assess the den1ographics of the population which
the debriefing of the first group. Irrespective of 1vhich
would be affected by an earthquake and then plan
group the pa11icipants \Vere in, the debriefing reduced
the evacuation aro und 1his inforniation.
psychological distress, lending support for the vie\Vthat
Plan sensible routes out of an affected area to psychological debriefing is useful after disasters.
shelters for those 1vorst affected.
Carmichael (2000) reported on a rather novel approach
Get the communily involved in evacuation planning to post-disaster psychological intervention. A counsellor
so the first time people know about it is not \vhen used the story of the \>Vizard of Oz as a rocal point
the earthquake is happening. for a group ofsurvivors after a tornado in a small US
Have clear maps for evacuation routes that are easy community. During the last hour of a 3-hour meeting
to fo1Jo1v. attended by 30 residents, the counsellor used aspects of the
Wi7.ard of Oz story as metaphors to help alleviate the stress
of the disaster. The counsellor used Dorothy's shoes as a
metaphor for inner strength, the dog as significant people
and the ye!Jo,v brick road as the traurna recovery process.
After thls introduction the residents began to discuss their
O\vn experiences in the Light of the Wizard of Oz. Tue
common focaJ point of the story appeared to be effective in
aiding the recovery process of the residents.
Finally, Lcsaca (1996) noted a do,vnside to post-disaster
counselling for the cou nsellors then1selves. He con1pared
21 counsellors who provided their services after a
1najor air disaster 1vith counsellors 1vho provided a
generaJ counselling service. Bet1veen then1, the disaster
Figure 10.3.2 Eanhquake damage to a freeway
counsellors had co1npleted 38 hours \Vith the victin1s'
families and 58 hours 1vith airline eniployees. rn both
CHALLENGE YOURSELF
A local authority has asked you to help 1t prepare groups, Lesa ca took n1easu res or PTSD and depression
the local community for any potential natural 4, 8 and 12 \\leeks arter the disaster. At 4 and 8 \veeks,
disaster. Justify your choices using psychological research the disaster counsellors reported significantly more
1n your report. PTSD symptoms and depressive sympton1s compared to
the general counselJors. The most com nion symptoms
included feeling emotionally nurnbed, feeling as if in a
•
daze or dream and niemory problen1s such as forgetting three years after the event and PTSD five years after the
to do important things. Other differences included event. Those \\!ho believed, e1notionally, that having
difficuJty in sleeping, having poor concentration, feeling negative attitudes \Vas a sign of \veakness \Vere more
agitated and restless, and lacking energy. HO\\lever, these likeJy to sho\v PTSD syrnptoms. A!so, Joseph et al
differences had disappeared at the 12-\veek assessment. (1996) noted that those \vho scored high on a nieasure
of"have intrusive and avoidanl activities" tended to
@ EVALUATION sho\v higher levels of depression and anxiety three years
after the sinking.
usefld ind vs sit ethics
TEST YOURSELF
Outline ways in which psychologists have helped Bon1bings were carried out in London on 7 July 2005.
people who ha~ survived d1sastec Rubin et al (2007) telephoned 1 OJ 0 Londoners 11- 13
days after the bombings occurred. The researchers
wanted to assess stress levels, perceived threats
and travel intentions. Seven months after this, 574
Herald of Free respondents \\!ere contacted again and asked silnilar
•
Ent questions. Around I J per cent· of people in the san1ple
This disaster occurred when a ferry capsized and were still feeling "substantial stress" and over 40 per cent
sank off Belgiun1 killing l 97 people. Survivors were still felt personally threatened by the events. Around 20
exan1ined for PTSO. Joseph et al ( 1997) discovered that per cent had reduced their travelling around London as
there \\las a relationship between emotional expression a result. Rubin et al (2007) also reported on data from
the first phase of the study (ans\vers lo questions
11-13 days after the bombin~). Around one-third
of the sample al this time felt substantial stress and
intended to travel less as a result of the bombings. Those
\vho felt the substanliaJ stress tended to be people \Vho
wouJd find it difficult to contact friends and family,
those '"ho thought that they could have been killed or
injured and those \\lho \Vere Muslin1. Only I per cent
of people in the sample felt they needed psychologicaJ
intervention post-bombings.
FinaJJy, Wilson et al (2012) examined the transcripts of
18 people \vho received cognitive behavioural therapy
(CBT) after the bombings lo help them \vilh PTSD.
The clients tended to focus on recollection of direct
experiences during the bombings, the horror of il all
and reconnecting with the outside world on the day of
the event plus feelings of P'rSO and depression the day
after the bombings.
•
CHAPTER
' .10: PSYCHOLOGY-AND
,· . . ... ENVIRONMENT
. -' . . .... -
• • •
• •
v Secondary
territory
Medium
degree of
Personalisation
occurs to some extent
Bell et al (1996) define personal space as a "... portable,
(e.g. occupation and but only when the
invisible boundary surrounding us, into \vhich others classroom) perception of occupancy of the
may not trespass. It regulates how closely \Ve interact ownership: we territory is legitimate
\vith others, moves \vith us, and expands and contracts believe that (e.g. within a bout one
according to the situation in \vhich \Ve find ourselves" we a re o ne or month of a new class,
( 1996: 275). only a limited each person may
HaU (1963) distinguished bel\veen zones of personal numb er of stick wrth the same
space, which he called spatial zones, based around users of the seat for the rest of
territory. the year. That person
interpersonal relationships \\le n1ay have. This is shown
legl!Jmately owns that
in Table 10.4.1.
seat every lesson).
•
Alpha space and beta -
- - This technique involves getting someone to approach
a participant from a variety of angles and getting the
Alpha space is the personal space that is objective and
participant to say "Stop" when the participant begins
can be measured directly (e.g. the actual distance). Beta
to feel uncomfortable. The actual distance is measures
space is the personal space that is subjective and is ho\v
so that a "picture" of the amount and shape of personal
a person feels \vhen being invaded.
space can be generated. This can then be re-assessed in
different situations.
Measuring space: ,,, ____ __
- • •
40 - - 0 Males 0Females
-
-
,_
- -
~
30
-
"'cB
g
.!!!
"O 20 -
-
Q)
O>
~
~ 10 -
0
American Swede Scot Greek Italian Average of
all nations
Nationality
•
INVADING SPACE AND participants to complete a questionnaire about the
experience. It asked questions about ho1v participants
TERRITORY felt during the invasion of their personal space (e.g.
how happy they felt, ho1v attracted they were to the
•
ns confederate, their perceived level of cro\vding).
Middle1nist el al (1976) 1vanted to investigate the For the second a.in1, a different researcher was used who
proposal that invasion of personal space produces was not told the aim of the research (this is caUed the
arousal. The setting was a men's public lavatory. single-blind technique). This researcher had to observe
According to the researchers this 1vas an ideal place 33 males and 33 fen1ales and record where they placed
as "norms for privacy" are already set up (space their personal belongings on a library table.
betlveen the urinals), so the effect that distance had Fro1n the first study, distinct gender differences
on arousal could be easily measured. The men's public emerged. Nlales disliked being invaded by someone
lavatory had three urinals in it. Sixty participants approaching fron1 opposite them but did not 1nind
1vere randomly assigned to one of three conditions: son1eone invading the space next to the111. For females,
(I) the experin1enter stood immediately next to the the opposite results arose; they did not mind people
participant, (2) the experimenter stood at the other invading the space opposite them but disliked the
end of the three urinals to the participant or (3) the invasion when son1eone sat next to the n1. Table 10.4.3
experirnenter 1vas absent. ·rwo key rneasures were shO\VS averages that highlight this t1·end across all
taken. The first 1vas a measure of how quickly the measures taken on the questionnaire.
participant began to urinate. The second measure
Happiness rating - the higher the score, the more happy
1vas ho"' nluch time the participant took to urinate.
participants 1vere:
'rhe closer the experimenter stood, the longer it
took for the participant to begin urination. Also,
the closer the experimenter stood, the less time
Male 29.15 23.57
it took the participant to complete urination. The
evidence suggests that invasion of personal space in Female I 23.46 I 26.79
men produces physiological changes associated with
arousal. The nlore the personal space was invaded, the Attractiveness rating - the higher the score, the
nlore aroused the men became. 1nore attracted participants vvere to an opposite-sex
® EVALUATION
valid
confederate:
•
ethics
Male 10.99 9.14
Female 9 .87 10.14
In 1975 Fisher & Byrne carried out a study 1vith t1vo Perceived level of cro1vding - the higher the score, the
main aims: more participants felt cro1vded:
1. To examine gender differences in the invasion of
personal space. ; . I
•
next to them - both males and ferna les were placing able to feel any 01vnership of territory in or around the
barriers to defend their least favourite direction from location of their home.
which they could be invaded. Ne1vman (1972) then argued that if defensible spaces
Table 10.4.4 sho1vs the nun1ber of"barrier placements" were deliberately designed into ne1v multi-d1velling
observed on the table participants 1vere sitting at. buildings, residents would feel more 01vnership over
certain areas. People 1vould be more likely to "look out
• [: filjljifj.J'j • • • • for one another and their properties". As a result, crime
should decrease and a sense of community 1vould be
Male 9 15 introduced. For example, Ne1vn1an recommended that
certain features in the design of buildings could easily
Female 17 6 increase the amount of defensible space. These included
Table 10.4.4 Barner placements using boundary rnarkers that sho1v others 1vhere the
territory is and that it is defended (e.g. path1vays. fences
Fron1 this study it is clear to see that males do not like and hedgero1vs).
to have Lheir space in front ofthen1 invaded. Females do Ham-Ro1vbotton1, Gilford & Sha1v (1999) exan1ined
not like to have their space invaded next to them. Both defensible space theory by assessing police officers'
genders defend this invasion by placing barriers to stop judgn1ents about 1vhether a house would be burgled.
people getting too close. A series of 50 photographs of detached houses
® EVALUATION
were sho1vn to 41 police officers. Each house had
been scored on cues that 1vere believed to be good
indicators of defensible space. A total of ten physical
•
ethics valid
cues 1vere correlated with less vulnerability
to burglary:
TEST YOURSELF At least three-quarters of the house is visible from
Describe and evaluate one study that has the road.
invaded someone's personal space.
At least three-quarters of the yard is visible from
the road.
There is a garage.
DEFENDING TERRITORY
The back yard is separated from the front yard by an
AND SPACE
- actual barrier.
More windows are visible from the road.
Defending primary
A glass panel is not located next to the front door.
The front door is solid with no glass.
Ne\vrnan (1972) introduced the concept of defensible
space to psychology. 111e term refers to an area of The front door is visible from the road.
physical space that can be perceived as clearly belonging The distance frorn the road is less than 20 feet.
to someone. Any visitors to this space would quickly A neighbour's house is visible in the photograph.
realise that it is son1eone else's territory. The idea of
defensible space 1vas generated because Newn1an It would appear police officers believed that the more
had noted that many ne1v, high-rise residential physical barriers and surveillance points a ho use had
developn1ents of his tirne had failed due to rapid decay (e.g. 1vindo1vs at the front of the house), the less likely
and high crime rates. Ne1vman proposed that this it 1vas to be burgled. This agrees 1vith defensible space
1vas the case because people had no control over the theory. The more physical barriers there are around a
secondary territory 1vithin or around the buildings (e.g. house, the less likely it 1vill be a target for burglaries
stair cases, lifts and parking areas). Residents 1vere not and other crimes.
•
" ' .
CHAPTER
. .
.10: PSYCHOLOGY-AN.D
. ENVl~ON MEt.JT.
•
may feel they have no control over their actions and
become depressed.
•
I a - r
The idea behind environ1nental stress is that specific
stirnuli in urban areas have negative effects on our
lives. For exa1nple, crowding and noise have been
sho1vn to affect humans negatively. As we may feel
THEORIES AND threatened by such stimuli, a stress response niay
EFFECTS OF URBAN be elicited, either emotionally, behaviourally or
physiologically (or any combination of the three).
LIVING ON HEALTH AND Prolonged exposure to these stressful stimuli can have
SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR negative long-term effects.
ASK YOURSELF
Do you think living in an urt:>an area affects people's
health and social behaviour? If so, why do you
think that? This theory states that people living in urban areas
are bombarded 1vith so many stimuli lhat all of them
cannot be processed. The stimuli can co1ne fron1 a
variety of sources (e.g. other humans Living in the urban
area, noise, too 1nany people being around, even trying
This theory stales that any stimuli that are intense, to find the correct amount of money for the car park).
complex or novel can lead to either a positive or AU of these overload our senses and lead u~ to try to
negative effect depending on the past experience of cope with the overload. Porlonged overload can have
the individual concerned. Due to the differing levels of negative effects such as exhaustion and illness.
stin1ulation in a city or urban area (e.g. you n1ay find a
quiet park or a busy shopping n1aU) everyone can find ~ TEST YOURSELF
their optimal level of stin1ulation. Those people who ~ Outline two theories of urban living.
initially find urban life too complex or intense usually
adapt over time and tolerate such stirnulation. Similarly,
those \vho are bored \\Tith the country life find pockets
of cosn1opolitan life \vithin it.
Fisher et nl ( 1994) examined any potential differences
• in atliludes tO\vards eating and \veight concern in
urban and suburban adolescents. Another aim was to
Behaviour constraint states that people living iJ1 urban examine whether there \\<ere differences in self-esteem
areas feel their behaviour is constrained in so1ne way between urban and suburban d\vellers. Two groups of
con1pared to people living in rural areas. For example, participants completed a series of questionnaires that
people nlay feel niore fearful of crirne in urban areas; nieasured attitudes towards eating and self-esteen1,
they may dislike cro\vds and, for instance \vhen they among others. A total of 268 suburban females (n1ean
need to go shopping, they \,·iJI have to use a cro\vded age 16.2 years), 389 urban females and 281 urban
shopping centre. Issues such as these of course, may males (combined mean age of 16.0 years) completed
lead to people experiencing negative effects and, as the questionnaires. One of the main factors examined
a consequence, they may \Visb to try to reassert their \vaS the relationship between perceived \veight and
freedom from these constraints. In the long term, actual \veight. Table 10.5.1 sho\1 s the relationship in the
1
•
CHAPTER
' .
.10: PSYCHOLOGY-AND
. . ... ENVIRONMENT
. -' . . ....
-
•
high. As a result, the entrances were less frequently used
and were easy to \Vatch over as non-residents could
The Pruitt-Igoe research Lhat had sho1vn Lhat defensible
be more easily spotted than in the Van Dyke estate.
space \vas necessary for the reduction of crime \Vas
Within the Brownsville buildings, children played in
backed up by a study conducted by Sommer ( 1987). He
the halhvays and stainvells and it \Vas common for
compared the crime rates in university high-rise halls
residents to leave their doors open. Again, it \Vas easier
of residence compared to cluster halls \Vhich have more
to watch over the immediate space compared to the
defensible space. The latter "'ere seen Lo have much
Van Dyke estate. Due to the greater levels of defensible
lo,ver rates of crinle and vandalism.
space in the Bro\vnsville estate, there \Vere stronger
bonds bet\veen the residents; there \Vas less crime and Brunson (2000) examined the Department of Housing
maintenance costs \Vere lo,ver. and Urban Development (HUD) in the United States
as it had recently invested millions of dollars into
Another example that is used to sho'v bad design is
regenerating urban areas using defensible space
the Pruitt-Igoe project in St LOLLis, l\ilissouri (Bell et al,
1996). The estate \vas built in 1954 with the ethos of"no theory. Brunson noted that some regenerations had
\vorked, Jo,vering crime levels and bringing abou t a
\Vasted space''. The project was constructed to relocate
more cohesive con1muni ty. However, not all had been
12 000 people into 43 buildings, each 11 stories high.
so successful. Therefore, Brunson exa n1i ned \vhether
The entire con1plex had 2 762 apartn1ents. The main
features of the building were as folJo,vs: defensible space was linked to residents' experiences
of safety and sense of co111111unity in public housing.
Narro1v halhvays led to the apartments. A total of91 residents were surveyed. All 1vere living
There were no sen1 i-private areas for people to meet in an area 1vith moderate defensible space. TI1ose
up in (so no areas to oversee). who defended their near-home space reported that
The project was expensive to build. the neighbourhood felt safer and that there 1\1as a
more cohesive co1nmunity compared to residents
The \Vall tiles \vere designed so that graffiti could be
who did not defend Lheir near-hon1e space. Also,
easily removed. those 1vho spent time outside reported more often
The light fittings \\ ere indestructible.
1
that the neighbourhood was a safe place. Those \vho
The radiators and lifts \vere vandal-resistant participated in "greening" activities believed that the
community \Vl!S 1nore cohesive. All of this tends to back
It appears strange that the project managers appeared to
up Ne1vman's ( 1972) idea that defensible space makes
be expecting trouble by introducing many of the above
the community niore cohesive and safer to live in.
features. Ho\vever, they "'ere correct. After a fe,v years
the entire project \Vas in disarray. \.Yithin the buildings
there was broken glass, rubbish and destruction of the COMMUNITY
"indestructible" features. Many 1vindows were boarded
up or smashed, the lifts had been repeatedly used as a ENVIRONMENTAL
toilet and the top floors \Vere not lived in. Crime and DESIGN
vandalism \Vere commonplace with the car park littered
\vith sen1i-destroycd cars and the children's playground Shopping mall
covered in broken glass. By 1970, of the 43 buildings
only 16 were still lived in. ln 1972 the entire project h r•
\Vas demolished. Many people believed that the lack of 1n l\ilalaysia, Ali (2013) researched factors that affect a
defensible space had caused the do,vnfall of the Pruitt- shopping nlall's attractiveness and influence consun1ers
Igoe dream. to visit it - the research 'va11ted to examine what attracts
® EVALUATION
usefUI ind vs sit
people to shopping malls. ln tern1S of choosing a shopping
mall to visit, the folJo,ving factors \Vere important:
Entertainment had to be part of the experience.
There had to be a variety if shopping outlets
(e.g. outlets should 1101 all be clothes stores).
•
CHAPTER .10: PSYCHOLOGY-AND
' . . . ... ENVIRONMENT
. - . . .... -
Mall essence \Vas a factor - ensuring that the place CHALLENGE YOURSELF
"felt" as if it wou Id provide a good "mall experience". Local developers have asked you to design a new
Design of the mall \vas also important (e.g. ease of shopping mall that will have two noors. Design
such a mall and wnte a report 1ust1fy1ng your choices
passage throughout, parking. signage).
based on psychological research and theory.
In addition, having the variety of outlets and a non-
cro\vded physical environment \Vere the t\'10 key factors
that brought people to a shopping mall.
Runyan, Kin1 & Baker (2012) exan1ined the role of
- """
.
Wan (2013) researched the casino design preferences of
kiosks in shopping mall atn1ospherics. They \vanted Chinese gan1blers. lntervie,vs ''-ere carried out ,.,ith 25
see if kiosks and kiosk salespeople affected people's gamblers \vho visited casinos in Macau. They \Vere asked
perceptions towards a shopping nlall When smaller questions about what casino environments they preferred
kiosks \Vere present it had a negative effect on shoppers' in order to see if there \vas any consistency \vithin the
perceptions of the n1all. However, it did not make any sample. A total of 30 preferences \Vere identified overaJJ
difference ifthe salespeople \Vere aggressively selling or of whid1 11 \Vere seen as being the niost in1portant.
being passive; people still did not see them as adding These included the casino being spacious and open,
anything to the mall Aggressive salespeople did get having grand ext·erior and interior designs, having certain
consw11ers n1ore aroused but in a JJegative way. themes within the casino itself, having clear signage and
Swan1ynathan, Mansurali & Chandrasekhar (20 13) having son1e forn1 of greenery or natural landscape.
examined people's preferences for a new shopping Casinos may \Vish to utilise the findings of a study
mall. Four main factors ernerged that influence people's by Spen\vyo, Barrett & Griffiths (20 l O). They had
decisions on choice of shopping mall via its atmospherics: participants playing an online version of rouJette under
Lifestyle - people are more likely to visit if the mall one of four conditions:
is a status symbol, having high-quality goods in it fast ten1po music under 1vhite light
and fashionable shops.
fast tempo music under red light
"Infotainment" - having entertainment, being able
slo\v tempo music under white light
to 'vindo'v shop and having a place sin1ply to "hang
out" \Vere also important. slo"' tempo music under red light.
Customer retreat - this involved feeling safe in the Dollars spent per spin alongside speed of betting was
mall and having visible hospitality. measured. Having fast tempo music under red light
made participants bet quicker. There 1vas no effect of
Retail atmospherics - 1J1is included having vaJue-
music or lighting conditions on dollars spent per spin.
added co1nforts in the mall as well as it being a
"single stop shop" and dean.
@ EVALUATION
i
Reread the work of Newman and research projects
'
useful reduct
such as Brownsville, van Dyke and Pruitt-Igoe
(page 195 onwards) to pick out good and bad practice
for the design of public places.
•
Multidimensional scaling
This is a statistical technique that can assess the "cognitive
distance" people believe landmarks are separated by.
Participants are asked to estimate distances behveen a
nun1ber of buildings on a route. Once this is con1pleted,
a computer progran1 can process the data and generate
DEFINITIONS, MEASURES, a "map" based on these estimations (so that a person's
ERRORS AND INDIVIDUAL drawing skills are not alfecting ho\v the person perceives
a n1ap, etc.). If these are compared among a group of
DIFFERENCES IN participants who have all estimated the distances, if all
COGNITIVE MAPS are consistent then a relatively accurate map should be
produced. Ho1vever, as Bell et al (2001) noted, people
A;:,K YOURSELF may 1vell exaggerate the distance benveen unpleasant
Draw a map or the surrounding area of your home landmarks or travel paths they do not usually take.
or school. Find a real map of the area and see how
accurate you have been. ~ EVALUATION
....
--
The follov.ring are different \vays in \vhich you can
Lloyd and Patton (20 11) asked participants to learn
n1easure cognitive maps.
locations on one of three cartographic 1naps that
Sketch maps contained true or novel location nan1es. The following
Lynch ( 1960) 1vas one of the first to make people simply recall errors \Vere found:
sketch maps to see ho\v the y were representing their There were fe\ver cognitive distance errors for
surroundings psychologically. He found five main reference points that \Vere central to the map.
categories that are used to mentally describe maps: There 1vere fe\ver errors in recall 1vhen a reference
paths: shared routes for travel (e.g. footpaths and point 1vas part of a cluster.
roads) Females made fewer errors \vhen learning novel maps.
edges: boundaries that are defined (e.g. walls of Males 1nade fewer errors when learning n1aps with
buildings or coastlines) true nan1es and places.
districts: large spaces \Vith a shared characteristic Steyvers & Kooji1nan (2009) exan1ined the differences
(e.g. The West End in London) in error rates using cognitive maps of a fictitious zoo
nodes: points on a map that act as a focus for benveen sighted and visually impaired participants.
behaviour (e.g. tO\VD squares, roundabouts or major The participants were matched on age. gender and
road junctions) education. The matched pairs 1vere randon1ly assigned
landmarks: distinctive features used as reference to one "information type":
points \vhich are generally visible fron1 a distance Survey-type descriptions such as "the area
(e.g. a place of \vorship or a tall skyscraper). containing the indoor anin1al exhibits is north of
the children's recreational area" (2009: 226).
•
CHAPTER .10: i:"SYCHOLOGY-AN.D ENVl~ONMEt.JT.
Route-type descriptions such as "on your right is the carolinensis) \vas released into a 4Sm1 area to bury ten
petting zoo. Turn right and then left after passing hazelnuts. The location of each food iten1 was recorded
the petting zoo. The aquarium is now on your right» and the nuts were then removed. The squirrels were
(2009: 226). returned to the area individually 2, 4 or 12 days later.
