Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 94 (2018) 1–14

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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

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Converter topologies in photovoltaic applications – A review T

⁎
R. Reshma Gopi, S. Sreejith
School of Electrical Engineering, Vellore Institute of Technology Vellore, India

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Renewable energy generation has experienced rapid growth in the last few years, with close to $ 330 billion
Maximum power point tracking investment in 2017. To promote renewable energy generation, the European Union established an objective of
Photovoltaic cells achieving 20% renewables in the consumption by 2020. Compared to other renewabl e sources, solar power has
Interleaving reduced environmental impact. An MPPT (maximum power point tracking) controller is used to increase the
Coupled inductors
energy gathered from a solar panel. Selection of appropriate converter is one of the challenge since that has an
DC-DC converter
Flyback converter
impact on behaviour of the PV (photovoltaic) system. In recent years, many converters have been reported in the
literature. This paper presents a detailed review of various converter topologies such as SEPIC (single-ended
primary-inductance converter), boost, buck-boost and flyback which are used to achieve the desired voltage
level on grid output. The pros and cons of these converters are discussed. Review shows that interleaving and
coupled inductor based topologies can offer advantages such as high efficiency and reduced switching loss. This
study is not limited to reviewing topologies, rather discusses PV array configurations, advanced MPPT methods,
advanced converters and comparisons in terms of hardware complexity, cost and efficiency. Finally, a sum-
mative analysis of topologies suitable for PV applications along with MPPT techniques are listed. This review can
be employed for evaluating appropriate topology of converter in PV applications.

1. Introduction and institutional barriers. Author suggested recommendations such as

Photovoltaic (PV) power generation has gained significance as a
renewable energy source because of its several merits such as simplicity
of allocation, absence of noise, longer life, absence of pollution, less
time for installation, high mobility and portability of parts, and output
power capability to match peak load requirement [1]. PV generation
systems have demerits such as reduction in conversion efficiency and
dependence to local climate conditions [2]. PV arrays have been
adopted for a variety of applications, such as battery charging systems,
solar-powered water-pumping systems, solar hybrid vehicles, and sa-
tellite power systems [1,3]. Several countries, such as China, Finland,
New Zealand, Canada, South Korea, and Spain are assigning funds in
budgets to support renewable energy-based projects [4–9]. There have
been numerous publications related to the scope of renewable energy in
various countries. For example, Yushchenko et al. [10] evaluated land
suitability factors for large-scale grid-connected concentrated solar
power plants and PV systems as well as off-grid PV systems in rural
areas of West Africa. Studies on the status of current renewable energy
sources in Mexico have been performed by Alemán-Nava et al. [11]. In
the Middle East region, the problems and challenges in the field of re-
newable energy were evaluated for Yemen by Rawea and Urooj [12].
The main challenges are related to finance, market, technical, social
activation of R&D capabilities, creation of time plan for the production
of renewable energy, improvement of market policies and development
of distributed generation. Honrubia-Escribano et al. [13] assessed the
economic aspects of PV power plants in Europe.
PV power varies with insolation, temperature, and load character-
istics [14,15] and it is directly proportional to irradiance and inversely
proportional to temperature. The circuit-based model of a solar cell as
shown in Fig. 1, consists of a current source connected in parallel with a
diode. The current source illustrates photon-generated current (IL). The
resistance Rs represents the losses due to the contacts and connections.
The leakage currents in the diode is represented by parallel resistance
Rsh [16]. Parameters such as short-circuit current (Isc) and open-circuit
voltage (Voc) are used to analyse characteristics of a PV cell. The Isc is
the maximum value of current produced by a cell, and it is sensitive to
irradiance. The Voc is the maximum value of voltage obtained from a
solar cell at zero current.
The I–V characteristics of a solar cell are shown in Fig. 2. There is no
intersection between the voltage characteristics of the PV generator and
DC bus because DC bus voltage is much higher than Voc [2]. The I–V
characteristics (operating points of the PV generator) depend on the
conductance of load [15]. If the conductance is large, the cell acts like a
constant current source (region AB). If conductance is small, the cell

⁎
Correspondence to: Energy and Power Electronics Division, School of Electrical Engineering, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India.
E-mail address: sreejithsme@gmail.com (S. Sreejith).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2018.05.047
Received 30 December 2017; Received in revised form 20 May 2018; Accepted 21 May 2018
Available online 06 June 2018
1364-0321/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
R. Reshma Gopi, S. Sreejith Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 94 (2018) 1–14

Nomenclature np number of cells in parallel

ns number of cells in series
A ideality factor of PN junction Plosses losses of the converter
Cr resonant capacitor Ppvmax maximum power supplied by the photovoltaic array
dop output-diode current-reset timing ratio Q quality factor
D duty cycle q electron charge (=1.60217 × 10–19) [C]
Df diode diffusion factor Ropt optimal value of load resistance. [Ω]
Dg static gain of the converter Rs series resistance [Ω]
E material band gap energy Rsh shunt resistance [Ω]
fs switching frequency [Hz] STC standard test conditions (irradiance 1000 W/m2, cell
Id diode current [A] temperature 25 °C, spectrum air mass 1.5).
IL light-generated current [A] T PV cell temperature [°C]
ILref light current at the reference condition [A] Tref reference temperature (=25) [°C]
Ios reverse-saturation current [A] Ts switching period
I0 average output current [A] v PV output voltage [V]
Iout output current of converter [A] Vd diode voltage [V]
I pv output current of the photovoltaic module [A] Vin output voltage of converter[V]
Isc short-circuit current [A] Vout output voltage of converter[V]
k Boltzmann's constant (=1.38 × 10–23) [J/K] Voc open-circuit voltage[V]
La auxiliary inductance [H] ɸ solar irradiance [W/m2]
Lm magnetizing inductance [H] ɸref reference irradiance (=1000) [ W/m2]
Lr resonant inductance [H] µIsc temperature coefficient of the short-circuit current [A/°C]
M voltage gain η efficiency of converter
n coupled inductor turns ratio

