RTR Terms and Definitions

21/12/2016 Terms and Definitions For RTR – Radio Telephony and Aviation subjects for CPL and ATPL
 Terms and Definitions For RTR | RTR, FRTOL

This entry was posted in Airlines Exam DGCA Nav Radio Telephony and tagged ATPL CPL DGCA FRTOL Notes RTR Terms & Definitions on May 6, 2016 by Arunaksha
Nandy
Terms and Definitions For RTR/ FRTOL

1. Advisory Area. It is a designated area within a flight information region where air traffic advisory service is available.
2. Advisory Route. It is a route within a flight information region along which a traffic advisory service is available.
Note. Air traffic control service provides a much more complete service than air traffic advisory service. Advisory areas and routes are therefore not
established within controlled airspace, but air traffic advisory service may be provided below and above control areas.
3. Aerodrome A defined area on land or water including any buildings, installations and equipment intended to be used either wholly or in part for the
arrival, departure and movement of ac.
4. Aerodrome Reference Point (ARP). It is a designated geographical location of an aerodrome, normally taken as the geometrical centre of the runways or
runway in the case of a single runway aerodrome. The ARP is defined in degrees, minutes and seconds of latitude and longitude.
5. Aerodrome Traffic Zone. The airspace extending from an aerodrome to a height of 2000 ft above the level of the aerodrome and within a distance of 1 ½
nm of its boundaries; except any part of that airspace which is within the aerodrome traffic zone of another aerodrome which is notified as being the
controlling aerodrome is called the Aerodrome Traffic Zone.
6. Aircraft Approach Limitation. The AAL is the lowest height above touchdown point to which a particular type (or mark) of ac may descend on
instruments using a specified runway approach aid. From which height a pilot, after transferring from instrument to visual reference, can be expected to
recover the ac to the runway centre-line and make a safe landing on the runway, or execute a safe missed approach procedure. The AAL does not take
into account local terrain or obstructions.
7. Aircraft Classification Number (ACN). The ACN is a number expressing the relative effect of an ac load on a pavement for specified sub-grade strength.
8. Air Defence Identification Zone. Airspace of defined dimensions within which the ready identification, location and control of ac is required.
9. Air Report. It is a report passed during the course of a flight in conformity with requirements for position, operational, or meteorological reporting in the
AIREP or POMAR forms.
10. Air Route. The navigable airspace between two points, identified to the extent necessary for the application of flight rules.
11. Air Route Surveillance Radar. It is a long range radar which increases the capability of ATC for handling heavy en-route traffic.
12. Air Surveillance Radar. Radar providing position of ac by azimuth and range data without elevation data.
13. Air Traffic Advisory Service. Service provided to ensure separation in-so-far as possible between ac which are operating on an IFR flight plan, outside
control areas but within advisory routes or advisory areas.
14. Air Traffic Control Centre. An organisation established to provide:
http://www.nandyradiotelephony.com/termsanddefinitionsforrtr/ 2/9
Air traffic control within a control area (where established).
Flight information service within a flight information region.
Alerting service for search and rescue within its flight information region.
15. Air Traffic Control Clearance. Authorisation for an aircraft to proceed under conditions specified by an air traffic control unit.
16. Air Traffic Control Services. A service provided for the purpose of:
Preventing collisions between ac in the air, and on the manoeuvring area between a/c and obstructions.
Expediting and maintaining an orderly flow of traffic. Air Traffic Control Services are provided by licensed Air Traffic Controllers. The call sign suffixes,
TOWER, APPROACH, GROUND, DIRECTOR, ZONE, and RADAR are used as appropriate.
17. Air Traffic Service (ATS). A generic term meaning variously, flight information service, alerting service, air traffic advisory service, air traffic control
service, area control service, approach control service or aerodrome control service.
18. Airway. A control area or portion thereof established in the form of a corridor equipped with radio navigational aids.
19. Alerting Service. A service provided to notify appropriate organizations regarding ac in need of search and rescue aid, and assist such organizations as
required.
20. Alternate Aerodrome. An aerodrome specified in the flight plan to which a flight may proceed when it becomes inadvisable to land at the aerodrome of
intended landing.
Note. An alternate aerodrome may be the aerodrome of departure.
21. The vertical distance of a level, a point or object considered as a point measured from mean sea level (MSL).
22. Approach Control. A term used to indicate an air traffic control unit providing approach control service.
23. Area Control Centre. A unit established to provide air traffic control service to controlled flights in control area under its jurisdiction.
24. ATS Route. A specified route designated for channelling the flow of traffic necessary for the provision of air traffic services.
Note. The term ATS route is used to mean variously, airway, advisory route, controlled or uncontrolled route, arrival or departure route, etc.
25. Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS). The provision of current, routine information to arriving and departing aircraft by means of continuous
and repetitive broadcast throughout the day or specified portion of the day. The transmissions contain weather, QNH, runway is use and any other
relevant information.
26. The height above ground or water of the base of the lowest layer of cloud below 6,000 meters (20,000’) covering more than half the sky.
27. Circling Approach. An approach during which an ac manoeuvres, outside of the 30° arc of the centreline of the active runway, in order to achieve a
suitable position from which it can continue with a visual approach.
28. Circling Approach Minimum. The circling approach MDH is the lowest authorised height at which a circle-to-land manoeuvre may be carried out
following an instrument approach.
29. Clearance Limit. The point to which an ac is granted an air traffic control.
30. Clearway A defined rectangular area on the ground or water under the control of the Appropriate Authority selected or prepared as a suitable
area over which an ac may make a portion of its initial climb to a specified height. A clearway should extend laterally to a distance of at least 250 ft
on each side of the extended centreline of the runway.

31. Control Area. A controlled airspace of defined horizontal dimensions extending upwards from a specified height above the surface of the earth to
unlimited unless otherwise indicated.

32. Controlled Airspace. A defined airspace in which air traffic control service is provided to aerodrome traffic.

33. Controlled Aerodrome. An aerodrome at which air traffic control service is provided to aerodrome traffic.

Note. The term controlled aerodrome indicates that air traffic control service is provided to aerodrome traffic but does not necessarily imply that a
control zone exists, since a control zone is required at aerodromes where air traffic control service will be provided to IFR flights, but not at aerodromes
where it will be provided only to VFR flights.
34. Control Zone. A controlled airspace extending upwards from the surface of the earth.

35. Co-ordinate Universal Time (UTC). A combination of International Atomic and Universal Time, which is replacing GMT as the accepted international
standard. It is always within 0.5 seconds of Universal Time.

36. Current Flight Plan. The flight plan, including changes, if any brought about by subsequent

37. Danger Area. An airspace of defined dimensions within which activities dangerous to the flight on ground manoeuvring of ac may exist at specified
times.

38. Decision Altitude/Height (DA/H). The altitude or height at which a missed approach must be initiated unless the required visual references have
been established and the ac is in a suitable position to continue with a visual approach. The DA/DH is applicable while executing an instrument
approach with runway approach aids.

Note. Decision Altitude (DA) is referenced to mean sea level (MSL) and Decision Height (DH) is referenced to threshold elevation.
39. Distress Message. Emergency message to be used when an ac is threatened by serious or imminent danger and the crew is in need of immediate
assistance.
40. The vertical position of a point or a level, above, on or affixed to the surface of the earth, measured from mean sea level.
41. Engine out Allowance (EOA). EOA is the factor to be added to DH to allow for additional height lost while overshooting with engine(s) out.
42. Estimated Time of Arrival (ETA). For IFR flights, the time at which it is estimated that the ac will arrive over a designed point, defined by reference to
navigation aids, from which it is intended that an instrument approach procedure will be commenced, or, if no navigational aid is associated with the
aerodrome, the time at which the ac will arrive over head. For VFR flights, it is the time at which it is estimated that the ac will arrive over the
aerodrome.
43. Expected Approach Time. The time at which it is expected that an arriving ac will be cleared to commence an approach for a landing
Note. The actual time of leaving the holding point will depend upon the approach clearance.
44. Final Approach. That part of an instrument approach procedure in which alignment and descent for landing are accomplished. It begins at the final
approach fix or point and ends at the missed approach point or fix. In a precision approach the final approach is deemed to commence at the glide path
intercept point and this has been called the final approach fix or point.
45. Flight Information Centre (FIC). A unit established to provide flight information service and alerting service.
46. Flight information Region (FIR). Airspace of defined dimensions within which flight information service and alerting services are provided.
47. Flight Information Service. A service provided for the purpose of giving advice and information useful for the safe and efficient conduct of flights.
48. Flight Level. A surface of constant atmospheric pressure which is related to a specific pressure datum 1013.2 mb (1013.2 hectopascals (hPa) 29.92 inches
of mercury), and is separated from other such surfaces by specific pressure intervals.
Notes. A pressure type altimeter calibrated in accordance with the Standard Atmosphere.
When set to a QNH, altimeter setting will indicate altitude.

