HSC Chemistry Module 3: Chemical Monitoring and management

Summary

Chemical Monitoring and Management: 1. Chemical Scientists

x Gather, process and present information from secondary sources about the work of
practicing scientists identifying:
-the variety of chemical occupations
-a specific chemical occupation for a more detailed study

Range of Chemical occupations

The Royal Australian Chemical Institute (RACI) has thirteen national divisions for
membership:

-Analytical
-Biomolecular
-Cereal
-Chemical education
-Colloid and surface science
-Environment
-Industrial
-Inorganic
-Electrochemistry
-Organic
-Physical
-Polymer
-Solid state

x Outline the role of a chemist employed in a named industry or enterprise,

identifying the branch of chemistry undertaken by the chemist and explaining a
chemical principle that the chemist uses

Laboratory Toxicologist
Branch of chemistry Analytical Chemistry
Company UK based Altrix
What is a A scientist who specialises in identifying, controlling and preventing
toxicologist? the effects of chemicals on human health.

They may work in natural environments, industry or laboratories.

They can be employed in a hospital lab, university, government
agency, private research organisation or corporate employers.

Generally, they conduct tests on toxic or radioactive chemicals, take

careful notes and write detailed reports on their findings in order to
set new industry standards or environmental protection laws
Role of Altrix lab Altrix lab toxicologists provide drug-testing services to government
toxicologists and corporate employers who need to screen job applicants for
evidence of drug abuse or infectious diseases e.g. hepatitis. Lab
toxicologists must be able to:

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Robert Lee Chin
 HSC Chemistry Module 3: Chemical Monitoring and management
Summary
-work as part of a multi-disciplinary team
-participate in special research projects and activities
-comply with Good laboratory Practice and OH&S procedures.

The company uses a non-evasive mouth swab of hair sample and a

high-tech method of gas chromatography and mass spectrometry.
The toxicologist also needs to report the results back to the client
and be prepared to appear as ‘expert witness’ in a legal challenge.

Lab toxicologists need to collaborate by:

-comparing analysis results with results obtained by team members

to confirm the validity of the results
-discuss results and conclusions with other professionals.
-managing the usage of equipment, scheduling of tests and deadlines
-keep up to date with new developments by communicating with
other scientists, attending seminars and conferences

Chemical Principle: Samples are first dissolved in a suitable solvent. The samples are
Gas Chromatography injected into a chromatography column which vaporises the sample.
A stream of inert ‘carrier gas’ (e.g. helium) carries it through the
column. Different molecules ‘adsorb’ at different rates and are
picked up by a sensitive electronic detector and sent to a computer
for analysis.

x Identify the need for collaboration between chemists as they collect and analyse data

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 HSC Chemistry Module 3: Chemical Monitoring and management
Summary
Real chemists rarely work alone. Most chemists have expertise in only a specialised field and
must therefore cooperate, communicate and collaborate with both their colleagues and
clients.

x Describe an example of a chemical reaction such as combustion, where reactants

form different products under different conditions and thus would need monitoring

Many chemical reactions are sensitive to any change in conditions i.e. temperature, pressure,
concentration, catalysts.

As a specific example, consider the effect of oxygen availability on the combustion of natural
gas , which is mostly methane:

Complete combustion
If there is a good supply of oxygen, methane will undergo complete combustion, forming
carbon dioxide gas and water:

CH 4 ( g )  2O 2 ( g ) o 2H 2 O ( l )  CO 2 ( g )

Incomplete Combustion
If there is a shortage of oxygen, incomplete combustion will occur, forming carbon monoxide
or carbon (soot):

3
CH 4 ( g )  O 2 ( g ) o 2H 2 O ( l )  CO ( g )
2
CH 4 ( g )  O 2 ( g ) o 2H 2 O ( l )  C (s )

Incomplete combustion is undesirable (esp. in industry and in internal combustion engines)

because:
-Less energy is released per unit of fuel used
-carbon monoxide is toxic
-soot clogs up equipment

Management
A chemical engineer could monitor combustion by:
-measuring the flow, and mixing of air and fuel
-measuring combustion temperature
-measuring exhaust gas composition

2. Maximise Production
x Identify and describe the industrial uses of ammonia

Ammonia ranks second to sulfuric acid in terms of quantity produced worldwide per year. It
is one of the world’s most important industrial chemicals. In particular, it is used in the
manufacture of:
-explosives

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 HSC Chemistry Module 3: Chemical Monitoring and management
Summary
-dyes and pigments
-fibres and plastics (e.g. rayon, nylon)
-household cleaners and detergents
-pharmaceuticals
-fertilisers (ammonium nitrate, urea, sulfate of ammonia)

The common fertiliser “sulfate of ammonia” is produced industrially by reacting sulfuric acid
with ammonia in an acid-base reaction: 2NH 3(g)  2H 2S0 4(aq) o (NH4) 2 SO 4
Ammonia gas is also used as a refrigerant.

x Gather and process information from secondary sources to describe the conditions
under which Haber developed the industrial synthesis of ammonia and evaluate its
success at that time in world history

History: Development of Ammonia Synthesis (aka “The Haber Process”)

Prior to WW1, Nitrogen compounds were essential to manufacture fertilisers and explosives
(e.g. TNT, dynamite, ammonium nitrate). This was largely dependent on the supply of natural
“saltpetre” deposits (sodium nitrate) from Chile (and to a lesser extent, guano and
ammoniacal liquor). It was known that the atmosphere contained large quantities of diatomic
nitrogen. Thus, a cheap, large-scale process would be advantageous to convert this into useful
compounds for agriculture and industry.

In 1908, German chemist Fritz Haber developed a laboratory method to synthesise ammonia
from hydrogen gas and atmospheric nitrogen gas in the lab, using an iron catalyst. Carl Bosch
later developed the high pressure technology required for this process on an industrial scale.

Nitrogen is readily available from air and hydrogen gas could be obtained from
hydrocarbons. This removed Germany’s dependence on mining and shipping from Chile.

A process called the Ostwald process was then used to convert the ammonia into nitric acid
and nitrates. This was hugely important at the time because Europe was on the brink of
WW1- explosives and food supplies were to become critical.

During WW1, the British cut off Germany’s supply of saltpetre from Chile, however, the
Haber process allowed Germany to be self-sufficient in producing ammonia for fertilisers and
explosives. This was successful in allowing Germany to lengthen the war, thereby leading to
more human suffering and destruction.

However, the Haber process also led to the development of many useful products, including
fertilisers (food for ↑ world population), explosives and textiles, which we take for granted
yet depend on every day.

x Identify that ammonia can be synthesised from its component gases, nitrogen and
hydrogen
The Haber process is still used for the industrial synthesis of ammonia. Under pressure and
heat, nitrogen and ammonia gas react in the molar volume ratio 1:3 to produce 2 molar
volumes of ammonia gas:

N 2 ( g )  3H 2 ( g ) o 2 NH 3( g )

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 HSC Chemistry Module 3: Chemical Monitoring and management
Summary

x Describe that synthesis of ammonia occurs as a reversible reaction that will reach
equilibrium
x Identify the reaction of hydrogen with nitrogen as exothermic

The synthesis of ammonia is a reversible reaction. This means once some ammonia is
produced (forward reaction), some nitrogen and hydrogen are also produced (reverse
reaction). Under normal pressure and heat, the rate of reaction is slow and the equilibrium
yields little ammonia.