acts as a constant voltage source (region CD). The load line can be On Substituting (2) into (1) results
plotted when load resistance is equal to a certain optimal load Ropt.
Maximum power occurs at the crossing of the I–V characteristic curve q (v + Icell Rs ) ⎤ V
Ipv = np IL−np Ios {exp ⎡ −1}− d
and the load line. The slope of the load line 1/Ropt represents a constant ⎢
⎣ ns AkT ⎥
⎦ R sh (3)
load of Ropt.
The mathematical model is developed according to above equation
The remaining sections of this paper is structured as follows. Section
[17,18].
1 discusses basic details, such as the mathematical model and char-
The manufacturer of a PV module provides reference values for
acteristics curves of a PV module. The concept of maximum power
specified operating conditions, such as STC. The light-generated current
point tracking (MPPT) is analysed in Section 2. The different converter
(IL ) depends on temperature and irradiance. The equation for IL is given
topologies related to PV applications are included in Section 3.
by [19,20]
1.1. Mathematical model of PV cell ϕ
IL = [ILref + μIsc (T − Tref )]
ϕref (4)
The output current of the module (Ipv ) can be formulated using
Kirchhoff's Current law from Fig. 1. where ILref is the light current at the reference condition, Tref is the
V reference temperature, ϕ is the irradiance, ϕref is the reference irra-
Ipv = np IL−Id− d diance, and μIsc is the manufacturer-supplied temperature coefficient of
Rsh (1)
the short-circuit current.
where Id is the diode current, IL is the light-generated current, np is the On a manufacturer's data sheet, ILref and μIsc are provided. The re-
number of cells connected in parallel, Rsh is the shunt resistance and Vd verse saturation current Ios is given by [19]
is the diode voltage.
The diode current can be written as −qE
Ios = Df T 3 exp ⎛ ⎞
⎝ AkT ⎠ (5)
q (v + Icell Rs ) ⎤
Id = np Ios {exp ⎡ −1}
⎢
⎣ ns AkT ⎥
⎦ (2)
where A is the ideality constant of the diode, Ios is the reverse saturation
current, k is the Boltzmann's constant, ns is the number of cells con-
nected in series, q is the electron charge, Rs is the series resistance, T is
the cell temperature in Kelvin and v is the output voltage of the module.

Fig. 1. Circuit Diagram of PV model. Fig. 2. I-V Characteristics of solar cell with load line.

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R. Reshma Gopi, S. Sreejith Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 94 (2018) 1–14

where Df is the diode diffusion factor and E is the band gap energy at
300 K. (1.12 eV for Si, 1.35 eV for GaAs) [21].
Based on Eqs. (3)–(5) the simulated output of a PV cell at an irra-
diance of 500 W/m2 and a temperature of 323 K is presented in Figs. 3
and 4.
The effect of temperature variation with constant irradiance was
investigated by setting the irradiance value to 500 W/m2 and varying
the temperature to 323 K, 360 K and 373 K. The I–V and P–V char-
acteristics curves were obtained and are shown in Figs. 5 and 6, re-
spectively [22].
The I–V and P–V characteristics curves were also obtained by si-
mulation with a constant temperature of 323 K and various irradiance
values (200 W/m2, 400 W/m2, and 600 W/m2) as shown in Figs. 7 and
8 [22].
Fig. 4. I-V characteristics of PV cell.

1.2. Maximum power point tracking (MPPT)

The operating point changes with insolation and load conditions.

The PV system need to function at maximum efficiency irrespective of
variations in insolation and load conditions for better utilization of PV
systems [23]. The unique point on the P–V curve at which maximum
output power occurs is called the maximum power point (MPP). Solar
tracking is the conventional method used to maximize energy collection
[24,25]. MPPT is another method used for obtaining maximum power.
The detection of MPP can be done by MPPT algorithm installed on
microcontroller [26]. The block diagram Fig. 9 represents this situation.
After the MPP is tracked by the MPPT controller, a triggering signal is
applied to the converter switches. The load impedance is varied and
matched to optimal internal impedence by varying the duty ratio [27]. Fig. 5. I–V characteristics of a PV module at constant radiation.
Variation in weather conditions causes a drastic variation in PV
current. If current is used as a set variable, MPPT requires fast dynamic
action to follow the operating range. However, variation in voltage is
bounded to 70–80% of Voc. Therefore, PV voltage is generally preferred
as a control variable [28]. MPPT is based on PV power measurement
and regulation of PV voltage. By varying the duty cycle of the con-
verter, the ratio of the input and output voltages can be adjusted ap-
propriately [29,30]. Many techniques are commonly used to track MPP
in PV systems [31], including ant colony based optimization, artificial
neural network (ANN) based MPPT, curve fitting, DC-link capacitor
droop control, extremum seeking control, feedback voltage or current,
feedback of power variation with current, feedback of power variation
with voltage, firefly algorithm based MPPT, fractional short-circuit
current (FSCI), fractional open-circuit voltage (FOCV), fuzzy logic
Fig. 6. P–V characteristics of a PV module at constant radiation.
based MPPT, genetic algorithm based MPPT, hill-climbing, incremental
conductance (Inc-Cond), look-up table, linearization-based MPPT, one-
cycle control (OCC), particle swarm optimization, parasitic capacitance, Many techniques have been developed recently to track MPP in PV
perturbation and observation (P&O), ripple correlation control (RCC), systems. One of the method is combination of ANN with the P&O al-
and sliding-mode based MPPT [31]. gorithm. This method can trace the MPP in a short time under various

Fig. 3. P-V characteristics of PV cell.

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R. Reshma Gopi, S. Sreejith Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 94 (2018) 1–14

outperforms conventional algorithms in tracking speed, ripple content

and extraction efficiency [34]. An MPPT technique suitable for long PV
string discussed by Wang et al. [35]. Rapid global MPPT (R-GMPPT)
can increase tracking speed by reducing the searching voltage range.
The reduction in voltage range is followed by skipping and judging
process. However, the drawback is, misjudging can influence the ac-
curacy of algorithm.