When set to a QFE, altimeter setting will indicate height above the QFE reference datum.
When set to a pressure of 1013.2 mb (1013.2 hPa, 29.92 ins Hg) the altimeter may be used to indicate flight levels.
The terms ‘height’ and ‘altitude’ used in Note 1 above indicate altimetric rather than geometric heights and altitudes.
No altimeter correction is to be applied when setting altimeter to 1013.2 hPa (QNE) to fly the flight levels.
49. Flight Plan. Specified information provided to Air Traffic Service Units, relative to the intended flight or portion of a flight of an ac.
50. Ground Controlled Approach (GCA). The technique or procedure for talking down an ac during its approach so as to place it in a position for landing
during conditions of poor visibility and low cloud ceiling through the use of radar.

51. Handover Procedure. The handing over of the control of an ac from one Radar Service Area to another.
52. Heading The direction in which the longitudinal axis of an ac is pointed usually expressed in degrees from North (magnetic).
53. Height The vertical distance of a level, a point or an object considered as a point, measured from a specified datum.
54. Holding Point. A point specifically located, identified by visual or other means in the vicinity of which the position of an ac in flight is maintained in
accordance with air traffic control instructions.
55. ILS Categories (ICAO)
(a) ILS Category I. An ILS approach procedure which provides for an approach to a decision height not lower than 200 feet (60m) and a visibility not less
than 2400 feet (800m) or a runway visual range not less than 1800 feet (550m).
ILS Category II (Special authorization required). An ILS approach procedure which provides for an approach to a decision height lower than 200 feet
(60m) but not lower than 100 feet (30m) and a runway visual range not less than 1200 feet (350m).
ILS Category III (Special authorization required).
IIIA An ILS approach procedure which provides for approach with either a decision height lower than 100 feet (30m) or with no decision height and with
a runway visual range of not less than 700 feet (200m).
IIIB An ILS approach procedure which provides for approach with either a decision height lower than 50 feet (15m) or with no decision height and with a
runway visual range of less than 700 feet (200m) but not less than 150 feet (50m).
IIIC An ILS approach procedure which provides for approach with no decision height and no runway visual range limitations.
ILS
56. Initial Approach. That part of an instrument approach procedure in which the ac has departed an initial approach fix or point and is manoeuvring to
enter the intermediate or final approach. It ends at the intermediate fix or, where no intermediate segment is established, at the final approach fix or
point.
57. Instrument Approach Procedure (IAP). A series of predetermined manoeuvres by reference to flight instrument with specified protection from obstacles
from the initial approach fix, or where applicable, from the beginning of a defined arrival to a point from which a landing can be completed and
thereafter, if a landing is not completed, to a position at which holding or en route obstacle clearance criteria apply (ICAO).
58. Intermediate Approach. That part of an instrument approach procedure in which ac configuration, speed and positioning adjustments are made. It
blends the initials approach segment into the final approach segment. It begins at the intermediate fix or point and ends at the final fix or point.
59. Landing Distance Available (LDA). The length of runway which is declared available and suitable for the ground runs of a landing aircraft. The landing
distance available commences at the threshold and in most cases corresponds to the physical length of the runway pavement.
60. Load Classification Group (LCG). The bearing strength of a pavement is calculated from the total thickness of the pavement construction and the bearing
capacity of the sub grade and is allocated a Load Classification Group Number (LCG) which embraces a range of LCN values. The bands selected are those
which group together ac which impose similar levels of stress on the payment.
61. Load Classification Number (LCN). The bearing strength of a pavement or runway is defined by a number. This is associated with an indication of
the characteristics and type of construction of the pavement; the Indication is given by an ‘I’ value (the radius of relative stiffness) for a rigid
pavement, or by an ‘h’ (the thickness for flexible pavements). For those aerodromes for which information is available, and appropriate ‘I’ or ‘h’
values (in cm or inches) for each runway are published in the aerodrome directory of the En Route Supplement. The LCN has been reclassified as
the PCN.

62. Master Diversion Aerodrome. An Aerodrome with continuous provision of diversion and emergency facilities.

63. Minimum Descent height (MDH). The lowest height to which an ac may descend while using an airfield approach aid (as different from a runway
approach aid) until the required visual references have been established and the ac is in a suitable position to continue with a visual approach.

64. Minimum Flight Level. In order to ensure safe vertical separation between ac flying at the transition altitude and those flying above, the minimum
flight level is to be 500 ft above the transition level.

65. Minimum Sector Altitude. The lowest altitude which may be used under emergency conditions which will provide a minimum clearance of 300
metres (1000 ft) above all obstacles located in an area contained within a sector of a circle of 25 nautical miles radius centred on a radio aid to
navigation.

66. Missed Approach Point (MAP). That point in an instrument approach at or before which the prescribed missed approach procedure must be
initiated in order to ensure that safe obstacle clearance is accomplished.

67. Non-precision Approach. An instrument approach using a procedure which does not employ electronic glide-slope information.