It is also exothermic, producing 46kJ of heat for every mole of ammonia produced:
N2(g)+3H2(g) 2NH3(g) + heat ΔH=-92kJ

x Explain why the rate of reaction is increased by higher temperatures

Increasing temperature increases the speed and kinetic energy of the particles. This increases
the frequency of collisions and also the amount of energy available for the reaction. Most of
the increased rate of reaction comes from the colliding particles exceeding the activation
energy. The rate of both the forward and reverse reaction is increased.

x Explain that the use of a catalyst will lower the reaction temperature required and
identify the catalyst(s) used

Using a catalyst reduces the activation energy required. At a given temperature a catalyst
increases the likelihood that particle collisions will exceed the activation energy. The catalyst
used in the Haber process is the iron mineral “magnetite” (Fe3O4), with the surface reduced to
elemental iron. The catalyst is finely ground to increase surface area. Gaseous nitrogen and
hydrogen molecules adsorb to the iron catalyst, forming ammonia.

x Explain why the yield of product in the Haber process is reduced at higher
temperatures using Le Chatelier’s principle

The forward reaction is exothermic. According to Le Chatelier’s principle, if a system at

equilibrium is disturbed, the system will shift to minimise the change. Thus increasing the
temperature shifts the equilibrium to the left and the yield of ammonia is reduced.

x Analyse the impact of increased pressure on the system involved in the Haber
process

Increased pressure causes the equilibrium to shift to the right, increasing the yield of
ammonia. By Le Chatelier’s principle, the system will favour the right side because the
product (2 moles of ammonia gas) takes up less volume than the reactants (1 mole of nitrogen
and 3 moles of hydrogen gas).

N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)

4 moles 2 moles

Increasing pressure also increases the rate of reaction because the gas molecules are forced
closer together.

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 HSC Chemistry Module 3: Chemical Monitoring and management
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To reach an economic yield, H2 and N2 gases are pumped in at the ideal mole ratio of 3:1
under pressure of 15-25MPa.

x Explain why the Haber process is based on a delicate balancing act involving
reaction energy, reaction rate and equilibrium

Today, the Haber process is performed using atmospheric nitrogen and hydrogen obtained by
reacting steam and methane, using a nickel catalyst:
CH 4 ( g )  2H 2 O ( g ) 7
50q C , Ni catalyst
 o 4H 2 ( g )  CO 2 ( g )

Increasing reaction temperature increases the energy available to overcome the activation
energy and hence the rate of reaction increases. However, increasing temperature also favours
the decomposition of ammonia gas (Le Chatelier’s principle). A compromise is 400°C.

To achieve an economic yield of 30%, the following conditions are used:

-1:3 ratio of nitrogen to hydrogen
-pressures of 15-25MPa
-Temperature of 400°C-500°C
-Iron oxide (Fe3O4) catalyst
-Unreacted gases are returned to the reaction vessel
-ammonia is constantly removed as a liquid

x Explain why the monitoring of the reaction vessel used in the Haber process is
crucial and discuss the monitoring required.

The raw materials must be monitored to ensure they are clean. Any CO2 detected must be
removed (it is often diverted to a nearby fertile plant for urea manufacture). Any O2 present
could result in an explosion with the hydrogen.

The catalyst surface has to be monitored to ensure maximum adsorption of the reactant gases.
Contaminants i.e. carbon monoxide and sulfur compounds can damage the catalyst, as can
too high temperatures.

A chemical engineer monitors the reaction vessel to ensure the temperature and pressure
conditions, levels of contaminating gases and ratio of reactant gases are maintained within an
acceptable range.

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 HSC Chemistry Module 3: Chemical Monitoring and management
Summary

3. Manufactured products are analysed

x Deduce the ions present in a sample from the results of tests

Cation Mixture: Ca2+, Cu2+, Ba2+, Fe2+, Fe3+, Pb2+

Add Cl- until no more ppt

residue Filtrate. Add SO42- until no

Pb2+: white PbCl2 more ppt

Residue white ppt. Filtrate. Add

OH-
BaSO4
CaSO4
Cu2+ (Blue Cu[OH]2)
Fe2+ (Green, turns
Flame Test:
brown Fe[OH]2)
Ba2+ (apple green)
Fe3+ (Brown gel
Ca (red/orange)
2 +
Fe[OH]3)

Anion Mixture: Cl-,

OH-, PO43-, CO32-

Add Fe3+ until no more ppt

Filtrate. Add Fe2+ until no

OH- (Brown more ppt
residue
Fe[OH]3)

Residue Filtrate. Add Ba2+ until no more ppt

green Fe3(PO4)2
grey FeCO3
Residue Filtrate.
SO42- (white BaSO4) Add Pb2+
Add H+
PO43- (No gas)
Residue
CO32- (gas)
Cl- (White PbCl)

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 HSC Chemistry Module 3: Chemical Monitoring and management
Summary

Anion Mixture: Cl-, SO42-, PO43-, CO32-

CO32- (gas Add H+

Add Ba2+ until no ppt
bubbles)

Residue
Filtrate. Add Ag+
SO42- (white
BaSO4)
AgCl- (white ppt, darkens in
light)

Filtrate. Add Fe2+

Residue
PO43-: (Green Fe3[PO4]2)

Solubility Rules
The following are soluble:
x All salts of group I metals
x All salts formed by the ammonium ion
x All nitrates and acetates
x All chlorides, bromides and iodides EXCEPT those of silver, lead and mercury
x All sulfates EXCEPT lead, barium, mercury and strontium (calcium and silver sulfates
are only slightly soluble)

The following are insoluble:

x All carbonates, hydroxides and phosphates EXCEPT those of Group 1 and ammonium

Solubility Table
Cations Anions
phosphate sulfate carbonate chloride hydroxide nitrate
Barium White White White White
Calcium White White White
(slightly
soluble)
Lead white White White white White
Copper Blue-green Bright blue to Pale blue
green
Iron (II) Green Yellow/gold White
Iron (III) ? Yellow
silver Yellow White yellow White, White
(slightly darkens in
soluble) light

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Robert Lee Chin
 HSC Chemistry Module 3: Chemical Monitoring and management
Summary

x Perform first hand investigations to carry out a range of tests, including flame tests,
to identify the following ions:
-phosphate
-carbonate
-chloride
-barium
-Calcium
-Lead
-Copper
-Iron

Experiment: Test for cations

Aim: to carry out flame tests and a series of chemical reactions in order to devise tests for
identifying the following cations in solution when these are the only ions that could be
present.