2. Converter topologies

For effective utilization of solar cells, DC-DC converters are included

Fig. 7. I–V characteristics of a PV module at constant temperature.
Fig. 8. P–V characteristics of a PV module at constant temperature.
in PV implementations [36]. Switching devices such as MOSFET and
IGBT are widely used in most of the converters that finds the applica-
tion in solar energy. The high voltage converter switches have
switching frequency, fs greater than 10 kHz with limiting voltage up to
the 1.2 kV. Although the switching frequency in high voltage converter
is limited to around 1 kHz, because of higher switching loss. The ad-
vancement in the field of manufacturing of the switching devices re-
duced this limitation of the switching frequency. Anthon et al. [37]
presented a high power boost converter using normally-on SiC JFET as
switching device that can operates up to 300 kHz. The conduction loss
can be reduced, to a great extent by using MOSFET with low drain-
source on resistance [38].
The main benchmark for selecting DC-DC converters in PV systems
are cost, efficiency, energy flow, and the ability to maintain output
irrespective of any input variations. The influence of voltage ripple on
the output side of PV module should be minimum as possible [39].
The hardware complexity of converter includes factors such as se-
lection of the filter size and the gate drive circuit. The single-ended
primary-inductance converter (SEPIC) has high output voltage ripple at
output side compared to the other converters. Table 1 shows a com-
parative analysis of hardware complexity, cost, efficiency in buck,
boost, buck-boost, SEPIC and flyback converters. The efficiency of a
converter, ηconverter is calculated based on

Vout *Iout (v *Ipv ) − Plosses

ηconverter = =
v *Ipv v *Ipv (6)

Fig. 9. Block diagram of the DC-DC converter controlled MPPT system.
weather conditions by avoiding expensive irradiance sensors [32].
However, increased power oscillations, and complex implementation
are critical drawbacks. Another method to find the MPP using current
sweeping analysed by Tsang et al. [33]. This method includes a con-
troller with extensive mathematical computation. Mohanty et al. pro-
posed grey wolf optimization to harvest the maximum power from the
PV systems under partial shading. The simulation results are compared
with that of P&O and improved particle swarm optimization (PSO) al-
gorithms. The test results verified that the grey wolf optimization
where Vout is the voltage of the converter at the output side, Iout is the
output current of the converter, v is the voltage at the output of the
panel, Ipv is the current at the output of the panel and Plosses is the losses
of the converter.
The tracking efficiency is the ratio of power at the panel's terminals
to the maximum power output of the panel, ppv max [40]. Tracking ef-
ficiency, ηextraction is calculated by following equation:
v *Ipv
ηextraction =
ppv max (7)
Several publications have reviewed the topologies of converters in
renewable energy systems. Although SEPIC, buck–boost, and Cuk con-
verters have high ripple in the load current, these converters have far-
ranging flexibility over output voltage. In comparison to these topolo-
gies, buck topology shows high current ripple [51]. It is not possible to
integrate the inductor in filter and converter to form a solo magnetic
core in buck and boost converter. In comparison to SEPIC and Cuk,
these converters results in a massive appearance [52]. The buck

Table 1
Comparison of various converters.
Characteristics Reference buck boost buck boost SEPIC flyback

Hardware complexity [44,52] Medium Medium Medium High High

Cost [42,43,52] Medium Low Low Medium Low
Energy transferring elements [43,51,91,107] Inductor Inductor Inductor Inductor and capacitor Transformer
Average Tracking Efficiency [41,46,49,50] Medium Low High High High
Efficiency of converter [45,47,48,52,103] High High Medium Medium Medium