68. Notices to Airmen (NOTAM). A notice containing information concerning the establishment, condition or change in any aeronautical facility, service,
procedure or hazard, the timely knowledge of which is essential to personnel concerned with flight operations
69. Obstacle ‘Clearance Altitude / Height’ (OCA/H). The lowest altitude (OCA), or alternatively the lowest height above the elevation of the relevant runway
threshold or above the aerodrome elevation as applicable, used in establishing compliance with appropriate obstacle clearance criteria.
70. Obstacle Clearance Limit. The height above aerodrome elevation below which the minimum prescribed vertical clearance cannot be maintained either
on approach or in the event of a missed approach.
71. Operational Air Traffic (OAT). Flights conducted under the control or authority of the military ATS authority.
72. Overrun A cleared area beyond the end of the runway to the barrier.
73. Pavement Classification Number (PCN). A number expressing the bearing strength of a pavement for unrestricted operations.
74. Plan Position Indicator (PPI) Approach. A special type of surveillance radar approach given by the radar controller using the PPI only to assist an ac to
the runway.
75. Precision Approach. An instrument approach using a facility which provides both azimuth and electronic glide-slope information.
76. Precision Approach Radar (PAR). Primary radar equipment used to determine accurately the position in range, azimuth and level of an ac during its
approach relative to the selected approach path.
77. Prohibited Area. Airspace of defined dimensions, above the land areas of territorial waters of a State, within which the flight of ac is prohibited.
78. Protected Range. Limit of reliability of TACAN, DME and VOR given in nautical miles and thousands of feet. (For example, 200/30000 denotes a protected
range of 200 nm upto a height of 30,000 ft).
Note. Civil Authorities use the term Designated Operators Coverage (DOC)
79. QFE. Aerodrome pressure corrected for temperature. When set on the altimeter on the ground, the Altimeter should read zero.
80. QNH Aerodrome pressure corrected for temperature and adjusted to Mean Sea Level, using the ICAO formula. When set on the altimeter on the
ground, the altimeter should read aerodrome elevation.
81. Reporting Point. A specified geographical location in relation to which the position of an ac can be reported.
82. Rescue Co-ordination Centre. A centre established within an assigned search and rescue area to promote efficient organisation of search and rescue.
83. Restricted Area. An airspace of defined dimensions, above the land areas or territorial waters of a State, within which the flight of ac is restricted in
accordance with specified conditions.
84. Runway Visual Range (RVR). The maximum distance in the direction of take-off or landing at which the runway or the specified lights delineating the
runway can be seen from a position on the centre-line at a height corresponding to the average eye-level of the pilot at touchdown.
85. Screen Height. The height of an imaginary screen which the ac would just clear when taking-off or landing in an unbaked attitude with the landing gear
extended.
86. Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR). Radar used by Air traffic Control Services, Civil and Military, to establish and maintain the identity of ac.
87. Shuttle A combination of the holding pattern or procedure coupled with a letdown, that is, maintaining the holding procedure while changing to lower
altitude as is common in stacking, or because of hazardous terrain outside the immediate area of the holding facility.
88. Sigmet Information. Information prepared by a meteorological watch office regarding the occurrence or expected occurrence of one of the following
phenomena:
Active thunderstorm area.
Tropical revolving storm.
Severe line squall.
Heavy hail.
Severe turbulence.
Severe icing.
Marked mountain waves.
Widespread sandstorm/dust storm.
89. Slope Slope is the tangent of the angle of rise or fall of an aerodrome surface or obstacle profile expressed as a percentage.
90. Special VFR Flight. A controlled VFR flight authorized by air traffic control to operate within a control zone under meteorological conditions below the
visual meteorological conditions.
91. Stop Way A defined rectangular area on the ground at the end of the take-off run available prepared as a suitable area in which an ac can be stopped
in the case of an abandoned take-off. A stop way should have the same width as the runway to which it is associated (ICAO).
92. Surveillance Radar. Primary radar equipment used to establish the distance and azimuth of all ac within its range.
93. Take-off Distance Available (TODA). The length of the take-off run available plus the length of clearway available (if clearway is provided). TODA is not to
exceed 1.5 X TORA (ICAO).
94. Take-off Flight Path Area. The take-off flight path area commences at the end of TODA, its width at the point of origin is 600 ft and this width increases at
the rate of 0.25D to a maximum of 6,000 ft, where D is the distance from the point of origin. It extends to the point beyond which no significant
obstructions exist or to a distance of 5.4nm (10km) whichever is the lesser (ICAO).
95. Take-off Run Available (TORA). The length of runway declared available and suitable for the ground run of an ac taking-off. This, in most cases,
corresponds to the physical length of the runway pavement, (ICAO).
96. Terminal Control Area. A control area normally situated at the confluence of ATS Routes in the vicinity of one or more major aerodromes.
97. Threshold Crossing Height (TCH). The height of the straight line extension of the glide slope above the runway at the threshold.
98. Total Estimated Elapsed Time. For IFR flights, the estimated time required from take-off to arrive over that designated point, defined by reference to
navigation aids, from which it is intended that an instrument approach procedure will be commenced, or, if no navigation aid is associated with the
destination aerodrome, to arrive over the destination aerodrome. For VFR flights, the estimated time required from take-off to arrive over the
destination aerodrome.
99. Transition Altitude (TA). The altitude in the vicinity of an aerodrome at or below which the Vertical position of an ac is controlled by reference to altitudes
above mean sea level or height above the aerodrome depending on whether QNH or QFE is set on the altimeter.

100. Transition Layer. The airspace between the transition altitude and the transition level. The depth of the layer will normally be insignificant, and will in
any case never exceed 500 ft.
101. Transition Level. The lowest flight level above the transition altitude. It will vary in accordance with the relationship between the QNE and the standard
pressure datum.
102. The ability, as determined by atmospheric conditions and expressed in units of distance, to see and identify prominent lighted objects by night.
103. Wake Turbulence. The term “wake turbulence” is used to describe the effect of the rotating air masses generated behind the wing tips of large jet aircraft,
in preference to the term “wake vortex” which describes me nature of the air masses.
104. Wake Turbulence Categorisation of Aircraft. Wake turbulence separation minima shall be based on a grouping of aircraft types into three categories
according to the maximum .certificated take-off mass as follows:
Heavy (H). All aircraft types of 136,000 Kg or more.
Medium (M). Aircraft types less than 136,000 kg, but more than 7000 kg.
Light (L). Aircraft types of 7000 Kg or less.

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 Communication In Aviation | Study Material for CPL, Communication

This entry was posted in Airlines Exam DGCA Nav Radio Aids and tagged Aircraft ATPL Communications CPL DGCA Radio Aids Study Material on March 1, 2016 by
Arunaksha Nandy
COMMUNICATION IN AVIATION (STUDY MATERIAL FOR CPL/ ATPL)

Introduction
Communication in aviation is mainly achieved by voice modulation of radio waves. The future however, seems to be in data transfer, which can be achieved
without using the human voice. Not withstanding that, for the safe movement of air traffic, voice communication is still important.
Choice of Frequency Band for Long-Range Communication
To achieve communication globally which involved large distances, the choice lay in the bands between VLF and HF. The frequency bands above HF being
limited to direct wave and thus less range, or ‘line-of-sight’ propagation. Although these higher frequency bands are now been in satellite technology, many
parts of the world still require this traditional means of communication. Starting at the lowest end, we could obtain very long ranges in the VLF and LF bands
and settle for them without further ado, but there are some inherent disadvantages in the employment of these bands. Just two requirements, of aerial size
and power alone, are sufficiently forbidding, to spur researchers to investigate alternative possibilities. These possibilities are MF and HF. Of these two, HF is
considered to be far superior. The reasons are:
Aerials are shorter and less expensive to install.
Static noise is less than in MF and tolerable.
By using sky waves by day and night, very long ranges are obtained for relatively less power.
Higher frequencies suffer less attenuation in the ionosphere.
Efficiency is further increased by beaming the radiation in the direction of the receiver.
HF Communications
The principle of efficient HF communication relies on choosing a frequency appropriate for a given set of ionospheric conditions that will produce the first
return at the required skip distance from the transmitter. If the height of the refracting layer is known, the signal’s path from the transmitter to the receiver
via the ionosphere can be plotted and from this, the angle of incidence the signal makes at the ionosphere can be calculated. An operator can use the angle of
incidence to find the frequency whose critical angle that equates to. That frequency is the maximum usable frequency, which will give communication at the
estimated range, given the prevailing ionospheric conditions.
If we use a frequency higher than this maximum usable frequency, the signal will return beyond the receiver. At the maximum usable frequency itself, any
ionospheric disturbance may increase the skip distance and cause the signal to be lost, so a slightly lower frequency is used. As we lower the frequency,
attenuation increases and we need more transmitter power to produce an acceptable signal, until we are unable to produce enough power. When this limit is
reached, we have reached the minimum usable frequency (LUHF or lowest usable high frequency).
In practice, graphs and nomograms are made available to the radio stations from which these values are directly extracted. The graphs take into consideration
such factors as the station’s position in latitude and longitude, time of the day, density of the ionosphere and any abnormal condition prevailing, and the
distance at which the first sky return is required. Nowadays, of course, computers make the calculations, and can automatically select the optimum frequency
for communication between the aircraft and any required ground station.
Because of the diurnal variation in the ionospheric density, if transmission is continued at night on a daytime frequency, a longer skip distance will result,
leaving the receiver in the ‘dead space’. This is because at night, as we saw in the previous chapter, the electron density decreases and the signal travels higher
in the ionosphere before refraction, and is refracted less. For these reasons, the working frequency is lowered at night. This lowering of the frequency adjusts
the skip distance because the lower frequencies are refracted from lower levels and require smaller critical angles. Despite the lower frequency the
attenuation is less because the electron density is less. In practice the night time frequencies are approximately half of the day time values.
The HF frequency band allocated to commercial aviation ranges from 2 MHz to 22 MHz, but in practice it is only used up to around 18 MHz. The Flight
Information Publication (FLlP) lists each Air Traffic Control Centre (ATCC) or Area Control Centre (ACC) ground station with the frequencies available, which
aircraft can use to communicate with them. The transmissions are amplitude modulated and a single sideband (SSB) emission, coded J3E, is used to economise
on power and bandwidth or channel space.
In the early days when MF and HF wireless telephony was in the forefront, aircraft were equipped with a trailing aerial. It consisted of a coil of wire, which
was wound out and held downwards by a weight. Normally it disappeared at the first sight of a thunderstorm, either by the pilot for safety or in the
turbulence. In another system, a permanently fixed wire was used, stretching along the length of the fuselage. These aerials have now been replaced by
recessed aerials electronically adjusted and conveniently located to give all-round reception from the ground stations. To give an indication of power
required, a mere 100 W transmitter can provide transatlantic voice communication.
Factors Affecting HF Range. The factors affecting HF range are:
Transmission power.
Time of day, as it affects the electron density.
Season of the year also affects the electron density.
Any disturbances in the