Cations:
Ba2+ Pb2+
C u2 + Ca2+
Fe2+ Fe3+

Equipment:
A Flame Tests
5 mL concentrated (6 M) HCl
Platinum or nichrome wire
Small beaker
Bunsen burner
Tongs
Small samples of:
-Nitrates of barium, calcium, copper, iron(II),
-Chlorides of barium, calcium, copper, iron(II), iron(III)

B Precipitation reactions
Dropper bottles, each containing one of the following 0.1molL-1 solutions:

Cation Solutions Test solutions

Pb(NO3)2 Na2SO4 6 test tubes
Ba(NO3)2 HCl 5 mL HCl (6 M)
FeSO4 NaOH Test tube rack
CuSO4 Ammonia solution Distilled water
CuSO4 Acidified KMnO4
CaCl2 NaF
FeCl3 Kl

Safety:
-Wear safety glasses and protective aprons

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 HSC Chemistry Module 3: Chemical Monitoring and management
Summary

-Concentrated NaOH and HNO3 are corrosive. Do not allow direct contact with skin or
clothes. If contact occurs, wash with large amounts of water for 10-15 min
-Do not touch heated wire
-metal salts are poisonous. Avoid direct contact with skin or eyes
-Dispose of chemicals as directed by teacher

Method:
A Flame Tests
Note: Not all metal ions produce distinctive colours

1/ Clean wire thoroughly using a small amount of concentrated HCl, then heating
strongly. Repeat until no further colouration of flame.

2/ Dip wire into clean, concentrated HCl, then into one of the solids. Place in flame and
observe flame colour

3/ Repeat steps 1-2 for each solid, cleaning wire thoroughly in between each compound.

B Precipitation Reactions

1/ Add 10 drops of each cation to each of the 6 test tubes

2/ Add 10 drops of the Cl- solution to each test tube. If no precipitate forms, add a few
more drops. Record results

Lead Barium Copper Iron (II) Calcium Iron (III)

nitrate nitrate sulfate sulfate chloride chloride

3/ Thoroughly clean all test tubes with distilled water

4/ Repeat steps 1-3 for SO42-

5/ Repeat steps 1-3 for OH-, if precipitate forms add excess OH-

6/ Repeat steps 1-3 for OH-, if precipitate forms add excess NH3

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 HSC Chemistry Module 3: Chemical Monitoring and management
Summary
7/ Add 10 drops of Fe2+ and Fe3+ solutions to separate test tubes. Add 10 drops of SCN-
to each test tube. Record the results.

8/ Add 10 drops of Fe2+ and Fe3+ solutions to separate test tubes. Add 10 drops of
MNO4- to each test tube. Record the results.

8/ Add 10 drops of Ca2+ solution to a test tube and add 10 drops of F- solution. Record
the results.

8/ Add 10 drops of Pb2+ solution to a test tube and add 10 drops of I- solution. Record
the results.

Results:
A Flame Test

Compound Ions present in compound Flame Colour

Barium Nitrate [Ba(NO3)2] Ba2+ Red-orange
Calcium nitrate [Na(NO3)2] Ca2+ Apple green
Copper nitrate [Cu(NO3)2] C u2 + blue green
Iron (II) nitrate [Fe(NO3)2] Fe2+ -
Barium chloride [Ba(Cl)2] Ba2+ Blue green
Calcium chloride [Ca(Cl)2] Ca2+ Red orange
Copper chloride [CuCl2] C u2 + Apple green
Iron (II) Chloride [FeCl2] Fe2+ -
Iron (III) chloride [FeCl3] Fe3+ -

B Precipitate Reactions

T e st Cl- SO42- OH- Excess OH- Excess Additional

cations NH3 tests
Pb2+ White ppt White ppt White ppt Ppt White Yellow ppt
dissolves ppt with I-
Cu2+ Pale blue Clear blue Ppt
ppt gel dissolves
B a2 + White ppt
Ca2+ White ppt White ppt
with F-
Fe2+ Green ppt, Decolourises
turns brown acidified
MnO4-
Fe3+ Brown gel Re d
complex
with SCN-

Cation Test and result

Lead Gives white ppt with Cl- and with SO42-; with OH- gives white ppt which
dissolves in excess OH-. Forms yellow ppt with addition of I-.

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 HSC Chemistry Module 3: Chemical Monitoring and management
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Copper No ppt with Cl- or SO42- but with OH- gives pale blue ppt which dissolves in
excess NH3
Barium Gives white ppt with SO42- but not with Cl- or OH-
Calcium Gives white ppt with F- but no ppt with Cl-, OH- or SO42-
Iron (II) No ppt with Cl- or SO42- but ppt with OH-; decolourises acidified MnO4
Iron (III) No ppt with Cl- or SO42- but ppt with OH-; forms red colour with SCN-

Experiment: Tests for anions

Aim: To carry out a series of chemical reactions in order to devise tests for identifying the
following cations in solution when these are the only ions that could be present.

Anions:
PO43-
SO42-
CO32-
C l-

Equipment:
Dropper bottles containing one of the following 0.1molL-1 solutions:

Test Solutions Anion Solutions

-Pb(NO3)2 Na2SO4
-Ba(NO3)2 Na2CO3
-HNO3 Na3PO4
-AgNO3 NaCl
-NaOH
4 test tubes Test tube rack
Water bath

Safety:
-Wear safety glasses and protective aprons
-Concentrated NaOH and HNO3 are corrosive. Metal salts are poisonous- do not allow either
to directly contact skin or eyes
-Silver nitrate stains clothes and skins brown
-Dispose of chemicals as directed by teacher

Method:

1/ Add 10 drops of each of the anion solutions to each of 4 test tubes

Sodium Sodium Sodium Sodium

sulfate carbonate phosphate Chloride

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 HSC Chemistry Module 3: Chemical Monitoring and management
Summary

2/ Add 10 drops of HNO3 to each of the test tubes and warm gently.

3/ Record results and use to describe a test for a particular anion.

4/ Thoroughly clean all test tubes with distilled water between tests

5/ For the remaining three anions, put 10 drops in each of 3 test tubes, add 5 drops
HNO3 and then 5 drops of Ag+. Record results

6/ Repeat steps 4-5 with Pb2+ and Ba2+

7/ After the Ba2+ test add 10 drops of NaOH to each of the test tubes and record any
changes.

Results:
T e st H+ Ag+ Pb2+ Ba2+ and H+ B a2 + & O H -
anion/solution
CO32- Gas bubbles n/A
Cl- White ppt n/A
SO42- White ppt
PO43- White ppt

Anion Test and result

Chloride Precipitate with acidified Ag+, but not with Ba2+
Sulfate Precipitate with acidified Ba2+
Phosphate Precipitate with Ba2+ in alkaline solution, but not in acid solution
Carbonate Produces bubbles of gas with addition of HNO3

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 HSC Chemistry Module 3: Chemical Monitoring and management
Summary

x Gather, process and present information to describe and explain evidence for the
need to monitor levels of one of the above ions in substances used in society

Certain human activities release harmful ions into the environment. It is therefore essential to
monitor the levels of these ions in the air, soil, water and food to protect people and the
environment

Phosphate Ions
At normal concentrations, phosphate ions (PO43-) form an essential part of the natural
environment.

Human activities such as fertiliser run-off from agriculture and sewage discharge into
waterways have increased phosphate concentrations in water environments. Also, water used
in irrigation reduces the water flow, making the problem more likely.

Increased phosphate concentrations result in eutrophication, a process in where aquatic plants

and algae are “over-fertilised” and grow excessively. This clogs waterways and when the
plant life dies and rots, it takes the oxygen out of the water, putrefying it and killing the
ecosystem.

Lead Ions
Lead is a toxic metal, not normally found in the natural environment in significant amounts.
Even low concentrations are dangerous because it accumulates in the body until it reaches
toxic levels. Lead poisoning results in neurological diseases in humans.