They listened to the tape of information t\vice and Ne1v hazelnuts had been placed at the individuals' own
then \Vere asked questions such as "Which animals \Vill hiding places and at an equal number of randomly
you find east of the insect house?" (survey-type) and chosen sites \vhich had been used by other squirreli..
"Standing on the path \Vith your back to the petting zoo The squirrels \Vere 1nore likely to find nuts fro1n places
and facing the nlonkeys, \\1hich animals are on your where they had buried them even \vhen they had to
left?' (route-type) (2009: 226). pass the sites chosen by other squirrels. Although the
squirrels clearly could locate buried nuts by smell a.lone,
The visually in1paired participants showed no difference they \Vere preferentially seeking the ones they had
in the frequency of errors bet\\een survey-type and
1
hidden on the basis of recalling each location.
route-type descriptions. Sighted participants made fewer
errors with the survey-type descriptions. Overall, the
sighted participants 111ade fewer cognitive n1ap errors.
@ EVALUATION
Capaldi & Dyer ( 1999) exan1incd the role of orientation
flights on the hon1ing perforn1ances of honeybees.
lab e>Cp valid useful
Previous research had shown that bees do use visual
references to help them niove from foraging site to
foraging site. Ho,vever, the niajority of research had
CHALLENGE YOURSELF exan1ined bees that were experienced. Capaldi & Dyer
Design a study that would test whether there are \vanted to investigate this in na·ive bees. The bees were
any differences 111 errors using cognitive maps
all from the Michigan State University Research Farms.
based on the age or gender of the participants. Evaluate
your Idea.
There 1vere three groups of bees:
1. Resident bees - they already lived in the test
location.
2. First-flight bees - they had never been outside
In terms of sketch n1aps, there appears to be gender the nest.
difference in \Vhat is included in them. Huynh, Doherty 3. Reorienting bees - these \Vere \\Porker bees that
& Sharpe (2010) noted that when asked to dra\V a map. had foraging experience at a different site from the
n1ales and females tend not to differ with the initial test site.
dra\ving. Ho\11ever, as the map got more elaborate and
Bees in groups and 3 \vere allo\11ed on an "orientation"
detailed, fen1ales dre\I' n1ore land1narks on their maps
flight that typically lasted less than ten minutes. On
\11hile males dre\11 more path1vays.
the experimental trials after this, homing ability
The Steyers & Koojin1an (2009) study can also be used was n1easured via vanishing bearings and ho1ning
to sho"' individual differences. speed. When the first-fl ight bees were tested after the
orientation flight, they returned to the hive faster than
the reorienting bees. 'lhey also had faster ho1ning
COGNITIVE MAPS IN rates than resident bees. When they were released at a
ANIMALS distance, resident bees tended lo outperforn1 the other
two groups. When there \\lere landmarks near to the
target hive, all groups tended to head to\vards the hive
i (vanishing bearings \Vere similar). However, when
Jacobs & LiJnan ( 1991) investigated the role of the they \Vere released out of sight of any landrnarks (and
cognitive map in allo1ving animals to search for food they had to rely on route memory), the first-flight bees
they had stored themselves. Each grey squirrel (sciurus
•
performed poorly, whereas the resident bees could still
find their 1vay hon1e.
Resident Reorienting First-night
.. . ............ . . .... ..... .
Site A ~ ·....·...... -:. ...
... _.,... ...........
·._·:~:: - ····
.--'"'-111::··
....:: ::·· . - -·...
:: ..
..:--..............-: . ·. .....__,__...-:.• .·
·. .. - :·: ... ..
.•• · .. ..........
... .• ... .,:::::. ... ..
..
'' . ... ::. .. ...•..........
... :·
....
. ·'. •,
. ...... ....
:·...,...._.......::
,.-::
•
CHAPTER
' .10: PSYCHOLOGY-AND
,· . . ... ENVIRONMENT
. -' . . ....
-
as buildings that are both visible in the environment other experience or information to help us to find our
and appear on the n1ap, it would be impossible to decide \vay. ln the absence of these, or an ability to understand
whether your side of the pavement \Vas to the left or them, \Ve may become lost. In reality this is relatively
right of the map - you \vould be unable to navigate. rare. We may indeed "lose ourselves" but this tends
Nlany passengers travelling from north to south prefer to be short-lived. By keeping moving until \Ve find
to bold their map upside do\vn to assist navigation. somewhere familiar or by returning to a kno\vn location
This restores the map to its correct orientation, that is, we can re-establish effective \Vay-finding:
it achieves direct correspondence bet\\•een the map and Determine the location.
0
the real \vorld - \vhat is ahead on the road is "up on the Localise the destination.
map <forward-up eq11ivale11ce) and features to the left on
Select a route.
the map are on the left-hand side of the road. Levine et al
( 1984) demonstrated expcri 1nentally that if \vay-fi nding Decide ho\V to travel.
maps are not displayed \vith for\vard-up equivalence Way-finding is also facilitated by a high degree of visual
they are n1isleading and will disrupt \vay-finding even access, i.e. being visible fron1 different perspectives. Jn
\vhen people are 1nade a\vare of the non-equivalence. a hilly to\vn we are likely to be able to obtain different
Levine et al also found that the presentation of niaps views of buildings and streets, increasing visual access.
in airports and offices often fails to achieve for\vard-up Conversely, underground, such as in car parks or
equivalence. The consequences of this could range fron1 particularly on tube trains, our visual access is li1nited
n1ild inconvenience or delay to a serious threat to life in and so assimilating inforniation about the relationships
emergency evacuations. between locations is difficult.
How difficult an area is to understand in terms of the
amount of detail and its intricacy is referred to as the
co1riplexity of spatinl layout. Way-finding is han1pered
in environments \Vith a very complicated spatial layout.
Within a building this may result from having several
floors, unpredjctable interconnections both across
and benveen Aoors and having a different floor plan
at each level. Complex spatial layouts such as this n1ay
be encountered in large shopping centres. Since it may
also be difficult to gain a high degree of visual access
and because store fronts are all essentially sin1ilar,
lo\vering differentiation, it 1nay be very difficult to learn
Figure 10.6.4 An example of a "you are here" map the \vay around.
CHALLENGE YOURSELF
® EVALUATION
useful valid reduct ind diffs
Find a map of your school and identify features
that could be Improved.
Possession of a cognitive map may neither be necessary Revisit Core study 6.3 for AS level on page 78. The
for nor guarantee successful \vay-finding, the process researchers used virtual \Vay-finding in I his study \vhere
of navigating through an environment. We may use taxi drivers had to mentally (virtually) plan a rou te fron1
published maps. ask others for directions or obtain location A to location B.
•
EXAMPLES OF HOW TO people find then1selves (or perceive it to be) rather than
their disposition (individual side of the debate) as the
EVALUATE situation predicted their behaviour better as people did
not act the same across all scenario~.
For the 12 mark question in Paper 3, you \viii be asked
to evaluate one of the topics covered in this section. You Invading space and territory
\\till have noticed that after each topic in this chapter Research in this area can have ethical problems. For
there are the icons for the different issues, debates, exan1ple, in the t.liddlemist study tested personal space
approaches, perspectives and research methods that invasion by having participants randomly assigned
could be used to help you ans\ver the 12 mark question to one of three conditions: ( I) the experimenter
in the examination. Belo\v are three examples of the stood immediately next lo the participant, (2) the
types of things you could \vrite in the exan1ination. experimenter stood at the other end of the three urinals
You should ain1 Lo make al least four different to the participant, or (3) the experirnenter 1vas absenL
evaluation points for the 12 mark question. Our This caused physical and psychological stress in the
acco1npanying Revision Guide has a series of student participants as they did nol kno1v that they \vere part of
answers \vilh n1arks and examiner coniments attached a study. This also nleans that they did not give informed
to them. consent to take part in the study and have their space
invaded nor \vere they debriefed so that they kne1v
Effects of crowding on health exactly why a stranger sudden Iy appeared and stood
Research in this area has been useful. McCain, Cox next to them at a urinal! Some nieasures of invasion are
& Paulus ( 1976) reported that prisoners who lived subjective and therefore n1ay not be valid. An example
under lo\v spatial density and social density conditions would be the CIDS 1vhere a person has to imagine \vhen
reported less sickness compared to those in high density they \vould begin to feel uncom fortablc and plot it on
prisons. This means that governments can use this to a lin. This n1a}' not predict ho\v they \vould behave in
improve the living conditions of prisoners so that they a real situation with someone approaching them from
remain healthy throughout their stay. HO\vever, studies various angles. Therefore, findings from studies using
in this area can have ethical problems. As \\'e know that self reports may not give valid data.
cro\\•ding cannot affect health. it \viii be difficult to run
controlled studies as \ve \vould have to expose people Community Environ11tental Design
to psychological and physical stress. This should not Research in this area can be 11sef11I for people to
happen in studies as participants should leave in the design successful shopping malls for instance. Ali
same physical and psychological state as they entered. (2013) reported that the following \vere important:
This can also relate to the individual versus sit11atio11al Entertainment had to be part of the experience, a
debate. Baum and Kon1an ( 1976) noted that there variety if shopping outJets (e.g. not all clothes shops),
are gender differences in aggression depending on Mall Essence - ensuring the place 'felt' like it would be
social and spatial densities. Males in sn1aller roo1ns a good 'n1all experience' and the design of the 1nall for
\vho expected it to be crowded behaved niuch more ease of passage throughout with parking and signage. [f
aggressively than fen1ales did. However, any increase is a construction company took into account these factors
social density did not produce an increase in aggression. then they are 111ore likely to have a successful n1all once
When participants expected large nun1bers of people it has been built.
at a venue they tended LO \vithdraw rather than be
aggressive. This shows that the effects of cro\vding on
psychological health are based more on the situation
•
CHAPTER 10: PSYCHOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT
Section A
(a) Explain, in your O\VO \vords, '"hat is (d) Evaluate 'vhat psychologists have
meant by the term "technological discovered about defending territory
catastrophe': (2 marks) and personal space and include a
(b) Explain, in your O\vn \vords, what is discussion on the usefulness of
meant by the term "cognitive map': (2 marks) research in this field. (12 marks)
•
PSYCHOLOGY
AND MODELS OF
ABNORMALI
mean
11.1 DEFINITIONS OF
.A BNORMAL:I TY I
I
6~%
I
I
ASK YOURSELF
fa--9$%.---o>..
Generate your own definition for abnormal
behaviour and see 1f your ideas feature in the
psychological definitions at the beginning of this section.
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
IQ
There are niany \vays in which psychologists can define Figure 11 .1.1 Normal distribution of scores on an IQ lest
\vhat abnormal behaviour is. Somelilnes this behaviour
is called atypical rather than abnorn1al. ® EVALUATION
ethics reduct valid
®
CHALLENGE YOURSELF
Describe and evaluate one definition of
EVALUATION abnormality.
ethics reduct valid
MODELS OF
ABNORMALITY
Failure to function
d u There are four main n1odels of abnormality that need
This definition slates that people \\lho cannot function covering in this section. It looks at some of the main
or experience psychological distress (and then try to get assumptions that each n1odel is based on.
belp) are sho\ving that they currently have some form of
abnormal behaviour. Therefore, anyone \vho is showing
signs of psychological distress, be it at home or work, is I a
"abnorn1al~ A medical professional \vould believe the follo\\ling
® EVALUATION
ethics reduct
about abnormality:
Psychological abnonnality is an illness
just like one based on physical conditions.
It can be diagnosed and treated in the
same 1vay.
The focus is on the physiological natu re
Problems with defining of the problen1 behaviour rather than
behavioural or emotional factors. Something
and diagnosing biological is the cause.
a n I Symptoms sho\vn can be understood in terms of
The following are problems associated \vi th each of the some malfunction or disruption of the person's
definitions noted above: biological systems.
Statistical norm fails to take into account the social Mental illness can be treated in the sanle \vay as any
context of behaviour. For example, someone physical illness (\vith drugs, surgery, etc.).
•
un: I
A behaviourist \\·ould believe the following about
® EVALUATION
the approach reduct valid
abnormality:
Dysfunctional behaviour is learned in the same way useful
as any other behaviour.
tvlental health issues occur due to the principles of
classical conditioning and operant conditioning.
TI1e focus is on observable behaviour tl1at can be TREATMENTS OF
seen directly rather then internal mechanil.ms such ABNORMALITY
as biology or emotions.
tvlental illness can be treated using behavioural This section briefly outlines different treatments that
techniques (e.g. re\vards to change dysfunctional are linked to the models of abnormality. All of them
behaviours into functional behaviours). will feature in the rest of the chapter \vhen we focus on
different mental health illnesses so more information
about each \viii be introduced ilien.
y ml
A psychodynainic psychologist \l'Ould believe the
follo\ving about abnon11ality: i I i al rme i
The quality of relationships " 'e have \l'ith our The main biological and medical treatments used
parents in early childhood is of critical importance are as follO\VS:
to mental health in adulthood. Drugs - these can help control neurotransmitter
Any early traumatic experiences that may disrupt levels in the brain \vhich could be causing the
our relationships are more likely to cause mental mental healtll issue.
health issues later in life. Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) - electrodes are
Our early experiences (especially the negative ones) placed on specific areas of the persons skull
are stored in our w1conscious mind and this affects and a very brief electrical current is passed
our n1ental health. through then1.
Mental illness is an en1otional response to trauma, Psychosurgery - people 'vith certain mental health
any unmet childhood needs and unsatisfied issues could have a section of brain removed,
biological instincts. lesioned or ablated.
. : ra •
IF"'>"=
A cognitive psychologist would believe the follo\ving The n1ain psychotherapy used is psychoanalysis. There
about abnorn1ality: are many techniques that can be used here:
Dysfunctional behaviours are caused by faulty ~ Free association - this is \vhen the patient
inforination processing and thought processes, is allo,ved si111ply to talk about a11ything and
usually as a result of some early experiences. the therapist has to pick out what is causing
the issue.
tvlental health issues are caused by purely cognitive
factors (e.g. memory systems or irrational beliefs). Dream analysis - this involves looking at dream
content for hidden meanings.
Mental health issues can be dealt \vith by restructuring
the cognitions of people (e.g. helping the1n to think Hypnosis - this is used to access unconscious
n1ore positively or restructure the \vay they process conflict.
the infonnation they receive day to day).
ognl i ·1 u al Effectiveness and
See page 162 for a description ofho\v cognitive appropriat n ss of
behavioural therapy (CBT) \Yorks. These are the main
forms of CST and behavioural therapies: a
Rational emotive behaviour therapy (REBT) Each of the therapies listed above \viii feature across the
five disorders that you need to study:
involves the therapist continually challenging any
irrational thought (see more details in section 1L3). schizophrenia
Systematic desensitisation is when a person abnormal affect
constructs a hierarchy of fear and \Yorks up the addiction and impulse control disorders
hierarchy using relaxation techniques to overcome a
phobias
phobia.
obsessive-com pu lsi ve disorders.
Flooding is a process during which people confront
a fear directly and cannot escape until they have Effectiveness studies and the appropriateness of certain
calmed down. treatments \Vill be covered in the treatment section of all
® EVALUATION
the approach reduct valid
five disorders.
•
useful
•
lhe person shows two of the follo\ving for at least
11.2 SCHIZOPHRENIA one nionth: delusions. hallucinations, disorganised
speech, disorganised or catatonic behaviour,
flattening of emotions; or continual voices in the
TYPES, SYMPTOMS AND head giving a running comn1entary of 1vhat is
CHARACTERISTICS happening.
The person must sbO\Y social and/or occupational
A"'K 0 R ELF functioning that has declined.
How would you diagnose schizophrenia in
someone? What behaviours and characteristics There n1ust be no evidence that medical factors are
would you look for? causing the behaviours.
Symptoms can be split into positive and negative:
Schizophrenia was first called "dementia praecox" Positive refers to the addition of certain
(premature dementia) as it affects people's thoughts, behaviours. For example, hallucinations,
emotions and behaviours. Bclo\v are the types delusions of grandeur or control and insertion of
of schizophrenia currently rccogn ised and the thoughts are all positive.
characteristics that need to be sho,vn for people to
Negative refers to the re1noval of certain
be diagnosed.
behaviours. For exainple, poverty of speech,
withdrawal fron1 society and flattening of n1ood
are all negalive.
•
ethics
DAO gene n1ay interact with another called RASD2
\Vhich n1ay affec t dopamine production (the next cause
\Ve will look at).
• •
® ..
EVALUATION
.. '
reduct useful This idea stales that schizophrenia is caused by faulty
information processing. Frith (1992) noted that
schizophrenia. n1ight have a deficient "n1etarepresentalion"
•
ethics
system - the systen1 that makes people able to reflect on
thoughts, emotions and behaviours. It could also be
linked to theory of n1ind (see Core study 3.3 for AS level
on page 21) as it controls self-awareness iu1d ho\v we
Biochemical (dopamin interpret the actions of others. These are characteristics
hesis that are lacking in some schizophrenics.
This idea is based around the idea that schizophrenia Also, those sho\ving more negative syn1ptoms might have
is caused by an excess of dopamine in the brain. This a dysfunctional supervisory attention system. This system
involves two n1ain ideas: is responsible for generating self-initiated actions. Frith &
Done ( 1986) reported that \vhen participants \vere asked to
When people experience amphetan1ine psychosis
do things sud1 as nan1e as many different fruits as possible,
it rese1nbles certain types of schizophrenia. This is
or generate as 111any designs for son1ething as pos.~ible,
caused by an excess of dopamine.
•
those \vith schiwphrenia ('vilh negative symptoms of neurological diseases such as Parkinsonian-type
predominant) had great difficulty in managing this. tremors. dystonia ( n1uscular rigidity), dyskinesia
Frith ( 1992) also examined a central monitoring system. (che,ving movements) and akasthesia (the inability
This allo,vs us to be able to understand and label actions to keep still). Second-generation antipsychotics \Yere
that \Ye do as being controlled by ourselves. Frith had developed to also block dopan1ine receptors but
noticed that in some schizophrenics inner speech may produce fe,ver side effects and there are no\Y thi rd-
not be recognised as being self-generated. Therefore, generation antipsychotics that reportedly produce even
\\•hen they hear "voices" it is their O\\•n voice but they fe,ver side effects.
are unaware that it is themselves producing inner Contemporary research still sho\vs the effectiveness
speech and believe it is someone else. of antipsychotics in treating schizophrenia. Sarkar
Finally, Johnson et al (2013) tested the cognitive & Grover (2013) conducted a meta-analysis on
abilities of 99 schizophrenics and 77 healthy controls 15 randon1ised controlled studies testi ng the effectiveness
on a battery of cognitive tests. It \Yas seen that the of antipsychotics on children and adolescents diagnosed
schizophren ics performed worse across all cognitive with schizophrenia. It \Yas seen that both first- and
tests including those for \vorking memory (which second-generation antipsychotic drugs \Yere superior to
involves tasks such as dealing \vi th inner speech) and the placebo in alleviating symptoms. Second-generation
that this might be the core detern1inant of overall drugs were superior overall \vith chlozapine being the
cognitive in1pairment in schizophrenics. n1ost effective of all drugs. Extrapyran1idaJ side effects
were seen nlore in first-generation ant ipsychotics 1vhile
side effects Lhat affected metabolism were seen rnore
often in second-generation drugs.
reduct useful
Ehret, Sopko & Lemieux (20 10) noted that a third-
generation drug called lurasidone had been shown to
' ethics
•
liiiB\
®
EVALUATION EVALUATION
•
• reduct useful ethics
Electro-convulsive onomy
th PY (E T) As we saw in sections 8.S and 9.6, token econon1ies are
ECT is basically a procedure where a person receives a based on the idea of operant conditioning (rewards and
brief application of electricity to induce a seizure. Early learning by consequence). Behaviour is shaped lO\vards
attempts al this '''ere not pleasant but no\vadays patients something desired by giving out tokens (e.g. plastic
are anaesthetised and given muscle relaxants. Electrodes chips or a stamp) every time a relevant behaviour is
are fitted lo specific areas of the head and a small sho,vn. Patients can accrue these tokens and exchange
electrical current is passed through them for no longer them for son1ething they \vould Like (e.g. money or food
than l second. The seizure n1ay last up to 1 niinute and vouchers). Therefore, patients continue to sho'" desired
the patient regains consciousness in around 1S minutes. behaviours as they \Vant to earn tokens to exchange for
There '"ill ahvays be debate about whether ECT should primary reinforcer'S that fulfil a direct biological need
such as hunger or enjoyn1ent.
be used for any rnental health issue as clinicians and
psychologists are divided on the severity of the therapy AyUon & Azrin ( 1968) introduced a token economy
itself and the longer-term side effects. ECT is no\v niainly to a psychiatric hospital in a \'lard for long-s tay female
used for depression (we \Viii come back to its effectiveness patients. Patients \vere re'"arded for behaviours such
1vitl1 this on page 220), but there has been research as brushing their hair, making their bed and having
conducted on the use of ECT \Vith schizophrenics. a neat appearance. Their behaviour rapidly in1proved
Zervas, Theleritis & Soldatos (2012) conducted a and staff morale '"as raised as staff "'ere seeing more
review of the use of ECT in schizophrenia. They positive behaviours.
looked at four issues: sympton1 response, technical Gholipour el al (2012) tested out the effectiveness
application, continuation/n1aintenance ECT and of a token econon1y versus an exercise progran1n1e
its con1bination with medication. IL would appear in helping people \Vith schizophrenia. A total of
that ECT can be quite effective with catatonic 45 patients were randomly split into three groups -
schizophrenics and in reducing paranoid delusions. two trealn1ents and a control - (therefore, there \vere
There \Vas also evidence that it may improve a person's IS patients per group). All participants '"ere male, had
responsivity to medication. Lengthier courses \VOrked been diagnosed for at least 3 years, \Vere bet\veen 20
\veil 1vith catatonic schizophrenics. When combined and SO years old and had no other mental health illness.
\Vith medication, ECT "'orked better than 1vhen only Negative symptoms of schizophrenia \Vere mea&ured
ECT 1vas used. Phutane et al (201 I) also noted that in pre- and post-treatment. The average symptorn scores
a sample of202 schizophrenics 1vho had undergone pre- and post-treatment are sho1vn in Table 11.2.2.
ECT, the common reason 1vhy they had the ECT was
to "augment pharn1achotherapy" and that the n1ain I I
•
As Table 1 1.2.2 sho1vs, the largest reduction on negative study but on quality of life measures taken at six months
syn1ptom scores 1vas in the token economy group. post-treatment. Both groups reported improved quality
Prior to this study, Dickerson, Tenhula & Green- of life but there 1vas no significant difference betlveen
Paden (2005) conducted a revie1v of the field. They the tlvo treatment groups.
found 13 studies and it appeared that there 1vas Ng, Hui & Pau (2008) assessed the introduction of a
evidence for the effectiveness of a token economy in CBT programme in a hostel for people who had become
increasing the adaptive behaviours of patients 1vith treatment-resistant to schizophrenia (drug therapy)
schizophrenia. They noted that many studies had in Hong Kong. Measurei. of schizophrenic symptoms,
methodological issues that could cast doubt on findings mood, insight and self-esteem 1vere taken pre- and
and that Jong-term follo1v ups 1vere rare. post-treatment. Six months after treatment there 1'>'as a
® EVALUATION
le•rning reduct useful
significant reduction in the symptoms of schizophrenia
alongside an increase in self-esteen1. Mood and insight
remained unchanged.
'
Davis et al (2008) noted that there had been little
ethics
research into patients evaluating CBT for schizophrenia.
Their study used 44 patients 1vith schizophrenia 1vho
either undenvent CBT or a support-group progran1me.