Theionosphere (solar
Best Place toflares,
gain etc.).
knowledge about RTR and Aviation Subjects for CPL and ATPL
Geographical location.
  in
Frequency  determines the critical angle and the depth of ionospheric penetration.
use which

HF Datalink
High Frequency Data Link (HFDL) is an ACARS communications media used to exchange data such as Aeronautical Operational Control (AOC) messages,
Controller Pilot Data Link Communications (CPDLC) messages and Automated Dependent Surveillance (ADS) messages between aircraft end-systems and
corresponding ground-based HFDL ground stations. Using the unique propagation characteristics of HF Radio Waves, the ground stations provide data link
communications to properly equipped aircraft operating anywhere in the world. The result, pilots can always communicate with someone on the
ground. Today, HFDL is an air/ground data link standard with coverage in virtually every corner of the globe, approximately 168,000,000 square miles
(440,000,000 km2) where aircraft are never out of touch both in the air and on the ground.
HF Datalink (HFDL) is a facility used in Oceanic Control to send and receive information over normal HF frequencies, using the upper sideband of the selected
frequency. The signal is phase modulated to send digital information. Modern equipment converts voice signals into similar digital information (like a digital
mobile telephone), and vice versa, to provide digital voice communications.
The advantages claimed for digital HF, whether data or voice, include more rapid initial establishment of the communications link because of the automatic
frequency selection. Once established, the link can be maintained continuously without a crew member constantly having to make transmissions, which
allows messages to be passed quickly. A major benefit is that voice signal clarity is greatly improved by converting the message into digital form. Due to the
digital nature of HFDL, it uses between 1/3 and 1/2 of the bandwidth that voice requires, so data can continue to be decoded when voice is unusable. This was
proven during the 2003 Halloween Solar Storm when aircraft were still using HFDL on polar routes when voice was unusable.
There are around 15 HF ground stations (HGS) available today, and, like a canopy within a jungle, the stations provide overlap and redundancy in the unlikely
event of a HGS failure. These 15 stations provide nearly complete global coverage, including both poles, and system availability is 100 percent. The design of
the system allows for 4 channels per ground station. Currently, 13 stations are only using ½ of the designed capacity. 2 others are using 3 of the 4 designed
channels. Stations are actively monitored for traffic load and can determine when additional channels needs to be added by the service providers.
With the advent of satellite communications, HF is losing its importance in oceanic flight. However, routes over and close to the North Pole, which are outside
the cover of geostationary satellites, are becoming more common. HF communication, by voice and datalink, are likely to remain vital in such areas.
Communications computers can control all the radios in an aircraft, and while receiving signals from all of them, can select automatically the most useful
method of sending whatever signal the crew or the aircraft flight management computer wishes to send.
Choice of Frequency Band for Short-Range Communication
There is a requirement to provide communication out to 80 nm range at 5000 ft, and 200 nm at 20000 ft. As these are very short ranges, frequency bands from
VLF to HF, with their disadvantages of complexity and static interference, are not necessary. The VHF band provides a practical facility. At frequencies above
VHF, aerial requirements become more complicated. The signal strength received by a simple antenna at a given range is proportional to the wavelength.
Thus a longer wavelength (lower frequency) will give better reception.
VHF Communication
The VHF band is chosen for RTF communication at short ranges, the operating frequencies being kept at the lower end of the band, 117.975 MHz to 137.000
MHz. Within this band, communications channels are available at 8 kHz (actually 8.33 recurring) separation, although older equipments are still available at
25 kHz or even 50 kHz separation. The transmission is amplitude modulated, the type of emission being A3E. A transmitter producing 20 W power would be
considered adequate for the intended ranges. VHF is practically free from static, but being vertically polarised the receiver aerials do pick up some
background noise. If absolute clarity of reception were required, a frequency modulated UHF signal could provide that, but the equipment would become
more complex and expensive.
Frequency Allocation
The highest frequencies in the band, from 136.900 to 136.975 MHz, are reserved for datalink purposes. Originally, VHF frequencies were allocated at 100 kHz
spacing. The spacing progressively reduced through 50 kHz to 25 kHz, and finally, at the time of writing, to 8.3 recurring kHz. Older radios were kept in
service as the frequency spacing reduced, and most ATS frequencies outside controlled airspace were still allocated at 50 kHz spacing. Frequencies in
controlled airspace were allocated at 25 kHz spacing, but mainly at high levels.
The newer 8.33 kHz frequency spacing was introduced in 2000 in the most congested airspace in Europe, above Flight Level (FL) 245. It was not possible to
make old radio receivers compatible with the new frequency spacing, because they had been designed with broad bandwidths to accept signals 7.5 kHz
removed from the basic frequencies. This was to allow single frequency operation from different transmitters along airways. This meant that totally new
radios had to be developed. Unfortunately, the new radios are not totally compatible with the old ones used for ground stations at small aerodromes. The new
airborne radios have to be used with both types of ground station, so the simplest method of doing that is to have two separate receivers inside the aircraft
radio sets, and a means of switching between the two receivers.
Factors Affecting VHF Range
The formula for calculating the maximum range of a VHF signal is: D = 1.25 √ HT + 1.25 √ HR. Therefore, the factors affecting the range of a VHF transmission
are as follows:
Height of the transmitter.
Height of the receiver.
Transmission power both at aircraft and ground station.
Obstacles at or near the transmission site which will block the signals or scatter with inevitable attenuation.
Any obstruction in the line-of-sight between the aircraft and the ground station will have a similar effect to that above.
In certain circumstances the aircraft may receive both direct and reflected waves which may cause fading or even short-term loss of communication.
Selective Calling System (SELCAL)
Pilots on long-haul flights used to have to listen to the radios all the time, waiting for their own callsign to alert them to a message for them. This was tiring,
especially on HF frequencies with a lot of static as well as receiver noise. The SELCAL system allows pilots to mute the receiver until ATC transmits a group of
two pulses. These pulses are designated ‘RED x’, where x is a letter corresponding to the audio frequency of the pulses transmitted as a modulation on the
carrier frequency. Each code is allocated to a specific aircraft listening on the frequency. When the relevant code is received, it activates an alarm in the
cockpit, either a light or a bell or both, telling the crew to de-select the mute function and use normal communications.
There are restrictions on the use of SELCAL. It can only be used if all the following conditions are fulfilled:
The ground station is notified as capable of transmitting SELCAL codes.
The
 pilot
 informs
  the  ground station that he intends to use SELCAL, and informs them of his codes.
The ground
 station does not raise any objection to the use of SELCAL.
A preflight functional check must be carried out satisfactorily.
If the serviceability is suspect, listening watch must be resumed.
Internal Communications (INTERCOM)
Most aircraft communications systems include an intercom facility. This basically consists of an amplifier, which directly amplifies the input from each crew
member’s microphone. Intercom signals can therefore be received in every other crew member’s headset, or a loudspeaker, at a similar strength to those
amplified from external radio waves. Because there are many external signal inputs coming into most cockpits, it is usual to combine the intercom system
with all the other inputs in an audio control console. In this console, all the received signals from the radios and navigation aids may be selected for listening
independently as required. The volume controls on each individual control unit determine the actual volume of each signal in the pilot’s headset.
Satellite Communications (SATCOM)
SATCOM or Satcom may refer to:
Short for Satellite Communications and used frequently in the context of VSAT (Very Small Aperture Terminal)
Communication Satellites or comsats
Satcom (Satellite), one of the earliest geostationary communications satellites
Used by some airliners to transmit ACARS messages
Generic term for mobile telephony via satellite (i.e., aircraft and watercraft)
Although once a novelty, we now have satellite communications in many homes, giving us television pictures and sound. Aviation also uses satellites for
communications, mainly via the International Maritime Organisation constellation INMARSAT. These satellites are positioned in ‘geostationary’ orbits very
high over the equator, and provide communications by accepting transmissions of digital signals in the 6 GHz band. The signals from the satellites cover the
whole of the earth between 80° North and 80° South.
What are the