Lead compounds used to be present in paints and petrol. Lead based petrol is a particular
concern as it releases lead fumes into the air. To reduce the environmental impact, lead-based
paints were banned and unleaded petrol introduced. Lead emissions from industry are also
monitored now. Previous lead emissions still require monitoring as the lead persists in the
environment for long periods.

x Analyse information to evaluate the reliability of the results of the above

investigation and to propose solutions to problems encountered in the procedure.

The reliability of any analysis can be assessed by how close the results are when the method
is repeated. Results can be considered reliable when various group results are in close
agreement.

The major difficulty in separating solid barium sulfate (BaSO4) is the very small crystal size.
Ordinary filtration using filter paper is ineffective. One solution is to use a sintered glass
crucible and vacuum filter.

x Gather, process and present information to interpret secondary data from AAS
measurements and evaluate the effectiveness of this in pollution control

Case Study: Arsenic concentrations in Bangladesh

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 HSC Chemistry Module 3: Chemical Monitoring and management
Summary
Arsenic in groundwater poses a health hazard to over 20 million people in Bangladesh. Solar
oxidation and removal of arsenic (SORAS) is a technique that uses irradiation of water with
sunlight in UV transparent bottles to reduce arsenic in drinking water.

Groundwater in Bangladesh contains both Fe2+ and Fe3+ ions. Fe3+ forms a precipitate [Iron
(III) hydroxide)] with OH-. Arsenic (III) is only weakly adsorbed to this precipitate but
arsenic (V) is strongly adsorbed.

SORAS involves adding lemon juice to a litre of water in a PET bottle. Adding acid speeds
up the photo-oxidation process. The bottle is placed into sunlight for 4-5 hours where UV
light, oxygen and water in the bottle oxidises As (III) into As (V) and Fe2+ into Fe3+:

As3 ( aq )  2e  o As5  ( aq )  2e 
Fe2  ( aq ) o Fe3 ( aq )  e 
Fe3 ( aq )  3OH  ( aq ) o Fe(OH)3(s )

The precipitate is allowed to settle and the clear liquid is decanted off.

Absorbance vs. total arsenic concentration

0.4
y:Absorbance
0.35 x: total arsenic concentration (μgL-1)
y = 0.0023x + 0.001
0.3

0.25

0.2

0.15

0.1

0.05

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160

Groundwater Sample Absorbance Concentration Daily adult intake

(μgL-1) (safe daily intake: 150
μg and 2L water/day)
Before SORAS 0.28 121.74 243.48
After SORAS 0.13 56.52 113.04

x Describe the use of atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS), in detecting

concentrations of metal ions in solutions and assess its impact on scientific
understanding of trace elements

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Robert Lee Chin
 HSC Chemistry Module 3: Chemical Monitoring and management
Summary
When particular samples of atoms are energised, they emit light of a characteristic frequency,
producing a characteristic absorption spectrum. The amount of light emitted is usually too
small for measuring minute concentrations. The exact frequencies of light emitted by an atom
are also the same frequencies that atom will absorb and this is more easily measured.

AAS is a technique for determining the concentration of a particular element, usually a metal
in a sample. It involves beaming light (of the frequency the target atom will absorb) through a
vaporised sample, which reemits it in all directions. A detector absorbs the light and measures
the intensity. The amount of light absorbed is directly proportional to the number of ‘target’
atoms present, so it measures it quantitatively.

Flame vaporises
sample. Target atoms
absorb specific
frequency light
Lamp containing
element to be analysed
beam
Electronic
Optical system to detector
select and intensify
Fuel and specific frequency
air light

Sample

The electronic detector interprets the data as a pattern of narrow bright bands called an
absorption spectrum. Each different element has its own unique absorption frequencies and
therefore, absorption spectrum. The light emitted by a sample shows very narrow bright lines
on a dark background, because only specific frequencies are emitted. Because the target
element will also absorb these same frequencies, the light absorption spectrum shows dark
lines on a bright background. The relative intensity and pattern of the absorption spectrum
indicates the concentration of the element.

Emission Absorption

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 HSC Chemistry Module 3: Chemical Monitoring and management
Summary

Impact on scientific understanding of trace elements

The study of pollutant concentrations in the environment is more accurate and reliable since
the development of AAS by CSIRO scientist, Alan Walsh, in the 1950s. It is used areas, such
as medicine, agriculture, mineral exploration, metallurgy, food analysis, biochemistry and
environmental monitoring. It has been described as the most significant advance in chemical
analysis of the 20th Century and can be used for over 65 elements.

Trace elements are elements essential in trace amounts to living organisms. AAS enabled the
measurement of the concentrations of many metals in the bodies of plants and animals and in
their surrounding environments.

In WA, farmers found their sheep were chronically sick, despite good pastures and disease
control. AAS showed cobalt deficiencies in the soil and the pasture. Further studies showed
that all animals require cobalt for enzyme production. The sheep were given a slow release
cobalt ‘pill’ and the multi-million dollar industry was saved.

Arid areas of Victoria could not support legumes until molybdenum deficiencies were
detected by AAS.

x Identify data, plan, select equipment and perform first-hand investigations to

measure the sulfate content of lawn fertiliser and explain the chemistry involved

Investigation: Determination of sulfate in lawn fertiliser

Aim: To gravimetrically determine the m/m % of sulfate in a typical lawn fertiliser

Equipment:
-Burette and pipette
-retort stand and clamp
-electronic scale
-Ammonium sulfate [(NH3)2SO4] fertiliser
-dilute HCl
-0.2 M BaCl2 solution
-2 x 250mL beakers
-sintered glass filter
-250 mL vacuum flask

Method:
1/ Accurately weigh ≈2 g fertiliser sample

2/ Dissolve in excess (about 100mL) HCl

3/ Filter to remove any insoluble material

4/ Slowly add excess BaCl2 (about 100ml), stirring well.

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 HSC Chemistry Module 3: Chemical Monitoring and management
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Mixture

Suction

Filtrate

4/ Filter using sintered glass filter and vacuum flask to remove solid BaSO4. Rinse
residue with pure water

5/ Dry residue in an oven and weigh

Results
Mass of fertiliser = 1.92 g
Mass of BaSO4 precipitate = 3.73 g
2
Ba 2  ( aq )  SO 4 ( aq ) o BaSO 4 ( s )

3.73 3.73
moles BaSO4 moles
137.3  32.07  64 233.37
3.73
? moles of sulfate moles
233.37
3.73 358.3411
mass Sulfate u 96.07 1.94717...g
233.37 233.37
358.3411
? % m/m sulfate 233.37 u 100 79.97428... # 80.0% (3 s.f.)
1.92

4. Human Activity and the Atmosphere

x Describe the composition and layered structure of the atmosphere

Structure
The atmosphere consists of two main layers: the troposphere and the stratosphere.

The troposphere extends up to an altitude of 15km. In the troposphere are over 90% of
Earth’s gases and the temperature drops with altitude. The top of the troposphere is known as
the tropopause and the temperature is stable. Above the troposphere is the stratosphere, where
temperature rises with altitude.

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 HSC Chemistry Module 3: Chemical Monitoring and management
Summary

100
Thermosphere Ionosphere
90

80

70
Altitude (km) Mesosphere

60

0.001 atmospheres
50

40
Stratosphere Ozone
layer
30
Highest concentration of ozone

20
0.1 atmospheres

10 Mr. Everest
Troposphere

1.0 atmosphere
0
-100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20
Temperature (°C)

Composition
Water vapour varies from 0.5-1.0%, but other gases remain in constant. In dry air:
Nitrogen ≈78.1%
Oxygen ≈20.9%
Argon ≈00.9%

This represents 99.9%. The remaining 0.1% consists of carbon dioxide, inert gases, methane
and ozone. Despite the small concentrations, these gases are of most concern.

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Robert Lee Chin
 HSC Chemistry Module 3: Chemical Monitoring and management
Summary

x Identify the main pollutants found in the lower atmosphere and their sources

Pollution Artificial Sources Natural sources

Nitrogen Motor vehicles Action of sunlight
oxides, NOx Electricity production Soil bacteria
(NO, NO2) lightning
Volatile Unburnt fuel, solvents, thinners, Emitted by vegetation e.g.
organic alcohols, paints, hydrocarbons eucalyptus oil
compounds
Carbon Incomplete fuel combustion (vehicles, Incomplete biomass combustion
monoxide, CO smelters, power stations) (volcanic eruptions, decomposing
organic matter)
Carbon Combustion of fuels for transport and Respiration of plants and animals
dioxide, CO2 electricity production Volcanoes
Smelting of metals Bushfires
Decomposition of organic matter
Sulfur Dioxide, Smelting of metals Soil bacteria
SO2 Industrial production of sulfuric acid Volcanoes
Incineration of waste products
Petroleum refineries
Particles Combustion of fossil fuels Burning biomass
Mining (underground and open cut) Soil from erosion
Pollen and spores
Agricultural and industrial practices
Lead Lead smelting Erosion of lead ores
Leaded motor vehicles from the 80’s
Old batteries
Ozone Photochemical smog Action of UV light on atmosphere
Electric discharge in DC motor
commutators

x Describe ozone as molecule able to act both as an upper atmosphere UV radiation

shield and a lower atmosphere pollutant

In the upper atmosphere (stratosphere), where concentrations of ozone are up to 8 ppm, it

protects us against dangerous UV radiation. Up to 90% of all UV is absorbed by the ozone
layer.

In the lower atmosphere (troposphere), ozone is a toxic pollutant. Ozone is highly reactive,
capable of oxidising many substances. Concentrations as low as 0.2 ppm cause lung damage,
life-threatening for asthma suffers.

Ironically, human activities destroy ozone in the stratosphere and produce ozone in the
troposphere.

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Robert Lee Chin
 HSC Chemistry Module 3: Chemical Monitoring and management
Summary

x Describe the formation of a coordinate covalent bond

Non-metallic compounds contain covalent bonds. A covalent bond is formed by a shared
pair of electrons. A coordinate covalent bond forms when one atom provides both the
electrons for the covalent bond. Otherwise, the bond is indistinguishable from a normal
covalent bond.

x Demonstrate the formation of coordinate covalent bonds using Lewis electron dot
structures

Ozone, O3
To form ozone, another oxygen atom must bond to the O2 molecule. The middle oxygen atom
provides both the electrons for the single covalent bond with the third oxygen atom.
O O O O O O

Sulfur dioxide, SO2

The sulfur atoms supplies both pairs of electrons to form the coordinate covalent bonds
O S O S

O
O

Sulfur Trioxide, SO3

In SO2, the sulfur has a pair of free electrons. It is possible for an oxygen atom to form a
coordinate covalent bond here. Note that the sulfur only needs 6 electrons to have a
‘complete’ shell.
2SO 2 ( g )  O 2 ( g ) o 2SO 3( g )
O

O S O
O S

O O

Sulfate ion, SO42-

As shown in SO3, the sulfur only needs 6 electrons for a complete shell. If two electrons are
added (maybe from a metal), they can form another coordinate covalent bond.

O O

O S O O S O

O O

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Robert Lee Chin
 HSC Chemistry Module 3: Chemical Monitoring and management
Summary
Hydronium Ion, H3O+
A proton forms a coordinate covalent bond with the oxygen from the water molecule

+ O
H O H H H

H H

Ammonium Ion, NH4

H

N +
H H H H N H

H
H

x Compare the properties of the gaseous forms of oxygen and the oxygen free radical
x Compare the properties of the oxygen allotropes O2 and O3 and account for them on
the basis of molecular structure and bonding

O2 (oxygen gas) O3 (ozone) O(oxygen free

Colourless odourless gas
Moderately reactive. Decomposed by
high-energy UV light
Formed by photosynthesis
6CO 2 ( g )  6H 2 O ( l ) o C 6 H 12 O 6  6O 2 ( g )
Essential for life
M.P.
B.P.
Density (liquid at
20°C)
radical)
Pale blue, toxic gas with Oxygen atom with
sharp, pungent odour unpaired electrons and
energy levels higher
than ground state
Highly reactive Extremely reactive
Decomposed by medium
energy UV light
Formed by UV and Formed by UV light
electric discharge on on oxygen and also on
oxygen ozone
O 2 ( g )  O ( g ) o O 3( g ) O 3( g ) o O 2 ( g )  O ( g )
O ( 2 ) o 2O ( g )
Causes coughing chest Highly reactive with
pain and rapid heartbeat chemicals in living
Concentration greater cells
then 1ppm is toxic
218.75°C -192.5°C
-182.96°C -110.5°C
1.331gL-1 1.998 gL-1

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Robert Lee Chin
 HSC Chemistry Module 3: Chemical Monitoring and management
Summary
Diatomic molecule i.e. 2 Three oxygen atoms held Each radical contains two
oxygen atoms held together with 1 double covalent unpaired valence shell
together by a covalent bond and 1 single covalent bond electrons
double bond
Linear molecule Bent molecule, due to electron Single atom in molecule
pairs getting as far away from
each other as possible

O
O O

Explanation of differences between O2 and O3

The differences are due to bonding and structure.

Differences in physical properties are due to the larger size of the O3 molecule, which
increases dispersion forces between molecules

The differences in reactivity are due to bonding. The double covalent bond in O2 is strong,
requiring 500 kJmol-1 to exceed the activation energy. In contrast, it only takes 100 kJmol-1 to
break any of the bonds in O3, so it readily enters oxidation reactions. This is because the two
covalent bonds consist of a single and a partial bond.

Oxygen Free radicals and ozone formation

In the stratosphere, UV radiation causes O2 molecules to split into separate oxygen atoms
called “oxygen free radicals”. The energy absorbed in splitting and the unpaired electrons
make them extremely reactive.

Although oxygen free-radicals are highly reactive, most gases in the atmosphere are
unreactive. Nitrogen molecules are stable, argon is completely inert and O2 is relatively
reactive. So oxygen free radicals react with O2 molecules to form ozone. Because ozone has
nothing to react with, it can reach concentrations of up to 8 ppm.

Paradoxically, the UV radiation which creates oxygen free-radicals and thus, ozone, are
strongly absorbed (over 90%) by ozone.

x Identify the origins of chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) and halons in the atmosphere

Alkanes of alkenes with a halogen replacing a hydrogen are named haloalkanes or

haloalkenes. Halogens often involved are Br, I, Cl & F.

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are a group of haloalkanes containing fluorine & chlorine and
are responsible for destroying the ozone. Halons are fluorocarbon compounds containing
bromine which are even more destructive to the ozone than CFCs.