4
R. Reshma Gopi, S. Sreejith
converters are rarely used as DC-DC converters because the PV array
output voltage is always less than the grid voltage. Since the array
current output to the converter contains large current pulses, a large
capacitor is required to smooth the array current. Taghvaee et al. [53]
discussed the characteristics of buck, boost, buck–boost, Cuk and SEPIC
for PV systems. Of all these converters, the buck–boost converter
achieves the best performance despite of climate and load variations,
even though the input current has high ripple and noise problems.
The input resistance of buck converter varies from load resistance
(RL) to infinity when the duty ratio varies from 0 to 1. The System will
operate at MPP, if the input resistance is equal to Ropt (as shown in
Fig. 2). Hence if the load resistance is greater than Ropt, MPP tracking is
not possible in buck converter. The input resistance of boost converter
varies from zero to load resistance when the duty ratio varies from 0 to
1. Therefore MPP tracking is not possible if the load resistance is lesser
than Ropt. In a buck boost converter, the input resistance varies be-
tween 0 and infinity when the duty ratio varies between 0 and 1.
Therefore buck-boost converter can achieve MPP regardless of the value
of load resistance [46,54–56].
Advanced converters such as Luo converter (Ultra-lift and Positive-
output super-lift), KY boost converter and quadratic boost converters
are also employed for the PV applications [56]. But application of these
converters in PV systems are still under research. Kumar et al. [57]
discussed the design of negative output elementary Luo converter that
is used to achieve MPP with the help of incremental conductance MPPT
algorithm. Ghamrawi et al. [58] investigated the stability of quadratic
double boost converter that performs capture of MPP by the integration
of MPPT in the control strategy. This is suitable for applications that
operate in almost stable weather conditions, like space solar applica-
tions.
Sivakumar et al. [59] studied the performance of buck–boost, Cuk,
positive-output super-lift Luo, SEPIC, and ultra-lift Luo converters.
State-space mathematical modelling was presented. The authors con-
cluded that super-lift Luo and ultra-lift converters suffer from con-
siderable power loss in the diode compared to other topologies. A
comprehensive analysis of high-efficiency converter topologies for re-
newable applications was carried out by Tomaszuk and Krupa [60].
Another technical review of DC-DC converters with MPPT compared
the performance of buck, boost, buck–boost, Cuk, flyback and SEPIC
converters was conducted by Hossain et al. [61]. Khosrogorji et al. [62]
reviewed recent developments of multi-input converters with magnetic
coupling and electric coupling. Neng et al. [63] gave an overview of
DC-DC converters with three-port topology that satisfy the requirement
of two inputs and one output. One input can be connected to output of
solar panel. The second input can be connected to the battery. The
output port can be connected to the grid. Non-isolated three-port con-
verters can offer advantages such as lower cost and high reliability
compared to the isolated converters. The review [64] focused on non-
isolated DC-DC converters preferred for MPPT of PV systems along with
their selection criteria.
Guidong Zhang et al. [65] reviewed the problems such as reduced
output gain and shoot-through in conventional voltage source and
current source converters. The authors concluded that the impedance-
source converters can solve these challenges. When equivalent im-
pedance tends towards infinity, the impedance-source converter is ac-
counted as a current source converter. The impedance-source converter
is regarded as a voltage source converter when the equivalent value of
impedance approaches null point.
Modelling of the converter is performed to analyse the character-
istics of the converter. Circuit modelling can be performed by methods,
such as circuit averaging, state space averaging (SSA) and Fourier series
decomposition. Fourier series decomposition limits the possibility of
applying control laws because of the integration of Fourier series ana-
lysis in a mathematical model. A small signal model can be helpful in
the design of the feedback-control loop of DC-DC converters. SSA and
circuit averaging are used for designing the power stage of converters
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 94 (2018) 1–14
[66].
3. Evolution of converters for PV application
The evolution of DC-DC converter topologies, such as boost,
buck–boost, SEPIC, and DC-AC converters, such as flyback, are pre-
sented in this section.
3.1. Boost converter
In some PV applications, the magnitude of voltage at the load side
needs to be greater than PV output voltage. A boost converter is in-
corporated in an MPPT controller under such conditions. Various
modifications have been suggested by researchers to improve the per-
formance of boost converters. Huber and Jovanovic [67] analysed the
use of a cascade structure to increase the voltage gain and to reduce the
ripples. Because the input voltage is low, the first stage of the cascaded
structure has low voltage stress and can operate with high switching
frequency. The second part operates with reduced switching frequency,
so losses associated with switching are reduced. However, the draw-
backs are a cascaded structure with a higher number of circuit com-
ponents, lower efficiency, and Electromagnetic interference (EMI)
noise.
The voltage gain of a boost converter can be improved by the in-
corporation of a coupled inductor and a switched capacitor. In com-
parison to two separate inductors, one coupled inductor can effectively
use single magnetic core. Thereby it has advantages such as reduction
in magnetic loss and ripple content. The leakage inductance of the
coupled inductor helps to reduce output-diode reverse-recovery pro-
blems. However, increased switching loss and current stress are critical
drawbacks. A passive lossless clamp circuit is included to reduce the
voltage spikes occurring at MOSFET switches [68]. Lin et al. [69] and
Wu et al. [70] proposed three-level boost converters because they attain
increased voltage gain and reduced voltage stress in comparison to two-
level boost converters. Current ripples and voltage stresses in switches
are high in conventional interleaved boost converters. Gules et al. [71]
proposed an interleaved boost converter incorporated with inductors
and a switched capacitor, which offers advantages, including increased
power level, minimized ripple content, improved transient response,
and reduced filter size. However, it suffers from disadvantages, in-
cluding an increased number of components and increased complexity
of the circuit.
Fei et al. [72] analysed a two-phase interleaved step-up DC-DC
converter with an inversely coupled inductor operating in dis-
continuous conduction mode (DCM). Li et al. [73] implemented an
interleaved DC-DC converter with winding cross-coupled inductors
(WCCIs), which possess three winding coupled inductor, and its third
winding is connecting to the other phase. Through the application of an
active clamp scheme, zero voltage transmission (ZVT) performance can
be achieved, and it can reduce the switching losses by a considerable
amount. An LLC resonant converter has a limited DC voltage gain
range, although it helps to attain zero switching, reduced EMI and high
efficiency. Xiaofeng et al. [74] explored a novel two-phase interleaved
step-up converter integrated with a current-fed LLC (IBI-LLC) resonant
converter, which can provide a wide input voltage. To optimize the size
of the filters and to produce a smaller circulating current, ripple-free
input current, and non-dependency of gain to load, a fixed-frequency
pulse width modulation (PWM) control is used. The switching fre-
quency fs is constantly tuned to the resonant frequency. The input
voltage of resonant tank circuit as shown in Fig. 10 is obtained by
matching the resonant frequency with switching frequency fs. The duty
cycle is adjusted to a relatively small range around 0.5, which gives rise
to operating points in the middle of range values and this ensures op-
timal performance to a great extent for PV applications as MPP are
generally located in the middle of voltage values. The gain character-
istics are determined by the resonant inductor and capacitor, whereas
R. Reshma Gopi, S. Sreejith
Fig. 10. Voltage waveforms of the resonant tank circuit.
the zero voltage switching (ZVS) conditions are influenced by boost
inductors and magnetizing inductance. The values of Lr and Cr are
calculated by setting the maximum and minimum gain values. Boost
inductors and magnetizing inductance are calculated based on the gain
and current under ZVS for known values of Lr and Cr for various values
combinations of quality factor and duty ratio.
Hung et al. [75] introduced a novel method to improve efficiency
and to reduce the output voltage ripple of a boost converter. Their
paper discussed the operation of a converter in DCM with pulse fre-
quency modulation (PFM) based on the assumption that PV systems