requirements for a
satellite to be
geostationary?
1. Its revolutionary
direction must be same
as that of the earth, i.e.
from west to east.
2. The time period of

satellite’s revolution
must be same to the
time period of the
rotation of earth along
its polar axis, which is
equal to 24 hours.
3. The equatorial plane

of earth must be
coplanar with the
orbital plane of the
satellites revolution.
SATCOM Coverage and Ground Station
The name given to the
orbit of the geostationary satellites is synchronous orbit. Due to this geostationary satellites are also called as geo-synchronous satellites. Geo-synchronous
orbit is at a height of nearly 36000 km from the surface of earth.
These orbits are capable of giving a successful communication link between two stations present on the earth. These satellites can handle communication up
to large distances. But it is impossible for a single geostationary satellite to cover the whole earth and provide a communication link. Due to curvature of earth
the stations will be out of sight after covering some distance. If we want to cover the whole earth then we have to put three satellites onto the geosynchronous
orbit. These satellites can cover the earth if all are inclined at an angle of 120o to each other.
These signals are virtually unaffected by meteorological conditions or static. However, special aerials are required for transmission and reception on these
frequencies. The satellites do not reflect the signals but instead they receive them and re-transmit them on different frequencies, thereby reducing the
attenuation of the signal. Those re-transmitted to ground stations are sent in the 4 GHz band and those to aircraft in the 1.5 GHz band.
Ground stations are positioned in a network so that they service each of the four satellite regions or ‘segments’ and link into the conventional public and
private telephone networks. This means that a pilot using the system is effectively using an ordinary telephone, as do his passengers from their seats! The
aircraft satcom receivers operate on frequencies between 1544 and 1555 (ideally up to 1559) MHz. The aircraft satcom transmitters use frequencies between
1626.5 and 1660.5 MHz in ideal conditions, but generally between 1645.5 and 1656.5 MHz. Voice messages are digitised by the equipment using specific
algorithms.
Search and Rescue Satellites
A further use of the satellite constellation is for search and rescue. All the INMARSAT satellites listen constantly for signals on the international emergency
frequencies, and can alert SAR centres to emergency beacons carried by survivors. The earlier but still functioning international COSPAS-SARSAT system is
dedicated to the provision of search and rescue facilities, and uses a different system of four polar orbiting satellites to cover all the globe. COSPAS is the
Russian name, SARSAT the US name for this joint venture.
The International Cospas-Sarsat Programme is a satellite-based search and rescue (SAR) distress alert detection and information distribution system,
established by Canada , France, the US, and the former Soviet Union in 1979. It is best known as the system that detects and locates emergency beacons
activated by aircraft, ships and backcountry hikers in distress. Over the years many countries have joined the project, either as providers of ground
segments or as user states. As of 2011, 26 country or regional governments (Algeria, Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Chile, People’s Republic of China, Greece,
Hong Kong, India, Indonesia, Italy, Japan, Republic of Korea, New Zealand, Nigeria, Norway, Pakistan, Peru, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, South Africa, Spain,
Thailand, Turkey, United Arab Emirates, United Kingdom, Vietnam) and one organization (Chunghwa Telecom) are providers of ground segments, while 11
countries are user states (Cyprus,
The Best Denmark,
Place toFinland,
gain Germany,
knowledgeMadagascar, Netherlands,
about RTR Poland, Serbia,
and Aviation Sweden,
Subjects forSwitzerland,
CPL and ATPL Tunisia). The Secretariat of the
International Cospas-Sarsat Programme is based in Montréal, Québec, Canada, and is headed by Steven Lett of the United States.
System
Composition
   

The system consists of a ground segment and a space segment:
Distress Radio Beacons to be activated in a life-threatening emergency

SAR signal repeaters (SARR) and SAR signal processors (SARP) aboard satellites
Satellite downlink receiving and signal processing stations called LUTs (local user terminals)
Mission Control centres that distribute to Rescue Coordination Centres distress alert data (particularly beacon location data) generated by the LUTs
Rescue Coordination Centres that facilitate coordination of the SAR agency and personnel response to a distress situation.
The space segment of the Cospas-Sarsat system currently consists of SARR instruments aboard seven geosynchronous satellites called GEOSARs, and SARR and
SARP instruments aboard five low-earth polar orbit satellites called LEOSARs.
One of these satellites can receive signals transmitted at 121.5 MHz, for example from a survivor’s Personal Locator Beacon (PLB). The satellite retransmits the
signal to a ground station called a Local User Terminal or LUT, where the exact frequency received is measured and compared with the datum 121.5 MHz. The
difference is the Doppler shift (explained in the chapter on Doppler radar). That Doppler shift will only be the equivalent of the satellite’s velocity, if the
transmitter is directly below the satellite’s path. Any difference means the transmitter is to one side of the path. The maximum difference comes as the
satellite passes abeam the transmitter, and the variation of Doppler shift gives an indication of the lateral distance from the satellite’s path, so a search area
can be calculated.
Signals on 121.5 MHz can only be re-transmitted to LUTs which are in line-of-sight from the satellite. Signals from transmitters using 406.025 MHz, the
international UHF search and rescue frequency, are sent as digital data streams, which include an individual identification signal. The data streams can be
stored in the satellite for future transmission to a LUT, even though none is in line-of-sight when the original message is received. For this reason, 406 MHz
emergency position indicating radio beacons (EPIRBs) are preferred for ocean voyages and flights.
Starting on 1 February 2009, the Cospas-Sarsat System stopped processing signals from the older 121.5 MHz and 243 MHz beacons. Now only signals from
406 MHz beacons are processed. The switch to 406 MHz is expected to result in a substantial reduction in wasted use of SAR resources on false alerts while
simultaneously increasing the responsiveness of the system for real distress cases.
Despite the above, many modern radio beacons continue to transmit a homing signal on 121.5 MHz or 243 MHz (in addition to 406 MHz). While no longer
detected by satellite, this signal may be used to aid direction finding efforts by local search and rescue teams, after first receiving a distress signal on 406 MHz
and navigating to within a sufficiently close range.
The Aircraft Communications Addressing and Reporting System (ACARS)
ACARS as a term refers to the complete air and ground system, consisting of equipment on board, equipment
on the ground, and a service provider.
The Aircraft Communications Addressing and Reporting System, known as ACARS, is the air-to-ground data
communications infrastructure hundreds of airlines around the world use to communicate with air traffic
control, national aviation authorities and their own operations centers. Airlines use ACARS VHF and HF
ground stations as well as satellite communications to send and receive billions of Air Traffic Control (ATC)
and Airline Operational Control (AOC) messages every year.
Depending on where the aircraft is and its equipage (Equipment for a particular purpose), ACARS messages
are routed through a global network of thousands of ground stations or satellite constellations that cover the
Global ACARS Network earth. When the aircraft is over land a network of VHF stations, including VDLM2 that is 10x the speed of
traditional VHF, route and deliver ACARS messages. Over the ocean a message can be delivered via HFDL
ground stations, Inmarsat satellite communications or Iridium satellite communications. If the aircraft is over either of the poles it can use HFDL or Iridium.
AOC messages include take-off and landing confirmation, weather information, gate information, and engine reports. ATC messages include navigation
information, aircraft positional reporting, departure clearances, oceanic clearances, runway conditions, and weather data. Currently AOC messages take up
80% of ACARS network traffic versus 20% for ATC, but the FAA NextGen program will shift more and more voice communications to data in the near future.
Equipage varies depending on the age and chief use of the aircraft. Typically domestic aircraft have only traditional ACARS (VHF) capabilities and one long
range option. Nearly all aircraft produced before 2000, domestic or long-haul, have only traditional ACARS. Aircraft produced today however are equipped to
support traditional VHF and VDLM2. Most all are equipped for either Inmarsat or Iridium, but not both.
The Aircraft Communications Addressing and Reporting System (ACARS) is another system designed to reduce pilot workload in airliners. Much of the
communication on airliner radios used to be on company frequencies, passing information about aircraft system serviceability, crew and passenger
requirements, fuel state and requirements, and many other routine messages. As aircraft became larger and more complicated, these messages increased,
usually requiring transmission during periods of high cockpit workload such as the descent into the destination.
With the advent of Flight Management Systems (FMS) , most information which might need transmission already exists in digital form on the aircraft’s
computers. The ACARS can send that information from the FMS computer to computers on the ground. The crew can prepare their messages using the
keyboard and scratchpad on the control and display unit (CDU) if required, but many transmissions are automatic, requiring no extra workload on the flight
crew. The ground computer can also send messages to the FMS for display on the scratchpad of the CDU. Information from other computers on the aircraft can
also be sent, allowing ground engineers to monitor the aircraft systems while it is in flight, and arrange maintenance.
The ACARS can be compared to a facsimile (fax) machine. A data message can be delayed automatically until the frequency is vacant. It is compressed, so uses
less time than a voice message. The ACARS equipment acknowledges messages automatically, and many aircraft have a printer to produce hard copy of the
messages.
The ACARS uses a normal aircraft VHF radio set to send its signals, pulse modulating the carrier to send digital signals. Usually such a set is dedicated to
ACARS, but sometimes its use may be shared between the ACARS and normal communications by use of a VOICE/DATA switch. Frequencies 136.900 to 136.975
are reserved for datalink communications, but any frequency between 118.000 and 136.975 may be used at a frequency separation of 25 kHz. The frequency
of 136.975 itself is reserved as a worldwide common signalling channel to announce the availability of VHF datalink services by a particular transmitter.
21/12/2016 Propagation of Radio Waves – Radio Telephony and Aviation subjects for CPL and ATPL
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 Propagation of Radio Waves | Radio Aids Notes