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Robert Lee Chin
 HSC Chemistry Module 3: Chemical Monitoring and management
Summary
CFCs were first used as refrigerants in the 1930’s as a ‘safer’ alternative to ammonia. Their
properties of inertness and low boiling point led to many uses including, dry cleaning fluids,
solvents, insecticides (e.g. DDT), propellants, fire extinguishers and foam blowing agent

Halons were used in fire extinguishers to protect against electrical fires. Fortunately, they
were never used as extensively as CFCs.

They were found to be so inert they did not react with the troposphere. They gradually diffuse
into the stratosphere where they react with UV light to form chlorine and, fluorine free
radicals.

Substance Formula Previous Use

CFCs
Chloroform CHCl3 anaesthetic
dichloromethane CH2Cl2
Tetrachloromethane C C l4 Cleaning fluid
dichlorodifluoromethane CCl2F2 propellant
Chlorofluoromethane CH2ClF refrigerant
Chlorotrifluoromethane CClF3
Trichlorofluromethane C C l3 F
dichlorodifluoromethane CC2F2
Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane C14H9Cl5 insecticide

x Identify and name examples of isomers (excluding geometrical and optical) of

haloalkanes up to eight carbon atoms

Naming Simple halogens

Use prefixes for the halogen group (i.e. Bromo, Chloro, Fluoro, Iodo)

Use prefixes for more than one of the same halogen (e.g. di, tri, tetra)

If more than one halogen atom is present, list them alphabetically by halogen name.
E.g. C4H5BrCl2I2 is called “Bromodichlorodiiodobutane”.

Number the carbon atom with the halogen attached, giving preference to any double bond.
Otherwise, give lowest number to the halogen group

Examples:
a) 3,4-dibromo-1,2,5-trichloro-4-fluroheptane
CH 2Cl  CHCl  CHBr  CBrF  CHCl  CH 2  CH3

b) 1,1,2,3-tetrachloropropane
CHCl 2  CHCl  CHCl  CH 3

c) 2,3-difluoro-4-iodopentane

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Robert Lee Chin
 HSC Chemistry Module 3: Chemical Monitoring and management
Summary

CH 3  CHF  CHF  CH 2 I

d) Tetra chloromethane
CCl 4

x Gather, process and present information from secondary sources including

simulations, molecular model kits or pictorial representations to model isomers of
haloalkanes

Example Isomer: BromoDichlorofluoropropane- C3H4BrCl2F (23 Isomers)

H F Br

H C C C Cl

H H Cl 1-bromo-1, 1-dichloro-2-fluoropropane

F H Br

H C C C Cl

H H Cl 1-bromo-1, 1-dichloro-3-fluoropropane

Cl F Br

H C C C H

H H Cl 1-bromo-1, 3-dichloro-2-fluoropropane

Cl H Br

H C C C H

F H Cl 1-bromo-1, 3-dichloro-3-fluoropropane

Cl H Br

H C C C F

C H Cl 1-bromo-1, 3-dichloro-1-fluoropropane

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Robert Lee Chin
 HSC Chemistry Module 3: Chemical Monitoring and management
Summary
H Cl Br

H C C C F

C H Cl 1-bromo-1, 2-dichloro-1-fluoropropane

H Cl Br

H C C C H

C F Cl 1-bromo-1, 2-dichloro-2-fluoropropane

F Cl Br

H C C C H

C H Cl 1-bromo-1, 2-dichloro-3-fluoropropane

H Cl Br

H C C C H

H Cl F 1-bromo-2, 2-dichloro-1-fluoropropane

F Cl Br

H C C C H

H Cl H 1-bromo-2, 2-dichloro-3-fluoropropane

Cl H Br

H C C C H

H Cl F 1-bromo-2, 3-dichloro-1-fluoropropane

Cl F Br

H C C C H

H Cl H 1-bromo-2, 3-dichloro-2-fluoropropane

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Robert Lee Chin
 HSC Chemistry Module 3: Chemical Monitoring and management
Summary
Cl Cl Br

H C C C H

F H H 1-bromo-2, 3-dichloro-3-fluoropropane

Cl H Br

H C C C H

Cl H F 1-bromo-3, 3-dichloro-1-fluoropropane

Cl F Br

H C C C H

Cl H H 1-bromo-3, 3-dichloro-2-fluoropropane

Cl H Br

F C C C H

Cl H H 1-bromo-3, 3-dichloro-3-fluoropropane

H Br Cl

H C C C F

H H Cl 2-bromo-1, 1-dichloro-1-fluoropropane

H Br Cl

H C C C H

H F Cl 2-bromo-1, 1-dichloro-2-fluoropropane

F Br Cl

H C C C H

H H Cl 2-bromo-1, 1-dichloro-3-fluoropropane

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Robert Lee Chin
 HSC Chemistry Module 3: Chemical Monitoring and management
Summary

Cl Br H

F C C C Cl

H H H 2-bromo-1, 3-dichloro-1-fluoropropane

Cl Br Cl

H C C C H

H F H 2-bromo-1, 3-dichloro-2-fluoropropane

Cl Br F

H C C C H

F Cl H 2-bromo-1, 2-dichloro-1-fluoropropane

Cl Br F

H C C C H

H Cl H 2-bromo-1, 2-dichloro-3-fluoropropane

x Present information from secondary sources to write the equations to show the
reactions involving CFCs and ozone to demonstrate the removal of ozone from the
atmosphere
CFCs undergo photodisassociation when exposed to UV radiation to form reactive chlorine
free radicals.
UV
For example: CCl 4 ( g ) o CCl 3( g )  Cl ( g )

The chlorine radicals then react with ozone to form the chlorine monoxide radical.

Cl ( g )  O 3( g ) o ClO ( g )  O 2 ( g )

Further reaction by oxygen radicals regenerates the chlorine radical. It is acting as a catalyst
for ozone decomposition.

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Robert Lee Chin
 HSC Chemistry Module 3: Chemical Monitoring and management
Summary

ClO( g )  O( g ) o Cl( g )  O 2 ( g )

By adding the two above reactions, we get the net equation:

Cl ( g )  O 3( g ) o ClO ( g )  O 2 ( g )
ClO ( g )  O ( g ) o Cl ( g )  O 2 ( g )
O 3( g )  O ( g ) o 2O 2 ( g )

Ozone has been converted into oxygen and oxygen radicals, which could have formed more
ozone, have been ‘mopped up’.

This process is more frequent in Winter and Spring due to more ice particles which provide a
surface catalyst.

x Present information from secondary sources to identify alternative chemicals used to

replace CFCs and evaluate the effectiveness of their use as a replacement for CFCs

Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) and hydrochlorocarbons (HFCs) are the two main

alternatives for CFCs.

HCFCs substitute some of the chlorine atoms with hydrogen. They are decomposed by OH
free radicals in the troposphere, however, this process is slow and they can still reach the
stratosphere and form chlorine radicals.

HFCs contain no chlorine and are under being trialled. They react with OH more readily than
CFCs. Because they contain no chlorine, they produce no undesirable radicals in the
stratosphere.

However, both HCFCs and HFCs are greenhouse gases with long atmospheric lives (due to
their stability).

Hydrocarbons have replaced CFCs as aerosol propellants and refrigerants in air conditioners.
They do not affect the ozone, but they are flammable.

The main HCF used in Australia is 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane: CF3  CH 2 F

x Discuss the problems associated with the use of CFCs and assess the effectiveness of
steps taken to alleviate these problems

Problems include:
-Depletion of the ozone layer, leading to more UV reaching Earth, which increases risk of
sunburn, cancers, crop failure
-an enhanced greenhouse effect, contributing to global warming

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Robert Lee Chin
 HSC Chemistry Module 3: Chemical Monitoring and management
Summary

Steps to alleviate problems

The Montreal Protocol, a 1987 International agreement between many countries to eliminate
CFC emissions. Further assistance has been given to developing countries to phases out
CFCs. The effectiveness is dependant on government regulation of use and production of
CFCs.

CFCs were gradually replaced by similar chemicals such as HCFCs and HFCs. However,
they have their own problems, namely that they are greenhouse gases with long atmospheric
lives. The use of air pump mechanisms in aerosol cans has been more effective.

Although CFCs cannot be removed, the effects of high UV levels can be alleviated by using
new sunscreens, as advised by organisation such as the Cancer council and use of UV
stabilisers in polymers to reduce photodisassociation by UV.

x Analyse information available that indicates changes in atmospheric changes in

atmospheric ozone concentrations, describe the changes observed and explain how
this information was obtained

CFCs were first developed to replace ammonia in refrigerators, as many poisoning fatalities
had occurred. CFCs were found to be very inert and non-toxic in the troposphere and they
soon became widely used. Measurements of ozone concentrations in the 1970’s indicated
CFCs were depleting the ozone in the stratosphere.

In the 70’s, Scientist in Holland investigated the effect of nitrous oxide on the atmosphere
and found the sources were from artificial fertiliser and aircraft exhausts. This led to
increased concern over the stability of the ozone layer.

Further investigations showed CFCs to be ozone depleting and later tests showed that halons
were even more readily broken down by UV than CFCs, releasing bromine free radicals.

Regular measurements have been made since the 1920’s and more intensive measurements
since the 1970’s. A worldwide decline in stratospheric ozone layers of about 10% has been
recorded. It has been found that a ‘hole’ develops over Antarctica each spring and the decline
exceeds 50%

The concentration of ozone is measured using analysis devices sent up by balloons or using a
Dobson spectrophotometer which measures the intensity of different frequencies of UV
radiation and compares it to a frequency which is not strongly absorbed by ozone. Similar
instruments can be sent up by satellites in orbit, which measure the amount of UV scattered
by the atmosphere to give ozone concentrations at different altitudes.

Even partial destruction can result in harmful UV exposure, leading to skin cancers, sunburn
and disrupted plant growth, even leading to a worldwide food crisis.

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Robert Lee Chin
 HSC Chemistry Module 3: Chemical Monitoring and management
Summary

5. Monitoring and Management in water

x Identify that water quality can be determined by considering:

-Concentrations of common ions
-Total dissolved solids
-Hardness
-Turbidity
-Acidity
-Dissolved oxygen and biochemical oxygen demand

Concentrations of common ions

The concentration of common ions e.g. Chloride and sulfate, can be determined by
gravimetric analysis using precipitation reactions (e.g. adding silver ions to chloride and
weighting the precipitate). AAS is used to determine concentrations of metal ions e.g.
Sodium, aluminium, magnesium

Total dissolved solids (TDS)

TDS are determined by evaporating a filtered sample of a known volume. Most dissolved
solids are ions, so their presence can be determined using a data logger set to record electrical
mass
conductivity. The amount of TDS is converted to ppm and expressed as .
volume

Hardness
Hardness is due to the presence of Ca2+ and Mg2+. These react with soap molecules to form
an insoluble precipitate resulting in poor lathering ability and blockage of water pipes.
Hardness is tested by precipitating the Mg2+ or Ca2+ ions with sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) of
a known concentration, followed by gravimetric analysis of the weighed solids.

Turbidity
Turbidity is a measure of the ability of water to support life. It results from suspended solids
in the water, causing ‘cloudiness’ which prevents light penetration and therefore,
photosynthesis which in turn reduces the oxygen concentration. It is tested by pouring a
sample into a turbidity tube until the cross at the base becomes invisible. However, the
turbidity cannot be accurately measured, only compared.

High Low
turbidity turbidity

Acidity

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Robert Lee Chin
 HSC Chemistry Module 3: Chemical Monitoring and management
Summary
Safe drinking water has a pH of ≈6.5 due to dissolved CO2. pH values ±2 units from neutral
indicate polluted water. Water pH is tested using either universal indicator with colour
comparison chart or a pH probe.

Dissolved oxygen (DO)

This measurement is important for safety of drinking water. Low O2 concentrations indicate
stagnant water.

DO is measured using the Winkler test, which fixes the oxygen concentration for later
determination by titration. The amount of manganese dioxide produced by adding manganese
(II) ions and hydroxide ions is a measure of the DO. Acidified Iodide ions are the added to
produce a yellow iodine solution. This is then titrated against a standard sodium thiosulphate
solution using a starch indicator. The indicator turns the solution blue, which disappears at
the endpoint.

The overall reaction is: 4H  ( aq )  O 2 ( aq )  4S2 O 3 2 ( aq ) o 2H 2 O ( l )  2S4 O 6 2 ( aq )

Therefore, 1 mole of dissolved oxygen produces 4 moles of thiosulphate (S2O32-)

Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)

BOD5 measures the amount of oxygen used by bacteria and microorganisms in a sealed
container. One sample is kept in the dark for 5 days, so no photosynthesis (and therefore no
oxygen is produced) occurs while the other is tested immediately. The BOD is the difference
between the initial and the final DO values and is given in mg/L. Although BOD gives
precise quantitative measurements, it is commonly used as an indicator of water quality.

x Identify factors that affect the concentrations of a range of ions in solution in

natural bodies of water such as rivers and oceans

Factors include:
-rainfall frequency (e.g. floods and droughts)
-water temperature
-evaporation rates
-soil/rock type
-water pH
-pathway of water (if it flows through ground aquifers the water will be ‘harder’)
-presence of animal faeces

Human activities
Farming practise such as removal of vegetation and irrigation increases salt concentration in
rivers. Water flowing through fertilized land becomes contaminated with nitrate and
phosphate ions. Mining exposes sulphides which are oxidised by the air, forming sulfuric
acid. Other human activities include sewage treatment run-off, heavy metals from factories,
mines and storage dumps.

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Robert Lee Chin
 HSC Chemistry Module 3: Chemical Monitoring and management
Summary

x Describe and assess the effectiveness of methods used to purify and sanitise mass
water supplies

There are several methods to purify water. Most are variations on the following process:

Floccuation
and filtration Chlorination pH adjustment
sedimentation

Flocculation
Water is collected in dams and pumped to a treatment site where larger debris is removed via
screens. Fine particles normally have electric charges which prevents them from joining.
Separation of fine particles involves adding coagulating agents such as Iron (III) chloride
(FeCl3). This neutralises the surface charges so the particles join and also forms iron (III)
hydroxide Fe(OH)3 precipitate. The particles ‘flocculate’ into a large mass which is easily
filtered.

Filtration
The water is passed through beds of sand and carbon. The sand traps the floc and the carbon
absorbs organic molecules which have unpleasant odours and tastes.

Chlorination
The water is clear of any particles at this stage, but may contain dangerous microbes. There
are several chemicals which may be added to sanitise the water:

-Chlorine gas (Cl2) at 2 ppm

-sodium hypochlorite (NaClO(l)) at 1L/4000L
-calcium hypochlorite Ca(OCl(s))2
-Monochloramine (NH2Cl), less powerful but longer-lasting, is made by reacting ammonia
(NH3) with chlorine (Cl2)

pH adjustment
Water is normally slightly acidic (pH≈6.5) due to dissolved CO2. The easiest way to
neutralise water is by using forced draft degasifiers. Lime is commonly used at the start of
water treatment, as it increases water hardness, facilitating flocculating and minimising the
risk of heavy metals from pipe fittings dissolving into the water.

Assessment of effectiveness
This involves testing water samples for microbes throughout the entire purification and
sanitisation process esp. during sanitisation. Also required are public health surveys and
medical reports of incidences of water-borne illnesses

In Australia, the incidence of health problems arsing from sub-standard water is nil in most
years. However, in 1998 there was an outbreak of cryptosporidium and giardinia in NSW.

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Robert Lee Chin
 HSC Chemistry Module 3: Chemical Monitoring and management
Summary
Nowadays, water supplies are monitored daily at water treatment plants and catchment areas.
This is considered highly effective and less costly than installing microscopic filters.

x Describe the design and composition of microscopic filters and explain how they
purify contaminated water

Microscopic Membrane Filters

These filters are able to filter out even microbes, avoiding the need to chemically treat the
water i.e. they filter out all small particles, including microbes. They can be classified as
micro-, ultra-, nano-filtration (as small as 1μm) or reverse osmosis.

The membrane is generally made into a film or a ‘capillary tube’. It is composed of polymers
(e.g. polypropylene), which are dissolved in a mixture of solvents. Water-soluble powders are
added to form the pores. The mixture is spread on a plate or moulded into a tube for the
solvent to evaporate. Once the membrane solidifies, it is placed in water to produce the
microscopic pores.

Semi-permameable membranes for reverse osmosis are made of cellulose acetate, polyamide
or composite films. Under pressure, these have high water permeability but block most other
ions, molecules and atoms.

Fine particles
trapped on outside
of capillary tube

Clean water
passes through

Although each pore is microscopic, the large number of pores creates a large surface area
Dirty water is forced through the pores in the pipe under high pressure to speed up the
process. For sheet filters, water is passed across the membrane as this reduces blockage. For
capillary tubes, water is passed through the pores into the tube under high pressure.

Compared to sand filters, membrane filters are very expensive but also effective. Other
countries such as Singapore use membrane filters to recycle sewage water for re-use. In
Australia, they are mainly used for filtering high-quality bottled drinking water.

x Perform a first-hand investigation to use qualitative and quantitative tests to analyse

and compare the quality of water supplies

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Robert Lee Chin
 HSC Chemistry Module 3: Chemical Monitoring and management
Summary

x Gather, process and present information on the range and chemistry of the tests
used to:
-identify heavy metal pollution of water
-monitor possible eutrophication of waterways

Heavy metal pollution

Heavy metal pollution of water is caused by unacceptably high levels of ions of arsenic,
cadmium, copper, lead, mercury, nickel and zinc. The most likely and dangerous of these are
lead and mercury. Gravimetric analysis using precipitation reactions will not work, because
dangerous concentrations are too small to be detected. Instead, AAS or mass spectroscopy are
used

Eutrophication
Eutrophication involves excessive nutrient content due to fertilisers in waterways. Fertilises
containing nitrate and phosphorus ions cause excessive algae growth and oxygen depletion
when they die and decay. When this occurs, the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) is said
to be extreme. This oxygen depletion kills all other organisms in the waterway.
Eutrophication usually occurs when water flows through farmland or when sewage water is
discharged into waterways.

Spectrophotometry is one method to determine phosphate concentrations. It involves reacting

the water sample with the reagent ammonium molybdite [(NH4)2MoO4], then adding
ascorbic acid which turns the sample blue. The blueness of the solution is proportional to the
amount of phosphate. A photometer is used to measure the amount of light passing through
the solution to a detector.

Light passes
through

Photometer
measures intensity
of light

Other quantitative methods include AAS and BOD tests.

x Gather, process and present information on the features of local town water supply
in terms of :
-catchment area
-possible sources of contamination in this catchment
-chemical tests available to determine levels and
-Types of contaminants
-Physical and chemical processes used to purify water

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Robert Lee Chin
 HSC Chemistry Module 3: Chemical Monitoring and management
Summary
-Chemical additives in the water and the reasons for the presence of these additives

Local water supply: Hunter Water Supply

Catchment Area
Water comes from three main catchments:
Grahamstown Dam supplies 30-45% of water to is the lower Hunter and has an area of
100km2. It is used for many other activities including agriculture, recreation, tourism,
residential & urban developments. Water is routinely monitored for pathogens before it
reaches the catchment area.

Chichester Dam supplies 40% of water and has an area of 197km2. It is bound from the North
and East by the Great Dividing Range. It is located near Barrington Tops National Park and is
therefore pristine and largely unaffected by human activities. Environmental flow releases
into the connecting Williams river sustain natural ecosystems along Chichester River.

Tomago and Anna Bat sandbeds contribute to surface supplies and provide backup in times
of drought. Tomago sandbeds supplies the Tilligerry peninsular while Anna bay supplies the
Tomaree peninsula. Together, they cover an area of 275km2 along a 10-15km coastal strip.
Porous sand means there is little surface run-off.

Sources of contamination
Land in these catchments used for a variety of other purposes:
-residential
-Industry
-Transport and construction
-Agriculture
-Mining
-Recreation
-Defence for activities

The groundwater supply can be contaminated due to residential septic tanks and past history
of sand mining in the area.

Types of contaminants and Tests

Contaminant
suspended fine particles (clay and silts)
Suspended organic matter
manganese
Acidic or basic compounds
Microorganisms (pathogens)
T e st
Turbidity test using turbidity tube
AAS, mass spectroscopy
pH probe, universal indicator
BOD5, microscopic filters

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Robert Lee Chin
 HSC Chemistry Module 3: Chemical Monitoring and management
Summary

Physical & Chemical Processes used to purify water and chemical additives

Screening: sieves remove larger solids e.g. twigs, fish, leaves

↓
Coagulation/flocculation: Alum (hydrated potassium aluminium sulfate, KAl[SO4]2·H2O) or
a polymer is added to the water to make small particles clump together, forming an easy-to-
remove ‘floc’.
↓
Sedimentation: The floc and water flow into sedimentation basins, the ‘floc’ settles as
sludge at the bottom.
↓
Filtration: Water flows through sandbeds to remove suspended matter. Sandbed filters are
routinely cleaned by backwashing.
↓
Disinfection: Chlorine (Cl2) is added to kill any pathogens
↓
Sludge drying: ‘Floc’ sludge is piped to drying lagoons
↓
Fluoridation: Fluoride is added to reduce dental caries
↓
pH adjustment: lime [Ca(OH)2] is added to stabilise pH (esp. ‘soft’ water) and prevent
corrosion of pipelines

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Robert Lee Chin