Petroleum Development Oman

Training Package PTP 10.1

Centrifugal Compressor Principles

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Centrifugal Compressors

Training Package PTP 10.1

Centrifugal Compressor Principles

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 Table of Contents
Page No

1. Introduction. 03
2. Units 03
2.1. Pressure 03
2.2. Temperature 03
2.3. Volume 04

3. Basic Terms 05
3.1. Force 05
3.2. Kinetic energy 05
3.3. Potential energy 06
3.4. Compression ratio. 06

4. Basic Theory 07
4.1. Behavior of gases 07
4.2. Boyle‘s Law. 07
4.3. Pressure Law. 08
4.4. Charles‘ Law 09
4.5. Ideal Gas Law 09

5. Types of Compressors 10
5.1. Axial compressors 10
5.2. Screw compressors 11
5.3. Reciprocating compressors 12
5.4. Centrifugal compressors 13
5.5. Advantages of centrifugal compressors 15

1. INTRODUCTION

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Compressors are used to raise the pressure of a gas. Centrifugal compressors are very widely
used in oil/gas production industries. Following are the reasons by which we use compressors in
PDO.
1. When gas is separated in bulk separator the gas pressure is often too low to meet the
pressure requirements for processing.
2. For handling through pipeline distribution facilities (sales etc.) pressurised gas is required.
3. High-pressure gas is needed for gas lift or gas injection purpose.
4. Therefore the gas after separation needs to be compressed to provide the necessary increase
in pressure.

2.UNITS
2.1 PRESSURE

The ratio of total force to area is known as pressure, can be express as follow.
Pressure = Force / Area 1 Pascal = Newton / m2
In SI system one Newton per square meter is termed a Pascal. In the English engineering system
1 Pound force per square inch is termed a pound per square inch (psi). Pressure is normally
measured with pressure gauges is known as a Gauge pressure.
The earth’s atmosphere extends upward for approximately 160 km, the weight of that
atmosphere causes a pressure of 101.3 kpa (14.7 psi). Tthis is known as Atmospheric pressure.
ABSOLUTE PRESSURE = GAUGE PRESSURE + ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

2.2 TEMPERATURE

The temperature of a substance is a measure of how “hot” or “cold” it is. It is expressed on a

scale. The higher the number, hotter the substance is. There are three scales in common use in
industry; Celsius, Fahrenheit and Kelvin.
For setting the standards the boiling point and freezing point of water is used

Celsius Fahrenheit Kelvin Rankine

Celsius Kelvin Fahrenheit
Steam point 100 ( C ) 212 ( F ) Rankine
373 ( K ) 671.7 ( R )

Standard100 15.6 373 60 212 288.6 672 520

Water boils temperature
Ice point 0 (C) 32 ( F ) 273 ( K ) 491.7 ( R )

Absolute zero -273.15 ( C ) -459.67 ( F ) 0 ( K ) 0 (R)

15.6 288.6 60 520

Standard temperature

Water freezes 0 273 32 492

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 Different temperature scales

2.3 VOLUME

Volume is a quantity that represents the space that a product occupies. The volume of a
substance like its mass depends on the amount of material being considered. Specific
volume can be defined as volume per unit mass or volume per mole of material and
hence, independent of the total amount of material considered. The SI unit of volume is
the cubic metre (m3).
Liquid volumes can be expressed as cubic feet, barrels or Gallons other than cubic
metres.

3. BASIC TERMS

3.1 FORCE

Is a product of a mass and acceleration.

There are mainly two types of force namely centrifugal and axial force.

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 s yste m
FOR CE

C E N T RI FU GA L A X IA L C E NT R IPET A L
o r RA D IA L

CENTRIFUGAL FORCE

Centrifugal force is applied by means of centrifugal action. Though the physically many type of
centrifugal compressor varies greatly, the basic function of each is the same to produce kinetic
energy by action of centrifugal force and then convert this energy into pressure by efficiently
reducing the velocity of flowing gas (fluid).

CENTRIPETAL FORCE or RADIAL FORCE

The force pulling an object in a circular path toward the center is centripetal force or known as
radial force.

AXIAL FORCE

Force acting parallel to the axis is known as axial force.