This entry was posted in Airlines Exam Nav Radio Telephony and tagged navigation notes propagation of radio waves Radio Aids Radio Waves on February 20, 2016 by Arunaksha
Nandy
PROPAGATION OF RADIO WAVES

An undisturbed radio wave in space will travel in straight line and at a constant speed. However, the earth’s surface and atmosphere is a mix of uneven mass
of solids and liquids, surrounded by a mixture of gases with varying density and even electrical charge (ions). All of these factors affect the ‘propagation’ of the
waves to a greater or lesser effect.
General Properties of Radio Waves. The general properties of radio waves are:
In a given medium, radio waves travel at a constant speed.
When passing from one medium to another of different refractive index, the velocity of the waves changes. The waves are also deflected towards the
medium of higher refractive index, that is, they change their direction.
Radio waves are reflected by objects commensurate with their wave lengths.
Uninfluenced, radio waves travel in a straight line.
Radio Spectrum
The whole electromagnetic spectrum includes radiation in the form of light, X-rays and gamma rays, but radio waves comprise only the bottom end of the
complete spectrum. Voice frequencies fall immediately below this radio spectrum, but sound waves are actually pressure waves and are propagated
differently from electromagnetic waves.
Electro Magnetic Spectrum
The Surface of Earth
The earth is approximately a sphere. This means that the horizon curves away with distance from the transmission point, and if the radio waves travelled only
in straight lines, the reception ranges would be limited to ‘optical’ distance only. This distance is given by the formula:
D = 1.05 √H
Where D is the range in nm and H is the height of transmitter in feet AMSL.
Line of Sight Propagation Of Radio Waves
However Radio waves do curve along the surface of earth and also in the atmosphere, therefore the above formula is just a theoretical one.
Earth is formed by a mixture of many things like, rocks, water, sand, minerals etc. These materials affect the propagation of radio waves by reflecting them
from their surface or by absorbing their energy. The absorption of energy will depend upon the conductivity of the surface over which the radio wave is
travelling. On the surface of the earth this happens mostly to the lower frequency band of Radio waves. They lose energy in inducing current to the surface of
earth and in turn slow down. this process is called Attenuation of radio waves. As mentioned above this surface attenuation will depend not only on
frequency but also on conductivity of the surface. The conductivity of the earth’s surface itself varies, sea water provides a medium of high conductivity
whereas the conductivity of the land surface depends on its composition. It is fairly high where the soil is rich in minerals & very poor in the sands of a desert
or the polar ice caps. Similarly, dry sand produces greater attenuation and speed reduction than wet loam, and sea water produces less attenuation than
either of them.
SURFACE WAVES
Radio waves (ElectroMagnetic Waves) when transmitted will travel in all directions equally ( Omni Directional Antenna), some of it will travel along the
surface of the earth. These waves travelling along the surface are called ‘surface waves’ or ‘ground waves’. If there are no obstruction, radio waves will travel
in straight line as per its property, however, under appropriate conditions they tend to follow the earth’s surface giving us increased ranges.
Diffraction and Attenuation.
Two factors result in the curving of radio waves along the surface of earth. They are
Diffraction
Attenuation
Radio waves tend to be reflected by objects larger than about half their wavelength. At higher frequencies, most obstacles will cause reflection, or absorption
because of their small wavelengths, and therefore there will be shadows behind these obstructions, but at lower frequencies the waves will curve around a
small obstacle, even a hill. This curving of radio waves around the corners is called ‘diffraction’. The amount of diffraction is inversely proportional to the
frequency. Radio waves can also be redirected by scattering between molecules in the atmosphere, and reflected from neighbouring solid objects. At small
wavelengths an upstanding obstacle stops wave front, causing a shadow behind it. It is because of this effect that low frequency broadcasts give good field
strength behind a range of hills but there is no reception when going under a railway bridge.

Relationship between Diffraction and Frequency

This bending downward is further assisted (the other factor) by the fact that as a part of the waveform comes in contact with the surface it includes currents
in it, thereby losing some of its energy and slowing down. This is called surface attenuation. This slowing down of the bottom gives the waveform a forward
and downward tilt encouraging it to follow the earth’s curvature

Surface Attenuation
Thus, bending due to diffraction and tilting due to attenuation (imperfect conductivity of the surface) cause the waves to curve with the surface. Waves
continue until they are finally attenuated, that is, become undetectable. Attenuation, in its turn, depends on the following factors:
Type of Surface. Different surfaces have different conductivities. For a given transmission power a radio wave will travel a longer distance over the sea
than over dry soil.
Frequency in Use. The higher the frequency, the greater the attenuation
Frequency/Surface Attenuation relationship

