THEORY OF STRUCTURES FOR COTM 2007E.

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS
1.1 INTRODUCTION
A structure refers to a system of connected parts used to support loads. The fundamental purpose
of a structure is to transmit loads from the point of application to the point of support and,
through the foundations to the ground.
Examples: Buildings, bridges and towers

2.2 STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS AND TYPES OF STRUCTURES

It is important to recognize the various types of elements composing a structure and to be able to
classify structures as to their form and function.

Structural Elements
Some of the more common elements from which structures are composed are as follows:

(i) Beams
Beams are structural elements subjected to loads transverse to their axis. It is generally assumed
that beams are free from axial force or the influence of axial force is negligible in comparison to
bending (flexure) effects. One of the most common structural elements is a beam; it bends when
subjected to loads acting transversely to its centroidal axis or sometimes by loads acting both
transversely and parallel to this axis. The discussions given in the following subsections are
limited to straight beams in which the centroidal axis is a straight line with a shear
center coinciding with the centroid of the cross-section. It is also assumed that all the loads and
reactions lie in a simple plane that also contains the centroidal axis of the flexural member and
the principal axis of every cross-section. If these conditions are satisfied, the beam will simply
bend in the plane of loading without twisting.
Example: The main members supporting floors of buildings

Analysis of beams involves the determination of forces acting on any section of the
beam (bending moment and shear force) as well as the deflections at various sections.
Beams are usually classified according to the way in which they are supported. Several
commonly used beams are depicted in the Figs. below;

Fig: Types of Beams

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Beams are also classified according to their cross-sectional shapes. For example, an I beam and a
T beam has cross-sections geometrically formed like the letters I and T.

(ii) Columns
Members that are generally vertical and resist axial compressive loads are referred to as columns.
Columns are so long compared to the cross-sectional dimensions that under gradually increasing
loads they fail by buckling at a load considerably less than that required to cause failure by
crushing.

Compression members (Columns) are subdivided into three groups:

(a) Short columns
(b) Intermediate columns and
(c) Long columns
Short columns fail by crushing, long columns fail by buckling or excessive lateral bending.
Intermediate columns are failed by a combination of crushing and buckling.

Occasionally, columns are subjected to both an axial load and a bending moment as shown in the
figure are known as beam-columns.

beam- column
Fig. Columns
(iii) Tie rods
Structural members subjected to a tensile force are often referred to as tie rods or bracing struts.
Due to the nature of this load, these members are rather slender, and are often chosen from rods,
bars, angles, or channels.

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1.3 Types of Structures

The combination of structural elements and the materials from which they are composed is
referred to as a structural system. Each system is constructed of one or more of four basic types
of the following structures.

(i) Trusses: - Trusses are composed of straight members connected at their ends by hinged
connections to form a stable configuration . When the loads are applied to a truss only at the
joints, its members either elongate or shorten. Thus, the members of an ideal truss are always
either in uniform tension or in uniform compression. Real trusses are usually constructed by
connecting members to gusset plates by bolted or welded connections. Although the rigid joints
thus formed cause some bending in the members of a truss when it is loaded, in most cases such
secondary bending stresses are small, and the assumption of hinged joints yields satisfactory
designs.
Trusses, because of their light weight and high strength, are among the most commonly used
types of structures. Such structures are used in a variety of applications, ranging from supporting
roofs of buildings to serving as support structures in space stations.

Fig. Plane truss

(ii) Cables and Arches: - used to span long distances.

Cables are usually flexible and carry their loads in tension. Unlike tension ties, however, the
external load is not applied along the axis of the cable, and consequently the cables take a form
that has defined sag.
Cables are commonly used to support bridges and building roofs. When used for these purposes,
the cable has an advantage over the beam and the truss, especially for spans that are greater than
46m.
Because they are always in tension, cables will not become unstable and sudden collapse, as may
happen with beams or trusses. Furthermore, the truss will require added costs for construction
and increased depth as the span increases. Use of cables, on the other hand, is limited only by
their sag, weight, and methods of anchorage.