3.2. KINETIC ENERGY

Is the energy that a body possesses due to its motion or molecular arrangement. This energy can
transform from one form to another. If gas moving with high velocity is allowed to slow down
by providing close container, in the container velocity will drop. Here K.E. gets transfer into
static or pressure energy.
K.E. = ½ MV2
If the mass or density of the gas particles is more, the kinetic energy will be high and the
pressure developed also will be high

3.3. POTENTIAL ENERGY

Is the energy that a body possesses due to its position or molecular arrangement.
If two materials of same weight is kept at different heights then the material kept at higher
elevation will possess more Potential energy.
Potential Energy. = M*g*h

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3.4. COMPRESSION RATIO

The ratio of compression is the absolute discharge pressure to its absolute suction pressure. It
usually applies to a single stage of compression, but may be applied to a complete multi-stage
compressor as well .Temperature rise of the gas during the compression dictates a limit for the
safe compression pressure ratio.
The ratio of absolute discharge pressure to absolute suction pressure.
C.R. = Pd /Ps
Pd = Absolute discharge pressure
Ps= Absolute suction pressure

3.5. HEAT OF COMPRESSION

The heat release during the compression is known as heat of compression. Heat of compression
is removed after each stage in the inter or after cooler. Hence the gas attains a temperature close
to the suction temperature.

3.6. CAPACITY

Quantity of gas actually delivered when operating between specified inlet and discharge
pressure.

3.7. COMPRESSION EFFICIENCY

Is the ratio of theoretical work to the actual work required to be done on the gas for the
compression and delivery. Can be expressed as a percentage compression efficiency accounts
for leakage and fluid friction losses.

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4. BASIC THEORY

4.1. BEHAVIOR OF THE GASES

KINETIC THEORY CAN EXPLAIN THE BEHAVIOR OF GASES

The molecules of any gas are in rapid movement with a variable speed and repeatedly hits the
wall of the container as well as with each other and changes its direction. An average force is
acting on the unit surface due to above movement and is called the pressure. The molecular
motion of gas is effected by the temperature. The temperature at which the molecular motion
stops completely is known as the Absolute Zero Temperature, and at this temperature the
kinetic energy of the gas is minimum. Absolute zero temperature for a gas is –273 0C. If the gas
is hotter, its molecules moves faster, exerts more pressure.
PRESSURE, TEMPERATURE AND VOLUME ARE CO-RELATED UNDER CERTAIN
CONDITIONS AND CAN BE STUDIED BY FOLLOWING LAWS.

4.2. Boyle’s law

Refer the figure: Consider a cylinder of 1 m3 volume is kept opened to atmospheric pressure.
The pressure inside the cylinder is 0 bar g. We move the piston down slowly to compress the
gas. As the volume is reduced pressure starts increasing.

9 bar g
0 bar g
1 bar g
3 bar g

1std M3 0. 5 M3 0.25 M3 0.1 M3

Pressure reduces as volume increases

Pr
ess
ure

Volume

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As the volume of the gas inside the cylinder is reduced, the pressure increases. Curve AB represents
the relationship of pressure and volume. We take any point in the curve we can see that when the
pressure increases volume decreases and vice versa.

This is known as Boyle`s Law which states that `` when the volume of a gas inside a closed system is
reduced then the pressure increases or pressure is inversely (oppositely) proportional to the volume or

P  1/V or P = k/V or PV = k --- (1)

P1V1 = P2 V2 = P3 V3 = P0V 0 = k

P1V1 & P2 V2 represents the gas in two different conditions.

4.3 Pressure Law

Pressure increases with

increase in temperature
Pressure

Temperature

It is clear from the figure that as the temperature is increased the pressure also increases
proportional to the rise in temperature. This is known as the Pressure Law and which states that
“the pressure of a fixed volume of gas increases directly with the absolute temperature”.
P  T or P = kT or P/T = k ------(2)

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4.4 Charles‘ law

Volume increases as with

rise in temperature
Volume

Temperature( abs.)

Under constant pressure when the temperature of a closed system is increased, the volume
increases in proportional to the rise in temperature. This is known as Charles‘ Law and it states
that “when the temperature of a fixed mass of gas is increased at constant pressure the volume
of gas varies proportional to the absolute temperature”.
V  T or V = kT or V/T = k -----(3)

4.5 Ideal gas law

The pressure, Temperature, and Volume relation-ship defined by the general law of gas behavior
is refereed as an Ideal gas law or Perfect gas law. Under some conditions, gases may show a
slight deviation in behavior. Deviation factors are neglected or corrected in general, all ideal
gases at a particular pressure and temperature have the same number of molecules in a given
volume.
COMBINING ALL THREE EQUATION
PV = CONSTANT ( 1)
P / T = CONSTANT ( 2)
V / T = CONSTANT ( 3)

PV =RT where R is a constant.

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For two different conditions of the same gas following equation can be written as
P1V1 / T1 = P2V2 / T2 = R = constant
When gas is being compressed the following equation can be applied with introducing
compressibility factor indicated as Z

Compressibility factor “Z” is the ratio of the actual volume of the gas to the volume
determined according to the perfect gas law.
Ideal gas law for any compression takes the following form -
PV = ZRT, therefore PV / RT = Z, Z can be obtain from the charts.

5. TYPES OF COMPRESSORS

Types of compressors

Dynamic compressors Positive Displacement compressors

Axial Centrifugal Reciprocating Rotary

5.1 Axial Compressor

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Axial compressors have similar applications as centrifugal compressors. The maintenance and
operation procedures of axial compressors are also similar to that of centrifugal compressors. In
axial compressor the gas flow is parallel to the shaft. The gas is pushed by one set of rotor
blades into a set of stator blades attached to the casing. Stator blades direct the gas into the next
set of rotor blades. Each set of rotor and stator blades increases the pressure of the gas. The size
of blades varies as pressure increases. Multiple sets of rotor-stator blades are used to increase
the pressure. The stator blades can be adjusted to vary the flow. Axial compressors are similar to
centrifugal compressors in performance.
Axial compressors are used for relatively low heads and high volumetric capacities. Axial
compressors have stator and rotor blades. Stator blades are attached to the casing and they guide
the path for the gas leaving from the rotor blades.
These compressors operate at greater capacities and are often used in series with centrifugal
units. Axial flow compressors are governed by the same formulas that apply to the centrifugal,
but the latter have a much wider operating range. Axial compressors are used for clean gases
such as air because they are more susceptible to corrosion and erosion, compared to other
compressors.
The air compressor in a gas turbine is an axial compressor.

5.2. Screw Compressor

Screw compressors are rotary positive displacement compressors.

Instrument air compressors used in oil gathering/production stations are screw compressors.
Gas trapped between the rotors gets compressed and pushed forward to the discharge line as the
rotors rotate in opposite directions.

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5.3 Reciprocating Compressor
GAS TRAP

GAS
PISTON CYLINDER

DISPLACING GAS

Reciprocating compressors are positive displacement compressors. A positive displacement

compressor first traps a volume of gas in a cylinder or casing, then the gas is displaced into a
small volume or space. The greater the reduction in volume, the greater the increase in pressure.
A compressor that operates by volumetric displacement is called a positive displacement
compressor. Most positive displacement compressors operate with reciprocating motion, but
some use rotary motion. In a rotary compressor or blower, the part that displaces the gas rotates.
A positive displacement compressor first traps a volume of gas in a cylinder or casing. Then the
gas is displaced into a smaller volume, or space. The greater the reduction in volume, the greater
the increase in pressure.
A compressor that operates by volumetric displacement is called a positive displacement
compressor. Most positive displacement compressors operate with reciprocating motion, but
some use rotary motion. Gas is displaced with back-and-forth or up-and-down motion in a
reciprocating compressor.
In a reciprocating compressor, a volume of gas is drawn into cylinder through the suction valve.
The gas is compressed when the piston forces it into a smaller volume. Then the compressed gas
is discharged into the discharge line through the discharge valve. The cylinder valves control the
flow of gas through the cylinder. Cylinder valves act as check valves. They permit flow only in
one direction. A compressor valve opens because of pressure differences.
For the valve to open, the pressure of the gas in the suction line must be higher than the pressure
of the gas in the cylinder. When the pressures across the valve are equal, the valve closes and
prevents back flow.
Suction valves open when cylinder pressure is lower than the pressure of the gas in the suction
line. Discharge valves open when cylinder pressure is higher than the pressure of the gas in the
discharge line.

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5.4. Centrifugal Compressor

Principles
In any compression process the pressure of a volume of gas increased from one level to another
level by the addition of energy to the gas being processed. The energy is measured in terms of
force per mass of a gas handled and is called head.

COMPRESSION OPERATION
The tendency of gas (fluid) to move
outward from the center of a
rotating impeller is centrifugal
tendency. A compressor that uses
centrifugal tendency to impart
velocity and pressure to a gas is a
Centrifugal Compressor.

The part of the centrifugal compressor that moves the gas molecules is the impeller. As the
impeller rotates, it moves the gas towards the outer rim of the impeller. As the gas moves
towards the outer rim of the impeller, its velocity increases.
This increase in the velocity away from the eye creates a low-pressure area at the eye. This low-
pressure area at the eye causes a suction, which allows more gas to enter. The impeller does
work on the gas.
The work is converted into the energy that gas gains. The energy that gas gains is in the form of
pressure and velocity.
As the gas leaves the impeller, it is thrust into a passageway called the diffuser. The velocity of
the gas reduces in diffuser and converted to pressure energy. The gas passes from the diffuser
into volute.
A centrifugal compressor by doing work on a gas imparts both pressure and velocity to the gas.
A gas leaving the compressor contains added energy, usually in the form of increased pressure
and temperature. A greater rise in pressure can be obtained by multistage centrifugal
compressors.
A centrifugal compressor is a dynamic compressor. A dynamic compressor adds energy to gas in
the same manner that an electric fan does. The rotating blades of the fan force air to move or
flow forward. In similar manner as shown on above fig. the gas molecules brought closer
together in diffuser and hence the volume of the gas decreases, as the volume of the gas
decreases pressure increases. The faster the blades turn the gas is pushed faster. The blade by
doing the work on gas increases the pressure and velocity of the gas. When velocity and
pressure are added to a gas its total energy increases. A dynamic compressor increases total
energy by adding pressure and velocity. The energy that a gas gains in a compressor is due to the
work done on it.
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When gas is compressed the volume of the gas reduces and temperature of the gas rises. The
heat gained by the gas is known as heat of compression and is dependent on the pressure ratio.
Higher the ratio, higher the heat of compression. The process of compression can be either
isothermal or adiabatic. In isothermal process the heat of compression is removed as and when it
is formed and the temperature of the system remains the same as that of the suction temperature.
In an adiabatic process no heat is lost or gained and hence the gas temperature increases due to
compression. In practice the compression is nearly adiabatic. Still some amount of heat is lost
through the casing and due to friction, and so the process is termed as POLYTROPIC.
The work requirement for the isothermal
process is less compared to the adiabatic
process. Hence the benefit of the
isothermal operation can partly be
achieved by dividing the process into two
or more steps, based on pressure and
cooling the gas to original suction
temperature in the inter coolers.

a) Today very high speed centrifugal compressors of up to 30000 r.p.m. are available. The
maximum allowable impeller head will determine the number of impellers required to meet the
desired compression ratio.
b) At the same time, the maximum number of impellers will be restricted as a long span
between bearings lead to unsatisfactory rotor dynamics.
c) Maximum allowable discharge temperature should be limited to 150 0C. At higher
temperatures heavy hydrocarbon gases tend to crack leaving deposits in the impellers.
d) When a dynamic compressor operates near its capacity limit, its efficiency falls off.
Hence a dynamic compressor should be operated at it less than capacity limit.
e) Change of density of a gas: Due to variation in density of a gas, the power required by a
dynamic compressor tends to change even while the compressor is in operation at constant
speed.
f) As the temperature drops at the suction, the gas is heavier and the head will increase.

5.5. Advantages of Centrifugal Compressors

1 High flow capacity

2 Lower initial capital investment
3 Lower operating and maintenance cost
4 Compactness of size
5 Simple piping net work

In Oil Field Operation Gas Compressors Have Following Field Applications

1 Gas lift for oil lifting.

2 Gas exporting to the pipe lines for end users.
3 Gas injection back to reservoir.
4 Refrigeration for processing the gas prior to end users.

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