Polarisation of Radio Waves. Vertically polarised waves are normally used with minimum attenuation.
To summarise the ground ranges expected from frequencies in various frequency bands.
VLF Attenuation is least, maximum bending is due to diffraction. Given sufficient power, ranges of several thousand nm may be obtained.
LF Attenuation is less and the signals will bend with the earth’s surface and ranges to a distance of 1500 nm may be expected.
MF Attenuation is now increasing, signals still bend with the surface and the ranges are approximately 300 to 500 nm, maximum is 1000 nm over the
sea.
HF Severe attenuation, bending is least. The maximum range obtainable due to surface waves is around 70 to 100 nm.
VHF and Above. The signals do not bend and the radio waves travel in a straight line giving line-of-sight ranges.
Disadvantages of Low Frequencies
Although low frequencies produce very long ranges, there are considerable drawbacks which prohibit their use. These drawbacks are:
(a) Low Efficiency Aerials. Ideally the length of the transmitter and receiver aerials should each be equal to the wavelength. An aerial approximately half the
size of the wavelength is also considered to be suitable for satisfactory operation. Any further reduction in the aerial size would result in a loss of efficiency.
The largest aerials are found in the lowest frequency band i.e. VLF.
(b) Static. Static is severe at lower frequencies and additional power must be supplied to combat its effect. The effect of static decreases as the frequency is
increased. VHF is considered to be practically free from static.
(c) Installation and Power. The cost of initial installation is high and subsequent power requirement to maintain the desired range, giving satisfactory
reception, is very large. It should be noted that the range of a surface wave varies as the square of its power
The range of a signal (surface waves) therefore is inversely proportional to its frequency, or directly proportional to its wavelength, as well as being directly
proportional to the power at the transmitter. Surface waves are the primary means of propagation in the MF band, virtually the sole means of propagation in
the LF band and lower frequencies, and the means of transmitting HF signals to receivers outside the range of direct waves but too close to receive sky waves.
SKY WAVES
ABOVE THE TROPOPAUSE LIES THE STRATOSPHERE, AND ABOVE THAT A REGION CALLED THE IONOSPHERE. HERE RADIATION FROM THE SUN HAS A
CONSIDERABLE EFFECT ON THE MOLECULES OF A THIN ATMOSPHERE, AND ELECTRONS ARE SET FREE FROM THEIR ATOMS. THE FREE ELECTRONS
PROVIDE SEVERAL ELECTRICALLY CHARGED LAYERS IN THIS IONOSPHERE, BUT THEIR EXISTENCE DEPENDS ON EXCITATION FROM THE SUN’S RAYS.
THE NUMBER OF FREE ELECTRONS, AND THEIR DISTRIBUTION, DEPEND ON THE ANGLE AT WHICH THE SUN’S RAYS MEET THE IONOSPHERE, AS
WELL AS THE INTENSITY OF THE RAYS THEMSELVES.
THE LAYERS WERE DISCOVERED BY THEIR EFFECT ON RADIO WAVES,THE DENSITY OF FREE ELECTRONS CHANGES, IT CHANGES THE ‘REFRACTIVE
INDEX’ OF THE AIR. ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES PASSING THROUGH THE LAYERS IN THE IONOSPHERE AT AN ANGLE ARE REFRACTED, OR BENT, AWAY
FROM AREAS OF HIGHER ELECTRON DENSITY, WHICH HAPPEN TO BE IN THE HIGHER PART OF THE IONOSPHERE.
THE AMOUNT OF REFRACTION DEPENDS ON THREE FACTORS VIZ. THE FREQUENCY OF THE WAVES, THE CHANGE IN ELECTRON DENSITY, AND THE
ANGLE AT WHICH THE WAVES HIT THE LAYER. THE WAVES ARE ALSO ATTENUATED, BY AN AMOUNT DEPENDING ON THE ELECTRON DENSITY AND
THE FREQUENCY.

Ionospheric Layers

THE D LAYER IS GENERALLY REGARDED AS BEING BETWEEN 50 AND 100 KM ABOVE THE SURFACE OF THE EARTH, WITH AN AVERAGE ALTITUDE OF
75 KM.
THE E LAYER EXISTS BETWEEN 100 AND 150 KM, WITH AN AVERAGE ALTITUDE OF 125 KM.
THE F LAYER SPREADS BETWEEN 150 AND 350 KM, WITH AN AVERAGE ALTITUDE OF 225 KM.
DURING THE DAY F LAYER APPEARS TO SPLIT INTO TWO LAYERS, THE LOWER ONE BEING CALLED F1 LAYER AND THE UPPER LAYER AS F2.
THE D LAYER, WHERE AIR DENSITY IS HIGH, AND ELECTRON DENSITY IS COMPARATIVELY LOW, TENDS TO ABSORB RADIO WAVES RATHER THAN
REFRACT THEM.
THE E LAYER, WITH GREATER ELECTRON DENSITY OF UP TO 105 / CM3 AND LESS AIR DENSITY, PRODUCES SOME REFRACTION OF WAVES IN THE HF
BAND, AND THE F LAYERS WITH EVEN LOWER AIR DENSITY AND HIGHER ELECTRON DENSITY (UP TO 106 / CM3 ) DO MOST OF THE REFRACTING.
WAVES REFRACTED AT LOW LEVELS WILL BE REFRACTED FURTHER AT HIGHER LEVELS, PROVIDED THEY ARE NOT ABSORBED BEFORE THEN. THE
REFRACTION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES IN THE IONOSPHERE CAN BE SUFFICIENT TO BEND A SIGNAL SENT SKYWARD DOWN TOWARDS THE
EARTH AGAIN.
WE USE THIS FACILITY IN HF COMMUNICATION, BUT IT CAN CAUSE PROBLEMS WHEN USING MF NAVIGATION AIDS.
THE ANGLE AT WHICH A RADIO SIGNAL STRIKES A LAYER IS A MAJOR FACTOR IN DECIDING WHETHER A SIGNAL WILL RETURN TO THE SURFACE OF
THE EARTH OR NOT.
IF IT STRIKES THE LAYER AT A SMALL ANGLE TO THE PERPENDICULAR, IT WILL NOT BE REFRACTED SUFFICIENTLY TO RETURN.
AS THE ANGLE TO THE PERPENDICULAR PROGRESSIVELY INCREASES, THE SIGNAL WILL BEND PROGRESSIVELY MORE, UNTIL AT A CRITICAL ANGLE,
THE SIGNAL WILL REFRACT ENOUGH TO RETURN TO THE EARTH.
THIS CRITICAL ANGLE IS MEASURED FROM THE PERPENDICULAR AT THE TRANSMITTER (A LINE NORMAL TO THE EARTH’S SURFACE).
THE CRITICAL ANGLE DEPENDS ON THE IONOSPHERIC CONDITIONS AT THE TIME.
IT ALSO DEPENDS ON THE FREQUENCY OF THE SIGNAL, A LOWER FREQUENCY WILL BEND MORE, AND THEREFORE HAVE A LOWER CRITICAL ANGLE.
A FREQUENCY OF MORE THAN 30 MHZ (VHF BAND IS FROM MHZ TO 300 MHZ) WILL NOT USUALLY RETURN TO EARTH.
SKIP DISTANCE IS THE DISTANCE FROM THE POINT OF TRANSMISSION TO THE POINT WHERE THE FIRST SKY WAVE IS RECEIVED FOR A GIVEN
FREQUENCY.
DEAD SPACE IS THE DISTANCE BETWEEN THE LIMIT OF GROUND WAVE AND THE POINT WHERE THE FIRST SKY WAVE IS RECEIVED FOR A GIVEN
FREQUENCY. IN THIS SPACE NO RECEPTION IS AVAILABLE FROM THAT FREQUENCY IN USE.
IF A SKY WAVE HAS ENOUGH POWER THAN IT WILL STRIKE THE SURFACE OF EARTH AND RETURN BACK TO THE IONOSPHERE AND THEN REFRACTED
BACK TO THE SURFACE, THIS IS CALLED MULTI HOP
Line Of Sight
Critical Angle and Skip Distance
THE IONOSPHERE
ITS AN ELECTRICALLY CONDUCTING SPHERE
D LAYER : 50 – 100 KM, AVG 75 KM
E LAYER : 100 – 150 KM, AVG 125 KM
F LAYER : 150 – 350 KM, AVG 225 KM
DENSITY OF IONOSPHERE
D LEAST — F MAXIMUM
DIURNAL ACTIVITY : DAY — DENSITY INCREASES AND THE REFLECTING HT MOVES DOWN
SEASONAL ACTIVITY : MAX WHEN EARTH IS CLOSEST TO SUN. CAUSES SPORADIC ACTIVITY, RESULTING IN “SPORADIC-E” RECEPTION IN VHF BAND
(~150 MHz ).
11 YEAR SUN-SPOT CYCLE : ENHANCED UV & X-RADIATION, IN ABSORPTION, VHF SIGNALS MAY RETURN
ATTENUATION IN ATMOSPHERE DEPENDS ON FOLLOWING FACTORS