'TI1e study lasted for six n1onths. Irrespective of group,
all patients were satisfied with the intervention they
CT had taken part in, rating it either good or excellent.
This type of therapy aims to change or modify people's However, those in the CBT group reported higher levels
thoughts and beliefs and also change the 1vay that of satisfaction overall especially with the quality of
they process information. A therapist 1vill challenge service and the assistance given for problem solving.
irrational and faulty thoughts as well as behaviours that Finally, Sarin, Wallin & Widerlov (2011) conducted a
are not helping. Patients may be set tasks outside the meta-analysis on the use of CBT 1vith schizophrenics.
face-to-face therapy to help challenge faulty thoughts They concluded that there 1vas strong evidence for CBT
and beliefs. For schizophrenia, the intention of CBT affecting positive, negative and general sympton1s of
\\'ould be to help patients make sense of the psychotic schizophrenia compared to all other therapies. They
experiences and reduce the negative effects of the also stated that the effects of CBT can be delayed
condition plus any distress they may be feeling. Patients and having 20 sessions or more is better than shorter
n1ay also be given help to understand that vie1vs, programmes that are available.
thoughts and interpretations are not facts, then given
® ..
help to deal 1vilh assessing them. EVALUATION
Bechdolf el al (2005) assessed the effectiveness of CBT
versus group psychoeducation on re-hospitalisation and
1nedication compliance up to 24 months after treatment.
... reduct usetul
ethics
A total of 88 patients 1vere randon1ly assigned to
either group and they received 8 1veeks' therapy. When
fol101ved up six n1onths later, the CBT group were less
likely to be hospitalised and be taking their medication. CHALLENGE YOURSELF
At 24 n1onths post-treatment, the CBT group had You have been asked to choose the most effective
programme for dealing w1lh schizophrenia at a
71 days fewer in hospital. In a further study, Bechdolf
local clinic. Which therapy would you choose and how
et al (2010) analysed the data collected from their first would you run the programme? Justify your choices.
•
1vhose mother also had bipolar disorder. Muscular
'1 1.3 ABNORMAL dystrophy is transmitted by the X-chromosome
hence the link to bipolar disorder. Also, Chang
AFFECT el al (2013) reported on initial work on a BD gene
project to try to pinpoint the genetic cause of
bipolar disorder. Currently there are 43 BD core
TYPES, genes that require further investigation.
CHARACTERISTICS, Another possible cause is brain structure. Nery,
EXAMPLES AND SEX Monkul & Lafer (2013) revie1ved the field and
DIFFERENCES reported on isolated cases 1vhere people 1vith
bipolar disorder had decreased grey nlatter in the
~ AS YOURSELF left thalamus and left hippocan1pal regions of the
V How would you diagnose depression 1n brain. Ho\\•ever, findings are currently inconsistent.
someone? What behCl\llours and charactenstics
In terms of treating bipolar disorder, drug therapy
would you look for?
appears to be the main n1ethod used. In a recent review
Malhi et nl (2013) noted that lithium has bee11 used for
over 50 years as an effective treatn1ent. It 1vorks well at
stabilising n1anic moods but does not affect depression
There are tlvo main types of depression: much. It also possesses anti-suicidal properties that no
Unipolar - this is son1etimes caUed a nlajor depressive other drug has managed to achieve yet.
episode. Syn1pto1ns for this type include having a Joshi et al (2013) noted that a drug called paliperidone
depressed mood for most of the day, diminished \"35 effective in treating acute bipolar disorder in children
pleasure in most activities undertaken, son1e \veight and adolescents after an eight-\\1eek randomised trial
loss, insomnia or hypersomnia, some psychomotor \vhere all participants took the drug. The only side effect
agitation, fatigue, feelings of \vorthlessness and a seen '"as significant \veight gain (average 4.1 lbs).
reduced ability to concentrate on tasks. Finally, Katagiri et al (2013) conducted a study to test
Bipolar - this used to be referred to as n1anic the efficacy and safety of using olanzapine for bipolar
depression. Syrnptorns for this type include disorder. 'TI1ere were 156 participants of which 104 were
having episodes of n1anic behaviour that cannot allocated to the olanzapine group and 52 to the placebo
be accounted for by a physical condition, having (it 1vas a double-bUnd study). Patients in the drug group
sorne episode that is similar to unipolar depression sho1ved greater improvement in symptoms across a range
(although this is not necessary for a diagnosis) of questionnaire measures but also sho\ved greater 1veight
and having some change in polarity of behaviour gain and cholesterol levels compared to the placebo.
bet1veen mania and depression.
® ..
EVALUATION
•
be diagnosed \Vilh depression compared to n1ales and a diagnosis of depression. This hints at a part-genetic
this was seen across many nationalities and cultures. component for depression but a dra,vback is that nvins
Also. these figures were across a range of different types tend lo be brought up together and treated in the same
of depression. There \vere three potential explanations \vay so \Ve cannot rule out environmental inOuences.
for the gender differences reported: FolJo,ving on from this, Silberg et al ( 1999) \vanted
lt is about income not gender. Ho\vever, hvo studies to assess '''hether it \Vas genetics, the environment
in the revie\v did look at income differences and or a combination of the t \VO that could be causing
found no significant effect. depression. A total of902 pairs ofnvins completed
There may be reporting bias. lhere had been an idea psychiatric interviews to assess levels of depression
that females are more likely to reveal symptoms and alongside data about life events and from parents.
therefore more likely to be diagnosed. Studies did ln general, females \Vere diagnosed more often \vith
not appear to support this idea. depression than 111ales. This \vas n1ore marked "'hen Ii fe
events \Vere negative. Ho\vever, there \vere individual
The kind of sympton1s shown might provide an differences seen among the fe1nales, and those '"ho \vere
explanation. Depression in 111en usually takes a fonn diagnosed with depression aft.er a negative life event
of acting out behaviours such as sadness and crying. were more Ii kely to have a t•vi n \vho \Vas also diagnosed
Males act in ways to da1npen Lheir 111ood when with depression. Therefore, it \vould seen1 both genetics
depressed whereas \V0111en are 1nuch n1ore likely and the environn1ent interact to cause depression.
to an1plify their n1ood by "thinking things over
too n1uch''. Earlier studies had also sho,vn a part-genetic
component of depressio11. Bertelsen, Harvald & Hauge
As a result of the last point above, men's reactions (1977) reported that the genetic component varied
tend to be more active, 111aking theirs a more adaptive depending on the type of depression. Table 11.3. L
response compared to women's reactions \Vhich tend to records this.
be less active and more cognitive. This could go some
\vay to explain sex differences in rates of depression as •
men actively \vork through their depression and tend
not to seek help compared to females.
Bipolar disorder 80 16
Severe depression 59 30
EXPLANATIONS OF (three or more
DEPRESSION episodes or
depression)
BeJO\V w·e look at at ho\v three different approaches Depression (fewer than 36 17
attempt to explain the causes of unipolar depression. three episodes
of depression)
•
re-uptake of these neurotransntitters so that more of ~ EVALUATION
\!!) "
t he1n can be used in the postsynaptic neuron. This is
reduct useful
shown in Figure 11.3.l.
Presynaptic neuron
•
ethics
•
or serotonin from ils endings, a re-uplake mechanism ethics
begins lo recapture some of lhe neurolransmillers
before lhe postsynaplic neuron receives them.
(b) Anlidepressanl drugs called lricyclics block lhis
re ·uptake process allowing more norepinephnne or
serotonin lo reach lhe postsynaplic neuron Learned helplessnes or
•
In addition, research has shown that depressed patients Is
do have a 101\'Cr level of serotonin n1etabolites in Learned helplessness is about individuals becoming
cerebrospinal Auid (suggesting lo1ver levels of serotonin) passive because they feel they are not in control of their
con1pared to controls (McNeal & Ci1nbolic, J986). 0\\'11 life. TI1is is caused by unpleasant experiences that
they have tried lo control in the past (unsuccessfully). TEST YOURSELF
This gives people a sense of helplessness \Vhich in turn Descnbe and evaluate one explanation for the
leads to depression. The idea \Vas based on Seligman's cause of depression.
( 1974) research on dogs. The dogs received electric
shocks that they could not escape from (lack of control)
and it did not take long for them to stop trying to
escape. They all beca111e passive and appeared to accept
r "o
No'v we ,yjlJ look at the effectiveness of four different
the painful situation they \Vere in. \Vhen in future trials
there \Vas an opportunity to escape, the dogs still did treatments for unipolar depression.
not try to do this. This is the sense of helplessness that
depressives will feel if they cannot escape situations that
are negative and out of their control. Biological: chemical
In addition, anribution theory could also explain or
depression. Weiner et al ( 1971) noted three levels of T\vo exan1ples of antidepressants that are comn1only
attribution that can affect people's views of their 0\'111 used are as follows:
behaviour: Selective serotonergic re-uptake inhibitors (SSRis) -
1. internal (personal) or external (environ111ental) see Figure 11.3. J on page 2l8 to see ho1\1 re-uptake
2. stable or unstable inhibitors work. Possible side effects include fatigue,
headaches and inso1nnia.
3. global or specifi c.
• Monoan1ine oxidase inhibitors (MAOls) - these
Table 11 .3.2 gives an exa1nple of how the different work by inhibiting monan1ine oxidase (this breaks
attributional sche1nata can be used to explain \vhy
do,vn neurotransn1itters such as norepineprhine
someone failed a psychology exam.
and serotonin) which means more serotonin
and norepinephrine is available in the synapse.
Possible side effects include hypertension (\vhich is
Global ·11ack •1 am really, ·exams are ·1rs an potentially fatal), dizziness and nausea.
general really !Ired an unfair unlucky
Rucci et al (2011) tested out the effectiveness of SSRis
1n1elhgenc:e loday" Wd'f lo lesl day"
for exams· my ab11ily"
versus interpersonal psychotherapy on suicidal thoughts
Specific "I lack ·1 am fed up "The "My
in a group of29 I outpatients 1vith major depression.
lhe ablllly with studying psychology psychology Participants \Vere randomly assigned to either treat:ment
10 pass psychology.· exam was exam regime and suicidal ideation \Vas measured using a
psychology really unfalr had 13 questionnaire. The 231 patients \vho had shown no
exams: as 11 had Questions, suicidal ideation pre-study '"ere analysed and 32 of
questions which is these did exhibit suicidal ideation during the treatment.
I did not unlucky" For those on SSRls, the time taken for these thoughts
know the to en1erge \Vas 111uch longer than in the psychotherapy
answers lo.• 1 group. Therefore SSR!s niay reduce suicidal thoughts in
Table 11 .3.2 Using allributional schemata to explain people 'vith major depression.
exam ranure Nakagawa et nl (2008) conducted a 111eta-analysis
on the efficacy and effectiveness of a drug called
@ ..
EVALUATION milnacipraJl (a serotonin ru1d norepinephrine
•
ethics
1vith milnacipran compared to at least one other
antidepressant While there tended to be no
•
differences in clinical in1prove1ncnt across all major depression. Thirty-two studies \Vere used in
antidepressants, people taking antidepressants called the analysis and all had at least a two-year follow up.
tricyclics tended to \\lithdra\\I from treatn1ent sooner Compared to relapse rates for drug therapy (5 1. I per
than any other drug group. There \Vas also evidence cent 12 months follo\ving successful initial treatment
that milnacipran n1ay benefit patients \\lhO had adverse \vith 37.7 per cent relapsing in the first sLx months),
side effects from SSRls and MAOls. ECT did not fare any better, with a 37.2 per cent
relapse rate in the first six months. Those who took
EVALUAT ION antidepressants post-ECT had a risk of relapse half of
•
• reduct useful ethics
EVALUAT ION
®
•
• reduct useful ethics
Biological: electro-
1I PY (E T}
See page 2 14 in section 11 .2 for a description of the g It v r rin
procedure for adn1inistering ECT. The idea of this therapy follows Beck's cogni tive triad
Nordenskjold et al (2013) tested the effectiveness of approach to the potential causes of depression. lt is a
ECT with drug therapy compared to drug therapy six-stage process as fo llo\vs:
alone. A total of 56 patients were rando111ly assigned to 1. The therapist explains the rationale behind the
either 29 t reatn1ents of ECT alongside drug therapy or therapy and \vhat its purpose is.
just drug therapy. The researchers n1easured relapse of
depression \vithin one year of completing treatment. In 2. Clients are taught ho\v to 1nonitor automatic
the group of patients just on drug therapy 61 per cent negative thoughts and negative self-schemata.
relapsed \vithin the year compared to just 32 per cent 3. Clients are taught to use behavioural techniques
\vho had ECT and drug therapy. to challenge negative thoughts and information
There have been several meta-analyses testing the processing.
effectiveness of ECT. Dierckx el al (2012) revie\ved the 4. Therapist and client ex"Plore ho\v negative thoughts
field in terms of \vhelher response to ECT differs in bipolar are responded to b)' the client.
disorder patients versus unipolar depressed patients. A total 5. Dysfunctional beliefs are identified and challenged.
ofsix studies formed their analysis. The overall re1nission
6. The therapy ends \Vith clients having the necessary
rate \Yas nearly 51 per cent for unipolar and over 53 per cent
"cognitive tools" to repeat the process by
for bipolar disorder. The data covered over I 000 patients.
themselves.
Overall, the data \Yere encouraging as they showed similar
efficacy rates for the L1vo types of depression. Hans & Hiller (2013) conducted a n1eta-analysis on the
effectiveness of CBT on adults \Vi th unipolar depression.
Dunne & Mcloughlin (2012) reviewed the effectiveness
A total of34 studies formed the analysis and they had
and side effects of three types of £CT: bifrontal (BF),
to assess the effectiveness of individual or group CBT
bilateral (BL) and unilateral (UL). Eight studies were
as well as drop-out rates. 'lhe studies also had to have
used in the analysis. It covered data on 6 17 patients.
at least a six-month follow up. It \Vould appear that
There \Vas no difference in the effectiveness of the three
outpatient CBT was effective in reducing depressive
types in tern1s of efficacy - all appeared to have son1e
symptoms and these \Vere maintained at least six
level of effectiveness. UL ECT impaired con1plex figure
nlonths after the CBT ended. The average drop-out rate
recall more than BF ECr. Ho\vever, BF ECT impaired
\Yas 24.63 per cent. This \Vas reported as being quite
\YOrd recall more than UL ECT.
high by the researchers but they also noted that better
Finally, Jelovac, Kolshus and Mcloughlin (2013) quality effectiveness studies are needed to assess ho\Y
revie\ved relapse rates follo\Yi ng successful ECT for good CBT trul y is \Yi th depressive patients.
•
Cuijpers et al (2013) also conducted a revie1v examining might follow could be "I an1 a failure" or "I hate it
CB'f in relation to depression and comparing it to other 1vhen I do not pass an exam" and then the C 1vould be
treatments. A total of 11 5studies1vere used and they depression.
had to be a CBT study that either had a control group Szentagotai et al (2008) examined the effectiveness of
or a comparison other treatlnent (e.g. psychotherapy or REBT, CBT and drug therapy for the treatment of a
drug therapy). CBT 1vas effective at reducing depression major depressive episode. A range of outcome measures
in adults but the effect size 1vas 101ver 1vhen the study 1vere taken based on a questionnaire that tested three
1vas classed as high quality. Therefore, the positive main depressive thoughts: auton1atic negative thoughts,
effects ofCBT may 1vell have been overestimated and dysfunctional attitudes and irrational beliefs. A general
more high-quality studies are needed. measure of depression ~vas also taken. There 1\lere 170
Bums et al (20 13) conducted a pilot study to assess participants randomly assigned to either the REST
the effectiveness of CBT for women 1vith antenatal (n=57). CBT (n=56) or drug therapy (n=57) groups.
depression. 'Thirty-six won1en who met the diagnostic In tern1s of depressive sympton1s, there 1vere no
criteria for depression were rando1nly assigned to either significant differences betlveen the th rec groups but the
a CBT treatn1ent programn1e or usual care. Of those 1vho REBT groups had an average score significantly lower
completed nine or n1ore sessions of CBT, or con1pleted than the drug therapy group. In tern1s of the three n1ain
their usual care, 68. 7 per cent of t he CBT group had depressive thoughts, all three treatn1ents appeared to
recovered fron1 their depression 15 weeks after treatn1ent decrease these in1111ediately post-treat111ent and then at
co111pared to 38.5 per cent in the usual care group. follow up.
Sava et al (2008) co1npared REBT, CBT and the use
® ..
EVALUATION
of prozac in a sa111ple of depressives. The participants
... reduct useful ethics 1\lere split into the three treatn1ent groups and all had
14 weeks' therapy. AJI participants completed the Beck
Depression Inventory (see Beck, page 218) prior to
the therapy and then at 7 and 14 weeks post-therapy.
Rational emotive There 1vere no significant differences beh,•een the
• three groups in terms of scores on the inventory but
, REBT and CBT cost less for the same outcomes so are
Ellis (1962) stated that rationality consists of thinking a preferred treahnent.
in 1vays that allo1v us to reach our goals; irrationality
® ..
consists of thinking in ways that prevent us from EVALUATION
reaching our goals. The idea behind the therapy follo1vs
an ABC model:
Activating event - this refers to a fact, behaviour,
... reduct useful ethics
•
service in action. They may feel a sense of arousal
'1 1.4 ADDICTll ON and satisfaction once the fire has started.
AND IMPULSE Kleptomanja - 1vhen people have the urge to
collect and hoard items in their homes. They may
CONTROL go out and steal objects even if the items have little
monetary value or they could afford to buy then1.
DISORDERS The nlore difficult the challenge of gaining tl1e
objects, the n1ore thrilling and addictive it becon1es.
•
n1etabolism of alcohol: alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH I B) is follO\Yed by a positive outcon1e (e.g. feeling a sense of
and aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH2). Agra\val & Bierut arousal v.•hen setting fire to a house or winn iJig on a fruit
(2013) also noted that the sa111e two genes (ADH IB and mad1ine), the person is likely to repeat the behaviour.
ALDH2) appear to play a key role in alcoholism. They
added that GABRA2 could also play a role as it encodes
infom1ation about receptor sites in neurons linked to
® EVALUATION
behaviourist
'
reduct
alcohol-related processing. Biernacka et al (2013) analysed
43 single nucleotjde polymorphisms in 808 alcoholics and
l 248 control participants. One in particular (rsl614972)
in the ADH I C gene was folmd to be a key difference
ethics
Cl
bet\\leen the two groups. This \\lllS irrespective of the sex
of the participant. Ducci & Goldman (2008) stated that
more than 50 per cent of the variance for vulnerability Ii
to alcoholism could be accou nted for by genetics but the There has been n1uch research examining personality
exact pathways were still unkno\vn. differences in pyromaniacs con1pared to controls. Gannon
et al (20 13) examined 68 pyron1aniacs and 68 control
® EVALUATION
Cl
participants. All \Vere given a range of questionnaires to
•
• reduct ethics complete that 111easured a r<1ngc of personality traits. The
characteristics n1ore common in the pyro1naniacs 1vere:
higher anger-related cognitions
interest in serious fires
rr n lo\ver levels of perceived fire safety a1vareness
Dopainine has been linked to addiction and in1pulse
control disorders as when it is released in the body it lo\ver general self-esteem
gives us the feelings of pleasure and satisfaction. Once e;rternal locus of control.
these feelings become a desire, we then repeat behaviours Therefore, there \vere differences in the personality and
that cause the release of dopamine and the cycle cognitive mechanisms of participants iJ1 the "''O groups.
continues \Vith repetitive behaviours. Yoon el al (2010)
Kennedy el al (2006) revie\ved the literature (six
reported that \vhen participants \Vere given a dopamine
studies) and reported the follo\ving about adolescent
agonist (it activates dopamine receptors), in1pulsive
pyromaniacs \vho set fires again after being convicted
choice increased, reaction times becan1e faster and
(compared to those who did not go back to fire-setting).
participants showed fe\ver decision conflicts compared
The adolescents repeating the behaviour:
to a control group. One drawback is that participants
had Parkinson's disease so \vhether this can be related to had a great interest in fire-setting and showed
people \Yith impulse control disorder needs investigating. higher levels of covert antisocial behaviours
were more n1ore likely to be rnale and older
liiB\ EVALUATION
~ had poorer social ski lls with a h igh level of fa111ily
~- reduct ethics
Cl dysfunction.
Moore, Thon1pson-Pope & \.Yhited (1996) exan1ined
the responses on the Mi11nesota Multiphasic Personality
Assessment Questionnaire (MMPI) of28 adolescent boys
Behavioural: positive with a history of pyron1ania compared to 96 without a
r i history. The follo\ving subscales differentiated the hvo
groups: depression, feelings of alienation, anger, conduct
This follo\vs the idea of re\vards. 'vVhen an action is
problems, family problems and school problenis.
follo\ved by a pleasurable outcome, the person is more
likely to engage in that behaviour again. For example, Cunningham et al (2011) intervie\ved nine \vomen \vho
if an addictive behaviour or i1npulse control behaviour were pyromaniacs. The qualitative analysis revealed that
•
they had distressing experiences and lack of support
pre-pyromaniac beha\iour and conducted the fire-
® EVALUATION
behaviourist reduct ethics
se1ting to influence others, gain help and feel a sense of
achievement and control.
•
Wedekind et al (2013) studied the personality and useful
atlachn1enl profiles of 59 alcoholics (43 n1ale and
16 fen1aJe) . Participants completed a battery of
questionnaires as \Veil as taking part in a structured
intervie1v. Only one-third of participants 1vere securely I h ra
attached. All had high levels of trait-anxiety and sho1ved
This is a therapy based on dassical conditioning. The idea
higher levels of cognitive avoidance as 1vell as higher
is that an undesirable behaviour (e.g. 1vhen an alcoholic
scores on a number of pathological measures.
drinks alcohol) is paired 1vith an aversive stimulus
(something unpleasant). This decreases the frequency
®
EVALUATION
of the behaviour as the tlvo elemen ts are associated and
•
• reduct ethics useful the undesirable behaviour is no longer enjoyable. For
alcoholics this could be that whenever they smell or taste
alcohol they are given an en1etic drug (this will nlake
TEST YOURSELF them vo1nit). 1 hey should begin to associate being sick
Describe and evaluate one cause of addiction \vith drinking alcohol and avoid drinking or drink less
and impulse control disorders. alcohol, so their behaviour \viii be changed.
Howard (200 I) examined the effectiveness of aversion
therapy using 82 hospitalised patients. The)' all 1vent
COPING WITH AND through a pharmacological aversion treatment and
REDUCING ADDICTION these 1vere the results:
AND IMPULSE CONTROL The strength of"positive outcomes for drinking
DISORDERS alcohol" 1vere significantly reduced.
- The confidence that they could avoid drinking
alcohol in "high-risk situations" \Vas significantly
increased.
One technique that has been used 1vith alcoholics is
token econon1y (see page 214 for a description of token Those \Yho had a greater experience of alcohol-
economy). Petry et al (2000) research~ 42 alcohol- related nausea pre-treatment or 1vere involved in
dependent older adults in an outpatient setting. They antisocial conduct sho,ved reduced effectiveness for
1vere rando1nly assigned to t\vo groups: one to receive the treatment.
standard treatment only; the other to receive a standard Thurber ( 1985) reviewed the field and reported a
trealrnent plus token economy (the TE group). The moderate positive etfect for the use of en1etics 1vith
latter had the chance to earn tokens that could go alcoholics whereas Cannon, Baker & Wehl ( 1981)
towards prizes for submitting negative breathalyser tests noted that the san1e effect was seen at 6-n1011th follo1v-
and completing set steps towards desired behaviours. up sessio11s but that it had disappeared by 12 nlonths
The treat1nent lasted eight weeks. The first measure post-treatn1ent. Finally, Smith, Frawley & Polissar
1vas the percentage of participants 1vho con1pleted the (1997) assessed the etfectiveness of aversion therapy
full treatn1ent 84 per cent in the TE group and 22 per compared to counselling 1vith alcoholics. A total of 249
cent receiving standard treatment only. By the end of patients 1vent through the aversion therapy and 1vere
the treatment phase, 69 per cent of the TE group 1vere matched with participants who had the counselling. The
still abstinent con1pared to just 29 per cent in the other group 1vho received aversion therapy had significantly
group. Participants in the TE group earned, on average, higher rates of alcohol abstinence at 6 and 12 nlonths
about $200 worth of prizes. post-treatment.
•
@ EVALUATION
kleptomania-related consequences are used (e.g.
getting arrested and going to jail) instead of just general
behaviourist reduct ethics
aversive imagery (e.g. nausea and vomiting). It is also
effective \vhen the kleptomaniac describes the scenarios
out loud, in as n1uch detail as possible, so that lhe
•
usefUI
anxiety continues to increase " 'ith the imaginings. This
repeated pairing of aversive stimuli \Vith klepton1ania
thoughts and ideas does decrease behaviour especially
if patients are tllen reinforced for not engaging in
kleptomania-related behaviours.
See page 162 for a descriplion of ho\v CBT \vorks.
CBT has been used successfully with other impulse
Hodgins & Peden (2008) reviewed the current field at
control disorders. As Jimenez-Murcia et al (20 11 )
the time in relation to CBT usage for kleptomania The
reported, it \Yorked very well with male slot-machine
first thing they noted \vas that there \Vas little systematic
addicts over a 16-week period and even an online CBT-
research in the area. The main CST techniques used for
based programrne for alcoholics sho\ved good levels of
kleptomania tended to be as follo\vs:
success (van Oeursen et al, 2013).
Covert sensilisation - this is when patients have
to visualise a negative (aversive) in1age \vith the
klepto1nania behaviours. The idea is to 1nake them
@ EVALUATION
cognitive reduct
associate the two so the behaviour decreases.
lmaginal desensitisation - this is when patients are
ethics useful
taught relaxalion techniques. They have to visualise
themselves engaging in the impulsive behaviour
\vh ile also engaging in relaxation. Impulsion and
relaxation cannot happen at the same time and the CHAllENGE YOURSELF
idea is that relaxation takes over when people have You have been asked by a local mental health
the urge to involve themselves in kleptomania charity to choose the most effective programme
for deahng with addrcbon and impulse control disorder.
The revie\v concluded that CST appears to be the most Which therapy would you chOose and how would you run
effective way of controlling kleptomania. the programme? Jusltfy your chotees.
Kohn & Antonuccio (2002) noted that CBT is
very successful \Vith kleptomaniacs especially if
•
11.5 ANXIETY EXPLANATIONS OF
PHOBIAS
ID IS,O RDERS
(PHOBIAS} Behavioural: classical
,. . .
Classical conditioning is all about learning through
DEFINITION, TYPES association. It is a forn1 of conditioning 'vhere the
AND EXAMPLES organism (be it human or ani1nal) associates an
unconditional stunulus \Vil h a neutral stimulus. After
ASI< YOURSELF repeated associations, the organis1n then responds
What types of behaviours would you expect to the neutral stimulus (no'v called a conditioned
people with a phobia to show when in the stimulus) \Vithout having the unconditional stimulus
presence of lhe1r phobia or a s1tuallon relallng to 1t?
present anymore. Figure 11.5.1 (on the next page)
sho1vs what happens in classical conditioning.
D finl I n
A phobin is defined as an irrational fea r of so111ething, THE CASE OF LITTLE
son1eone or some object. By irrational we mean ALBERT
unreasonable and illogical. There 1nay be no reason why
\Ve fear the object or situation. \Vatson & Rayner ( 1920) were interested in nvo ain1s.
The follo1ving is taken directly from the paper they
wrote about the case of Little Albert:
"I. Can 1ve condition fear in an animal (e.g. a \vhite
Agoraphobia is the intense fear of open spaces and/ rat by visually presenting it and simultaneously
or public areas. For example, a person may fear striking a steel bar)?
leaving the house. 2. If such a conditioned emotional response can
Social phobia is the intense fear of being in social be established, \viii there be a transfer to other
situations. People with this phobia actively avoid animals or other objects?"
social situations. They may also feel that other (Watson & Rayner, 1920.)
people are judging them and they dislike social
At approximately nine months of age, Little Albert
interactions.
was presented with a range of stimuli (e.g. a \vhite rat,
Clinophobia is a fear of going to bed. a rabbit, a dog, a n1onkey). Albert showed no fear
Hippophobia is a fear of horses. to,vards any of the objects.
,. Pteronophobia is a fear of being tickled v\fhen Albert reached l l 1nonths and 3 days, the
by feathers! experimental procedure began to test out the first ai n1.
Albert was presented with a 1vhite rat again and as before
CHALLENGE YOURSELF he sho1\led no fear. 1-lo,vever, as Albert reached out to
Find the names of five more phobias that interest touch the ral, Watson struck an iron bar immediately
you. Also. find a real-life case study of someone behind the Albert's head. Albert "jun1ped violently and
with a phobia.
fell for1vard, burying his face in the mattress'.' ( 1920: 4).
•
Albert lried to approach the rat again but as soon as but not the same as the conditioned slin1ulus. For
he got close the iron bar 1vas struck. After the hvo exa111ple, 1ve may produce a fear response to 1"asps.
associations of the rat and loud noise the rat 1vas We could generalise this fear to other flying insects
taken a1vay. such as bees and hornets.
Seven days later, the researchers wanted to see 1vhether Extinction occurs 1vhen the conditioned stimulus
his experience 1vilh the loud noise had 1nade Alfred no longer produces the conditioned response. This
fearful of 1vhite rats. He 1vas very wary around the rat could be because the conditioned stimulus has no
and did not really 1vant to play 1vith it or touch it When longer been paired 1vith the unconditional stinlulus.
he did reach for it the loud noise 1vas made, the san1e as So, for example 1vith a person 1vho fears 1vasps, over
in the previous 1veek. This 1vas done five times during the tinle the conditioned response of fear disappears in
session. So, in total, Albert experienced the loud noise the presence of the conditioned stimulus of the wasp.
and 1vhite rat occurring together on seven occasions.
Finally, the rat 1vas presented by itself and Albert began
to cry and crawled away rapidly. ·11iis 1vas the first time
@ EVALUATION
behaviourism reduct useful
he had cried during the study in response to the rat.
Over the nexl 1nonth Albert's reactions to a range of
•
ethics
objects 1vere observed. He 1vas still fearful of the white
rat. He sho1ved negative reactions to a rabbit being
placed in fron t of hhn and a fur coat (1nade from seal
skin). He did not really like cotton 1vool but the shock •
1vas not the same as it 1vas with the rabbit or fur coat. h I ( u
He even began lo fear a Santa Claus n1ask. Refer back to Core study 5.2 for AS level (page 52) that
His experiences can be explained via the mechanisms of investigated Little Hans.
classical conditioning, as sho1vn in Figure 11.5.1.
Before conditioning
@ EVALUATION
'
psychod reduct useful
l lt----M
'
•
One study into this used rhesus ni.onkeys as the was the nlost con1n1on for snakes - 4S per cent of
participants not humans. Cook & Mineka ( 1989) wanted participants - and for spiders it \YaS 27 per cent. So, even
to see if the monkeys could become phobic of objects though it looked as if the phobia \vas caused by genetics,
such as a crocodile, a flo"•er, a snake or a rabbit even nearly half of the snake-phobic participants could have
though they had never seen the object before. A group their phobia explained via social learning.
of rhesus monkeys \vas split into four groups and each
group only sa\v one oft he objects. The researchers EVALUATION
controlled \vhat the 1nonkeys sa\v as they \Yatched a @ I.II
.,.. reduct usefUI
video. Using the tedlnique of splicing the video, each
monkey sa\v the same rhesus monkey being scared of
•
othics
the object that its group had been assigned. For example,
one monkey 53\V another monkey on the video being
scared of the crocodile. lhe next monkey sa\v the same
monkey on the video but this time the 1nonkey \vas
scared by the flo,ver. Each monke)' \vas then tested on
its fear to\vards the object. ·1he monkeys in the crocodile The 'rie\v of cognitive psychologists is that phobias
and snake groups sho,ved fear towards a toy crocodile being caused by the anxiety is linked lo the phobic:
and a toy snake. However, \vhen the other two groups being nlore likely to attend to negative stin1uli; and to
\Vere shown their "feared object" (e.g. the llo\ver or the believe that negative events are n1uch n·1ore likely to
rabbit), they did not shO\v any fear. 1 he researchers took happen in the future. Di Nardo et al ( 1988) reported that
this as showing that the n1onkeys were already prepared in a group of dog phobics, only SO per cent could report
to fear the dangerous objects but not the neutral objects. having a previous trau ma tic experience. Ho,vever, in
Could it be that \Ve are born fearful of certain objects? a group of people \Vilh no phobia of dogs, SO per cent
This takes the idea of preparedness further by saying that could also report a previously traun1atic experience
certain phobias are encoded into our genetic make-up involving a dog. The key difference \YaS that tllose
(DNA) and passed down through generations. who developed a phobia of dogs tended to focus on
Ost et al (1991) examined people \Vho '''ere needle-phobic and become anxious about the possibility of having
'vithin the same family. This study reported that 64 per cent a similar experience in the future and this obviously
of patients \Vith a blood and/or injection phobia had at least affected the \vay they processed information about dogs.
one first-degree relative (immediate family member) 'vith l(jndt & Brosschot ( 1997) conducted a study to test
the san1e phobia. In the general population, 3-4 per cent of cognitive biases in people \vith arachnophobia. They
people are phobic of blood and/or needles. created a Stroop-type test \vhere participants had to
read out the colour of the ink of spider-related words
Fredrikson, Annas & Wik ( 1997) examined 158 phobic
or pictures. Those \vho claimed to be arachnophobic
females who \Vere scared of snakes or spiders. The took significantly longer to nanle the ink colour of the
participants had to report on their fanlily history of spider-related words con1pared to a control group. This
their phobia. The researchers discovered that 37 per cent hints at phobics having an aulonlalic cognitive process
of mothers and 7 per cent of fathers also had the same of attending to phobias sti1nuli for longer than usual.
phobia. This seenled to support the idea that the phobic
\vomen had inherited their phobia. llB\ EVALUATION
1-lo\vever, the researchers asked participants another
question about what had happened: they asked whether
participants had experienced direct exposure to the
\5' . reduct useful ethics
•
TREATING PHOBIAS Stage 1
Systentatic
Spider
(CS)
.l' Fear
(CR) I
) Relaxation
Calmness
lf \Ve look at the case of Little Albert again (see techniQue
(UCR)
page 226 ), it can be clearly seen that the conditioned IUCS)
•
phobic stimulus were effective in reducing the fear in Ditto el al (2003) tested out the effectiveness of applied
arachnophobics. All participants had been n1atched on tension 1vith people who were phobic of giving blood
fear: some progressed up their hierarchy \vith relaxation (having fear of needles, etc.). A total of 605 donors
and others by laughing. I lo1vever, no follo1v-up sessions \Vere randomly assigned to one of three groups: applied
1vere conducted by Zettle or by Ventis, Higbee & Murdock. tension, a no-treatment control or a placebo control.
Participants in the applied tension group 1vatched an
@ EVALUATION instructional video that taught the1n ho1v to contract
and relax the main muscle groups in the arms and legs.
behaviourism reduct , useful
Participants in the placebo control watched the video
but they \\-ere not told to use the technique. Those in
•
ethics the appHed tension group reported significantly fe1ver
phobic symptoms about being blood donors and actually
produced more full quotas of blood than the other t1110
groups. They 1vere also more likely to recon1mend blood
F donation to a friend as a result Ho\vevcr. there \Vere no
differences across the three groups on the probability
This is another way lo I real phobias using the idea
behind classical conditioning. However, it does not tllat they would give blood again.
take the "gentle" approach of systen1atic desensitisation. Holly, Balegh & Ditto (20 1 I) exan1ined the role of
The patient is exposed to the largest anxiety-provoking applied tension on anxiety in people giving blood.
stin1uli straight a\vay (usually direct contact with the Participants \Vere 70 people randon1ly assigned to
stimuli - this is called in vivo). Obviously, the patient either a control group or the experimental group \vho
is going to feel extreme levels of fear and anxiety when \vere taught applied tension before 1vatching a video
confronted 1vith the phobic stimulus. Ho1vever, this dies that sho,ved sorneone giving blood. The females in the
off quite rapidly as the body cannot sustain such a high applied tension group sho1ved significant reduction
level of arousal for a long time. Therefore, the fear and in vasovagal symptoms (especially in those 1vho
anxiety \Vil! diminish. As a result of the phobic stimulus reported high fear of needles). This 1vas backed up \vith
not causing any more fear or anxiety, the patient quickly physiological data that sho,ved it 1vas decreased anxiety
learns that there is no1v nothing to be fearful of. The that brought about the reduction in vasovagal reactions.
association bet1,1een phobic stimulus and fear has been
EVALUATION
broken to forn1 a ne1v relationship of phobia stimulus
producing caln1. @
•
• reduct useful ethics
@ EVALUATION
behaviourism reduct useful
T
•
ethics See page 162 for a description ofhO\V CBT works. There
have been nun1erous studies assessing the effectiveness
ofCBT in relation to phobias. For exa1nple, Lilliecreutz,
josefsson & Sydsjo (201 O) tested out the effectiveness of
pI · st) CBT for blood and injection phobia in pregnant \V01nen.
A total of 30 1vomen took part in the study and they
Applied 1nuscle tension is a technique developed by Ost
had been diagnosed 1vith the phobia. They took part
in the 1980s. It 1vas developed to help people 1vith blood
in tlvo sessions of CST. The comparison groups were
and injury phobias. They had to repeatedly contract the
46 pregnant 1vomen who received no CBT and 70 healthy
major muscle groups of the arms and legs to decrease
pregnant women. The CBT group showed significant
vagovasal (fainting) reactions \vhen highly anxious. It
reductions in their anxiety levels (measured by the
has been reported to increase cerebral blood flo1v.
•
Injection Phobia Scale-Anxiety) after each CBT session. for the usual CBT. Therefore, Internet-based CBT would
This continued after the birth of their child. Therefore, be more cost-effective in areas \vhere healthcare budgets
CBT is effective in these situations and appears to be are linlited.
sustained up to three months after childbirth. Finally, Galvao-de Almeida et al (2013) revie,ved the
Melfsen et al (2011) exan1ined the effectiveness of using impact that CBT had on people \vith phobias. Ho\vever,
CBT for socially phobic children. A total of 44 children all studies in the revie\v had to have functional
\vho \Vere diagnosed \vith social phobia \\•ere randomly neuroimaging measures as part of them. A total of
assigned lo a CBT condition or a ",vaiting-list" sLx studies niet the inclusion criteria for the revie\\•. It
condition. The main outcome measure \\las clinical would appear that people \Vho under\vent CBT had
0
inlprovement but other aspects \vere measured (e.g. significant deactivations" in the amygdale, thalamus
coping ability, dysfunctional cognitions and frequency and hippocampal regions of the brain. Therefore, CBT
of interactions). There were significant differences appears to directly affect brain functions linked to
bet\\ Cen the groups post-therapy, \Vith those in the CBT
1 anxiety.
group being more likely to be free fron1 their previous
@ ..
diagnosis of social phobia. In addition, Andrews, EVALUATION
Davies & Titov (20 11 ) tested out the effectiveness of
face-to-face versus Internet-based CBT for people with
social phobias. lhe researchers randornly assigned
.... reduct
'
, useful
•
repeat this for about one hour. He \Vould than \\lash for
about another t\\'O hours before getting dressed. His mother
did discourage him to begin \vith but seeing ho"' upset
Charles got began to dean iten1S in the house ''~th alcohol
and then stopped people from ~iting as they have 'gern1s'
and it would upset Charles. Rapoport wanted Charles to
have an EEG but he refused as Charles found stickiness to
be 'terrible' like a 'disease'. Charles had drug therapy and
his syrnpto1ns disappeared for about a year. t-lowever, he
DEFINITIONS, MEASURES developed a tolerance for the drug but only then engaged in
this OCD behaviour in the evening so not to disrupt his day.
AND EXAMPLES
CHALLENGE YOURSELF
ASK YOURSELF Find at least two real-life case studies of people
What behaviours would you expect lo see with OCD. Write down what obsessions and
from someone who has been diagnosed wilh compulsions they have plus what they lhink may have
obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)? caused their OCD-related behaviours. If they are being
lreated, make a note of this too.
Defining obsession
m ul a u
Obsessions are recurring and persistent thoughts (even There are a fe\v validated measures of OCD. This section
images and thoughts) that are intrusive and inappropriate covers three.
and cause high levels of anxiety. These thoughts are not The Obsessive-Compulsive inventory (OCI) (f.oa et al,
just excessive '"'Orries about lifes problems. Compulsions l 9CJ8) is a 42-itern questionnaire that patients con1plete. They
are repetitive behaviours (e.g. hand washing or checking ru1swer eadl statement fron10 (not at all) to 4 (extren1ely)
the order of something) or n1ental acts (e.g. counting based on the previous rnonth in their lives. There are seven
or repeating words). The people affected feel driven to sub-scores that are added together to niake a total OCI score:
pcrforn1 these behaviours in response to an obsession. They Washing: "I wash and clean obsessively" is a
also perform the behaviours to reduce anxiety or prevent statement on the OCI that measures this. Further
son1e devastating event or situation from occurring. examples of statements on the OCI are given belo\\1•
For a diagnosis of OCD, the person must recognise Checking: "I ask people to repeat things several
that the obsessions aodlor compulsions are excessive times, even though I understood them the first time:'
and unreasonable. Also, they may consume time (more
Doubting: "Even \vhen I do something very
than one hour per day) and interfere \Vith aspects of the
carefully I feel that it is not quite right:'
person's life such as his or her job and relationships.
Ordering: "I feel obliged to follo\v a particular order
in dressing, undressing and \vashing myself."
Case studies nd ~ Obsessions: "Unpleasant thoughts co1ne into n1y
mind against my \Vil.I and I cannot get rid of then1:'
m les
Rapoport ( 1989) reported on Charles in his book 771e Boy I loarding: "I collect things I don't need:'
who Couldn't Stop \!Vashing. At the age of 12 he began to Neutralising: "I feel that [must repeat certain words
wash obsessively. For some time he managed to keep it or phrases in my mind in order to wipe out bad
under control but then spent more and more of his school thoughts, feelings and actions."
day '"ashing. Eventually, he did it so often he had to leave Using the patient's scores, a clinical psychologist can see
school. The ritual 'vas aJ,vays the same: he "'ould hold the if a particular con1ponent of OCD is strong or \Veak,
soap in his right hand and out it under a running tap for then an appropriate treatn1ent can be chosen. If the
one nlinute. He would then transfer the soap to his left person scores 42 or more on the OCI it l>uggests the
hand a'\13Y from the tap for another n1inutc. He \vould presence of OCD.
•
The Vancouver Obsessional Compulsive Inventory Just right: "I feel compelled to be absolutely perfect:'
(VOCI) (Thordarson et al, 2004) is another validated Indecisiveness: "J find it difficult to make even
measure of OCD. This scale has 55 ite1ns that patients trivial decisions~
con1plete and they rate each staten1ent on a scale of 0
The final scale, called the Yale-Bro\vn Obsessive Compulsive
(not at all) to 4 (very much). There are sLx sub-scales
Scale (Y-BOCS), is a very popular measure used in many
that are added together to give a total score:
studies. There are two parts to the measurement and it is
~ Contamination: " I feel dirty after touching money" used as a semi-structured intervie'" technique:
is a staten1ent on the VOCI that measures this.
Symptom checklist - there is a list of 67 symptoms
Further examples of statements on the VOCI are
for OCD and the intervie\'•er notes \\•hether each
given belo\v.
symptom is current, past or ab ent (in the latter case it
Checking: "One of n1y n1ajor problems is repeated is not recorded). This helps the intervie\ver determine
checking." \vhether a group of clustered symptoms exists (the list
Obsessions: "I am often upset by 1ny unwanted is divided into groups such as aggressive obsessions,
thoughts of using a sharp \Veapon." sexual obsessions, contan1ination obsessions, checking
~ Hoarding: "l become very tense or upset when co1npulsions, ordering con1pulsions cleaning/\\lashing
I tbink about throwing anyth ing a\vay:' compulsions.) An exan1ple is shown in Figure 11.6.1.
Symptom checkli st
'
4 3. Excessive or ritualised hand Washing your hands many limes a day or for long
washing periods of time after touching, or thinking you have
touched. a contaminated object. This may include
washing the entire length of your arm.
44. Excessive or ritualised f Taking showers or baths or performing other
showering, bathing, tooth bathroom routines that may last for several hours. If
brushing, grooming or toilet the sequence is interrupted the entire process may
routine have to be restarted.
Figure 11.6.1 Excerpt from the Y-BOCS symptom checklist and an example question
•
The Y-BOCS itself - there arc 19 iten1s here that Those 1vith early onset OCD had the highest levels of
the intervie\vee con1pletes during the intervie\v oxytocin. Finally, reduced levels of serotonin may be
based on responses and observations. An example linked to OCD and the drugs used in the studies do
question is sho,vn in Figure 11.6.1. affect serotonin levels (see the treatment section of
As you can see there is a part-script for the question OCD on page 235).
outlining ho\v to score it. The scores are transferred
EVALUATION
to a grid that measures obsessions, compulsions and
® ...
I.II
•
other aspects of the condition. A person is given an reduct ethics
obsessions score out of 20 and a con1pulsion score out
of 20. Nine other items are noted on the 1-4 scale for
severity. There is also a children's version of the scale.
® EVALUATION
psychometrics interview quest
Cognitive-behavioural
asp
The behavioural aspect is linked to the cornpulsions that
people perforrn during OCD. Psychologists consider
it lo be a learned behaviour that is being reinforced by
the consequences of perforn1ing the con1pulsions. For
EXPLANATIONS OF OCD example, if a compulsive behaviour ends in a favou1·able
outcome (e.g. reductions of anxiety or hands are now
lJ1ere are various potential causes for OCD. This section
free of germs) then this is positive reinforcement. As
looks at three.
we koo1v, positive reinforcers increase the probability of
repeating that behaviour again. For exan1ple, if the end
goal of a compulsion is to have arranged clothes in some
form of order and this reduces anxiety and also fulfils the
There is some evidence to suggest that OCD could be compulsion to have things in order, then l\vo reinforcement
genetic. Ozomaro et al (2013) noted that the SLITRKI mechanisms are 1\'ork.ing here: negative (removal of
gene appears to be linked to some aspects of OCD. They anxiety) and positive (clothes are no1v arranged in order).
examined 381 individuals 'vith OCD and 356 control
The cognitive aspect of this is linked to the obsessive
participants. They discovered three novel variants on
thoughts that OCD individuals have. It 1vould appear
this gene present in seven of the OCD individuals and
that these thoughts increase \vith levels of stress. In an
concluded that the SLITRKl and variants need more
everyday situation most people can learn to control
research but currently they appear linked to OCD.
these but people with OCD tend to have thoughts that
Taj el al (2013) researched another candidate gene
are more vivid and elicit greater concern. Psychologists
called DRD4 (doparnine 04 receptor). A total of 173
believe that thjs could be due to childhood experiences
individuals 1vith OCD 1vere corn pared to 20 I healthy
that have taught these people that son1e thoughts are
controls. They con1pleted a range of questionnaires
dangero us and unacceptable and this has affected
that measured OCD and niental health and all 1vere
their information-processing nct1vorks. When new
genolyped for the DRD4 gene and variants. It 1vas
information is being processed, it is affected by these
revealed that the 7R allele frequency 1vas higher in
processing networks and generates anxiety and stress
the OCD group (especially so for fe1nales), suggesting
that can only be alleviated \Vith con1pulsive behaviours.
another potential genetic cause for OCD.
Humble et al (2011) wanted to test whether the liiB\ EVALUATION
neuropeptide oxytocin 'vas correlated 1vith OCD
sympton1s as previous studies had hinted at this. Even
though the researchers 1vere testing 1vhether SSRls
\81 . behaviourist reduct
•
affect oxytocin, the main result they reported 1vas that, ethics
at baseline, levels of oxytocin were positively correlated
"'ith OCD sympton1s as measured by the Y-BOCS.
•
I researchers nieasured success by a patient having a
35 per cent or more reduc tion in scores on the Y-BOCS.
OCD is caused by instinctual forces (driven by the id in
In the aripiprazole group SO per cent of participants did
the unconscious) that are not under full control due to
reduce their scores by at least this, as did 72.2 per cent
traumatic experiences in the anal stage of psychosexual
of the risperidone group. Therefore, risperidone appears
development. The person \vith OCD is therefore fixated
to be more effective at treating OCD \Yhen SSRls fail by
in the anal stage. It is the battle bet\veen the id's desires
themselves.
and the superego's morals that can cause OCD as the
ego (and its defence mechanisms) fail to control either. Another study by Askari et al (2012) examined the
Obsessive thoughts may be generated by the id (e.g. to effectiveness of using granisetron in conjunction with
be messy and out of control) but the ego uses defence fluvoxarnine (an SSRJ). Participants \Yere people aged
mechanisms to counteract this by making the person 18-60 'vho were diagnosed \Yith OCD via DSM-IV-TR.
behave in a \Vay that is con1pletely opposite to that They \vere randomly assigned to either a granisetron
(e.g. being neat and tidy). This defence mechanism is or placebo group. They received I milligram of their
called reaction formation. For example, if a child has ~drug" every 12 hours for 8 weeks. All patients \Vere
a traumatic experience \vhile potty traini ng (e.g. if assessed using the Y-BOCS at baseline then at \veeks
the child is harshly treated ror being n1essy) then the two, four, six and eight. Outco1ncs were n1easured in the
obsessive thoughts of being neat and tidy re-en1erge following ways:
in adolescence and adulthood. 'TI1e person develops • A partial response \Yas a niinin1un1 25 per cent
OCD as a res ul t because any thoughts of being messy reduction in Y-BOCS scores.
cause great anxiety because or those early w1 resolved
• A complete response \Y3S a mi11imun1 35 per cent
Lraun1atic experiences.
reduction in Y-BOCS scores.
@ EVALUATION Remission 1vas scoring 16 or less on the Y-BOCS.
By week 8, 100 per cent of the granisetron group
•
psychod reduct ethics
had scored a complete response and 90 per cent
had met the remission criterion. Only 35 per cent
of patients in the placebo group managed the same.
TEST OURSELF
Describe and evaluate one cause of OCD. There \vere no differences in the tolerance levels of
both groups to the "drugs". Therefore, it \VOuld appear
that the additional drug helped people \\•ith OCD
reduce their symptoms.
TREATMENTS FOR OCD EVALUATION
@
•
• reduct ethics
There are a range of potential treatn1ents for individuals
diagnosed \Vith OCD. TI1is section looks at three.
•
useful
D uq h t py
Selvi et al (2011) studied the effects that two "extra"
drugs has on OCD patients who had not responded T
successfully to just taking SSRls (see page 219 on ho\v
Read about how CBT \Vorks on page 162 before
SSRis \vork). The initial part of the study assessed
studying this sec Lion. There has been 111uch research
90 patients \vith OCD to assess that just taking SSRls
into the potential effectiveness of CBT 1vith people
did 1101 \vork on reducing sympton1s. The researchers
diagnosed with OCD.
chose 41 patients from this part of the study and
rando1nly assigned then1 to either the risperidone Reynolds el al (2013) \Yanted to investigate if when parents
(n= 21) or aripiprazolc (n= 20) group. They "'ere then got involved in their children's CBT for OCD it \\'llS more
given these drugs too for eight further \veeks. The effective compared to children \vi th OCD receiving
•
CBT by themselves. Participants \Vere 50 patients aged al i
12- 17 \vho had a diagnosis of OCD. lhey were randomly
Psychoanalysis follo\vS the psychodynamic model
allocated to either a "parent-enhanced" CBT progran1me
of abnormality. A psychoanalyst can use a range of
or regular CBT. Patients received up to 14 sessions of
techniques to help patients deal with their unconscious
CBT in the trial. The n1ain outcome \Vas an analysis in
thoughts and feelings:
the reduction of scores on the Y-BOCS. Both forms of
the CBT 1vere equally effective in reducing the severity of Free association - the patient lies back on a couch and
OCD so it 1vould make sense to give young people \vi th is aUovved to talk at length and the therapist then has to
OCD the choice of having their parents involved. interpret the monologue to see 1vhat coL~d be troubling
the patient. The idea is that at some point the core
Olatunji et al (2013) tested the effectiveness of CBT and
problen1 \vill be exposed by the patient, especially if it is
Bl" \vith OCD patients. A total of 62 adults diagnosed with
linked to the anal stage of psychosexual development.
OCD \Vere randon1ly allocated to the CBT or BT group. The
n1ain therapy lasted for 4 \veeks ( 16 hours) \vith 12 \vceks of Drea1n analysis - the patient tells the therapist
maintenance therapy thereafter (4 hours). OCD symptoms about a dream (n1anifest content) and then the
\Vere n1easured using the Y-BOCS and measures were taken therapist has to analyse it for symbols to uncover
at baseline, \veeks 4, 16, 26 and 52. The participants in the the underlying meaning (latent content).
BT had lower scores at the final assessment co1npared to the Hypnosis - this can be used to help access the
CBT group so it 1vould appear that Bl' is superior to CBT unconscious mind too.
for reducing OCD syrnpto1ns in this sample. Chlebo1vski & Gregory (2009) noted that psychoanalysis
Storch et al (2013) examined 1vhether CBT used in can be particularly effective \Vith OCD that is labelled as
conjunction with a drug (sertraline) 1vas more effective "late onset that coincides \vith stressors in the patient's
\\'ith OCD patients than CBT alone. Participants \Vere lives" or with patients \Vho have a borderline per onality
47 children and adolescents aged 7- 17 \vith OCD. disorder too. This allo\VS the therapist to delve into the
They \1rere randomly assigned to one of three groups: unconscious mechanisms causing the OCD. Leichsenring
CBT plus standard sertraline; CBT plus slo\v-release et al (2008) examined the long-term effectiveness of
sertraline; or CBT plus placebo. The treatment lasted using psychoanalytic therapy \vith OCD patients. The
18 1vecks. Assessn1ents of OCD severity \Vere n1easured researchers reported that long-term psychoanalysis
at baseline, at 1veeks 1-9, 13, 17 and then post-treatment was associated 1vith a significant reduction in the OCD
using the Y-BOCS. All groups sho1ved a significant sympton1s reported by patients and this \Vas still seen one
decrease in OCD symptoms but not one group sbo\ved year after treatment had ended.
1nore improvement than the others, hinting that CBT is
an effective tool for people 1vith OCD. ® EVALUATION
psychod reduct ethics
Finally, Bolton et al (2011) examined the effectiveness of full
and briefCBT for children \Vith OCD. The researchers took
96 children diagnosed 1vitb OCD and randomly assigned
•
useful
then1 to one of three groups: full CBT ( 12 sessions), brief
CBT (5 sessions) or a waiting-list group. The measure for
OCD severity was the child version of Ll1e Y-BOCS. For CHALLENGE YOURSELF
both types of CBT there \vas a significant i1nprovement You have been asked by a local mental health
in OCD syrnpton1s compared to the 1vaiting-list group, charity to choose the most effective programme
ror dealing with OCD. Which therapy would you choose and
sho1ving that brief CBT is useful and cost-effective.
how would you run lhe programme? Justify your choices.
/iii\ EVALUATION
CHALLENGE YOURSELF
•
useful how effective 1t 1s. Finally, for each disorder, decide which
therapies are approprlale and which are not.
•
EXAMPLES OF HOW TO behaviours. lherefore, a different treatment might be
more appropriate.
EVALUATE
Explanations for anxiety disorders
For the 12 mark question in Paper 3, you \viii be (phobias) - behavioural
asked to evaluate one of the topics covered in this There is evidence that supports the behavioural
section. You \viJJ have noticed that after each topic explanation for anxiety disorders that took place
in this chapter there are the icons for the different under control led conditions. Watson & Rayner
issues, debates, approaches, perspectives and research successfully created a phobia into little Alben by
methods that could be used to help you answer the banging a loud metal bar behind hin1 every time he
l 2 1nark question in the exan1ination. Below are was in the presence of a \Vhite rat. After a fe\V t riaJs
three examples of the types of things you could \\rrite just sho,ving him the rat caused him to cry and be
in the examination. fearful of it. As this \Vas a study conducted under
You should ain1 to make at least four different evaluation controlled conditions it means it can be replicated and
points for the 12 mark question. Our accompanying tested for reliability. Ho,vever, this \vould not happen
Revision Guide has a series of student ans\vers with due to ethical reasons as it 'vouJd cause immense
marks and exarniner comments attached to them. stress to the child. The behavioural explanation can be
said to be reductionist as it ignores other factors tha t
Treat11"tent of schizophrenia
could be causing a phobia like could it be that we are
(biological)
pre-programmed to fear certain objects that may be
Research into the treatn1ent of schizophrenia has some potentially harmful? That is, there are certain objects
ethical issues. For example, the use of ECT involves or things that '"e are expected to be frightened of so \ve
fitting elctrodes to specific areas of the head and a are biologically prepared to fear them! This can explain
small electrical current is passed through them for why \Ve fear certain objects we have never even seen
no longer than one second. The seizure may last up as it is encoded in our genetic history - for classical
to one minute and the patient regains consciousness conditioning to explain a fear we have to have direct
in around 15 minutes. The argu111ent is whether a contact \Vith the phobic sti1nulus.
person truly understands what the procedure involves
if they have a serious mental health issue that affects Treatment for anxiety disorders
thought processes like schizophrenia. With any long (obsessions and compulsions) -
tern1 memory problems unknown after using ECT, is cognitive
it fair to give it to patients \vho n1ay not understand There is son1e evidence that it is a useful therapy for
this? Ho\vever, research has sho\\•n that it is a useful OCD. For example, Reynolds et al (2013) \vanted to
treatment for schizophrenia. Thirthalli et al (2009} investigate if \Vhen parents got involved in their child's
reported that in a sample of schizophrenics (split CBT for OCD it " 'as more effective compared to the
into catatonic and non-catatonic}, those 'vho \Vere child receiving OCD by themselves. Patients received up
catatonic required fewer ECT sessions to help control to J4 sessions of CBT in the trial. The main outcon1e \vas
their sy111pton1s. As a result of this study it n1ay be an analysis in the reduction of scores on the Y-BOCS.
111ore useful for those with catatonic schizophrenia Both forms of the CBT were equally effective in reducing
than other types. However, biological treatn1ents the severity of OCD. ·n1is is useful to know as it gives
for schizophrenia are reduclionist. They are based a child a choice of CBT - with or without their parent
on the idea that we need to treat the biology of the being present. Also, this can be linked to the nalure-
condition (e.g. excess doprunine) without tacking nurture debate. If treatments are based on \Vhat causes
the psychological elements of the disorder. It OCD, then if a psychological treatment is effective it
ignores aspects like schizophrenia being caused sho\\•S that OCD may be based more on nurture rather
by faulty information processing. Frith ( 1992) than nature. It could be \vays in 'vhich people process
noted that schizophrenics might have a deficient information that needs treating to help \Vith OCD rather
'metarepresentation' system. This \Vould deal with than the nature approach of affecting the biology of a
being able to reflect on thoughts, ernotions and person by getting them to take drugs for their OCD.
•
Try the follo\ving exam-style questions.
(c) Evaluate what psychologists have discovered
Section A
about the treatments for abnormal affect and
(a) Explain, in your O\vn \vords, \vhat is meant by the include a discussion on the nature-nurture
term 'deviation from statistical norm'. (2 marks) debate. (12 marks)
(b) Explain, in your O\vn \\'Ords, \Vhat is meant by (d) Evaluate what psychologists have discovered
the term 'abnormal affect'. (2 marks) about defining abnormality and include a
(c) Describe two explanations of anxiety discussion on ethics. ( 12 nlarks)
disorders (phobias). (4 marks)
Section C
(d) Outline one biological treatment for
schizophrenia. (4 marks) (a) Describe the characteristics of addiction. (6 marks}
(b) Suggest how you would tTeat son1conc 1vith an
Section IS addiction to alcohol. What psychology is your
(a) Describe \vhat psychologists have discovered suggestion based upon? (8 niarks)
about treat1nents for addiction and impulse (c) Describe one biological treat111ent for
behaviour disorders. (8 marks) schizophrenia. (6 niarks)
(b) Describe \1•hat psychologists have discovered (d) Suggest ho1v you 1vould diagnose someone
about explanations for anxiety disorders with schizophrenia. What psychology is your
(obsessions and compulsions). (8 marks) suggestion based upon? (8 marks)
•
PSYCHOLOGY AND
ORGANISATIONS
Multiple This method may give a more "rounded" If a score is very low on one criterion 1t could
regression overview of a candidate. For example, a lack prevent a person being employed who scores
of previous expenence of a similar JOb can well on other cntena that are also relevant to
easily be compensated for by a strong skill the job.
needed for the job.
Multiple This method does ensure that all eligible Some of the cutoff points may be subjective
cutoff applicants have the minimum amount of ability and discriminate against certain applicants
across the different criteria for the job. unfairly. How do we calculate what the cutoff
points are?
Multiple This method allows for the elimination of This technique can be very !Jme consuming
hurdle candidates early on 1n the process who are and expensive for businesses as many
unqualified - this means fewer resources are hurdle criteria could be 1n place and each
wasted on unsuitable applicants. applicant needs to be assessed on them (and
the information may not simply be 1n their
application)
A Table 12.1.1 Strengths and weaknesses or the multiple regression, multiple cutoff and multiple hurdle methods
Also, if an unstructured method is chosen then for it. There are !\VO main techniques that personnel
there is reduced reliability as not all candidates will departments can use:
have the same experience. ~ Functional job analysis (FJA) - this is a technique
~ Snap judgments - Riggio ( 1999) also notes that the developed in the United States to help create the
idea of a snap judgment (similar issue to snapshot Dictionary of Occupationtil Titles (D07). This is
~tudies) can happen in interviews. lntervie\vers can a reference guide to over 40,000 job titles. It has
make a very quick instant decision on someone general descriptions of these jobs as a starting point
(e.g. based on \vhat the person is \\•earing or the for personnel staff to tailor them to a specific job. The
person's ans\ver to the first question) that may bear DOT classifies all the jobs using a nine-digit code
no resemblance to who the person actually is or the which represents the sector of \\'Ork, type of work and
individual's competencies for the job. hov.r niuch interaction with people needed in that job.
~ Use of psychon1etrics - the general idea of Once the nine-digit code has been established for a
\vhether a psychometric test really is measuring job, personnel staff can use the description as part
the skill it is supposed to be nieasuring can of their recruitment process. Table 12.1.2 shov1s the
invalidate people's scores on them (\vhich is not categories for the fourth, fifth and sixth digits.
good if you are recruiting people based on the Data People Things
results of these tests.) (4th digit) (5th digit) (6th digit)
application stronger. 1 hese arc generated after a job A Table 12.1.2 Examples of functions used in FJA
analysis has taken place. Source: Adapted from: US Department of Labor. 1991 .
Dictionary of Occupational Ti/Jes. Rev. 4th ed. Washington
DC, Government Pnnbng Office.
• mental processes: the cognitive skills needed for ~ can be linked to pay increases and potential
the job promotion opportunities
• \vork output: \vhat tasks need to be performed ~ can provide feedback on strengths and areas of
as part of the job improvement
• relationships \Vith other people: \Vbat interactions ~ can allo\Y communication bet\Yeen 1vorkers and
\viU be necessary in the job and \vith \vhom managers \Yhich sometimes is logistically not
• job context: physical and social contexts that possible on a day-to-day basis.
are part of the job Th.e range of techniques that an organisation can use to
• other job characteristics: anything else that is collect information necessary for a co1nplete performance
necessary to the specific job being analysed. appraisal of an employee include the follo\ving:
~ Objective performance criteria - these are aspects
A series ofstaten1ents are rated either with an N (does not
apply) or from 1 to 5 \Vith I being very infrequent and oftbe job that can be quantified and measured
5 being very substantial. The completed questionnaire objectively (based on factual data). They could
can then be used to create the job specification or job include number of sales, nun1ber of days otf sick, etc.
description to ensure that the applicants are people that the ~ Subjective pcrforn1ance criteria - these are aspects
organisation 1vill want lo recruit. of the job that cannot be accurately 1ncasured
quantitatively. TI1ese include clc1nents such as ho\Y
@ EVALUATION a nianager feels \Yorkers have been progressing in
their job or asking workers how happy they are in
useful questionnaires
their current role.
interview qual/quant ~ 360-degree feedback - information about the
worker is gathered from managers, peers, customers
(if applicable) etc. to get an overall feel of the
CHALLENGE YOURSELF
worker. Workers are also allo\ved to give feedback
Advise a personnel department on what you think about the performance of their managers in
1s the best 1ob analysis technique. wt'o/ do you supporting them in their job.
think it is lhe best one? ~ Rankings - a n1anager can rank everyone \\•ho \Yorks
for him or her on different criteria. Then \Vhen an
individual is appraised the n1anager can compare the
PERFORMANCE individual to other \Vorkers who have a similar or the
APPRAISAL same job to see ho\v \\•ell the person is progressing.
~ Self-rating - workers can assess themselves on
AU jobs require a "revie\v" of progress and these are calJed progress by completing a questionnaire where
perfonnance appraisals. Usually, a worker is assessed they assign values to bow well they think they are
against predetern1ined standards that the organisation has, doing on a range of criteria pre-selected by the
to see how well the \VOrker is progressing in his or her job. organisation as those that require assessing.
~ Behaviour observation scale (BOS) - the person
who is conducting the appraisal needs to con1plete a
Performance appraisal: document highlighting how often certain elen1ents
reasons for it and of the job have been observed in that worker.
techniques
There are many reasons for performance appraisals. For
@ EVALUATION
useful questionnaires
example, performance appraisals:
~ allo\v both the company and \Yorker to see, in a , observations qual/quant
supportive environment, ho1Y 1vell the \Yorker is
doing his or her job
APPRAISERS, PROBLEMS So, ho1v can appraisals be improved, given the above
issues? Riggio ( 1999) noted several 1vays:
WITH APPRAISAL AND
~ The appraiser can use online systems to record
IMPROVING APPRAISALS performance "instantly" rather than "'ailing
12 months to reme1nber how the 1vorker has
When conducting and analysing an appraisal a nun1ber
perforn1ed i11 the job. TI1erefore, t11e appraisal will
of problcrns and biases can occur:
accurately reflect 1vhat has happened during the
~ Errors - these can be leniency errors in 1vhich the period. This n1akes it more valid.
appraiser ahvays assesses 1vorkers positively or
~ The appraiser can be descriptive rather than
severity errors 1vhere the appraiser ahvays assesses
evaluative \vhile being specific about performance.
1vorkers negatively. In bet\,<een these is the central
tendency error 1vhere an appraiser ahvays rates ~ The appraiser can give "constructive feedback"
1vorkers near the nud-point of any rating scale. based on things that a 1vorker can actually do
something about and change.
~ Halo effect - this is a psychological phenomenon
that can be applied here. It is 1vhen an overall ~ Feedback given should al\vays be clear and honest
appraisal is very positive based on the 1vorker doing and understood by everyone.
an outstanding job on 0 11e task. il1e idea is that if ~ Getting both the appraiser and worker actively
the worker did so well on that task then he or she involved in perforn1ance target setting is
11111st be doing well on all other tasks so any negative important. 1his will niake it easier to agree on final
issues 1vith the worker are overlooked. perfonnance targets for the next appraisal.
~ Recency effect- another psychological
phenomenon that can be applied here. It is 1vhen the
appraiser only uses recent performance indicators
to judge the 1vork on in the appraisal. Therefore,
the 1vhole procedure is weighted towards recent
successes and failures rather than looking at the
1vholc picture.
~ Attribution errors - these can take the forn1 of
an appraiser giving more "extrcn1c appraisals" to
1vorkers 1vho are perceived to be 1vorking 1vell (or
not) due to effort rather than actual ability at the job.
TEST YOURSELF
Outline lllree potential problems with
appraisals.
CHAPTER 12: PSYCHOLOGY AND ORGANISATIONS
Achievement motivation
(McClelland, 1965)
This theory is based around the idea that people (and
\vorkers) are niotivated by different needs and motives
in different situations. TI1ere are three key needs and
motives that people are driven by and they differ from
individual to individual:
~ People have a need for achicven1ent. This is about
having the drive to succeed in a situation. Therefore,
\vorkers driven by this will love the challenge of
their job. They want to get ahead in their job and be
excellent performers. They like to solve imn1ediate
proble1ns S\viftly and \viii go for challenges that offer a
nloderate level of difficulty (so that they feel challenged
but kno\v the goal is achievable). They also desire
feedback about their efforts so '''ill thrive on appraisals.
~ People have a need for po\ver. This is about having
.& Figure 12.2.1 Example pteture used during a TAT
the drive to direct others and be influential at
\vork. \Vorkers in this caregory are status driven
and are more likely to be motivated by the
@ EVALUATION
chance to gain prestige. They \\•ill '"ant to solve useful ind vs sit
® EVALUATION
useful ind vs sit
~·orkcrs \viii be given a bonus payment based on
the perforn1ance of the1nselves and the company as
a '"hole.
~ Profit-sharing - a certain percentage of any profit a
•
reduct
company n1akes can be "ring fenced" to be shared
by all \vorkers. Therefore, everyone may be more
motivated to attain goals and reach performance
CHALLENGE YOURSELF criteria so that there is a monetary re\vard.
You need to help out a company that has recently
discovered that its workforce is not motivated. You Performance-related pay
need to devise a strategy that the company can use and When \ve covered tJ1e VIE (expectancy) theory of
tell managers on what psychology It Is based.
n1otivation we covered perforn1ance-related pay
(sec page 248). In addition, sales organisations n1ay
set n1inimu1n targets \Vhich give \VOrkers basic pay
MOTIVATORS AT WORK and anything achieved above the target earns then1
commission. This should motivate '"orkers to
We have discussed the use of incentives and rewards for exceed minimum targets as they \vill gain a reward in
"'orkers, but \vhich ones are useful and moth•ate \vorkers the process.
to achieve goals set? The next section covers this.
CHAPTER 12: PSYCHOLOGY AND ORGANISATIONS
® EVALUATION
useful ind vs sit
Outline two different motivators at work and
evaluate how effective they are at motivating
a workforce.
•
reduct behaviourism
for "gift of grace" so it means that leaders possess a
12.3 LEADERSHIP charismatic personality that allows them to lead a
\vorkforce effectively. These leaders tend to have very
AND good public speaking skills, exude confidence, inspire
MANAGEMENT people, captivate their audiences every time. As a result,
the 'vorkforce is motivated to follO\\' them and attain
the goals set by them. In addition, Greenberg & Baron
ln an organisation there are leaders and managers
(2008) revie1ved the field and produced a list of five
\\•ho help run it "from the top". Leadership involves the
"agreed" traits that charismatic leaders have:
"ability lo guide a group toward the achievement of
goals". (Riggio, J 999: 340). This section \vill deal \\•ith i>- Self-confidence - tl1ey sho'v high confidence about
all things "leadership"; from theories of leadership to their 01vn ability and the ability of their workforce
leadershjp style and what is effective. to attain a goal.
i>- A vision - this usually takes the forn1 of making
ASK YOURSELF working conditions or workjng life better.
Whal do you think are the qualities of a good
leader al work? i>- Extraordinary behaviour - they sho1v son1e unusual
or unconventional behaviours.
i>- Recognition as change agents - in other 1vords, they
THEORIES OF are seen to n1ake things happen.
LEADERSHIP i>- Environn1e11tal sensitivity - they sho'" realis111 about
what can be achieved given the resources tliey have
Tus section looks at a range of psychological theories that available.
attempt to explain 'vhat makes son1eone becon1e a leader. Transformational leaders, according to Riggio ( 1999).
Unh•ersalist theories: great person theory. charismatic change ho1v the 1vork:force think, reason and behave.
and transformational leaders. They inspire \vorkers using six different behaviours:
Behavioural theories: Ohio state studies (initiating i>- Identifying and articulating a vision - they excite
structure and consideration). University of Michlgan \vorkers \vith a vision for the company.
studies (task and relationship-oriented behaviours). i>- Providing an appropriate n1odel - the leaders
"practise \vhat they preach~
variables and clusters sin1ilar ones together) and found LEADERSHIP STYLE
that there are just t\vo broad categories of leaders:
AND EFFECTIVENESS
;, Initialing structure - this includes assigning specific
tasks to people, defining groups of \vorkers, creating \Ve have looked at theories that try to explain \vhy
and meeting deadlines and ensuring that \VOrkers people are leaders and then \Vhat they do once they
are \vorking to a set standard. are in a position of authority. \\/hat happens next?
;, Consideration - this is sho\vn by leaders \vho have According to psychologists we must then look at \vhat
a genuine concern for the feelings of \VOrkers and "style of leadership'' they adopt and assess ho\v effective
their attitudes. The leaders establish rapport \vith that choice is. The next section looks at a range of styles.
\Yorkers \Vhile showing them trust and respect.
They \viii listen to \vorkers more often than the
other category of leaders and try to boost the Effectiveness:
self-confidence of their \Vorkforce.
contingency theory
(Fiedler, 1976)
University of Michigan This theory looks at the interaction bet\veen the style of
studies leadership that leaders adopt and the situation that they
fi nd the1nselves in. For a leader to be effective in the
Researchers al the University of Michigan exan1ined
\vorkplace, the leader's style n1ust fi t 1vith the amo unt of
many leaders of large organisations and also found
authority, po\ver and control the leader is given in the
two n1ain types of behaviour in these leaders:
organisation. There are various steps to assess 1vhether a
;, Task-oriented behaviours - these \Vere behaviours leader \viii be effective in a 1vorkplace:
that focused on the actual task being conducted. The
~ Completion of the least preferred co-worker (LPC)
leaders are more concerned \Vith setting up some
questionnaire - leaders complete a questionnaire
structures \Vithin an organisation such as targets,
about the person 1vitlr whon1 they can work least
standards, supervising \vorkers and achieving goals.
well. They rate them on bi-polar adjectives such as
;, Relationship-oriented behaviours - these \Vere boring/interesting and frustrating/helpful. From
behaviours that had a focus on the wellbeing of the this, leaders can be seen as being either task-oriented
\YOrkforce. The leaders \VOuld look at interpersonal (so they give harsh ratings to fello\v \vorkers) or
relationships benveen \Yorker and \Yorker, plus relationship-oriented (so they give favourable ratings
\VOrker and 1nanager. They would also take the tin1e even though the person is the least preferred).
to understand the feelings of their \vorkforce.
~ Leader-n1ember relations - this is 1neasured by
The research team concluded that the relationship- getting the workforce to assess the leaders on ho\v
oriented behaviours were more effective at motivating a well liked they are, etc.
\VOrkforce than task-orie nted ones.
;, Task structure - this 1neasures how well a particular
@ EVALUATION
work task is structured \vith \veil-defined goals.
;, Position po\ver - this looks at con1pany policy and
usefUI ind vs sit reliable
examines ho\v leaders can hire and fire, discipline
and re\va rd 1vorkers.
••
reduct
The ideal situation for a leader to th rive is \Vhen the
leader- member relations are positive, the task is very \vell
structured and the leader has strong position powers.
CHALLENGE YOURSELF
Make a grid of how the four theories in this Riggio ( 1999) notes that a task-oriented leader is most
section are similar and are different. effective \vhen the situation is at the extremes: either
highly favourable or highly unfavourable. In highly
favourable situations, teams are already well established, JI> Directive behaviour - this is focused on getting the
as are po\ver positions and task structure, so the leader job done. Leaders can provide specific guidelines
simply "slots in". In highly unfavourable situations, the for the task \Vilh \vork rules and distinct schedules
leader can give a failing project the necessary structure which they coordinate and oversee.
and drive to succeed. Relationship-oriented leaders JI> Achievement-oriented behaviour - this is
appear more effective in the rniddle-ground projects that focused on outcomes and involves leaders setting
need more support and coaching than goal setting. cha!Jenging goals to achieve but they encourage
improvement in skills and attainment
JI> Supportive behaviour - this is focused on
Situational leadership interpersonal behaviour and involves leaders
(Hersey & Blanchard, boosting these relationships by sho\ving concern for
1988) each \vorker's '"ellbeing in a friendly environment.
This idea is also based around the task and relationship JI> Participative behaviour - this is focused on getting
behaviour. This theory looks a l styles that work ever)'One involved: leaders encourage all 1vorkers to
depending on \vhether there are lo\v or high task have a say in \vays to achieve the goal, etc.
controls and/o r lo\v or high relationship aspects of the
task. Therefore, four different types of situations in the
workplace can happen. 'TI1ese are as follows: Styles: permissive
JI> Low relationship but high task - these are situations versus autocratic (e.g.
\vhere \vorkers need structure and direction frorn Muczyk and Reimann,
their leader to achieve a set goal but require very
little einotional support to do so. The best behaviolLr 1987)
for the leader is telling the \vorkforce \Vhat to do. These are two styles ofleadership that can be combined to
,,, High relationship and high task - these are assess ho\v a leader may be acting. Permissive means that
situations where \vorkers need both structure and \vorkers are not told ho\v to do their jobs and autocratic
emotional support. They need help improving a skill means that \vorkers are not allowed to participate in any
\vith set guidelines and need the emotional support decision making. Therefore, tJ1ere can be four combinations:
to do it. The best behaviour for the leader is selling JI> Permissive and autocratic - leaders 'vilJ make decisions
the idea to the \VOrkforce. by themselves and let the '"orkers "get on \vith it':
JI> High relationship but lo''' task - these are situations JI> Permissive but not autocratic - leaders will make
\vhere workers need very little guidance on what to decisions with others involved and will then let the
do but need a lot of emotional support to achieve \vOrkers "get on with it".
it. The best behaviour for the leader is participating JI> Not permissive but au tocratic - leaders \vill n1ake
\vitli the workforce on the task. decisions by then1selves and then closely rnonitor
JI> Low relationship and low task - these are situations ho\v the workers are perforn1ing on the task.
\Vhere workers are already able to perforn1 the task and JI> Not permissive or autocratic. The leader will rnake
are willing to do so. The best behaviour for the leader decisions 1vitl1 others involved and 1vill closely
is delegating the workload across the workforce. monitor hO\V the \vorkers arc performing on the task.
•
This idea centres on the leader's job being one that helps reduct
the \vorkforce attain a desired goal. There are four ways
in \Vhich a leader can attempt to achieve this:
CHAPTER 12: PSYCHOLOGY AND ORGANISATIONS
'
Low 1 .;
J 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1, 1 pattern Low High 9, 1 pattern
Concern ror production
Impoverished Task management
management
.A Figure 12.3.1 The grid training method
In tenns of the characteristics of effective leaders, ~ They are tno ralistic. Authentic leaders te nd to be
Greenberg & Baron (2008) noted a review of the field highly moral in their approach to \vork, nieaning
and listed the niain features: they are confident, hopeful and always optirnistic
~ They have socialised po,ver rnotivation. 111is about goals and their \\lorkforce \vithin n1oral
means being motivated to achieve shared goals and boundaries.
ideas. These leaders will cooperate with the entire ~ They have multiple intelligences. Effective leaders
1vorkforce 111ithout don1inating. tend to sho1v three levels of intelligence: cognitive
~ They sho\11 flexibility. 1hey can act upon and adapt intelligence (informational processing). emotional
to numerous situations instead of having a "one intelligence (see page 143) and cultural intelligence
style fits all" approach. (especially if part of a multinational organisation).
>- Other noted aspects included having a drive and that in group sees the leader as being encouraging
for success, being trustworthy. having a solid and motivated.
kno,vledge of business practices, being creative and
being open about ideas.
Riggio ( l999) added lea ming to delegate and giving Normative decision
constructive feedback as other vital leader qualities. theory (Vroom & Yetton,
CHALLENGE YOURSELF 1973)
You have been asked by a local company to give This theory has a focus on strategies for choosing the
training to its leaders What would you do and on most effective \vay to make important decisions in an
what psychology 1s it based? organisation. There appear to be five potential strategies
for decision niaking by leaders:
@ EVALUATION ~ Al (autocratic) - leaders \viii solve a problem or
useful qual/quant reduct make a decision by t hen1selves using whatever
information they can find.
~ A1T (autocratic) - leaders \Viii solve a proble1n or
make a decision by the1nselves but only after they
LEADERS AND have obtained the necessary inforinatio n from
FOLLOWERS their workforce.
>- Cl (consu ltative) - leaders will solve a problem or
Leader-member make a decision by then1selves but only after they
have shared it \vith the \VOrkforce individually.
exchange model ~ Cn (consultative) - leaders \Viii SOive a probJen1 Or
It \vould appear that the theories \Ve have presented so make a decision by themselves but only after they
far are based on the ideas that every leader treats every have shared ii \vilh the \VOrkforce as a group.
niernber of his of her \\IOrkforce equally and in the same
\Vay every time. This is clearly not the case in reality! The >- Gll (group decision) - leaders \\•ill share the problem
leader-member exchange (Li\it.X) model looks into this. or potential decision \Vith the \VOrkforce in a group
meeting. A decision is reached by consensus.
Leaders form different relationships \Vith their
\Vorkforce early on in any process and, based on very Originally, a leader being assessed in terms of this
theory \VOuJd have to ans,ver 7 questions \Vith a yes or
limited information, classify workers into nvo distinct
groups. The favoured ones (be it because they follo\v the no (110\v expanded to 12). Example questions are "Is
the problen1 structured?" and "If I niake the decision
same ideals as the leader or are seen as hard \Yorkers,
alone, is it likely to be accepted by n1y \\1orkforce?
etc.) forrn part of the "in group''. lhere is then, by
Once all of the questions have been put into a decision
default, an "out group" \vhich consists of 1vorkers that
do not "fit in" with 1vhat the leader wants (be it because tree, the 111ost effective strategy from the five above is
of a personality clash or that they are perceived to not recom1nended.
be hard workers, etc.). Obviously, the in group will get
more attention and praise and recognition con1pared
@ EVALUATION
to the out group. This can den1otivate the latter group useful Ind vs sit valld
systerns that are specifically tuned to the needs of A group decision \VOuld cover a lot rnore "bases" than
work teams. an individual pondering the issue as the group vJill
6. An1ple, expert coaching is available to the team at have a wide range of vie\vpoints to discuss and consider
those tirnes \vhen members most need it and are before making the very important decision. As long
ready to receive it. as the group is cohesive and respecting then a group
decision here would be much more favourable than a
Decision making decision made by an individual.
The decision-making process 'Vhen a task requires creativity and it is poorly
We have covered aspects of this in the section 12.3 on structured, individuals work better and come up \\rith
leadership and management regarding autocratic and more productive ideas than a group \VOuld. Greenberg
permissive styles (see page 253). These affect decision & Baron (2008) noted a study conducted to see if
making, so reread section 12.3. One thing to add is this \Vas truly the case. People \Vere given poorly
that consensus ought to be made, \Vhich n1eans that all structured ideas that needed creativity such as "What
group members have agreed on the chosen action plan. if everybody grew an extra thumb?" and \Vere asked to
consider the consequences of each situation given to
Decision style and individual differences in
then1. Individuals carne up with many n1ore creative
decision making ideas con1pared to groups of between four and
Decision style has also been covered in section 12.3 (see seven people.
page 255). As there are so niany decision-making
styles, they inevitably lead to individual differences in Groupthink and group
approaches to decision making. polarisation
Individual versus group decisions There may be other situations \vhen a group decision
may appear to be a good idea but it truly is not. There
In an organisation there \vill be decisions made by
are t\VO things that can happen to make the decision-
individuals and ones made by groups. Is one method
making process go \vrong: groupthink and group
more effective than the other? Are there times when a
polarisation.
group decision is the best opt ion? Are there situations
'vhere it is best for an individual to nlake the decision? Groupthink is what happens when a highly cohesive
group \vhere all members respect each other's
Riggio ( 1999) highlights the advantages and
vie\vpoints con1es to consensus on a decision too
disadvantages of group decisions:
quickly \Vithout any critical evaluation. The group then
~ The advantages are that different parts of the decisions makes a very poor decision as a result. Riggio ( 1999)
can be delegated to different members of the group notes eight syn1pton1s of groupthink:
\vho have different specialities. There is more of a
~ Ulusion of invulnerability - as the group is so cohesive
kno\vledge base to dra\v on and the final decision will
the members sees themselves as powerful and
be accepted by group members as they have all helped
invincible. They then miss poorly nlade decisions.
out. The final decision will be \Vell critiqued already.
~ Illusion of n1orality - all group n1embers see
~ The disadvantages are that the process can be
thernselves as the "good guys" and can doing
very slow as everyone is involved. Also, conflict
nothing wrong.
can be generated if not everyone agrees, so there
is potential for the group simply to break do\vn. ~ Shared negative stereotypes - group me1nbers hold
In addition, leaders n1ay don1inate and make the common beliefs.
decision their O\vn. ~ Collective rationalisations - group members easil)'
In addition, Greenberg & Baron (2008) noted that disn1iss any negative information that goes against
group decisions are superior to individual ones \Vhen their decision \Vith no thought.
the overall decision is complex. They use an example ~ Self-censorship - group n1e1nbers suppress any
of deciding \vhether l\vo companies should merge. desire to be critical.
~ Illusion of unanimity - group me1nbers can easily group to think again and not go for tJ1e first, easy
(and mistakenly) believe that the decision \\Tas option. Leaders should also encourage nlembers to
a consensus. question and be sceptical so that all decisions are
~ Direct conforn1it y pressure - all those showing thoroughly assessed.
doubts have pressure applied to them to join the ~ Use subgroups. Split the members of the main
majority vie\\T, group up and set lhem exactly me san1e decision-
~ tv!indguards - some of the group members buffer makmg tasks. Gel them to present their findings;
any negativity away from the group's decision. differences behveen the subgroups can be discussed
to form an overall group decision. If the subgroups
Another fuctor that can adversely affect group decision agree then you can safely say that groupthjnk has
making is group polarisation. This refers to when groups not generated that decision.
make "riskier" decisions co1npared to those 1nade by
~ Admit shortcomings. You need to get n1e1nbers of
individuals. Group polarisation follO\\TS the idea that,
after djscussion, people begin to hold even stronger the group to be critical and point out any potential
views about a decision. For exaniple, iniagine certain flaws or limitations of the decisions being n1ade.
n1en1bers of the grou p really want to sell off part of a Thjs should allo'" the group as a whole to discuss
con1pany and after discussing the issue they feel even these to ensure that group n1en1bers have not sin1ply
1nore strongly about wanting to sell. However, there decided on the easiest option.
may be son1e people who do not '"ant to sell. After ~ Hold second-chance meetings. Allow group 1nen1bers
discussion, they feel even more strongly about not selling. to digest the original decision then get then1 back
They "polarise" to\vards a stronger position than before for a second meeting so they can discuss anything
discussion. This shift towards the polar end of a decision that is '"orrying them about the decision. This allO\\TS
is called a "risky shift" as the group \viU then attempt to "freshness» to be resumed; if a decision task is tiring
take the riskier option if a consensus can be reached (or group members they '"ill go for the easy option.
just a majority one). Therefore, the majority may '"in but Having hvo "fresh" attempts at the decision should
then take a more extreme vie'" of the decision. Ho'"ever, reduce the probability of groupthink.
some psychologists state that group polarisation can still
happen even \Vith a "cautious risk" - the group may still
polarise after discussion but not in an extreme way. GROUP CONFLICT
® EVALUATION
useful ind vs sit
There may be tin1es in any organisations 'vhere there is
group conflict. There are different types:
~ Intra-group conflict is 'vhen people \Vithin the same
group conflict and this interferes \Vith the path\\Tay
•
reduct
to,vards a goal.
~ Inter-group conflict is \vhen there is conflict
TEST YOURSELF between different groups \l'ithin an organisation.
Explain whal e1lher grouplhlnk or group
~ Inter-individual conflict is when l\VO individuals
polarisation Is and how 1t can affect decision
making at work. within a group or organisation have a dispute.
•
valid
is occurring. lfit n1eans that the 1vhole 1vorkforce
is listened to and consuJted then productivity may
increase as all workers feel "part of the organisation''. CHALLENGE YOURSELF
An organisation wants you to deliver a presentation
on why groups conflict at work. They also want
Managing group conflict some hints and tips on how to manage group confltct. What
would you say to them and on what psychology is it based?
Thomas (quoted in Riggio, 1992) identified five different
strategies that can be used to nlanage group conflict in
In terms of ten1perature, there must be an optin1al
level set depending on the job being undertaken. There
are rules about minimum temperature although no
rules about n1a~imum temperature. Air conditioning
can obviously keep temperature at a set level in offices.
People \vho \vork in refrigerated areas need protective
clothing to stop them from getting too cold. \Vhen
Some organisational psychologists examine ho\v the
people become too hot or too cold they begin to slo'"
surroundings at "'Ork and people's ",vork stations" affect
do\"11 in terms of cognitive functioning and motor
lheir productivity and attitude to \VOrk. This section 'vill
skill coordination so an optin1al temperature needs
take a look at factors that are important for \Yorkers,
to be set.
including shift patterns and potential errors that could
cause accidents. Noise can be very distracting in the \vorkplace
especially if it is loud and uncontrollable. There are
ASK YOURSELF legislations that state \vorkers should not be exposed
How do you feel your surroundings affect how to n1ore than 90 decibels in a "normal" \Vorking
you work? Whal things make you want to work environ1nent. Anything above this and workers will
and whal things put you off? Jose concentration and their task efficiency will suffer.
However, there are jobs where the noise \viii be over
90 decibels constantly (e.g. a pneun1alic dri ll is nearly
PHYSICAL AND 130 decibels), so \Vorkers will need ear protectors
PSYCHOLOGICAL WORK to stop any permanent damage occurring to their'
CONDITIONS hearing.
Motion can be an issue for certain types of jobs too.
Belo\v \Ve look at the role of physical and psychological Workers who use pneumatic equipment \vhere the
"'Ork conditions and ho'v they may affect workers in an \Vhole body vibrates when it is used may have longer-
organisation. term issues. These can include decreasing ability to
perforn1 fine n1otor skills and developing a repetitive
strain injury affecting joints or tendons.
Physical work conditions Pollution and aesthetic factors are covered in
This category includes illumination, temperature, noise, chapter 10. More information about noise is given in
motion, pollution and aesthetic factors. We '"ill look at section l 0.1. (see page 177).
each in turn.
In tern1s of lighting (illumination), workers require TEST YOURSELF
adequate levels in order to perforn1 any given task. Outline how two physical factors affect workers
Artificial lighting n1ust be provided if natural daylight in an organisation.
is not enough to complete a task at work. Obviously,
different jobs require different amou nts and types of
light. A "'orker \vho is perforining a fine n1otor skill may Psychological work
need much more illun1ination con1pared to someone conditions
on a production line. Illumination is necessary for night Psychological \vork conditions include feelings of
\VOrkers and rnany companies provide light that n1i1nics
privacy or crowding, excess or absence of social
sunlight so that the workers' biological n1echanisms are
interactions, sense of status or importance as opposed
tricked into believing it is actually daytime. However,
to anonyn1ity or unimportance.
too much illumination from devices can be detrimental.
For example, the issue of glare from computer screens Density and cro,vding are covered in section I0.2
has to be dealt \Vith and workers should be able to (see page 183).
control the contrast and brightness on their screens.
CHAPTER 12: PSYCHOLOGY AND ORGANISATIONS
@ EVALUAT ION
hvo day shifts, then hvo nvilight shifts, then nvo
night shifts. This is then foUo"•ed by t\vo days
useful ind vs sit v alid off \vork.
- A continental rota is where \vorkers complete two
•
reduct day shifts, two t\vilight shifts, three night shifts, t\vo
days off work, two day shifts, three twilight shifts,
two night shifts, then three days off work. After this,
~ CHALLENGE YOURSELF the rotation begins again.
V A loc al c ompany wants you to help it redesign an ~ Slo\v rotation - these are infrequent changes of
ofl1ce space to improve cond1bons for workers.
shift that 'vorkers have to foUo\v. For example,
It wants one physical change and one p sychological
change. Whal would you design a nd o n what psychology
they may work day shifts for three \veeks or more,
1s 1t based? have a fe\v days off then \York night shifts for
three weeks or more, etc. This type of shift pattern
alJO\\IS \Yorkers' circadian rhythm (their daily EVALUATION
rhythm of sleep and \vake) to adapt to a particular
®
•
useful reduct ind vs sit
shift rather then it being "out of sync" \\•ith \Vork
patterns, which can happen on a rapid rotation.
Circadian rhythms need time to adapt to a change
in shift pattern. If they do not there can be long- TEST YOURSELF
tenn health implications and some studies have Explain how temporal conditions al work can
even suggested that people who \vork shifts have affect a worker.
higher rates of mortality. Also, when \vorking at
night, \vorkers are atten1pting to go against their
biological clock. During lhe night, humans are ERGONOMICS
expected to sleep so our cognitive functioning
decreases. This means \Ve are more prone to Ergonomics refers lo the study of attempting to match
accidents and making errors on tasks at njght. (or improve on) the design of tools, gadgets, machines,
\VOrk stations and \vork systems for the \vorkers \vho
will have to use them. Engineers and psychologists \vilJ
Compressed work work together to design, for example, \Vork stations
and son1e niachi nes and gadgets, ivith 90 per cent of
weeks and flexitime any given popuJation's dimensions covered (e.g. height,
There are other options that organisations can use to weight, knee height when sitting do\vn, etc.).
help \VOrkers strike a good \vork- life balance. Here are
t\vo examples:
~ They n1 ight adopt a compressed \vorking \veek. Operator- machine
Workers can 'vork three 12-hour shifts per \veek
leaving them \'lith four days off. They have still
systems
\VOrked a standard 36 hours. l·-Io\vever, Riggio Operator- n1achine systems are those \vhere human
( 1999) notes that co1npleting a series of longer workers have to interact with machinery to do their
shifts is tiring and there has to be concern about job. We 1vill look at visual and auditory displays and
the quality of work being finished and levels of controls. With technological advances still happening at
productivity. However, research has pointed to,vards a rapid pace, organisational psychologists need to help
workers feeling more satisfied with their jobs if they companies v.•ith the design of machinery to n1ake the
follo\v this method. job more efficient but also to stop errors and accidents
from occurring.
~ lhey might offer flexitime. Workers still have a
contracted amount of hours that they have to be Visual displays and controls
engaged in \VOrk for the organisation. Ho\vever, There are three types of visual displays that can be used
they can help to choose their daily working hours in organisational machinery:
as long as the total time spent at \VOrk is their
~ Quantitative - these are rusplays that project
agreed contracted hours. A \vorker 111ay decide to
numbers giving data - temperature, titne, speed, etc.
\VOrk 9 a.111. to 5 p.n1. on Monday but only \vork
Digital displays have taken over from, for exan1ple,
2 p.n1. to 6 p.1n. on Tuesday and work extra hours
"clock-like" displays as they are n1uch easier to read
on days later in the week. This can allow workers
and fewer errors occur.
to have the flexibility of fitting \VOrk into their lives
rather than fitting their lives into \VOrk. Ho,vever, it ~ Qualitative - these are displays that allo\v for a
is unlikely that total flexibility \viii be possible. For judgment using \vords as the tool For example, a
exa1nple, organisations may require regular tea1n piece of machinery may not project temperature as
meetings. a number but have sections sin1ply labelled "cold~
CHAPTER 12: PSYCHOLOGY AND ORGANISATIONS
"normal" and "hot" - workers can then judge what ~ An error of co111mission is made. This refers to
to do based on this information. performing a task incorrectly (e.g. a \Vorker may
~ Check-reading - these are simpler displays where simply not folJO\V an instruction).
the information is limited but highly useful For ~ An error of sequence is made. This refers to not
example, there may be a sin1ple on-off button, or a following a set procedure for a task (e.g. a \Yorker
light that comes on \Vhen something is not \Vorking may \VOrk out of sequence, causing an error).
correctly (or is \VOrking correctly). ~ An error of timing is 111ade. This refers to
Auditory displays and controls perfonning a task too slo,vly or too quickly (e.g. a
\vorker may press a button too quickJy on a machine
In addition to a variety of visual displays noted above,
or not quickly enough to turn it off).
auditory displays can be used. Buzzers, belJs or a
constant pitched sound can alert ,,rorkers to a potential There are oilier factors which n1ay \veil aftect \VOrkers
problem or that a job is con1pleted in a production and cause them to perform a task incorrectly:
line. Workers no longer have to be looking at a display ~ There may be lack of training on using a piece of
to know what is happening; the sound tells them. The equipment or the 111anual 111ay be too complicated
type of noise needs to be what Riggio ( l 999) called to understand.
"psychologically effective''. That is, a realJy loud blaring ~ Son1e workers have a personality trait caUed
horn or repetitive short beeps are usually perceived as accident proneness - the way they coordinate
danger so a \VOrker \Vill be alerted to something that is themselves both physically and psychologicaUy
occurring. makes them n1ore likely to have an accident or
Riggio ( L999) noted when it was belier to use either make an error.
visual displays or auditory displays: ~ Fatigue n1ay be a factor. Workers who are having to
~ lt is better to use visual displays \Vhen a message is cover a night shift are more likely to have accidents
complex, a permanent message is needed, the \vork or make an error as they are \VOrking against their
area is too noisy, the \vorkers' jobs involve reading natural circadian rhythm - behveen I a.m. and 4
information from displays, etc. a.m. the human body is in a "cognitive dipn as the
~ It is better to use auditory displays \vhen a message body is primed for sleep not, for example, \VOrking
is simple, the \VOrk area is too dark to see a visual machinery.
readout, \VOrkers need to move about as part of
their job, the message is urgent, inforn1ation is
continually changing, etc.
@ EVALUATION
•
useful ind vs sit reduct
TEST YOURSELF
JOB DESIGN Ou lline three of the crucial decisions thal should
go into a job design.
Greenberg & Baron (2008) noted that job design is
about making \VOrkers more motivated by making their
job or \vork nlore appealing. If a job involves repetitive Job design: enrichment,
and boring \vork then a worker will get demotivated
very quickly. 1herefore, there have to be \Vays to create
rotation and enlargement
jobs and maintain jobs so \VOrkers enjoy their time at ln addjtion to the job characteristics model, there are
\\'Ork and are continually nlotivated. other ways once a job has started \Vhich can allo\V for
increased satisfaction and motivation in \Yorkers. Three
of these are as follo\VS:
Job characteristics ~ Job enrichment - this gives \.Yorkers more jobs to
Hackman & Oldham (quoted in Greenberg, 1980) do that involve more tasks to perforn1 that are of a
introduced us to the job characteristics model. higher level of skill and responsibility. \\Torkers can
Personnel, managers, leaders, etc. can use it to devise then have greater control over their job and it makes
and create jobs that \\•ill appeal to workers and keep the job more interesting. Both of these increase
then1 1notivated. TI1ere are five critical decisions that satisfaction and 1notivation. One drawback ls that
have to be incorporated into any job design: this may be difficult to implen1ent across 1nany jobs
within one organisation.
~ Skill variety - docs the job require different
activities that utilise a range of the worker's skills ~ Job rotation - this gives \vorkers regular cha nges
and talents? lt should. to tasks \Vithin their role at work. 'Ihere 111ay be
daily, \veekly or n1onthly changes to the tasks that
~ Task identity- does the job require the complelion
they are required to perforn1 and this should keep
of a whole piece of \Vork fron1 its inception to its
them "fresh" and highly 111otivated Lhroughout
completion? It should.
their working day. 'TI1is increases the v1orkers' skills
~ Task significance - does the job have a real impact base too.
on the organisation or even beyond that? It should.
~ Job enlargement - this gives \Vorkers more tasks
~ Autonomy - does the job allo\v the \VOrker some to do but at the same level and usually as part of a
freedom in terms of planning, scheduling, carry out team effort. There is no more responsibility or they
tasks and organising teams? It should. are not required to learn ne\v skills, rather they
CHAPTER 12: PSYCHOLOGY AND ORGANISATIONS
motivate
Taking all of the above on board. Greenberg & Baron MEASURING JOB
(2008) examined four different \vays in \vhich a
manager could follo\v to design a job or jobs that SATISFACTION
motivate the \vorkforce:
There are numerous ways in \vhich \vorkers' job
~ Combine tasks - have \vorkers perforn1ing a variety satisfaction can be measured by an organisation. This
of different tasks ralher than just one task that is allows them to assess ho\v 1nuch they are allo\,ring
part of a "bigger picture''. people to enjoy their \VOrk and be motivated.
~ Open feedback channels - ensure that workers get
a lot of feedback about each and every task that is
assigned LOthcn1. This \viii in1prove task efficiency. Rating scales and
productivity and niotivation.
questionnaires
~ Establish client relationships - try to 1nake the job There are some standardised rating scales and
so workers have to 111eet the clients \Vho will be questionnaires that an organisation can use to n1easure
buying the finished product. This allo\vs then1 all to the degree of satisfaction individual workers feel 'vith
engage in feedback discussions. their job. Here are t\VO exan1ples:
~ Load jobs vertically - give \Yorkers more ~ Job descriptive index - this is a self-report
responsibility for elements of their job. This gives
questionnaire for \VOrkers. It measures satisfaction
\Vorkers some degree of autonomy \vhich has been on five dimensions: the job, supervision, pay,
shO\vn to be a core element of job satisfaction. promotions and CO·\\i'Orkers, as sho\vn in Table
12.6.l. Phrases are read and the \VOrker has to answer
~ EVALUATION
"Yes~ "No': or"?" if undecided. Each ans,ver to
~ useful valid ind vs sit each phrase is already assigned a numerical value
based on standardisation scoring. Therefore, the
•
reduct worker's satisfaction can be su1nmed for the five
different dimensions to sec \vhether all or just one
or hvo di1nensions are bringing about satisfaction or
dissatisfaction.
Think of your present work. What Think of the pay you get. How well Think of the opportunities for
Is It like most of the time? In the does each of the following words promotion that you have now. How
blank space beside each word describe your present pay? In the well does each of the following
wnte: blank space beside each word or words descnbe them? In the blank
phrase wnte: space beside each phrase wnte:
N for "No" if 11 does not N for "No" if it does not N for "No" if it does not
describe 11 describe it describe them
Think of the kind of supervision Think of the majority of people Think of your job in general. All in
you get on your JOb. How well that you work with now or the all, what 1s 1t l1ke most of the time?
does each of the following words people you meet in connection In the blank space beside each
describe this superv1s1on? In the with your work. How well does word or phrase write:
blank space beside each word or each or the following words
phrase wnte: describe these people? In
the blank space beside each
word write:
- -
y for "Yes" 1f 11 describes y for "Yes" If 1t describes the y for "Yes· 1f it describes
the supervision you get on people you work with your job
your job
N for "No" if it does not N for "No" If 1t does not N for "No" if 1t does not
describe it describe them describe it
I> Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire - this is also from very dissatisfied to very satisfied. Again, each
a self-report questionnaire for \VOrkers. It measures \vorker generates a score overall and for each of the
satisfaction on 20 dimensions (e.g. supervisors, task 20 dimensions so satisfaction and dissatisfaction can
variety, responsibility, promotion, potential). Each easily be identified. Exan1ples of the 20 dimensions
iten1 is read and the worker has to rate ho\v much he are given in Table 12.6.2.
or she agrees with the statement on a five-point scale
CHAPTER 12: PSYCHOLOGY AND ORGANISATIONS
6 The competence or my 1 2 3 4 5
supervisor in making
decisions
12 The reeling of 1 2 3 4 5
accomplishment I get from
the jOb
Critical incidents incidents make for a satisfying job for the 1vorker. This
is good as the qualitative data can give a '\vhole feel"
Critical incidents technique is a way of collecting
for the j ob, kno1vi ng exactly what satisfies a 1\lorker
information aboul 1vorkers on their job performan ce.
across a range of tasks and jobs.
Workers can fil l in questionnaires about their progress
and be intervie1ved about i t. Their fel101v 1\lorkers
and n1anagers can do the san1e. The intervie1vs or
questionnaires 1vill ask people about any incidents
Interviews
These can take the form of structured or unstructured
at \\1ork, both positive and negative, which have
contributed to success ful or unsuccessful tasks and usually follo" ' one of the above. Reread about these
types of interview on page 3 from AS level and apply
happening. There 1\lill be hundreds of these. A job
analyst can then analyse all of them to see 1vhich them to organisati ons.
® EVALUATION
questionnaire interview
• the content of 1vork within the job, how much
they had advanced (or could advance) within
the job
' • ho1v much they felt the)• had gro1vn 1vith the job.
qual/quan useful
These have to be present to achieve job satisfaction.
JI> Hygienes - these are related to the context of the job
CHALLENGE YOURSELF and include:
A company wants you to set up a system that
• how company policies and administration affect
effectively measures Job satisfactJOn 1n its workers.
Create such a system and then evaluate your efforts. the job
• 1vhat level of supervision 1vorkers have in the job
• 1vhat interpersonal relations are like 1vithin
ATTITUDES TO WORK the job
• 1vhat the 1vorking conditions are like 1vithin
Another area of interest for organisational psychologists Lhe job
is researching people's attitudes to work. By uncovering
the reasons why people 1vork an organisation gets a • salary.
clearer picture on motivational needs, productivity and These have to be absent/nega tive for job dissatisfaction
ho1v people see their jobs. to occu.r.
Therefore, workers need a range of rnotivators to be
present to be satisfied with their job but 1vhen hygiene
Theories of job factors are absent this leads to dissatisfaction. Riggio
satisfaction and (1999) does note that other organisational psychologists
have tried to replicate Herzberg's findings but they keep
dissatisfaction failing to find these hvo distinct factors.
We have already looked at motivation to 1vork
and these theories can easily apply here 1vhen
it comes to job satisfaction and dissatisfaction. Job withdrawal,
Ho"•ever, another theory that can be applied here
is Herzberg's ( 1966) hvo-faclor theory. He believed absenteeism and
that job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction are t1vo sabotage
indepe11de11t thi11gs "'hen it comes to the 1vorkplace. A variety of things can happen once a person becomes
Prior to this, many psychologists believed there was a dissatisfied \Vith his or her job. These include job
continuun1 fron1 being satisfied to being dissatisfied withdrawal (leaving the job), job absenteeism and job
at 1vork. Herzberg surveyed n1any 1vorkers and sabotage. We 1vill look al ead1 in turn.
asked the1n what 1nade them feel especially bad or
Job withdra\val (or ernployee turnover) can con1e in
good about their job. I-le analysed the contents of
two fonns: voluntary and involuntary. Involuntary
these surveys and concluded that there are t1vo main
withdrawal is when an organisation has to lire people
factors at work here:
for various reasons (e.g. the con1pany is not n1aking
JI> Motivators - these arc related to the content of the enough profit or the worker is not perforn1i ng his or
actual job and include: her job properly or up to the standards expected).
• level of responsibility 1vithin the job Voluntary \Vithdrawal is when the worker decides
• ho1v much 1vorkers had already achieved in the to leave and the main reason is that the 1vorker has
found other employment (this could be linked to job
job
dissatisfaction but not always). This does "damage" an
• 1vhat recognition 1vorkers had received 1vhile organisation as it may have lost a very valued men1ber
doing the job of its team and is no1v faced 1vit h the cost of advertising
CHAPTER 12: PSYCHOLOGY AND ORGANISATIONS
and interviewing the people \vho could take over The main reason for this is illness. Organisations have to
the position. Research has been rare in this area as it be prepared for a certain number of instances occurring
can be very difficult to dissect what is voluntary and per worker and have policies in place to deal \Vith it
involuntary \Vithdra,val and even \Vithin each category (e.g. use ten1porary \VOrkers or use an agency to find
there may be subgroups of different reasons 1vhy people cover \VOrkers). Voluntary absenteeism n1ay well be a
may leave their job. Therefore, il is a lo\v valid method measure ofjob dissatisfaction but, as with \Vithdra\val
of measuring job dissatisfaction. above, the reason!> vary so \Videly that it is another lo1v
Job absenteeism can also be categorised as voluntary and validity altempt (people may just take the odd day off to
involuntary. Voluntary absenteeisn1 refers to instances do other things but really love their job). Therefore, as
1vhere the worker has chosen to take the time otf (e.g. Riggio (1999) points out, there are problems \Vith using
the \vorker may choose to have an extra day for a long this as any n1easu re due to the complexity of reasons
\veekend or may have errands to run such as going to that people give for voluntary absenteeism. Greenberg &
the vet). Involuntary abscnteeisn1 refers to times when Baron (2008), ho\vever, noted a study that had found the
the '"orker does not choose to be off \vork but is absent. relationship. This is sho,vn in Figure 12.6.1.
Many days
present Absenteeism rose among
(tow absenteeism) workers whose job Absenteeism decreased
satisfaction decreased among workers whose JOb
over time sal1sract1on rose over time
''
'' Job satisfaction
'' increased
''
''
''
''
''
',
''
''
''
''
''
' ', Job satisfaction
decreased
Few days
present
(high absenteeism)
ln1tiat Two
measurement years tater
Time
Job sabotage is about rule breaking and 1vorkers making \vages or physical conditions in a factory. Finally, it can be
a conscious effort to stop themselves and others from an attempt to challenge authority as workers feel that their
\vorking for an organisation. This can be caused by managers or leaders are not perforn1ing in their job. This
frustration as workers begin to feel po\verless in their is an extren1e form of dissatisfaction so cannot be used
job. It can also be brought about as an attempt to make to discover job dissatisfaction on a daily basis and in the
1vorking conditions better, for instance to gain better majority of \Yorkers.
TEST YOURSELF (2008). committed \Yorkers are much less likely to
Outline what psychologists have told us about \vithdra\V from the organisation and \vork tasks, they
attitudes to work. are "'illing to make some life sacrifices for the good of
the organisation and their productivity \viii be higher.
Organisations have to enrich jobs, match the values
Organisational of their current employees with their O\vn values, and
when recruili ng choose en1ployees whose values are the
commitment closest 111atch to Lheirs.
Organisational commitment refers lo the attitudes
that workers have to,vards the organisation that they
\\!Ork for. lt looks at ho'v much they get involved \vith Promoting job
the organisation they \vork for and \vhy they choose
to stay in employment there. Greenberg & Baron satisfaction
(2008) note that there are three types of organisational All of the sections in this chapter have ideas about
comn1itn1ent: promoting job satisfaction:
~ Continuance comn1itment - \vorkers stay in the ~ through the selection process
job as it is probably too costly for them to leave ~ by exploring \vhy people are motivated to work
it financ ially. The longer \Yorkers have been in
~ by identifying what leaders are present in rhe
the same organisation, the n1ore difficult it is to
organisation
leave when they reflect on all that they have given
to the organisation and \vhat it has given them. ~ by identifying h0\\1 groups \VOrk in the organisation
Therefore, workers are not \Villing to risk leaving ~ \vhen considering the physical surroundings of the
the organisation. \vorkplace
~ Affective commitment - \Yorkers stay in the job ~ through assessing job satisfaction.
because they strongly agree \vith the organisation's
goals and overall beliefs and vie,vs. They fully
support \vhat the organisation does and how it
® '
EVALUATION
useful reliable ind vs sit
does it. As long as the goals and beliefs of the
workers niatch those of the organisation, the
qual/quan
\vorkers feel con1n1itted to the job.
~ Nonnative commitment - \vorkers stay in the job
because of pressure from other people. They may CHALLENGE YOURSELF
not want to leave a company because they fear Using all or the sections in this chapter.
hO\Y
"what people might say" about them doing so. do you think an organisation can promote JOb
They do not \Vant to disappoint their organisation sabsfaction 111 its employees? On what psychology is your
by leaving and even though they n1ay feel a bit idea based?
dissatisfied, they remain committed to the job.
So, why would an organisation be concerned about
con1mitment? According to Greenberg & Baron
CHAPTER 12: PSYCHOLOGY AND ORGANISATIONS
EXAMPLES OF HOW aniount of ability that is required for the position. This
can make the whole selection procedure more valid as
TO EVALUATE a result as you are interviewing people 1vho have the
qualities you need for the job.
For the 12 mark question in Paper 3, you \vill be asked
to evaluate one of the topics covered in this section. You Need theories of motivation
\viU have noticed that after each topic in this chapter One problem 1vith these theories is that they genernlise
there are the icons for the different issues, debates, without taking into account individual differences. For
approaches, perspectives and research methods that example, Maslo\v's Hierarch of Needs suggest '"e all
could be used to help you anS\\'er the 12 mark question progress up the pyramid in the sanie \Vay. \Ve could all
in the examination. Belo\v are three examples of the progress up the pyramid in different 1vays with different
types of things you could \vrite in the exan1ination. motivations and needs - so111e people may never want
You should ain1 to niake nt lenst four different to self-actualise in the \vorkplace, instead choosing to
evaluation points for the 12 mark question. Our do it 1\tith leisure activities outside of 1vork therefore any
accompanying Revision Guide has a series of student attempt to 'involve all in the same \vay' may not 1vork
answers \Vith marks and examiner comments attached very well. The measuring of the needs as predicted by
to them. some theories like the Need for Achievcn1enl can be
subject.ive. V\lorkers can be assessed on these three key
Personnel selection needs and motives by taking as Thcn1atic Apperception
Some of the selection procedures niay be subjective. For Test (TAT). To do this, the worker has to look al a series
example, Hay1vard ( 1996) noted that females can still of ambiguous pictures that tell a story. They have to teU
be stereotyped as 'not management n1aterial' and are whatever story they feel is behind the picture and these
therefore overlooked as they do not have the 'masculine are then scored. One personnel n1e1nber may score the
traits' needed to take on such roles. Therefore, many response in a different way lo someone else working in
fen1ale applicants may never be called for interview. personnel.
This may not be based on any truth or objective
reasoning. Also, there n1ay be bias in some methods. Measuring job satisfaction
For example, a lot of information is qualitative rather !vlany of these methods are based on questionnaires
than quantitative and therefore subject to interviewer so they may be more valid than an intervie1v because
interpretation bias. Also, if an unstructured method workers n1ay be more likely to reveal truthful answers
is chosen then there is reduced reliability as not all in a questionnaire as it does not involve talking face-
intervie1vee's 1vill have the same experience. Also, to-face \Vith someone. Therefore, information from the
someone has to decide the different 'hurdles' in the Job Descriptive index may be more valid compared
multiple hurdles approach to selection but this might be to an intervie\V using some of the same questions.
based on one person's idea and is therefore not objective However, some \Yorkers may give socially desirable
and more likely to be biased. Ho\vever, selection ans\vers as they want to look good rather than giving
procedures can be useful in reducing the candidate pool truthful ans1vers - this lo1vers the validity of measuring
do,vn to those who arc best suited to the job. With the satisfaction. A 1vorker 1nay 1vant to look niore satisfied
n1ultiple cutoff 111ethod, as soon as an applicant fails about their job if a stern nianager is going to read the
to reach the niini1nun1 score 011 any one predictor or responses so that they appear to be enjoying their work
task they are elin1inated frorn the recruitment process. and so they look good, especially if it is linked to a
Therefore, those who re111ain have at least the mini1num potential promotion at work.
Exam centre
Try the follo\ving exam-style questions.
(d) Evaluate what psychologists have discovered
Section A
about personnel selection decisions and include a
(a) Explain, in your O\vn \vords, \vhat is meant by the discussion about questionnaires. ( 12 marks)
term "selection intervie\vs': (2 marks)
(b) Explain, in your O\vn \vords, \Vhat is meant by the Section C
term "intrinsic motivation': (2 marks) (a) Describe one \vay we can measure job
(c) Describe t\VO \vays in \vhich you could improve satisfuction. (6 n1arks)
motivation in \VOrkers. (4 marks) (b) Suggest ho\v you \vould improve job satisfaction
(d) Outline one theory of leadership. (4 marks) and motivation in a \vorkforce. On \Vhal
psychology is your suggestion based? (8 marks)
Section IS (c) Describe t\vo \vays in \Vhich physical
(a) Describe \Vhat psychologists have work conditions can aft"ecl people in their place
discovered abou t organisational \\TOrking of \\Tork. (6 n1arks)
conditions. (8 n1arks) (d) Suggest how you n1igh1 redesig n an office to
(b) Describe \vhat psychologists have discovered reduce any negative psychological effects it n1ay
about performance appraisals. (8 marks) have on a worker. (8 nlarks)
(c) Evaluate what psychologists have discovered
about leadership style and effectiveness and
include a discussion about hO\V useful the
findings have been. (12 marks)
M CENTRE (A LEVEL)
The questions, exan1ple answers, nlarks a\varded andlor comments that appear in
this book/CD \Vere written by the author. ln examination, the \vay marks would be
a\varded to ans\vers like these may be different
This unit constitutes 50 per cent of the A level Students then repea t this with their second option.
qualification. Students need to have studied
two options fron1 the five on offer. Por this unil,
the focus is on knowledge and understanding of each Section A
option with rnethodological assessn1ents, issues and Example queslions could be as follows:
debates, and approaches and perspectives added too.
1. (a) Explain, in yo ur 01vn words, what is meant by
Also, students have to "thin k on their feet" during the
the tenn "intrinsic motivation''. (2 nlarks)
exam via a rnethods question. The exam lasts for
3 hours and is marked out of 80. (b) Describe one cause of anxiety disorders
(phobias). (4 nlarks)
The structure of the exam is as follo\vs:
(c) Describe hvo \vays in \\ hich 1ve can control
1
about \vhat psychologists have found out about a would have to sho1v a dear understanding of the study
certain topic \Vithin the option (it is specified in the or area being tackled. If the question asks for t1vo things
question). Part (b) would ask students to evaluate then ensure that you supply t\vo brief outlines of \vhat is
\vhat psychologists have found. Part (a) is marked being asked.
out of8 and part (b) is rna rked out of 12 so this
section carries 20 rnarks in total.
/!> Sectio n C - this is norrnally a sn1aller structured Section B
essay split into two parts. Part (a) usually asks Exan1ple questions could be as follo1vs:
students to 1vrite about ho1v sornething could be
measured or how a narned topic is useful in the real
2. (a) Describe \vhat psychologists have
discovered abo ut the misusing of health
1vorld. Part (b) usually asks students to suggest ways
services. (8 rnarks)
lo inlprove a measure or in1prove something in real
life based on the psychology they have studied. Part (b) Evaluate what psychologists have
(a) is marked out of 6 and part (b) is marked out of discovered about the misusing of health
8 so this section carries 14 marks in total. services and include a discussion on case
studies. ( 12 marks)
EXAM CENTRE (A LEVEL)
•
sketch maps 20 I rational emotive behaviour therapy emotions study 65, 70
virtual war·6ndmg 2()11 (REBn 22 1 aim 65
way-finding 204 sex differences in dept"ession 216-17 conclusion 68
cognitive pS)'Cholog)' types 216 design 65-7
abnormality 209 developmental psychology ev;iluation 69
alcoholism 224 aggressive behaviour study 47-50, 50 participants 67
eyes test study 21-3, 24 attracti\•eness study 55-8, 59 procedure 67
false memory study 17-20, 20 moral bdJa,•iour study 60-3. 64 results 67-8
lying bdiaviour study 13-1 S, 16 Oedipus complex study 51-3, 54 Ent\\istlc, N.J. 124-5
perceptual development study 25-8, 28 diffusion of responsibilil)• 39 equal opportunities 2~2-3
phobias 228 disasters 188, 206 ERG (existence, relatedness and growth)
p)TOmania 223-4 evacuation plans 189-90 model of needs 246-7
conlffiunity environmental design 199-200, Herald of Free E11terprise 172. 191 ergonomics 263
206 tornado and hurricane preparation 189 operator·1nachine ~yste1ns 263-4
C'..omprehensive Ability Banery (CAB) Test treating post-traumatic stress disorder ethic~ 7-8
240 (PTSD) 190-1 ethnocentric bias 8
compressed work 1~ecks 263 discovcrylcarning 115-16 exam centre (A Level) 275
co1npulsions 232-6 discrimination study 43, 45 Section A 275
compulsive gambling 222 aim 43 Section ll 275-6
conditioning 111-12 conclusion 45 Section C 276
classical condilitlnlng 226-7 design 43, 44 exam centre (AS Level) 107
higher-order conditioning 112 evaluation 45-6 Unit I Section A 107
operant condilioning 112- 13 participants 43, 4'1 Unil I Section B 107
consumer behaviour 180-1 procedure 43-4 Unit 2 Section A I08
contingency theory 252-3 results -14. 45 Unll 2 Section R 108-9
control 164 disruptive behaviour in school 132, 146 expecrnncy theory 248-9
noise 178 allention deficit hyperactivity disorder expository teaching 116
controlled observations 4 (ADHD) 132-3 eyes test study 21, 24
creativity 143 behaviour modification 135 aim 21
unusual use:. test 143-4 bullying 132 conclusion 23
crowding 183, 206 cognitive behaviour modification 135-6 design 21-2
animal studies 183-4 conduct 132 evaluation 23
coping with crowd mg 186-7 effective classroom management 135 pan1c1pants 22
effect on health 185 effective discipline 134-5 procedure 22
effect on performance 185 poor teaching style 133 re:.uhs 22
n10difying architecture 185-6 dopamine 212, 223
pro-social behaviour 184-5 dreanu and REM sleep study 71, 78 F
visual escape 186 aim 72 factor-an:ilytic approach to intelligence 142
Curry, Lynn 123 conclusion 75 false memory study 17, 20
design 72 aim 17
D ewluation 76 conclusion 19
decision making 258 method n design 17
decision style and ind1v1dual differences participants 72 cvaluat Ion 19-20
in decision making 258 procedure 72-3 participants 17
individual '-crsus group decisions 258 results 73-5 procedure 17- 18
defensible space 195-6 dyslexia 118-9, 146 rcbuhs 18- 19
urban renewal :ind hou>lng design 198-9 causes and effects 120 fc:1r arousal 169
density see crowding; social density; spat la I educational strategies 121-2 Fiedler. Fred 252
density field experiments 2
depen dent variables CDVs) I, 2 E flexitime 263
depression 216 ecological validity 7 flooding 210, 230
biologict1I (chemical or drugs) trealment educational performance 141 Fontan<1. D. 124
219-20 emergency situations 188, 206 formal teaching styles 124
biological (genetic and ncurochcmical) contagion behaviour 188 four stage learning sy>tem 126-7
explanation 217-18 evacuation plans 189-90 Freud, Sigmund 51, 229
cognitiveexplanation 217-18 July bombings, London 2005 191 Little I lans 51-2. 229
cognitive restructuring 220-1 preparedness 189
el~ctro-convulsive therapy CF.CT) 220 script> 188 G
learned helplcssn~ or attributional style treating post-traumatic stress disorder Gardner, Howard 142
218-19 (PTSD) 190-1 GAS (general adaptation syndrome) model
manic depression 216 emotional intelligence 143 of stress 163-4
•
alarm reaction 163 hum:ulistic applications to learning I 14- l5 L
exhaustion stage 165 h)'POChondriasis 150 laboratory experiments 1-2
resistance stage 163 emergency ~ltua1ions 188
gender-based ;ubject ;election study 96, I Latham, Edwin 248
100 imagery 168 leadership 251, 273
rum 96 impulse control disorders 222. 238 charismauc and transformational leaders
conclusion 98 causes 222-3 251
design 96-7 coping "ith and reducing 224-5 great person theory 251
evaluation 98-9 l)'Pe5 222 leader-men1ber e~change (L\1X) model
par1icipan1s 97 independent variables (JVs) I, 2 255
procedure 97 individual explanations 8 nonnatl\'C decision theory 255
results 97-8 informal teaching styles 124 OhiO Stale s1udics 251-2
generalisations I 0 intelligence 137, 146 University o( t.lichigan studies 252
giftedness 119-20 British AbilityScale(BAS) 138, 140, 141 leadership style and effectiveness 252, 273
educational strat~gies 121, 146 concept of intelligence and IQ 137 contingency theory 252-3
goal-setting 247 creativity and unusual uses test 143-4 leadership tra1mng ond characteristics of
goal-setting theory 248 emotional intellisence 143 effective leaders 254-5
Grasha, Tony 123- 4 factor-analytic approach 142 path -goal theory 253
group behaviour in organi>alions 256 intelligence and educational perfonnance permissive vcr1>11~ autocratic 253
characteristics of succcssfu l 1eoms 257-8 141 situational leadership 253
decision making 258 multiple intelligences 142 learn ed helplessness 130- 1, 218-19
group cohesiveness. team building nnd proble m-solvin g 144-5 le urn ing 112
team performance 256-7 reliability, validity and predictive val id ity bch aviour-modificMion techn iques
group conflict 259-60 of tests 141 113- 14
group development 256 Stanford· Binet test 137 conditioning 111-13
groupthink and group polarisatio n 258-9 triarchic theory 142 cooperative learning 114
group confiict 259 Weschler tests 137-8 discovery learning 115- 16
managing group conflict 260 interpersonal skills 147-8 exp06itory teaching or reception learning
organisational and interpersonal causes intcn~cws 3 116
259-60 structured and unstructured interviews learning circles and the open classroom
po>itive and negative effects of conflict 239-40.268 114- 15
260 programmed learning 113
group polarisation 259 J Sun1mcrhill School 115
groupthink 258-9 job analysis techniques 243-4 underlying theor)' of cognitive
strategics lo overcome groupthink and job applications 239 development 115
training lo ~'·oid poor decisions 259 job descriptions and specifications 243 underlying theoc) of humanism 114
job design 265 zone of proxirnal development (ZPD)
H designing jobs that motivate 266 116- 17
Hassles Sc:nle 166 enrichn1ent. rotation and enlargement learning cffcchvcncss 126
hcallh and safet)• 172 265-6 4 -mat sys1en1 126-7
accidcnl proncne.< 173 job characteristics 265 PQRSTmethod 127
accident; 172 job satisfaction 266, 273 SPELT method 127
human error and the illusion of critical incidents 268 lcarnlng styles 123, 146
inndncrabilily 173 interviews 268 approaches to study inventory (ASI)
individual and system errors 172 job withdrawal, absenteeism and sabotage 124-5
reducing accidents at work 173-•I 269-71 formal and Informal s t)'les 124
reorganizing sh ift work 174 organisatio nal com mitment 271 high init iative and low in itiative 124
health promotion 169, 176 promoting job satisfucrion 271 Kolb's learning s tyles 126
communities 170- 1 rating scales a nd ques1ionnaircs 266-8 o nion model 123
fear arousal 169 theories of job satisfaction and six s1ylcs of learn ing 123-4
providing lnfonnation 169-70 dissatisfaction 269 teuchcr-ccntred and ~tudcn1 -ccn1red
schools 170 Johnson & Joh nson Live for Life Program s1ylcs 125-6
specific problems 17 l, 176 170 IJfe events 16<1-5
worksiles 170 July bo rnb ings, London 2005 19 l Locke. Gary 248
Yale model of communica1ion 169 longitudinal studies 10
Hern/ti of Fn:c E111crpri5I! 172, 191 low ini1iativc teaching s1yles I 24
K
lierse)', Paul 253 l)ing behavi011r qudy 13, 16
kleptomania 222
high initiative teaching styles 124 cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) 225 aim 13
higher-order condilionlng 112 Kolb, Da'id I 26 conclusion 15
House, Robcr1 253 Kyriacou. Chris 125-6 design 13-14
housing estates 198-9 evalua1ion 16
•
partlcip:tnts I •I Mnslows hierarchy of needs 128, 246 obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) 232
procedure 14 motivators at work 249-50 biomedical cxplnnatton 233
results 14-1 5 need for achievement 129, 247 case :.tudies and examples 232
self-efficacy 130 cognitive behaviour.ti therapy 235-6
M VlE cognitive theory 248- 9 cognitive-behavioural aspect 234
magnetite 203 l\luczyk, Jan P. 253 drug therapy 235
manic depression 216 t.lulcahy, Bob 127 measures 232- 3
mans·end analyi.is 144 multiple intelligences 142 psrchoanalrtic therapy 236
map design 203-4 multiple personality disorder (t.tPD) study ps)'Chod}11amic e.xplana1ion 235
Maslow, Abraham 128, 246 92, 95 Obsessive·Cornpulsi\'e Inventory (OCI)
McCarthy. Berrucc 126-7 aim 92 232- 3
r.tcQeUand, David 129, 247 conclusions 94 occupational noise 178
McGill Pillll Questionnaire (t.IPQ) I 58- 9 design and procedure 92 Oedipus complex study 51, 54
memory and brain function Mudy 78. 81 evaluation 9-1-5 aim 51
aim 78 participan1 92 ca:.e histor)' Sl - 2
conclusion 80 results 93-4 conclusion 52
design 78- 9 Munchnusen syndrome 150- 1 design 51
evaluation 80 case studies 151 cvaluat ion 53
participant; 79 Munchausen syndrotne by prox1' 151 participant 51
procedure 79 music 180. 206 results 52
results 79 consumer behaviour 180-l Ohio State University studies 251-2
mental health 208- 9 performance 181-2 open classrooms 114- 15
addiction :tnd in1pulse control disorders stress reduction l8 l operant conditioning 112- 13
223- 5 opcrator-macl1inc systems 263
anxiety disorders (obscs.\ion< and N auditory displ.1ys and controls 264
compulsions) 232-6 natural disas1ers see disasters; emergency errors and accidents 264
nnxiet y disorders (phobias) 226- 31 situations rcdud ng errors 264
depression 2 l 6-2 I naturalistic observations 3 visual displays and controls 263- 4
schizophrenia 211 - 17 nature and nurture 9 opportumty sampling 4
treatmcnb 209- 10 perceptual development study 25-8, 28 Ost, Laro-Goran 230
mental health diagno<is study 87, 91 Newn1an, Oscar 195-6, 199
aim 87 noise In p
condus1on 89 anti-social beha,iour 179 P:tcific \Vcstcrn Airline 172
design and procedure 88, 89 educational perfonnancc in children pain 156, 176
C\'Olllllltion 90 179-80 acute and chronic organ pain 156
participants 87-8, 89 fuctors that make noise annoying 178, definitions of pain 156
results 88-9, 89 206 gate con1rol theol) of pain 156-7
Milgram, Stanley 29- 32 music 180-2 ps)'chogenic pain 156
Minnesota Qencal Assessment Battery 241 pro-social behaviour 179 specificity thCOl)' of pain 156
moral behaviour study 60, 6./ transportation noise and occupational pain management 161
aim 60 noise 178 a lternat ivc techniques 162
conclusion 62 non-verbal communications 147, 176 cognit1ve strategies 162
de...ign 60- 1, 62 appearance 148 rncd1cal techniques 161- 2
evaluatlon 63 fucial expressions 147 pain measurement 157, 176
participants 61, 62 gestures 147- 8 children l 60- 1
procedure 61 paralanguagc l 47 McGiU Pain Questionnaire (MPQ) 158- 9
re<ults 61-2, 62 personal space invasion l 48 Pain Behavior Scale (UAR) l 60
moti\~\llon 128, 146, 246, 273 normini\•e decision theory 255 self-report measures 157-8
attributing caus~ to bchavltlurs 130 visual rating scales 160
behaviourist theory 128 0 pnn1languagc 147
changing attributions 131 O'Connor Pinger Dexterity Test 240 participtmt observations 4
cognitive uppronch 128-9 obedience study 29. 32 particip.mt v;irinblc> I
designing jobs that motivate 266 aim 29 participant• 4-5
effecth·e praise 129 conclusion 31 aggressive behaviour study 47
ERG theory 246-7 design 29 attractiveness and smells study 82
extrinsic and intrinsic motivation 128, evaluation 31-2 attractiveness study 55, 56, 57
249.273 participants 30 body dysmorphic disorder (BOD) study
goal·s<'lting 247-8 procedure 30 102
humanistic theory 128, 129 results 30-1 bystander beha\•k)ur stud)• 39
learned helplessness 130- 1 observations 3-4 dtSCriminatlon stud)' 43, 44
•
dreams and REM sleep siudy 72 opportunities 242-3 use of psychometric tests 240-1
emotions study 67 decision making 241-2, 273 public building design 200, 206
eyes lest study 22 use of psychometric tests 240-1 casinos 200
fube memory s1udy 17 phobias 226 housing estates 198-9
gender-based subject selec11on study 97 applied temion 230 shopping malls 199-200
independent groups 5 behavioural explanat:Jon (classical pyromania 222, 223- 4
lying beha,~our study 14 conditioning) 226-7
matched pairs 6 biomedical or genetic cxplanatioo Q
memory and brain function ~tudy 79 229-30 quantttative and qualitative data 9-10
mental health diagnosb s1ud)' 87-8, 89 cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) questionnaires 2
moral behaviour study 61, 62 230-1
multiple personality disorder (MPD) cognitive explanation 228 R
study 92 extinction 229 random s;impling 4
obedience study 30 flooding 230 rational emotive behaviour therapy (REBT)
Oedipus complex 'tudy 51 generalisation 229 210.221
percep1ual development s1udy 26 psychoanalytic eiq>lanation 229 reception learning 116
prisoners study systematic desensitisation 229-30 reductionism 11
repeated measures 5- 6 types and exan1ples 226 Reimann, B.C 253
path-goal theory 253 physiological psychology reliability 8
patient adherence to medical advic;e 152, attractiveness and smells study 82-5, 86 in telligence 1csts 141
176 dreams and REM sleep study 7 1-6, 77 research I
improving adherence l53-'I emotions study 65-9, 70 animals 11
letters 154- 5 memory and brain function study 78- 80, case studies 3
measuring adherence and non-adherence 81 chi ldren 10- 11
153 Piaget, Jean 115 design of study 5-6
memory intervenilon 155 pigeons 203 ecologica l v:11idi1y 7
rational non-adherence 152-3 planning strategies 14.J ethics 7- 8
text messaging l S4 positive reinforcement 223 ethnocentric bias 8
types and extent of non -adherence 152 post-tr.lumaticstrcss disorder (PTSD) 181 field experiments 2
patient mbuse of health services 149, 176 treating post-traumatic stress disorder generalisations IO
delay in seeking treatment 149-50 (PTSD) 190-1 individual versus situational explanations
hypochondrlasb 150 PQRST method ofleaming 127 8
t.limchausen S)lldrome 150-1 praise 129 interviews 3
patient-practitioner relationship 147 predicti\'l? validity 24 l laboratory experiments 1- 2
disclosure of 111fonnation 149 Preschool Head Start Progr.un 171 nature and nurture 9
doctor·centn.>d and patient-centred styles prisoners study 33. 37 ob.crvations 3-4
148-9 aim 33 participant> and sampling 4-S
non-vt-rbal communications 147- 8 conclusion 36-7 ps)'chometrks 9
type I and t)'J)C II errors 1n diagnoslS 149 design 33 quantitaO\'l? and qualitative data 9- 10
verbal communication• 148 evaluation 37 queshonna1rcs 2
Pavlo'" Ivan 111-12 participants 33-4 reduction~m 11
Pediatric Pain Qu~tionnaire 160-1 procedu re 3.J reliability and validity 8
perceptual development stud)' 25, 28 results 34-6 snapshot ;ind longitudinal studies 10
alm 25 problem-solving 144-5 usefulness 7
conclusion 26 programmed learning 113 reward systems 249
design 25 promotion prospects 250 career >lructurc and promotion prospects
evaluation 27-8 psychodynam ic perspective 250
participants 26 abnorma lily 209 non-monetary rewards 250
procedure 26 obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) Rogers, Carl I 14
results 26 235 Rosenhan, David 87-9
pcrfonnancc upprnisal 244, 273 psychology of individual differcnct'S
problems and blasc> 245 body dysmorphic disorder (BOD) ;tudy s
perforn1ance-rclu1cd pay 249 101-5, 106 sampling •1-5
permissive le;tdershlp styles 253 gender-based subject selection study schizoph rcn ia 211. 238
personal space i 92- 3, 206 96-9, JOO biochemical explanation (dopamine
alpha space and beta space 193 mental health diagnosis study 87-90, 91 hypothesis) 212
measuring space simulation 193 multiple personality disorder (MPD) biochemical trcJtments 213
space in\'Jsions 193, 19-1-5, 106 sludy 92-5, 95 case studies 211
stop-distance 193 psychometrics 9 characteristic• 211
personnel selection 240 intelligence tests 137-41, 146 cognitive bd1avioural therapy (CBT) 215
biases in selection decis1or1S and equal pain measurement 158-61 cognitive explanation 212-13
•
electro-convulsive therapy 214 stress inoculation therapy 168 w
genetic explanation 211 - 12 work 164 Wei ncr, Bernard 130. 219
lok~n economic'> 214-15 student-centred learning styles 125-6 Weschler Adult lntdligence Scale (WAIS)
type:. 211 Summerhill School 115 137- 8, 139, 141
self-efficacy Ll-0 systematic desensitisation 210, 229- 30 Weschler lntcUigcncc Scale for Children
self· UlStructional trainmg 135-6 (\\llSC) 137-S. 141
self-selected sampling 4 T Wilkins, M. 125-6
Seligman. Martm 130- 1, 219 teacher-centred learning styles 125-6 Wolpe. Joseph 229
~hift work 262 teaching styles 116, 124, 133 \\Ork 16~, 239
con1pressed \\'Ol'k weeks and flexitime teams 256-7 altitudes to work 269-71
263 characteristics of successful teams 257- 8 biases in selection decisions and equal
rapid rotation theory and slow rotation technological catastrophe 188, 206 opportumties 242-3
theory 262- 3 territory 192-3. 206 career structure and promotion pro peels
shopping malls 199-200 defending primary territory 195-6 250
situational cxplanat ions 8 defending public territory 196 decision making In selecting personnel
situational leadership 253 theory A 172, 264 240,241 - 2
situational "ariablcs 2 individual errors 172 group behaviour in organisations 256-60
Sixteen Personality Faclor Questionnaire theory B 172, 264 health and s.,fcty at work 172-4
241 system errors 172 health promotion al 1~ork 170
snapshot studies 10 111ree ]\,file Island 172 job analysis techniques 243-4
social density 183, 184-5, 206 Titanic 172 job applications 239
animal studies 183- 4 token economies 173-4, 214-15,224 job descriptions and specifications 243
social psychology topicevaluution 145, 175, 205, 237, 272 leadership and nmnagcmenl 251-5
bystander behaviour study 38- 41, 42 transportation noise 178 motivation 246-7
discrimination study 43-6. 1/6 I riarchic theory of intelligence 142 mo1i11alion and goal-selling 247-8
obedience bludy 29-32, 32 Type A behaviour 166 motivators al work 249-50
prisoners study 33- 7, 37 Type B behaviour 166 non· monccary rewards 250
Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS) performance appraisal 24•1-5
164- 5 u performancc-rela1cd pay 249
space see pl.'l'sonal space University of Alabama at Birnlingham sel<'Ction interviews 239-40, 273
spatial density 183, 185 (UAB) Pain Behavior Scale 160 types of reward sys1en1 249
special educational needs 118, 1116 Uni,-ersity of Michigan studies 252 use of psychometric tests 240-1
autism spectrum disorders 119 Uplifts Scale 166 work condit.i ons 261 , 273
dyslexia 118- 9. 120 urban living 197 ergonomics 263-4
gilicdncss 119-U> adaptation level 197 physical work condi1ioos 261
integration '"rsus separation 120-1 behaviour constraint 197 psychological \\'Ork conditions 261-2
SPELT method of learning 127 casino environments 200 1e1nporol conditions 262- 3
squirrels 202 etfeclS on health 197-8 work sa1isfucrion 265
SSRJs (selectt,·c sero1onerg1c re uptake effects on social behaviour 198 job design 265-6
inhibitors) 219, 220, 233, 235 environmental stress 197 job withdrawal. absenleehm and sabotage
Stanford Unh'Crsity, USA 137 overload 197 269-71
Sternberg, Robert 142 shopping mall atmospherics 199-200 measuring job .;;i1isfaction 266-8
>lop-distance 193 urban renewal and housing design 198-9, organisational commiunent 271
stratified i.ampling 4 206 promoting job satisfaction 271
stress 163 usefulness 7 theories of job s.'lisfuct Ion and
daily hassles 166 dissa1bfac1ion 269
environmcnw I ol ress 197 v
GAS (general adnptallon syndrome) validity 7, 8 y
model 163-4 intell igence tests 141 Yale model of communication 169
life events 164- 5 psychon1e1ric tests 241 Yale· Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale
locus of control 164 Vancouver Obsessional Compulsive (Y·BOCS) 233, 234
muoic and ~cress reduction 181 Inventory (VOCI) 233 Yetton, Phillip 255
personality 166 variables 1-2
stress management 167, 176 verbal communications 148, 176 z
medical techniques 167 VIE (valence, instrumentality and zone of prox.imal development (ZPD)
pre1·entingstrcss 168 expectancy) cognili"e theory 248 116-17
psychological technique~ 167- 8 managerial applications 248-9
physiologic;1l measurcs 167 \'Olunteer sampling 4
physiology of stress and effects on heahh Vroom, Victor 248. 255
163 Vygotsky, Lev 116-17
self-report questionnaires 167
•
for Cambridge International AS & A Level
Craig Roberts
Endorsed by Cambridge and accurately matched to the most recent Cambridge
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