provide very low power at low irradiance. A reduction in switching
frequency causes an increase in ripple content. This limitation is ad-
dressed by adjustment of turn on period by observing the peak value of
the inductor current.
In cases of a PV system that requires a high-gain converter, the
conversion ratio is limited due to the size of passive elements and finite
commutation times. Incorporation of a step-up transformer can address
this problem; however, it has disadvantages such as reduced frequency
and high switching transients. As a solution, a coupled inductor can be
included in the circuit. However, to avoid large input current ripple, a
capacitor with large capacitance is required. MPPT gain is limited be-
cause there is a chance for deviation of the MPP under higher values of
input voltage. Haroun et al. [76] implemented a cascade connection of
two boost converters with two-stage approach, whose operation is si-
milar to that of loss-free resistors. Transient stability is assured with
sliding-mode control irrespective of the uncertainty and inherent non-
linearity of converters. An ideal reduced-order sliding-mode dynamics
model is analysed by considering the non-linearity of the PV module
and the effectiveness of the MPPT controller. The analysis of the dy-
namic behaviour of the average circuit model shows that the system is
asymptotically globally stable and has less settling time. A major fea-
ture of this converter in comparison to a coupled inductor is that
changes in the output voltage cause no imbalance in the input para-
meters or the extracted power. A limitation of this circuit is that it re-
quires additional circuits for control, which results in lower conversion
efficiency.
An integrated boost-self lift cuk DC-DC converter with increased
voltage gain suitable for half bridge transformerless VSI analysed by
Pires et al. [77]. This converter can permit a direct connection between
the photovoltaic panel and neutral wire of the grid. The duty cycle, D is
controlled by incremental conductance MPPT algorithm. The equation
for voltage gain, Vo/ Vi is given by
Vo 2
=
Vi 1−D (8)
Liu et al. [78] proposed a dual switches based boost converter with
coupled inductor and voltage multiplier circuit. This converter inherits
advantages such as higher efficiency, extended voltage gain and de-
creased voltage stress. The equations for calculating voltage stress and
current stress of MOSFET switches, voltage gain and efficiency were
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 94 (2018) 1–14
discussed in this paper.
3.2. Buck–boost converter
In comparison to boost converters, buck–boost converters are cap-
able of covering the entire I–V characteristics, and when buck–boost
converters operate in continuous conduction mode (CCM), the input
current is continuous and shows less ripple. In comparison to single-
switch buck-boost converters, two-switch buck-boost converters have
reduced voltage and current stress on components.
A two-switch non-inverting buck-boost converter that has a poten-
tial for additional current storage is discussed by Ahmed et al. [79]. P&
O MPPT algorithm based technique is used to track MPP. Experimental
results shows that proposed converter exhibits higher efficiency during
heavy loads.
The system can work with two-mode control, either PWM-con-
trolled buck or boost depending on the status of the instantaneous input
voltage with respect to the output voltage. Jingquan et al. [80] analysed
the topology of cascaded, interleaved and super-imposed converters
using a synthesis method based on an AC-DC equivalent circuit. The
voltage gain under cascaded connection and interleaving is derived by
the following equations:
1 − D2
D1 (9)
D1
D2 +
1 − D1 (10)
respectively, where D1 and D2 are the duty ratios of the boost and buck
converters.
The inductor size is determined by factors like volt second and root
mean square (RMS) current [80]. Orellana et al. [81] investigated a
condition in which a circuit can operate with two different duty cycles
for the same working point. This paper also presented a flow chart for
generating duty ratios and equations for finding duty cycles and
minimum value of the duty cycles. The drawback of this circuit is that it
shows increased output voltage ripple. Introducing a buffer region re-
duces the ripple, but it reduces the operating region because it results in
higher inductor current and extra switching losses. An efficiency test
was performed by varying the resistive loads and by calculating the
input and output power. The proposed converter exhibited 93% of
maximum efficiency under boost mode for an input power of 60 W and
91% of maximum efficiency under buck mode for an input power of
45 W as shown in Figs. 11 and 12, respectively.
Ping-Ching et al. [82] proposed a modified circuit design that in-
corporates the effect of a MOSFET's on-resistance. The period during
which energy is delivered to the inductor is adjusted to minimum value
to decrease the inductor current. ZVS is the phenomenon in which the
switches are turned OFF during zero voltages. Bae et al. [83] introduced
Fig. 11. Efficiency in boost mode.
R. Reshma Gopi, S. Sreejith
Fig. 12. Efficiency in buck mode.
a soft-switched multiple-input buck–boost converter, which has a to-
pology that enables high power-conversion efficiency. Their paper
discusses the working of the two-input buck–boost converter. The
switching voltage during ZVS is shown in Fig. 13. Although this circuit
achieves high power-conversion efficiency in comparison to a conven-
tional converter, it does not provide any insight into circuit parameter
design.
An improved version of the above topology with the inclusion of a
high frequency (HF) transformer was proposed by Chuan et al. as
shown in Fig. 14 [84]. Two-edge modulation is applied to a two-switch
buck–boost converter with the help of logic gates to minimize the in-
ductor current ripple. This design is based on the idea that the trailing
edge of the rectifier voltage can reduce the inductor current ripple. The
drawback of two-mode control is that when the input voltage ranges
between no-load and full-load, the output voltage is unstable. A hys-
teresis voltage is added to get a new operating voltage range (buck–-
boost mode). The experimental results shows that the current ripple in
buck–boost topology is less than that in other topologies.
An integrated converter, which consists of buck and buck–boost
converters connected in parallel with one common inductor was ex-
plored by Veerachary Mummadi [85]. There are several advantages of
using a common inductor. First, the results are produced in a network of
second-order, so it is easy to analyse the dynamic behaviour. Second,
the dimensions of the converter and magnetic core are reduced. Third,
the ripple can be reduced by minimum filter arrangement. State-space
analysis is performed on dynamic equations.
Samavatian et al. [86] modelled an interleaved buck–boost con-
verter with a magnetically coupled input-output inductor. The analysis
was based on the SSA technique. While interleaved techniques enhance
the converter efficiency and power density, the damping network re-
duces the active-switch voltage stress. Although the SSA method or a
signal flow graph can be used to obtain the differential equations, this
paper made use of the SSA method. The inductor current gradient
during each time interval and the time interval length, as well as the
capacitor voltage gradient and its time interval length, are used to
determine the ripple magnitude of the inductor current and capacitor
voltage, respectively. The equations for calculating magnetizing in-
ductance, capacitance, inductance, and damping network components
were discussed in this paper. Jaw-Kuen et al. [87] compared the effect
of source resistance on zero locations of Zeta, SEPIC, and four-switch
synchronous buck–boost converters using dynamic analysis for duty-
cycle variations during CCM. A fuzzy logic controller (FLC) was de-
veloped to perform the MPPT function to obtain maximum power from
a PV panel.
Jintao et al. [88] proposed a converter topology to increase the
utilization efficiency of the duty cycle by embedding a decoupling ca-
pacitor in an H-bridge topology as shown in Fig. 15. Moreover, this
circuit inherits the advantages, such as lower power loss and lower cost,
in comparison to other topologies.
Cheng et al. [89] introduced the modelling and design of a four-
7
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 94 (2018) 1–14
switch buck–boost converter working under CCM for a distributed
MPPT system. This converter can operate in buck, boost, and buck–-
boost modes with noninverted output voltage polarity. The minimum
values of inductance, input and output values of capacitance were
modelled using equations of inductor current ripple and input voltage
ripple, respectively. The SSA method was used to obtain a small-signal
model of the converter and a stability analysis was discussed.
Hua et al. [90] analysed buck, boost and buck–boost converter
topologies that performed MPPT tracking with digital signal processing
(DSP) based MPPT controller. This controller combines discrete time
control and proportional integral (PI) compensator. MPPT techniques
using incremental conductance algorithm, P&O algorithm, voltage
feedback and direct method are implemented to analyse the tracking
efficiency. As per the result, compared to other MPPT methods, Incre-
mental conductance has higher tracking efficiency under slow and
rapid changing conditions. Under these techniques, the efficiency of
buck converter is higher compared to other converters.
3.3. Single-ended primary-inductance converter (SEPIC)
SEPIC can provide a solution to drawbacks such as pulsating nature
of load current and inverted load voltage, which are associated with
buck–boost converters [91]. The efficiency of buck–boost converters is
low in comparison to that of SEPIC and Cuk converters [52].
Vuthchhay et al. [92,93] proposed models of a SEPIC when it is
operating in DCM and CCM. Steady-state equations were developed
based on following three circuit states within one switching period: 1)
the MOSFET switch is on and the diode is not conducting, 2) the
MOSFET switch is off and the diode is conducting, and 3) the MOSFET
switch is off and the diode is not conducting. The transfer function for
feedback design is determined based on the small-signal linear model
determined for the above conditions. Operation under DCM provides a
fast dynamic response, reduced control complexity, and absence of the
reverse-recovery problem in diodes. The SEPIC operation in dis-
continuous capacitor voltage mode was analysed for two circuit con-
ditions during a switching period of Ts to derive the small-signal linear
mode. In the first stage, the MOSFET is turned on for an interval of DTs,
and in the second stage, the MOSFET is turned off for an interval of (1-
D)Ts.
Ali et al. [94] proposed two dynamic models to study the operation
of a DC-DC SEPIC operating in CCM, namely, an average state-space
and circuit model. The average state-space model was applied to ana-
lyse the effects of unstable zeros of the transfer function on system
characteristics, such as frequency response and stability. The boundary
constraint between CCM and DCM was examined in this paper after the
duty cycle was found for boundary and maximum conditions. A small-
signal model was derived by linearizing the SSA model around an op-
erating point. In a SEPIC, the status of the inductor current at the end of
a commutation cycle decides the limit between CCM and DCM. The
boundary condition of the duty cycle should be set to keep SEPIC in
CCM [95].
Babaei et al. [96] analysed the output voltage ripple of a SEPIC
during CCM and DCM because it is an important parameter in the
Fig. 13. Zero-voltage switched-voltage waveform across the switches.
R. Reshma Gopi, S. Sreejith
Fig. 14. Buck-boost converter with high frequency transformer.
design of converters. The magnitude of the maximum voltage ripple
was observed for base values of input voltage and load resistance. The
base values of the equivalent inductance and capacitance were eval-
uated based on the least values of the maximum output voltage ripple.
CCM is divided into two operating modes, namely, complete-inductor-
supply mode (CISM) and incomplete-inductor-supply mode (IISM). The
DCM was analysed only IISM. The output voltage ripple (OVR) wave-
forms, which were obtained for each operating modes were plotted
against the equivalent inductance for constant values of frequency,
capacitor, and load resistance. This paper also analysed the effects of
inductances on the efficiency of SEPIC.
Bianchin et al. [97] presented a modified SEPIC, including an ad-
ditional diode and capacitor; it shows low input current ripple and can
be used as a preregulator. The converter operation in DCM reduces the
commutation losses, ensures high efficiency and ripple free input cur-
rent. In addition to analysing the characteristics of the proposed device
as a converter and regulator, the paper also discussed some strategies to
minimize input current distortion and limitations, such as low power
factor and the requirement of an auxiliary in-rush limitation circuit for
rectifier set up. Care should be taken to ensure operation in DCM while
designing the circuit to avoid current ripple. The main limitation of this
design is that all circuit components, including the capacitor voltage,
are assumed to be ideal during switching periods. A design in-
corporating the resonant frequency was also presented. This paper ar-
bitrarily assumed a fixed resonance frequency value and the compo-
nents were designed based on that frequency value. An open-loop
control action with analog implementation was performed to reduce the
third-harmonic distortion and to analyse the variation of total input
current harmonic distortion, power factor, and efficiency in various
input voltage ranges.
Harmonic balance techniques, which apply Fourier analysis to dy-
namic equations of average and ripple quantities, can be applied to
converter dynamic equations to perform steady-state and small-signal
analysis. This method helps to predict the capability to withstand
switching stress on the devices during transient periods [98].
Fig. 15. Circuit with combination of buck-boost converter and H-bridge inverter.
8
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 94 (2018) 1–14
Soft switching methods such as ZVS and zero current switching
(ZCS) can reduce input current ripple. Kim et al. [99] implemented a
soft-switched PWM SEPIC, which has low switching loss in comparison
to hard-switched converter. By assuming a ripple factor of 25%, the
input inductor and capacitor are selected based on the peak-to-peak
ripple current and voltage. In this circuit, an inductor-current-control
loop regulates the inductor current to generate reference voltage, while
the output-voltage loop regulates the output voltage to create command
signal for current controller.
The problem due to hard switching can be eliminated by a quasi-
resonant SEPIC circuit (Fig. 16.), which operates at a constant switching
frequency. In this circuit design, to achieve ZVS switching that can be
maintained over a wide input and output range, the basic conventional
SEPIC circuit is modified by connecting capacitances in parallel with a
MOSFET switch and a diode, and by an inductor connecting in series
with a coupling capacitor. Jingying Hu et al. [100] presented a circuit
modelling technique in which the converter is split into resonant in-
verter and resonant rectifier in the first part, and the parts are coupled
in the second stage; modifications are applied to address the non-line-
arity in the final stage.
A resonant inductor LR and a resonant capacitor are adjusted to
maintain inductor voltage VR in phase with the PV output current. The
equivalent impedance value of the rectifier is calculated and is used for
resonant inverter design. The matching network shown in Fig. 17.
consists of an inductor and a capacitor; it transforms the equivalent
rectifier impedance to the maximum equivalent resistance at the de-
sired operating frequency to deliver the desired output-power level.
This paper also presented the design of a gate driver circuit for Com-
plementary MOSFET (CMOS) inverters.
An array current with less ripple and improved dynamic response
can be obtained for the PV sources by the coupled-inductor SEPIC was
proposed by Quamruzzaman et al. [101]. High ripple content in the
input side of converter can reduce the average value of input current.
Sensing this reduced average value may leads to wrong results in MPPT.
Coupling coefficient of 0.97 is selected to design the values of inductors
R. Reshma Gopi, S. Sreejith
Fig. 16. Schematic of the resonant SEPIC topology.
Fig. 17. Resonant inverter including a matching circuit and equivalent load
resistance.
to get the reduced current ripple. In this paper, MPPT tracking is done
by P&O. The simulation results shows that the coupled SEPIC has an
overall system efficiency of 97.01%. However, ripples cannot be can-
celled out completely. Another disadvantage is voltage mismatch due to
non-zero DC parasitic capacitance of inductors can cause the ripple.
Further reduction in ripple is possible by a circuit design proposed
by Veerachary [102] as in Fig. 18. This paper demonstrated the ap-
proximation to M to cancel the ripple in L1, the L2. The SSA technique
has been used to derive the mathematical model of the converter op-
erating in CCM. The above method of modelling has the disadvantage
that modelling is done on the assumption that the whole system is
linear.
Coupled inductor incorporated with an auxiliary inductor has ad-
vantages such as soft voltage switching and reduced ripple content.
Hyun-Lark [103] designed the modified voltage multiplier circuit
shown in Fig. 19 to overcome the high voltage stress of SEPIC. The
equation for magnetizing inductance, Lm is obtained from the condition
of ZVS as
Vin DTs
Lm <
2n ( M
η )
+ 1 I0
where D is the duty ratio, I0 is the average output current, n is the turns
ratio of coupled inductor, M is the voltage gain, Ts is the switching
period ,Vin is the input voltage and η is the efficiency.
The sum of the auxiliary inductance, La and resonant inductance, Lr
is given by
La + Lr = n (1 − n) Lm
The condition to be satisfied to get the ZCS across the diode at
output side during the design of the resonant capacitor is
dop < 1 − D
where dop is the output-diode current-reset timing ratio. Although re-
sonant capacitor and inductor are designed to minimize switching loss,
the values of the capacitor and inductor should be carefully considered
to ensure soft switching of all switches.
Sheng et al. [104] introduced a multiple-input isolated SEPIC
(MIISEPIC) operating in CCM using a coupled inductor with interleaved
winding. This paper focused on the input current range to design a
current-control loop for MPP control. The design of a coupled inductor
with a high magnetizing inductance to leakage inductance proportion
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 94 (2018) 1–14
that can offer a wide controllable input-current range and high effi-
ciency was explored. A novel triggering approach and zero-ripple
technique were proposed for improving the converter efficiency and life
time, respectively. Dynamic equations for inductor current, capacitor
voltage, and output voltage for MIISEPIC were developed after analysis
of the converter for two inputs. Possible input current ranges with re-
spect to various values of input switching sequence, switching fre-
quency, and magnetizing inductance were also analysed.
Al-Saffar et al. [105] proposed a circuit which is obtained by adding
a high-frequency transformer to a conventional SEPIC to provide a
continuous output current as shown in Fig. 20. An active clamp sub-
circuit is included to reset the transformer. Although this configuration
has increased voltage stress across the main power switch, it has ad-
vantages such as continuous output current, smaller output voltage
ripple, and lower switching current stress. This paper also analysed the
system configuration during CCM and DCM.
De Melo et al. [51] designed a SEPIC employing peak input current
mode control. A current signal is produced from the input voltage
controlling circuit, and a voltage signal is produced by MPPT and the
battery-charging loop. The input inductor is derived by considering the
peak-to-peak value of the input current. The value of capacitor at input
side is determined on the basis of the equivalent series resistance. The
paper also described the transfer function approach that can be taken
for designing the voltage controller. Incorporating current-mode con-
trol makes the system a little complex and is generally not straight-
forward.
Khateb et al. [106] proposed a FLC-based SEPIC for MPPT operation
of a PV system to get a better total harmonic distortion (THD) level and
less complexity in the algorithms. The fuzzy controller changes the duty
ratio of SEPIC according to the reference voltage obtained by the P&O
technique. The triangular membership functions, Mamdani, fuzzy in-
ference, and defuzzification by the centre of gravity are used for the
proposed FLC. This paper compared the frequency response of the
convergent and symmetrically distributed membership functions. The
advantage of this type controller is that accurate mathematical model is
not needed and ability to handle nonlinearity.
To enhance the static gain, a voltage multiplier circuit is integrated
into a SEPIC operating in CCM. The static gain Dg is obtained by con-
sidering the steady state value of average inductor voltage.
Vout − Vin
Dg =
Vout + Vin (14)
where Vout is the output voltage of the converter and Vin is the input
(11) voltage of the converter.
The input inductance value is calculated from the input current
ripple. The series capacitance value and multiplier capacitance value
are obtained by considering the voltage ripple of high-frequency ca-
pacitor. The output capacitance value is calculated from the voltage
ripple of low-frequency capacitor. The limitation of this circuit is that
(12)
(13)
Fig. 18. DSP based photovoltaic system with maximum power point tracking
control.
9
R. Reshma Gopi, S. Sreejith
Fig. 19. Circuit model of coupled inductor in series with auxiliary inductor.
Fig. 20. SEPIC with high-frequency transformer and diode.
the maximum static gain is obtained when the duty cycle value ap-
proaches one. A further increase in static gain without alteration of the
duty cycle is possible only with magnetic coupling [51].
Gules et al. [107] discussed a modified circuit with magnetic cou-
pling as well as operation in DCM without magnetic coupling. The
magnetic coupling offers an upgrade in static gain under low switching
voltage. However, magnetic coupling creates problems, such as in-
creased reverse voltage at the output diode due to coupling winding
leakage inductance. Output voltage clamping circuits are added to ad-
dress this problem. An enhancement in the magnitude of static gain is
done by the adjustment of winding turns ratio. The input inductance L1
and the primary-side value of L2 are calculating from the input-current
ripple. The secondary-side value of inductor L2 is calculated by con-
sidering the turns ratio relation with L2p. A minimum leakage in-
ductance must be maintained to obtain soft switching and to restrict the
current in the output diode during the reverse recovery time, and it is
calculating from the equation of maximum value of di/ dt . The values of
the series capacitor and multiplier capacitor are obtained by con-
sidering the fact that the voltage ripple in output capacitors is n (turns
ratio) times greater than that without magnetic coupling. Mohammad
Nur et al. [108] analysed the effect of inductor parasitic resistance on
the characteristics of SEPIC. The MPPT is done by P&O algorithm. The
average voltage across the inductor consists of voltage drop due to the
parasitic resistance. This has effect on the efficiency and ripple. Voltage
10
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 94 (2018) 1–14
Fig. 21. Block diagram of photovoltaic inverter system with interleaved dis-
continuous conduction mode flyback converter.
gain, current gain and output power of the converter decreases along
with an increase in parasitic resistance. The simulation results shows
that increase in parasitic resistance can reduce the peak to peak current
ripple.
3.4. Flyback converter
The flyback converter is mainly applied in PV systems of very low
power [115]. When a high converter gain is required with transformers,
the usual solution is the use of flyback converters. In high-power ap-
plications, to store high energy, a transformer requires a relatively large
airgap. Since a large airgap results in low magnetizing inductance,
flyback converters have large leakage flux and poor energy transfer
efficiency. Even though Cuk converters are more efficient for high-
power applications, converters have disadvantages, such as inverting
output polarity and high current flow in the power switch and the
output diode [107].
Lu et al. [109] proposed an isolated grid-connected inverter in-
corporated with interleaved flyback converter topology functioning in
DCM. The block diagram of this circuit model is illustrated in Fig. 21.
This topology has advantages, such as fast dynamic response and a less
complex control system. This topology has the following drawbacks: 1)
Compared to CCM, an increased form factor in current waveforms, 2)
the current pulses have large peaks, and 3) waveforms have increased
presence of discontinuity. These disadvantages can be eliminated by
interleaving. In passive decoupling circuits, a decoupling capacitor is
placed at the input of the flyback converter to control the voltage
ripple. The design of this capacitor depends on the peak-to-peak ripple
voltage and the ripple current through the capacitor. For converter
design, the nominal magnitude of the peak duty cycle is assumed to be
the reciprocal of the number of interleaved cells.
Since passive decoupling capacitors at the input are sensitive to
temperature, this may decrease the overall reliability and efficiency of
the converter. This problem can be overcome by active power decou-
pling methods in which the decoupling capacitor is incorporated with
inverter [88,110,119], or by the addition of a DC power smoothing
circuit [118]. The three-switch converter uses switches S1, S2, and S3
operating under DCM to transfer power from the input to the output via
suitable winding of transformer as shown in Fig. 22.
In flyback converters, there is a probability of partial discharge on
transformer magnetizing inductance. This can lead to behaviour of in-
verter as a load-detached voltage source. Therefore flyback operation in
CCM is not quite common [113]. A converter with switches operating
under boundary condition mode (BCM) provides a higher power level
and a larger switching frequency bandwidth, but it is difficult to get the
exact relationship between the module output current and the standard
current due to variable switching frequency [114]. The efficiency of
flyback converters can be improved by ZVS operation [117]. Soft
switching can be achieved by clamp circuits and resonant-based flyback
inverters [111]. Achille et al. [112] proposed a soft-switching dual
flyback DC-DC converter current as shown in Fig. 23. This topology has
 •
•
•
•
reduced [116].

4. Conclusions
coupling capacitor.

lower efficiency.
R. Reshma Gopi, S. Sreejith

cuit is expensive and complex.

the effect of leakage inductance.
MPPT technique is given in Table 2.

ensures high efficiency and ripple free input current.

converter topology for applications including PV systems.

Fig. 23. Converter with self-driven synchronous rectifier.

summarized based on the research available in the literature.

topology. P&O is the most preferred MPPT tracking technique.

This paper is a convenient reference in selecting the appropriate

Selection of MPPT tracking method is independent of the converter
critical drawback. Active or passive clamp networks can eliminate

Converter operation in DCM reduces the commutation losses and

structure. Higher leakage inductance causes voltage spikes and
energy storage capability of magnetizing inductance of the core to

high efficiency, increased power level, minimized ripple content,

stress, the use of low-rating components, and a simple winding
increase the voltage level, has advantages such as lower current
The coupled inductor based converter topologies, which utilizes the
ripple content. But it has disadvantages like higher EMI noise and
• Cascade structure can be used to extend voltage gain and to get less
This review various topologies of DC-DC converters, such as SEPIC,
A summarized criteria of the converter topologies along with the
(SR). Since output diode is replaced with SR, the losses are considerably

Interleaved converters can achieve less switching loss, low EMI,

current spikes across the main switch during turn-off and turn-on is
advantages of reduced ripple content and high efficiency. The ZVS is

better transient response, and reduced filter size, even though cir-
detailed study was carried out by analysing different topologies along
Fig. 22. Circuit diagram of three-switch three-port flyback converter with de-

with their advantages and disadvantages. The following points can be

boost, buck–boost, as well as DC-AC converters, such as flyback. A
obtained by the switching control of self-driven synchronous rectifier

11
Table 2
Summary of converter topologies for PV system.
Authors and references Tracking Technique Remarks Advantages Disadvantages

Reham Haroun et al.[76] Extremum seeking Cascade connection of boost converter with sliding- • Dynamic stability. • Requirement of additional external circuits for sliding-mode control.
control. mode control. • Less settling time. • Lower conversion efficiency.
Ahmed et al. [79] Perturb and Observe Non inverting buck-boost converter. • High efficiency during heavy loads. • Output power reduces considerably during light loads.
• Capacity for extra current storage in the
inductor.
Veerachary M. [85] Perturb and Observe Interleaved buck-boost converter with magnetically • Improvement in converter efficiency and • DCM operation is not possible.
coupled inductor. power density.
• Reduction in active-switch voltage stress.
Cheng et al. [89] Perturb and Observe Four-switch buck-boost converter working under CCM. • Less number of passive components. • Requirement of a compensator in order to avoid the propagation of
• Non inverted output voltage polarity. 120-Hz oscillation to input side.
Veerachary M. [102] V-square based MPPT SEPIC with coupled inductor. • Reduced ripple content trade-off value for the incremental duty ratio is needed to ensure
in magnetic core requirement.
• Abetter tracking response.
Quamruzzaman et al. [101] Perturb and Observe SEPIC with coupled inductor.
• Reduction in magnetic core requirement. mismatch due to non-zero DC parasitic capacitance of
• Reduction efficiency.
• Voltage
inductors can cause the ripple.
Khateb et al. [106] Fuzzy logic controller fuzzy logic controller-based SEPIC converter
• Improved mathematical model is not needed. static gain is obtained when the duty cycle value
• Accurateto handle nonlinearity.
• Maximum
approaches 1.
Lu et al.[109] Constant voltage control Hybrid boost-flyback converter.
• Ability
dynamic response. current waveforms have higher a form factor compared to CCM.
• Fast • The current pulses have large peaks.
• Less complex control system. • The is a high amount of discontinuity in the waveforms.
Bunyamin et al.[110] Perturb and Observe Three cell interleaved flyback converter with power utilization
• There of transient voltage due to transformer leakage
decoupling capacitor at input side.
• Better
voltage variation across the PV module
• Formation
inductance.
• Less
terminals.
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 94 (2018) 1–14
R. Reshma Gopi, S. Sreejith
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