Fig. Cables support their loads in tension

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The arch achieves its strength in compression, since it has a reverse curvature to that of the cable.
Arches are frequently used in bridge structures, dome roofs and for openings in masonry
walls.

Fig. Arches carry their loads in compression

(iii) Frames: - Frames are often used in buildings and are composed of beams and columns that
are either pin or fixed connected. Like trusses, frames extend in two or three dimensions. The
loading on a frame causes bending of its members, and if it has rigid joint connections, this
structure is generally ―indeterminate‖ from a standpoint of analysis.
The strength of such a frame is derived from the moment interactions between the beams and the
columns at the rigid joints.

Fig. Frame

(iv) Surface Structures

A surface structure is made from a material having a very small thickness compared to its other
dimensions. Sometimes this material is very flexible and can take the form of a tent or air-
inflated structure. In both cases the material acts as a membrane that is subjected to pure tension.

Surface structures may also be made of rigid material such as reinforced concrete. As such they
may be shaped as folded plates, cylinders or hyperbolic paraboloids and are referred to as thin
plates or shells. These structures act like cables or arches since they support loads primarily in
tension or compression, with very little bending. In spite of this, plate or shell structures are
generally very difficult to analyze, due to the three dimensional geometry of their surface.

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Fig. Surface structures

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THEORY OF STRUCTURES FOR COTM 2007E.C

CHAPTER - TWO
STABILITY AND DETERMINACY OF STRUCTURES
Before going into the analysis of any structure, it is necessary to identify its statical type
(classification), i.e., whether it is determinate or indeterminate, stable or unstable. An unstable
arrangement of supports and structural members should be avoided.

In this chapter; Criteria for statical classification will be established and different structures will
be checked for stability and determinacy.

2.1 Stability of Structures

To ensure the equilibrium of a structure or its members, it is not only necessary to satisfy the
equations of equilibrium, but the members must also be properly held or, constrained by their
supports. In structural analysis a structure is said to be stable when it can support any possible
system of applied loads.
Two situations may occur where the conditions for proper constraint (stability) may have not
been met.
Partial constraints; structure in which there is insufficient numbers of reactions to prevent
motion from taking place is called an unstable structure. The structure becomes only partially
constrained.

Fig. Partially constrained structure

Improper constraints; what matters is not only the number of support reactions but also their
arrangement. Structures for which the numbers of reaction components are greater than or equal
to the number of available equilibrium equations but the structures are unstable due to
arrangement of these reaction components are said to be geometrically unstable structures.

When the reaction elements are three or more like supports that are either parallel or concurrent,
they are not sufficient to maintain static equilibrium.

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Fig. Reaction forces are concurrent at point “O”

Fig. Parallel reaction forces to each other

For the case of parallel reactions, they will offer no resistance to horizontal motion, thus making
the arrangement unstable. The point of intersection of the concurrent reactions becomes an
instantaneous center of rotation and the system is instantaneously unstable.

The stable fundamental element of a plane truss is a triangular arrangement of three members.
A truss may have internal instability if four members are used to form an element.

In conclusion, the stability of structures depends on the number and geometric arrangement of
reactions and structural members rather than on the strength of individual member or supports.
Despite the possibility that an unstable structure could become stable under a particular system
of applied loads, the structure is classified as an unstable structure.

2.2 Determinacy of Structures

When all forces in a structure can be determined strictly from equilibrium equations, the
structure is referred to as statically determinate. Structures having more unknown forces than
available equilibrium equations are called statically indeterminate.

A statically indeterminate structure is one that cannot be analyzed by the equations of static
equilibrium alone. Indeterminacy is introduced in structures on account of functional
requirements, limitations on types of framing, need for stiffness and often by the nature of
inherent continuity introduced by the type of material used like reinforced concrete.

A structure is statically indeterminate when it possesses more members or is supported by more

reactive restraints than are strictly necessary for stability (and equilibrium). The excess members
or restraints are called redundant. The degree of indeterminacy is the number of unknowns in
excess of the available equilibrium equations. In the analysis of indeterminate structures,

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therefore, ways of establishing additional equations must be sought. These additional equations
may be derived from compatibility of deformation or from conditions of symmetry.
This additional task would make the analysis of indeterminate structures more difficult than their
determinate counterparts.

Indeterminate structures have some advantages and disadvantages over determinate ones. One
obvious disadvantage is the computational difficulty involved when establishing the required
additional equations. Another disadvantage is that indeterminate structures will be stressed due
to differential settlement of supports, temperature changes and errors in fabrication of members.

On the other hand, however, indeterminate structures are stiffer and in the case of over loads
indeterminate structures can provide an advantage of redistribution of loads within the structure.

The indeterminacy of a structure can be external (with respect to reactions) or internal (with
respect to member forces). The question of identifying external or internal indeterminacy is
largely of academic interest. What is of primary importance is the total degree of indeterminacy,
Nevertheless, determining external and internal indeterminacy is desirable as a method to
evaluate the total degree of indeterminacy.

A structure is internally indeterminate when it is not possible to determine all internal forces by
using the equations of static equilibrium. For the great majority of structures, the question of
whether or not they are indeterminate can be decided inspection. For certain structures this is not
so, and for these types rules have to be established. The internal indeterminacy of trusses will be
first considered, and then that of continuous frames.

2.3 Criteria for Stability and Determinacy of Structures

Three reaction components are required for external stability and determinacy of a plane
structure without condition equation. The external static classification of a structure depends on
the total number of reaction components “r”, and their arrangement. Therefore, the following
criteria hold true.

 r < 3 structure is statically unstable

 r = 3 structure is statically determinate
 r > 3 structure is statically indeterminate

For cases, these criteria are necessary but not sufficient conditions for static classification
because the structure can be unstable due to improper arrangement of supports.

It is possible to have more than three statically determinate reaction components. This occurs
when a structure a composed of two or more structural units connected in a manner that provide
additional equations. These additional equations are referred to as condition equations and each
condition increases the number of statically determinate reaction components by one. Thus, if r
is the least number of reaction components required for external stability and determinacy with n
condition equations, then r = 3+n. the criteria for stability and determinacy becomes;

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 r < 3+n structure is statically unstable

 r = 3+n structure is statically determinate
 r > 3+n structure is statically indeterminate

In case of beams and frames we can determine the stability and determinacy by disassembling
the structure and checking the number of equilibrium equations.
If a frame has a closed loop we should first cut the loop by the method of sections.

Alternative Approach An alternative approach that can be used for determining the static
instability, determinacy, and indeterminacy of internally unstable structures is as follows:
1. Count the total number of support reactions, r.
2. Count the total number of internal forces, fi that can be transmitted through the internal hinges
and the internal rollers of the structure.
Recall that an internal hinge can transmit two force components, and an internal roller can
transmit one force component.
3. Determine the total number of unknowns, r + fi.
4. Count the number of rigid members or portions, n, contained in the structure.
5. Because each of the individual rigid portions or members of the structure must be in
equilibrium under the action of applied loads, reactions, and/or internal forces, each member
must satisfy the three equations of equilibrium ((∑ ,∑ and∑ )
Thus, the total number of equations available for the entire structure is 3n.
6. Determine whether the structure is statically unstable, determinate, or indeterminate by
comparing the total number of unknowns,
 r+ fi < 3n structure is statically unstable
 r + fi = 3n structure is statically determinate
 r + fi > 3n structure is statically indeterminate

For indeterminate structures, the degree of external indeterminacy is given by

i = (r + fi) – 3n

Internal classification of trusses

We can develop the criteria for the static determinacy, indeterminacy, and instability of general
plane trusses containing m members and j joints and supported by r (number of) external
reactions. For the analysis, we need to determine m member forces and r external reactions; that
is, we need to calculate a total of m + r unknown quantities. Since there are j joints and we can
write two equations of equilibrium (∑ and∑ ) for each joint, the total number of
equilibrium equations available is 2j. If the number of unknowns (m+r) for a truss is equal to the
number of equilibrium equations (2j);that is, m + r = 2j, all the unknowns can be determined by
solving the equations of equilibrium, and the truss is statically determinate.

If a truss has more unknowns (m+r) than the available equilibrium equations (2j); that is,
m + r > 2j—all the unknowns cannot be determined by solving the available equations of
equilibrium. Such a truss is called statically indeterminate. Statically indeterminate trusses have
more members and/or external reactions than the minimum required for stability. The excess

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members and reactions are called redundants, and the number of excess members and reactions
is referred to as the degree of static indeterminacy, i, which can be expressed as
i = (m + r) 2j
If the number of unknowns (m+r) for a truss is less than the number of equations of joint
equilibrium (2j)—that is, m + r < 2j— the truss is called statically unstable. The static
instability may be due to the truss having fewer members than the minimum required for internal
stability or due to an insufficient number of external reactions or both.
The conditions of static instability, determinacy, and indeterminacy of plane trusses can be
summarized as follows:
 m+ r < 2j statically unstable truss
 m + r = 2j statically determinate truss
 m + r > 2j statically indeterminate truss

The first condition, for the static instability of trusses, is both necessary and sufficient in the
sense that if m < 2j- r, the truss is definitely statically unstable. However, the remaining two
conditions, for static determinacy (m = 2j - r) and indeterminacy (m > 2j –r) are necessary but
not sufficient conditions. In other words, these two equations simply tell us that the number of
members and reactions is sufficient for stability. They do not provide any information regarding
their arrangement.
A truss may have a sufficient number of members and external reactions but may still be
unstable due to improper arrangement of members and/or external supports.

Internal classification of Frames

We can develop the criteria for the static determinacy, indeterminacy, and instability of general
plane frames containing m members and j joints and supported by r (number of) external
reactions. For the analysis, we need to determine 6m member forces and r external reactions; that
is, we need to calculate a total of 6m + r unknown quantities. Since there are m members and j
joints and we can write three equations of equilibrium for each member and each joint, the
number of equilibrium equations available is 3(m + j). Furthermore, if a frame contains internal
hinges and/or internal rollers, these internal conditions provide additional equations, which can
be used in conjunction with the equilibrium equations to determine the unknowns. Thus, if there
are ec equations of condition for a frame, the total number of equations (equilibrium equations
plus equations of condition) available is 3(m + j) + ec. For a frame, if the number of unknowns is
equal to the number of equations, that is,
6m + r = 3(m + j) + ec
or 3m +r =3j + ec
then all the unknowns can be determined by solving the equations of equilibrium and condition,
and the frame is statically determinate. If a frame has more unknowns than the available
equations—that is,
3m + r > 3j + ec—all the unknowns cannot be determined by solving the available equations, and
the frame is called statically indeterminate.
Statically indeterminate frames have more members and/or external reactions than the minimum
required for stability. The excess members and reactions are called redundants, and the number
of excess member forces and reactions is referred to as the degree of static indeterminacy, i,
which can be expressed as i = (3m +r) –(3j +ec)

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For a frame, if the number of unknowns is less than the number of available equations—that is,
3m + r < 3j + ec—the frame is called statically unstable.
The conditions for static instability, determinacy, and indeterminacy of plane frames can be
summarized as follows:
3m + r < 3j + ec statically unstable frame
3m + r = 3j + ec statically determinate frame
3m + r > 3j + ec statically indeterminate frame
The ends of the frame attached to supports as well as any free ends are treated as joints.
Note. The number of conditional equations introduced by a hinge joint is equal to the number of
members at the joint minus one. An internal roller joint provides the equations of condition
whose number is equal to 2 (number of members meeting at the joint - 1).

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CHAPTER THREE
LOADS ON STRUCTURES
Determination of the loads that act on a structure, evaluation of critical force effects in the
member and dimensioning are the most difficult and yet important steps in the overall process of
design.
The loads that enter a system are of three different types. Concentrated loads (example a single
Vehicular wheel load) are those that are applied over a relatively small area. Line loads are
distributed along a narrow strip of the structure. The weight of a member itself and the weight of
a wall or partition are examples of this type of load. Surface loads are loads that are distributed
over an area. The loads on a warehouse floor and the snow load on a roof are examples of
surface loads.

The loads that act on a structure can be grouped into three categories: dead loads, live loads,
and environmental loads. These categories can be further divided according to the specific nature
of the loading. Because the method of analysis is the same for each category of loading, all loads
could be combined before the analysis is performed. However, separate analyses for the
individual loading cases are usually carried out to facilitate the consideration of various load
combinations.
Furthermore loads can be classified based on:
 Direction:- Gravity/vertical and Lateral/horizontal loads
 Variation with time:- dead load (permanent) and Live Loads (temporary)
 Structural Response:- Static (loads applied gradually) and dynamic (loads applied
over a short period of time and vary in magnitude with time)

3.1 Dead loads

Dead loads are those that act on the structure as a result of the weight of the structure itself and
of the components of the system that are permanent fixtures. As a result, dead loads are
characterized as having fixed magnitudes and positions. Examples of dead loads are the weights
of the structural members themselves, such as beams and columns, the weights of roof surfaces,
floor slabs, ceilings, or permanent partitions, and so on.

The dead loads associated with the structure can be determined if the materials and sizes of the
various components are known. Some of standard material unit weights are shown in Table 2.1.

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(Refer EBCS-1, 1995 Ethiopian Building Code Standards, part 1- Loadings)

3.2 Live loads

In a general sense, live loads are considered to include all loads on the structure that are not
classified as dead loads. However, it has become common to narrow the definition of live loads
to include only loads that are produced through the construction, use, or occupancy of the
structure and not to include environmental.

These loads are dynamic in character in that they vary both in magnitude and position. Live
loads where the dynamic nature has significance because of the rapidity with which change in
position occurs are called moving loads, whereas live loads in which change occurs over an
extended period of time, or where there is the potential for change whether exercised or not, are
referred to as movable loads. Moving loads include vehicular loads on bridges or crane loads in
industrial buildings. Another type of live load is a variable load or a time dependent load-that is,
one whose magnitude changes with time, such as a load induced through the operation of
machinery.

3.2.1 Occupancy live loads

Occupancy live loads for buildings are usually specified in terms of the minimum values that
must be used for design purposes. Some representative values are given in Table 2.2.

Category Uniform Concentrate

load(KN/m2) d load(KN)
Private dwelling 2 2
Schools, cafes, restaurants, … 3 4
Churches, cinemas, … 4 4
Museums, exhibition rooms, … 5 4.9
Dance halls, gymnastic rooms, … 5 7
Warehouse, stationery stores, … 5 4

(Refer EBCS-1, 1995 Ethiopian Building Code Standards, part 1- Loadings)

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3.2.2 Traffic Loads for Bridges

Bridges must be designed to support the vehicular loads associated with their functional use and
minimum loads are mandated for designed purposes. In the case of highway bridges, these loads
are specified in Bridge Design Manuals. The approach is to specify the weights and spacing of
axles and wheels for a design truck, a design tandem, and the design lane load. These loadings
provide for a set of concentrated loads (which represent a truck type loading) and a uniform load
(which simulates a line of vehicles).

3.2.3 Impact loads

Loads that are applied over a very short period of time have a greater effect on the structure than
would occur if the same loads were applied statically. The manner in which a load varies with
time and the time over which the full load is placed on the structure will determine the factor by
which the static response should be increased to obtain the dynamic response.

For building occupancy loads, the minimum design loads normally include adequate allowance
for ordinary impact conditions. However, provisions must be made in the structural design for
uses and loads that involve unusual vibrations and impact forces. One situation in which an
impact effect (IM is defined as the dynamic load allowance) is applied for moving vehicular
loads on a highway bridge.

3.3 Environmental loads

Structures experience numerous loading conditions as a result of the environment in which they
exist. These are Snow and Ice Loads, Roof loads, Wind loads and Earthquake Loads.

3.3.1 Snow and Ice Loads

The procedure for establishing the static snow loads on a building is normally based on ground
snow loads and an appropriate ground-to-roof conversion.

The distribution of snow on a roof is complex, and many different approaches are used. Factors
considered in calculating snow and ice loads are location, exposure factor, thermal factor, the
effects of unloaded portions of roof, unbalanced or nonuniform loads on various roof
configurations, drifting, sliding snow, and extra loads induced by rain on snow.

Snow loads are not normally considered in bridge design because they are usually small when
compared with other loadings on the structure. However, ice loads can be appreciable on bridge
structures. The icing not only creates loads on the structure but also increases the member sizes,
which, in turn, increases the magnitude of the wind induced loads.

3.3.2 Rain loads

Roof loads that result from the accumulation of rainwater on flat roofs can be a serious problem.
This condition is produced by the ponding that occurs when the water accumulates faster
than it runs off, either because of the intensity of the rainfall or because of the inadequacy or

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blockage of the drainage system. The real danger is that as ponding occurs the roof deflects into
a dished configuration, which can accommodate more water, and thus greater loads result.

The best way to prevent the problem is to provide a modest slope to the roof (0.25 in. per ft or
2cm. per m or more) and to design an adequate drainage system. In addition to the primary
drainage, there should be a secondary system to preclude the accumulation of standing water
above a certain level.

3.3.3 Lateral Loads

a) Wind Loads
The most common lateral load is a wind load. Wind against a building builds up a positive
pressure on the windward side and a negative pressure (or suction) on the leeward side.
Depending upon the shape of the structure it may also cause a negative pressure on the side walls
or even the roof. The pressure on the walls and roof is not uniform, but varies across the surface.
Winds can apply loads to structures from unexpected directions. Thus, a designer must be well
aware of the dangers implied by this lateral load. The magnitude of the pressure that acts upon
the surfaces is proportional to the square of the wind speed.

Wind loads vary around the world. Meteorological data collected by national weather services
are one of the most reliable sources of wind data. Factors that affect the wind load include the
geographic location, elevation, degree of exposure, relationship to nearby structures, building
height and size, direction of prevailing winds, velocity of prevailing winds and positive or
negative pressures due to architectural design features (atriums, entrances, or other openings).
All of these factors are taken into account when the lateral loads on the facades are calculated. It
is often necessary to examine more than one wind load case.

Wind Loads According to EBCS-1, 1995

. The wind velocity pressure from Bernoulli’s theorem is


P  V2
2 Where  is the density (kg/m3)
V is the velocity (km/hr)

The wind pressure depends on the density of air (which is the function of altitude), height of the
structure, the terrain of the area, forest cover of the land, the density of construction, relative
facing of the structure to the wind.
Formulas are developed from the above equation, statistical analysis of past recorded data and
research accounting for the above factors to get design wind load for walls, roofs, claddings and
parapets.
Ethiopian Building code and Standards gives the following formulae for the internal and external
wind pressures.

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 The wind pressure acting on the external surfaces of a structure We shall be obtained
from
= ( )
 The wind pressure acting on the internal surfaces of a structure Wi shall be obtained
from
= ( )
Where q ref is the reference mean wind velocity pressure given below
C e (z ) is exposure coefficient accounting for terrain and height above ground Z
C pe
is external pressure coefficient
C pi
is internal pressure coefficient
The reference mean wind velocity pressure, q ref is determined from
ρ 2
q ref = V ref

2 ρ is the air density

The air density is affected by altitude and depends on the temperature and pressure to be
expected in the region during wind storms. A temperature of 20oC has been selected as
appropriate for Ethiopia.
Site altitude(m)
above sea level ρ (kg/m3)
0 1.20
500 1.12
1000 1.06
1500 1.00
2000 0.94
Vref is the reference wind velocity and is equal to 22m/sec.
The exposure coefficient can be obtained from the following formula

[
c e ( z )=cr2 ( z)c 2t ( z ) 1+ T
7k
]
c r ( z )c t ( z )
Where kT is the terrain factor
ct(z) is the topography coefficient
cr(z) is the roughness coefficient
(1)The roughness coefficient Cr(z) accounts for the variability of mean wind velocity at the site
of the structure due to:
(a) the height above ground level
(b) the roughness f the terrain depending on the wind direction.
(2) The roughness coefficient at height z is defined by the logarithmic profile:
Cr(z) =KT ln(z/zo) for zmin≤ z ≤ 200m
Cr(z) = Cr(zmin) for z< zmin
Where KT is the terrain factor
Zo is the roughness length
Zmin is the minimum height
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Terrain Category kT Zo(m) Zmin(m)

I Lakes with at least 5km fetch upwind and
smooth flat country without obstacles 0.17 0.01 2
II Farmland with boundary hedges, occasional
small farm structure, houses or trees 0.19 0.05 4
III Suburban or industrial areas and permanent
Forests 0.22 0.3 8
IV Urban areas in which at least 15% of the surface
is covered with buildings and their average
height exceeds 15m. 0.24 1 16
The topographic coefficient ct(z) accounts for the increase of mean wind speed over isolated hills
and escarpments(not undulating and mountainous regions). It is defined by:
ct = 1 Φ < 0.05
for
ct = 1+ 2sΦ
for 0.05< Φ <0.3
ct = 1+ 0. 6s Φ >0.3
for
Where s is the factor to be obtained by interpolation from the value of s =1.0 at the crest of a hill,
ridge or escarpment and the value s = 0 at the boundary of the topography affected zone. Φ is
the upwind slope H/Lu in the wind direction.
The external pressure coefficient C pe for buildings and individual parts of buildings depend on
the size of the loaded area A. They are given for loaded areas A of 1m2 and 10m2 in the relevant
tables of the appropriate building configurations as C pe,1 and C pe,10 respectively.
Cpe

Cpe,1

Cpe,10

1 2 4 6 8 10
A[m2]

c pe =c pe,1 A≤ 1 m2
c pe =c pe,1+ (c pe,10− c pe, 1 )log A 1 m 2 <A<10 m 2
c pe =c pe,10
A>10m2

b) Earthquake Loads
Earthquake loads are another lateral live load. They are very complex, uncertain, and potentially
more damaging than wind loads. It is quite fortunate that they do not occur frequently. The
earthquake creates ground movements that can be categorized as a "shake," "rattle," and a "roll."
Every structure in an earthquake zone must be able to withstand all three of these loadings of
different intensities. Although the ground under a structure may shift in any direction, only the
horizontal components of this movement are usually considered critical in a structural analysis. It

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THEORY OF STRUCTURES FOR COTM 2007E.C

is assumed that a load-bearing structure which supports properly calculated design loads for
vertical dead and live loads are adequate for the vertical component of the earthquake. The
"static equivalent load" method is used to design most small and moderate-sized buildings.

The lateral load resisting systems for earthquake loads are similar to those for wind loads. Both
are designed as if they are horizontally applied to the structural system. The wind load is
considered to be more of a constant force while the earthquake load is almost instantaneous. The
wind load is an external force, the magnitude of which depends upon the height of the building,
the velocity of the wind and the amount of surface area that the wind "attacks." The magnitude
earthquake load depends up the mass of the structure, the stiffness of the structural system and
the acceleration of the surface of the earth. It can be seen that the application of these two types
of loads is very different.

This movie is a representation of the movement of a free standing water tower in an earthquake.
It can be seen that the as the ground moves, the initial tendency is for the water tower to remain
in place. The shifting of the ground is so rapid that the tower cannot "keep up."

After a moment, the tower moves to catch up with the movement of the ground. The movement
is actually an acceleration. From Newtonian Physics, it is know that an applied force=mass x
acceleration. Thus, the force which is applied to the water tower depends upon the mass of the
tower and the acceleration of the earth's surface.

The force in this last diagram may be thought of as the "equivalent static load" for which the
structure would be designed. This idealized situation demonstrates a concept; it requires
modification for actual buildings. These modifications account for building location, importance,
soil type, and type of construction. This movement can also be seen in the following movie of
lateral earth movement. Note how the mass slowly reacts to the movement of the earth.
Eventually, the bending strength of the stem of the tower would be exceeded and it will fail.

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THEORY OF STRUCTURES FOR COTM 2007E.C

Earthquake Loads According to EBCS-8, 1995

The Ethiopian Building Codes and Standards 8(EBCS 8-1995) gives the total base shear as

FB = SdW

Where Sd design spectrum ordinate

W dead load of the building

Sd ,   o I

 o = ratio of bed rock acceleration to that of gravity

I = importance factor of a building

Importance category Buildings Importance factor(I)

I e.g. hospitals, fire stations, power 1.4
plants

II e.g. schools, assembly halls, 1.2

cultural institutions

III Ordinary buildings 1.0

IV Agricultural buildings 0.8

1.2S
 2.5
T2/3 Where S = site coefficient,

b= design response factor

Subsoil class A B C
S 1.0 1.2 1.5

Subsoil class A

- rock or other geological formation characterized by a shear wave velocity of 800m/s or

more including at most 5m depth of weaker material on the surface

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THEORY OF STRUCTURES FOR COTM 2007E.C

- stiff deposit of sand e.g. gravel or over consolidated clay at least several meters thick
characterized by a gradual increase of the mechanical properties with depth and by shear
wave velocity of at least 400m/s at a depth of 10m.

Subsoil class B

- deep deposit of medium dense sand, gravel or medium stiff clays with thickness from
several tens to many hundreds of meters characterized by shear wave velocity of at least
200m/s at a depth 10 m increasing to at least 350m/s at a depth of 50 m.

Subsoil class C

- Loose cohesion less soil deposits with/without some soft cohesive layers characterized by
shear wave velocity below 200 m/s in the upper most 20 m.

T= fundamental period of vibration of the structure in seconds

T1 C1H3/ 4 H= height of the building above base (m)

C= constant

 = is behavior factor that account for non-linear behavior

Y =Yo kD kR kW 0.7

Where  o is the basic behavior factor

KD is ductility factor

Kw factor reflecting the prevailing failure mode in structural system

KR factor reflecting structural regularity in elevation

Structural type o
Frame system 0.2

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THEORY OF STRUCTURES FOR COTM 2007E.C

Dual system 0.2

Wall system - coupled walls 0.2

- uncoupled walls 0.25

Core system 0.3

The total base shear is distributed along the height according to

(Fb Ft)W ih
i 
i
F n

 W
j
1
jhj
(Inverse triangular distribution)

Where Ft =0.07T1Fb additional force at the top

Wj weight of building at floor i

hi height of floor i

3.4 Load Combinations

Ultimate Design Load; The ultimate design load acting on a member will be the summation of
the relevant characteristic load combinations multiplied by their respective partial safety factors.
Thus, the ultimate design load for the combination of dead and imposed loads will be expressed
as follows:

Partial Safety Factors for Load

In practice the applied load may be greater than the characteristic load for any of the following
reasons:

a. Calculation errors
b. Constructional inaccuracies
c. Unforeseen increases in load.

To allow for these the respective characteristic loads are multiplied by a partial safety factor γf to
give the ultimate design load appropriate to the limit state being considered. That is,

Ultimate design load = γf x characteristic load

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THEORY OF STRUCTURES FOR COTM 2007E.C

Load combinations depend on the design philosophy adopted.

 Load Combinations for Ultimate Limit States (ULS)
 Permanent action (Gk) and only one variable action (Qki)
Fd = 1.3Gk + 1.6Qki
 Permanent action (Gk) and two or more variable actions
Fd = l.3Gk + 1.35ΣQki
 Permanent action, variable action and accidental (seismic) action
Fd = GK + Qki +AEd = 0.75 (l.3Gk + 1.6 Qk) + AEd

 Load Combinations for Serviceability Limit States (SLS)

 Permanent action (Gk) and only one variable action (Qki)
Fd = Gk + Qki
 Permanent action (Gk) and two or more variable actions
Fd = Gk + 0.9ΣQki
The final design of a structure must be consistent with the most critical combination of loads that
the structure is to support. However, some judgment is necessary in selecting loading conditions
that can reasonably be combined. Obviously, the maximum effects of all loading conditions
should not be combined because it is unlikely that they will all occur simultaneously.

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