i ) DENSITY OF LAYERS :
GREATER DENSITY — GREATER ATTENUATION ( MAX AT MID-NIGHT )
ii) FREQ IN USE
LOWER FREQ — GREATER ATTENUATION ( HIGHER FREQ IN HF BY DAY )
iii) PENETRATION DEPTH
HIGHER THE FREQ — GREATER THE PENETRATION–GREATER ATTENUATION (VHF AND ABOVE NO SKY WAVES)
c ) CONDITION FOR TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION
i ) CRITICAL ANGLE
ii) FREQUENCY IN USE
* UPTO 500 K Hz — ‘D’ LAYER
* 500 K Hz — 2 MHz — ‘E’ LAYER
* 2 M Hz — 30 MHz — ‘F’ LAYER
* ABOVE 30 M Hz ( VHF & ABOVE ) — FREE SPACE
d) RANGES AVAILABLE
i ) TRANSMISSION POWER – GREATER THE TRANSMISSION POWER GREATER THE RANGE
ii) DEPTH OF PENETRATION- THE DEEPER THE SIGNAL PENETRATES THE GREATER THE RANGE
iii) CRITICAL ANGLE — MAX RANGE BY WAVE LEAVING TANGENTIAL TO EARTH (GREATER THE CRITICAL ANGLE, GREATER IS THE RANGE)
NOTE : RANGES AT NIGHT ARE GREATER THAN DAY (FOR A GIVEN FREQUENCY) BECAUSE OF IONIZATION LAYER HT WHICH INCREASES BY NIGHT
FOR A GIVEN FREQ, SKIP DIST VARIES WITH TIME OF THE DAY ( AND ALSO SEASONS), MAINLY BECAUSE OF IONISATION LAYER HEIGHT AND DENSITY.
DUCT – PROPAGATION OR SUPER REFRACTION
NORMALLY IN ATMOSPHERE, REFRACTIVE INDEX REDUCES WITH HT .
DURING CONDITIONS OF INVERSION, TEMPERATURE IN ATMOSPHERE INCREASES WITH HEIGHT (THUS REFRACTIVE INDEX INCREASES WITH
HEIGHT) TILL END OF INVERSION LAYER AT WHICH POINT THE TEMPERATURE DROPS RAPIDLY LEADING TO SUPER REFRACTION.
RADIO SIGNALS CAN BE REFRACTED DOWN FROM THIS WARM /MOIST LAYER AND THEN REFLECTED BACK FROM SURFACE OF EARTH THUS GIVING
FREAK RANGES IN VHF

Duct Propagation/ Super Refraction in VHF


OCCURS WHEN :
WITH IN HEIGHT BAND EITHER TEMP INCREASES OR HUMIDITY INCREASES AT RATES GREATER THAN CERTAIN CRITICAL VALUE.
FOR TEMP CRITICAL VALUE IS APPROX 4 C/100 FT & HUMIDITY 0.5GM/KG/100FT.
FREAK RANGE OF SEVERAL HUNDRED MILES (IN VHF) . INVERSION LAYER FORMS DUE TO :
( a ) WARM, DRY AIR BLOWING OVER COLD SEA.
( b ) SUBSIDENCE ( c ) PRONOUNCED RADIATION COOLING
THIS PHENOMENON IS USUALLY FOUND IN TROPICAL & SUBTROPICAL LATITUDE
Factors Affecting HF Range. The factors affecting HF range are:
Transmission power.
Time of day, as it affects the electron density.
Season of the year also affects the electron density.
Any disturbances in the ionosphere (solar flares, etc.).
Geographical location.
Frequency in use which determines the critical angle and the depth of ionospheric penetration.
SPACE WAVES
The waves reaching a receiver in a straight line (line-of-sight) are called direct waves. All frequencies can be received along direct waves. Signals are
attenuated by spread out in accordance with the inverse square law, such that if the range from a transmitter is reduced to half, the signal strength received
becomes four times. In addition, as wavelengths reduce into the SHF and EHF bands, water drops and then the gas molecules in air can scatter and absorb
progressively more of the signal. Direct waves are regarded as the sole means of propagation of all signals in the VHF band and higher frequencies, and allow
lower frequency signals to be received at short range.
Reflected Waves.
Waves can be reflected by any object whose size is more than half their wavelength. This is usually a hindrance to efficient propagation, but radar of course
uses the principle of reflection to work. It will be appreciated that when signals are being received from two directions as above, the receiver output will be
the vector addition of the two, giving maximum strength when the two signals are in phase, and reduction of signals when the signals are out of phase. The
phase difference between the two signals is governed by the lengths of the two paths and the phase shift at the reflecting point. This phase difference, in its
turn, depends on the angle of incidence, polarisation of the incident signal and the conductivity of reflecting surface.
Space Waves.
Direct waves and waves reflected from the ground are together called ‘space waves’.
Ranges. VHF and frequency bands above VHF are straight-line propagation. However, the actual range is slightly better than mere optical range. The distance
to the horizon is given in the formula D = 1.05 √H. The improvement to this range is from the refraction or curving of the waves in atmosphere, due to
‘atmospheric refraction’. The refractive index of the atmosphere ‘n’ is a function of pressure, temperature and humidity. These elements vary significantly in
the vertical plane giving rise to diminishing density with increasing height. This means that the refractive index decreases with height. The result is that the
radio wave curves away from it towards the regions of higher density, that is, towards the surface. Thus, signals in VHF and above will be received beyond the
optical horizon and the working formula for calculating maximum ranges is:
D = 1.25 √ HT + 1.25 √HR
Where D is the range in nm
HT is height of transmitter in feet AMSL
HR is height of receiver in feet AMSL 

Ground Waves
The term ‘ground wave’ is used to describe all types of propagation except sky waves. Thus, a surface wave is also a ground wave, so is a space wave.
Direct wave + Ground reflected wave and Surface wave = Space wave = All together is Ground wave
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Basic Radio Theory HF Communication Through Sky Waves Fading

February 18, 2016 July 7, 2015 July 12, 2015
In "Airlines Exam" In "Nav" In "Nav"
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21/12/2016 Terms and Definitions For RTR – Radio Telephony and Aviation subjects for CPL and ATPL

 Terms and Definitions For RTR | RTR, FRTOL

Terms and Definitions For RTR/ FRTOL

14. Air Traffic Control Centre. An organisation established to provide:

Flight information service within a flight information region.

Note. An alternate aerodrome may be the aerodrome of departure.

When set to a QNH, altimeter setting will indicate altitude.

55. ILS Categories (ICAO)

ILS Category III (Special authorization required).

Active thunderstorm area.

Tropical revolving storm.

Severe line squall.

Marked mountain waves.

Widespread sandstorm/dust storm.

Heavy (H). All aircraft types of 136,000 Kg or more.

Light (L). Aircraft types of 7000 Kg or less.

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ICAO Flight Plan NOTAM Actions to be taken in case of Air Ground

Notify me of follow-up comments by email.

Notify me of new posts by email.

Radiotelephony For Learners

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 Communication In Aviation | Study Material for CPL, Communication

COMMUNICATION IN AVIATION (STUDY MATERIAL FOR CPL/ ATPL)

Choice of Frequency Band for Long-Range Communication

Aerials are shorter and less expensive to install.

Static noise is less than in MF and tolerable.

Higher frequencies suffer less attenuation in the ionosphere.

Time of day, as it affects the electron density.

Season of the year also affects the electron density.

Any disturbances in the

Choice of Frequency Band for Short-Range Communication

Factors Affecting VHF Range

Height of the transmitter.

Height of the receiver.

Transmission power both at aircraft and ground station.

Selective Calling System (SELCAL)

If the serviceability is suspect, listening watch must be resumed.

Internal Communications (INTERCOM)

What are the

2. The time period of

3. The equatorial plane

Search and Rescue Satellites

Distress Radio Beacons to be activated in a life-threatening emergency

The Aircraft Communications Addressing and Reporting System (ACARS)

Radiotelephony For Learners

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 Propagation of Radio Waves | Radio Aids Notes

PROPAGATION OF RADIO WAVES

In a given medium, radio waves travel at a constant speed.

Uninfluenced, radio waves travel in a straight line.

Electro Magnetic Spectrum

The Surface of Earth

Where D is the range in nm and H is the height of transmitter in feet AMSL.

Line of Sight Propagation Of Radio Waves

Diffraction and Attenuation.

Frequency/Surface Attenuation relationship

Disadvantages of Low Frequencies

Critical Angle and Skip Distance

ATTENUATION IN ATMOSPHERE DEPENDS ON FOLLOWING FACTORS

DUCT – PROPAGATION OR SUPER REFRACTION

NORMALLY IN ATMOSPHERE, REFRACTIVE INDEX REDUCES WITH HT .

Factors Affecting HF Range. The factors affecting HF range are: