M7 SR Technics PDF

Basic Maintenance Module 7 Maintenance Practices
Training Manual Contents
7.1 Safety Precautions - Aircraft and Workshop Units and Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Unit Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Safety Precaution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Tolerances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Manuals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
General Tolerances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Danger Signs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
The Work Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Calibration and Graduation of Measuring Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Personal Protective Clothing and Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Sources of Error in Measuring Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Care in the use of Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Calibrating Micrometers and Verniers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Danger Tags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Calibrating Weighing Scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Safety with Fuels, Oils and Chemicals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Checking of Torque Wrenches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Aviation Fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Flash Point Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Fire Extinguishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 7.3 Tools
Specially Hazardous Circumstances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Hand Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
General Health Aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Screwdrivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Preventive Measures Inhalation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Wrenches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Skin Care When Using Petroleum Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Sockets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Electrical Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Torque Wrenches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Extension Cords of adequate Capacity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Standard Tightening Procedure for Threaded Fasteners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Compressed Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Checking and Handling of Torque Wrenches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Usage and Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Chisels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Colour Coding on Gas Cylinders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Power Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Fire Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Drills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Classification of Fires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Metal Drills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Requirements for Fire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Drilling Hints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Types of Fire Extinguishers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Work Clamping. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Correct behaviour in case of Fire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Drill Press Clamping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Spilled Oil and Grease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Deburring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Aircraft Tyre Mounting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Special Deburring Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Drill Gage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Drill Sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
7.2 Workshop Practices Drilling Speeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Cutting Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Care and Control in the use of Hand Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Hand-held Drill Motors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Workshop Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Flat Offset Drilling Head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Measuring Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Drill Press . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
English or Imperial System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Drill Grinding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Metric System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Nov12/Technical Training Corresponding with EASA Part-66

Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only Cat: B1 7.Contents - I
Point Thinning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Wheatstone Bridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

Countersinking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Milliohm-Meter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Standard Countersink / Plain Counter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Isolation Resistance Meter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Back Countersinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Spotfacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 7.4 Avionics General Test Equipment
Rules for Countersinking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Electrical Bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Dimpling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Dimpling Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Determination of Bonding Resistance by Low Current Method . . . . . . . . . 3
Process of Dimpling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Milliohm Meter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Measuring Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Loop Resistance Tester . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Vernier Calliper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Theory of Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Vernier Calliper Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Air Data Pitot Static Test Sets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Micrometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Manually operated Test Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Micrometer Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Druck GE Sensing ADTS-505. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Micrometer Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Automatic Air Data Tester (Sextant 410) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Measurement Dial Indicator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
RF - Wattmeter (Thruline) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Depth Measurement of small Blendouts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Antenna Line Tester. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Radius Gage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
VOR, LOC, GP, Marker and VHF-COM Tester . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Protractor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
ATC Transponder / DME Tester . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Thickness (Feeler) Gage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
ATC / TCAS Tester . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Marking out. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Portable Data Loader . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Marking out Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Operation Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Dividers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Mass Storage Device and Ethernet capability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Scriber. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Portable Maintenance Access Terminal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Lubrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
ARINC 429 Micro DITS Reader . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Lubrication Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Lubricating Gun. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 7.5 Engineering Drawings and Diagrams
Electrical General Test Equipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Drawings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Test Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Microfilm / Microfiche . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Continuity Tester . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Aircraft Production Drawings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Multimeters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Digital Multimeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Aircraft Drawings Dimensioning System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Voltage Measuring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Aircraft Drawings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Current Measuring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Methods of Illustration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Clip-on Ammeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Types of Drawings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Resistance Measuring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Detail Drawings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only Cat: B1 7.Contents - II
Sectional Drawings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Wiring Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Drawing Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Line Types and Weights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Caution with Kapton Wires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Assembly Drawings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Lacing and Tying Wire Bundles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Exploded-View Drawing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Cable Clamps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Installation Drawings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Wiring Damage Prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Block Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Protection of Cabling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Logic Flowcharts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Cable Stripping. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Schematic Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
General Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Stripping Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Standards Used in Transport Aviation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Wire Terminals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Air Transport Association (ATA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Types of Manuals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Wire Splices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
ATA Chapters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Effectivity Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 Wire or Cable Repair with Splices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Maintenance Task Oriented Support System (MTOSS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Crimping Tools. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
7.6 Fits and Clearances Heat Shrinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Hot Air Gun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Common System of Fits and Clearences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Infrared Gun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Systems of Fits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Plugs and Receptacles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Bolt and Hole Sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Connector Removal and Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Standard Methods for Checking Fits and Clearences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Contact Arrangement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Limit Gauges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Removal and Insertion of Wired Contacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Checking Shafts and Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Rear Release Contacts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Bowing Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Front Release Contacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Soldering Type Connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
7.7 EWIS (Electrical Wiring Interconnection System) Coaxial Cable Connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Pins and Sockets (Contacts). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
EWIS (Electrical Wiring Interconnection System). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Connector Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Electrical Tests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Levels of Inspection Applicable to EWIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Guidance for Zonal Inspections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Wiring Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
General Cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Continuity Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Cleaning Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Tests for Short Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
ESPM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Insulation Test. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Wiring Installation and Areas of Concern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Bonding and Grounding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only Cat: B1 7.Contents - III
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 MS Flareless Fittings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Primary Bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 HMS Fitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Secondary Bonding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Metal Seal Fitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Inspections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Damage Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
7.8 Riveting Tube Damages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Repair of Rigid Fluid Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
The Rivet Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Installation of Fluid Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Layout of Rows and Rivets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Rigid Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Edge Distance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Flexible Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Pitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Clearances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Gauge or Transverse Pitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Torquing Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Rivet Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Flexible Hose End Fittings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Hole Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Removal and Installation of Tubing and Hoses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Drill Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Fuel Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Drilling the Hole. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Fuel System Couplings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Deburring the Hole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Flexible Couplings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Hole Preparation for Flush Rivets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Gamah Coupling™ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Countersinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Pneumatic and Air System Pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Dimpling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
V-Band Clamp Couplings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Stacking of Sheets for Flush Riveting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Janitrol T-Bolt Clamp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Selection of the proper Rivet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Bearing and Shear Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Determining the Total Length of a Rivet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 7.10 Springs
Rivet Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Inspection and Testing of Springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Hand Riveting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Checking Springs for Wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Compression Riveting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Measuring the Spring Tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Gun Riveting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Bucking Bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 7.11 Bearings
Evaluating the Rivet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Rolling Bearing Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Prepare Bearings for Mounting and Mismounting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
7.9 Pipes and Hoses Work Planning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Fabricating Rigid Tubing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 The „Right“ Bearing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Tube Cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Handling of Rolling Bearings before Mounting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Tube Bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Cleanliness in Mounting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Methods of Joining Rigid Tubing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Surrounding Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Tube Flaring and Flared Fittings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Bearing Mounting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only Cat: B1 7.Contents - IV
Mechanical Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 7.13 Control Cables

Thermal Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Installation of Swaged End Fittings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Clearance Adjustment on Tapered Roller Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Cutting the Cable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Bearing Dismounting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Inserting the Cable into a Fitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Mechanical Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Swaging Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Lubrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Rotary Swager . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Greases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Proof Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Oils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Protection and Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Selection of Lubricant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Control Cable Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Rolling Bearing Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Cable Clearances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Why does a Bearing fail? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Measuring Cable Tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Safety Methods of Tensioning Devices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
7.12 Transmissions Cable Inspections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Gear Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Observing the Gears Condition in Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Corrosion, Wear and Damage Inspection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Inspecting Gears in the Workshop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Wear Tolerances. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Inspection after Assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Lockclad Cable Damage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Nomenclature of Gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Inspection of Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Belt Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Surface Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
V-Belts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Pulley Discrepancies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Proper Fit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Bowden Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Toothed Belts or Synchronous Belts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Inspection and Servicing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Destructive Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Visible Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 7.14.1 Sheet Metal Work
Chain Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Layout and Forming. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Installation and Inspection of Chain Wheels and Pulleys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Inspection of Chains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Making the Layout of a Sheet-Metal Channel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Installation of Chain Assemblies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Making the Bends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Start-Up. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Forming Compound Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Lubrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Bumping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Push-Pull Linkages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Joggling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Shrinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Stretching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Screwjacks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Sheet Metal Shrinker and Stretcher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Inspection of Sheet Metal Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Lubrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Repairability of Sheet Metal Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only Cat: B1 7.Contents - V
Assessment of Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Compressed Gas Safety. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Inspection of Riveted Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Connecting the Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Inspection for Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Lighting and Adjusting the Torch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Repair of Negligible Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Holding the Torch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Shutting Down the Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
7.14.2 Composite and Non-Metalic Welding Positions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Control of Expansion and Contraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Bonding General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Characteristics of a Good Weld . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Why Bond? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Electric Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Adhesives in Film Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Electric Arc Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Designing for Bonding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Shielding Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Surface Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Regulator and Flowmeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Bonding Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Power Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Typical Repair Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Hand-Held Torches. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Planning of a Repair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Electrodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Surface Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Inspection of the Weld . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Drying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Electrical Resistance Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Repair Materials - Preparation/Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Spot and Seam Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Installation of Honeycomb Core Plug . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Brazing and Soldering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Curing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Brazing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Surface Restoration After Repair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Silver Soldering. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Inspection Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Soft Soldering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Metal to Metal Bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Inspection Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
NDT Applicable Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
7.16 Aircraft Weight and Balance
7.15 Welding, Brazing, Soldering and Bonding Importance of Weight and Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Weight and Balance Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Aircraft Weight Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Types of Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Maximum Design Weights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Gas Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Operational Weights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Fuel Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Balance and Aeroplane Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Gas Storage Cylinders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Principles of Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Pressure Regulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Principle of the Centre of Gravity (CG) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Hoses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Illustrations of the Movement of the CG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Torches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Aircraft Center of Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Filler Rod. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
The Safe Range - MAC % . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Setting Up the Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only Cat: B1 7.Contents - VI
Aircraft Stability on Ground . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 7.18 Inspection, Repair and Assembling Standards

Balance Limit Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Maintenance Inspections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Aircraft Stability - Maintenance Practices Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Inspection Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Weighing Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Task Codes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Definition of the ATA Inspection Tasks Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
How to do an Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Recording The Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Examination of Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Locating The CG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Damage Categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Damage Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
7.17 Aircraft Handling and Storage Corrosion Removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Taxiing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Corrosion Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Towing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Determining Degree of Corrosion Damage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Jacking and Hoisting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Determining Rework Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Jacking for Wheel or Brake Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Determining Material Thickness Reducing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Jacking for Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Corrosion Removal Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Tiedown Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Abrasing/Sanding Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Tiedown Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Abrasive Blasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Preparation of the Aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Dry-Ice Blasting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Aircraft Parking and Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Procedure for Aluminium and Aluminium Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Aircraft Fueling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Procedure for Magnesium Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Turbine Fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Protective Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Color Coding of Aviation Fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Protective Treatment Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Static Electricity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Types and Functions of Corrosion Protection Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Fueling Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Types of Corrosion Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Pressure Fueling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Airframe Drainage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Defueling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Alodine 871 "Touch-N-Prep" Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Cold Weather Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Aluminium Alloy Alodine Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
After Flight. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Magnesium Alloy Alodine Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Before Flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 General Repair Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
De-icing /Anti-icing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Repair of Minor Skin Damage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Hot Water De-icing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Structural Repair Manual (SRM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Hot Fluid De-icing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Manual Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Ground Servicing Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Procedure for Manual Usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Electrical Ground Power Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Corrosion Prevention Control Program - CPCP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Hydraulic Ground Power Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Definitions for the Various Levels of Corrosion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Oxygen Servicing Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Rules of CPCP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only Cat: B1 7.Contents - VII
Periodical Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Low Intensity Radiated Fields. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Aging Aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Electromagnetic Interference from Portable Electronic Devices. . . . . . . . . 8
Aging Aircraft Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Hard and Overweight Landing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Aging Aircraft Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Mercury Spillage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Non Destructive Testing Inspection (NDT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Bird Strike . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Inspection Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Inspection Methods Explained . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 7.20 Maintenance Procedures
Visual Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Aircraft Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Tap Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
The emergence of MSG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Liquid Penetrate Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Development of Scheduled Maintenance Programme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Magnetic Particle Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Maintenance Review Board Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Eddy Current Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
MSG-3 Document . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Ultrasonic Inspection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Maintenance Task Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
X-Ray Inspection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Reliability Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
The intensity of the X-rays, that reach the film, is decreased in proportion to
Check Intervals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
the thickness and density of material they have passed through. This de-
Stores Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
crease in intensity is caused by absorption and scattering of the rays. . . 43
The Basic Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Disassembly and Reassembly Techniques. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Housing and Facilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Stores Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Structure and Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Airworthiness Approval Tags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Trouble Shooting and Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Re-Certification of Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Principle of Systematic Troubleshooting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Bogus Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Example of Systematic Troubleshooting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Parts Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Certification of Airline and Aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
7.19 Abnormal Events Airworthiness Certificate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Unscheduled Inspections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Operating or Airline Certificates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Inspection Coverage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Post Type Certification Activities/Modifications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Inspection Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Airworthiness Directives - AD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Lightning Strike . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Service Bulletins - SB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Zoning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Additional Maintenance Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Effects on the Aircraft Structure and Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 ETOPS Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Indirect Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Reduced Vertical Seperation Minimum - RVSM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Direct Effects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Certification of Airline Personnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Inspection Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Maintenance Technicians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
High Intensity Radiated Fields - HIRF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Certification of Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Mitigation of Damage to Airplane Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Release to Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only Cat: B1 7.Contents - VIII
Certification of Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Maintenance Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Quality System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Quality Assurance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Quality System Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Control of Life/Safe Limited Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Life Limited Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Hours & Cycles Control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Study Questions
7.1 Safety Precautions Aircraft and Workshop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
7.2 Workshop Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
7.3 Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
7.4 Avionic General Test Equipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
7.5 Engineering Drawings, Diagrams and Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
7.6 Fits and Clearances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
7.7 Electrical Cables and Connectors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
7.8 Riveting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
7.9 Pipes and Hoses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
7.10 Springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
7.11 Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
7.12 Transmissions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
7.13 Control Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
7.14 Sheet Metal Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
7.15 Welding, Brazing, Soldering and Bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
7.16 Aircraft Weight and Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
7.17 Aircraft Handling and Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
7.18 Inspection, Repair and Assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
7.19 Abnormal Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
7.20 Maintenance Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Alphabetic Index

Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only Cat: B1 7.Contents - IX

Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only Cat: B1 7.Contents - X
Training Manual 7.1 Safety Precautions - Aircraft and Workshop
7.1 Safety Precautions - Aircraft and Workshop
Nov12 / Technical Training Corresponding with EASA Part-66

Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only Cat: B1 7.1 - 1
Safety Precaution escape routes in case of danger. These signs always have three components: col-
our, shape and symbol. The meaning of a sign is easy to understand.
Safety is a keyword in aviation. The greatest possible care is taken to ensure safe-
ly; not only in the air, but also on the ground. And this is certainly the case at Air- Colour
craft Maintenance Departments. The aircraft maintenance mechanic deals with a There are four main colours that are used for signs: Red, Yellow, Green and Blue.
large number of safety regulations in his work. This apply to working in and on the In some cases these colours have been applied directly to the objects or instru-
aircraft as well as working in the workshop and in the hangar. ments. An example is the red colour of a fire extinguisher.
Everyone must cooperate to prevent accidents and injuries.
Your company has endeavored to provide adequate safe- Figure 1: Colours
guards, but safety devices alone will not guarantee safety. Ac- RED YELLOW
cident prevention depends upon the use of approved
practices and common sense.  -IMMEDIATE DANGER! -WATCH OUT!
Be on the alert. Report observed unsafe practices and condi- -PROHIBITORY SIGN -POSSIBLE DANGER
tions immediately to your supervisor, since delay may result
in a serious injury. 
Know the location of the nearest medical dispensary.
GREEN BLUE
Instructions for handling hazardous materials must be fol-
lowed. Further information may be obtained from your safety -ESCAPE ROUTES -SIGN WITH INSTRUCTION
officer, or your supervisor. -FIRST AID, RESCUE (MANDATORY)
Manuals
As explained before, airlines and its related companies such as maintenance de-
partments pay optimal attention to safety. This is expressed in all the manuals, Shapes of Signs
safety instructions and procedures. One of the important manuals used by the
maintenance department is the Maintenance Manual (AMM). This manual con- Danger signs have three different shapes. Each shape has its own meaning:
tains a large number of general safety regulations. Circular: prohibitory or mandatory sign
Triangular: warning
Notification System
Rectangular: rescue, instruction or supplementary sign
NOTE: Will explain a best or most efficient way to carry out a specific task
job. Have a look at the four examples shown below.
CAUTION: Will explain a procedure that, if not followed up accordingly, will re- Figure 2: Signs
sult in damaging aircraft parts, tools or equipment.

WARNING: Will explain a procedure that, if not followed up accordingly, will re-
sult in personal injury and/or the loss of aircraft parts, tools or equipment.
Danger Signs
Within each Department, bulletin boards, signs and stickers have been installed
everywhere they are needed. Some of them refer to possible danger or indicate

The Work Area Figure 3: Work Area Handling

A clean and tidy area is safer than an untidy work area. It is your employer’s re-
sponsibility to provide and maintain a safe working environment.
• Practice good house keeping in your work or by keeping the area clean, or-
dered and tidy. 1.020
• Always immediately report damaged, worn or inoperative item, or any unsafe
conditions to your supervisor or health and safety representative.
• Keep all passage ways, aisles and exits clear of obstructions.
• Remove immediately any oils, paints, greases and other fluids that have been
split on the floor.
• Keep your immediate work area clean and tidy and do not allow discarded
pieces of material to accumulate.
• Do not leave tools and materials scattered about thoughtlessly.
• Put away all the tools you are using.
• Returning tools to their correct place is not only being safe, it is also being con-
siderate of your workmates who also need the tools.
• Use the receptacles provided for waste and refuse.
• Stack materials so that they cannot fall and so that they do not project dan-
gerously.
• If you are working with oil materials and waste, bins with self closing and seat-
ing lids should be provided.

Personal Protective Clothing and Devices Figure 4: Protective Clothing

It is the employer’s responsibility to provide clothing and equipment. Work clothes
and specially designed protective clothing are designed for your protection. Wear
the correct clothing and equipment to protect your self from possible serious injury.
Do not interfere with or misuse any item provided by your employer for health and 1.030
safety.
• Wear plain, tough clothes that are close-fitting, and keep them buttoned up.
Loose sleeve, unbuttoned or torn shirts, or sweaters, ties or loose belts can
easily become caught in revolving machinery.
• Your work clothes should be cleaned regularly.
• Wear cuffless trousers.
Trouser cuffs may cause you to trip or they may catch sparks or they may
catch sparks or harmful substances.
• Wear suitable footwear and keep it in good repair.
Stout soles or steel midsoles protect against injury form sharp Metal and pro-
truding nails. Good uppers protect against burning from hot turnings, drops of
molten metal, etc. Safety shoes and boots have reinforce toe-caps to protect
against heavy falling objects.
• Keep long hair under a tight-fitting cap or net, as required by regulations.
It is you employer’s duty to ensure machines have guards to Protect employees
who work closely to the machine. Even so, if your hair is long, it could easily be
caught in machinery, such as drilling machine. Many people have been scalped in
this type of accident.
• Do not wear rings or wrist watches on the job.
Because such items can be caught in moving machinery, it is extremely dan-
gerous to wear them in certain types of work. you could lose fingers.
• Do not wear earrings, neck chains, pendants and bracelets.
All items or personal jewelry worn at work have the potential to cause an ac-
cident, or aggravate an injury sustained in an accident.
• Wear personal protective equipment suited to the work to be done as shown
in Figure 5 on page 5.
• Learn the purpose of each item in the wide rage of protective Devices availa-
ble.

Figure 5: Protecting Devices Care in the use of Tools

As it is your employer’s duty to maintain safe working conditions, always report any
damaged or worn tools to your supervisor. Tools can cause injuries when and in-
correct, improvised or defective tool is used. Also, when the correct tool is not used
1.035 carefully or not put away safely, there is a danger of injury.
• Make sure you select the correct type and size of tool for the job.
• Check the condition of any tool before you use it.
• Do not use tools that are worn out or damaged.
• Maintain tools in good condition and remember that cutting tools need to be
sharp to be safe.
• Make sure you use each tool in the correct manner.
• Store and carry your tools safely.

Danger Tags Figure 6: Warning Tag
All workers must be familiar with the use of warning or danger tags.  Frontside Backside
Danger tags are used to indicate valves or switches that must NOT be operated,
as operation could result in injury to workers or damage to equipment.
The tags should be placed on machines or equipment while they are being in-
spected, serviced or cleaned to inform another person NOT to operate the related
system.
The person working on the machine must attach a Danger tag to the control
Danger Danger
switch that supplies power or other input to the machine or work area. The
worker writes his or her name and signature, together with the date of placement, DO NOT REMOVE THIS TAG
on the Danger tag. When the work is completed, the technician who had attached REMARKS:
the Danger tag removes it.
If more than one person are working on the same equipment, each attaches their
own Danger tag. This is to ensure that the equipment is not turned on until the last
tag is removed. DO NOT
Only the worker whose name and signature appear on the Danger tag, or the su-
pervisor, can remove the Danger tag.
It is a good practice to advise your supervisor and other workers in the area of your
intended use of the Danger tag.
OPERATE 1.045
The same procedure should be used for lock-out, using an individual padlock to
isolate equipment to be worked on. Sign:
Date:

Safety with Fuels, Oils and Chemicals After completion of work ensure all traces are removed by washing. If you are
working with oil materials and waste, bins with self closing and seating lids should
Safety in and around your place of work is vital to ensure that accidents to people be provided.
and equipment are prevented. It is essential that all notices and warnings placed All accidents, no matter how small, should be reported to your supervisor.
near machines are strictly obeyed.  The nature of the accident and the treatment received should be entered in
Precautions should be taken to protect your skin by the application of barrier a book to record the accident. Evaluation these data gives more information if any
cream or gloves prior to practical work, especially if handling oils, chemicals and other action is required.
greases which can cause irritation. Containers should be tagged with a label as
shown in Figure 7 on page 7. 
Figure 7: Labels
Dangerous Fammable Oxidizer
Explosive Gas cylinder Hazardous to the environment
Corrosive Health hazard Poisonous

Aviation Fuels Aviation turbine kerosines are Class II products, which are flammable and
should be stored in closed containers and all sources of ignition excluded. Any
The main safety hazard relates to the risk of fire or explosion with aviation fuels spillage should be treated as a potential fire hazard and/or explosion hazard.
and methanol/water mixtures. The information in this part is intended to act as a
guide to users. It is of a very general nature and is not intended to replace any local Aviation lubricants and hydraulic fluid are unclassified products which are
regulations. combustible and should be stored at ambient temperature away from ignition
sources.
Flash Point Classification
Fire Extinguishing
To apply safeguards to the storage, transport and handling of petroleum liquids,
international organisations and authorities classify these liquids according to their In the event of fire, extinguish using dry powder, foam or, for small fires, carbon
flammability. These classifications sometimes vary slightly from country to coun- dioxide.
try. They are classified according to their closed cup flash points in conformance The use of BCF/halon extinguishers is environmentally unacceptable. Water
with the most widely used system. The classification and guidance is as follows: (as a fine spray or mist) should only be used as a protective screen and/or to
Class I cool adjacent tanks.
Products with a closed cup flash point below 21ºC should be stored and handled In some instances, products which are exposed to fire may produce toxic fumes
in accordance with local regulations for highly flammable liquids and all sources of during thermal decomposition.
ignition excluded. Electrical equipment used must satisfy the requirements of the
Institute of Petroleum Electrical Safety Code or its local equivalent. Specially Hazardous Circumstances
Class II Aviation Fuel Spillages
Products with a closed cup flash point from 21ºC to 55ºC inclusive should be If fuel is spilled in a confined space, dangerously high concentrations of vapour are
stored and handled in accordance with local regulations for flammable products produced; great care must be taken to reduce fire hazard and to prevent the seri-
and stored in closed containers and all sources of ignition excluded. Electrical ous consequences of inhalation in such circumstances by wearing the appropriate
equipment used must satisfy the requirements of the Institute of Petroleum Elec- respiratory protection.
trical Safety Code or its local equivalent.
Class III Aviation Fuel Tank Cleaning
Products having a closed cup flash point above 55ºC up to and including 100ºC. Special precautions must be taken during cleaning or maintenance on storage
tanks. Special precautions are also necessary when sludge from these tanks is be-
Unclassified
ing removed or disposed of.
Products having a closed cup flash point above 100ºC.
Aviation gasolines and methanol/water mixtures are Class I products. Their General Health Aspects
very low flash points mean that any spillage or leak is a severe fire and/or explo- Aviation fuels (gasolines and kerosines) are complex mixtures of distillate fractions
sion hazard. They must be stored at ambient temperatures away from ignition of petroleum. They are manufactured to a technical specification and their hydro-
sources and only in equipment or containers designed specifically for their use. carbon make-up varies considerably, depending on crude oil source, processing
Containers must be properly labelled and kept closed when not in use. Hot work, and intended application. They generally contain low concentrations of perfor-
such as cutting or welding, must not be carried out on any container used for these mance additives.
products unless it has been made safe. Containers, such as drums, containing
residues of these products must be disposed of safely according to local regula-
tions.

Exposure Emergency surgical exploration and thorough cleansing of the wound and under-
Under normal conditions of use, exposure to aviation fuels is likely to be confined lying tissue is necessary to minimise necrosis and tissue loss.
to inhalation of mists or vapours generated during handling or incidental skin con-
tact. Accidental skin contact with methanol/water mixtures may also occur during
Eyes
maintenance. Inhalation exposure or accidental ingestion or eye contact is also Eye contact with liquid products and their vapours may cause transient irritation
possible. but no lasting effects. Irritant effects are likely to be more pronounced with prod-
ucts of low viscosity and high aromatic content, such as some aviation gasolines.
Exposure to lubricants and hydraulic oil is most likely to occur due to incidental
skin contact during ‘top-up’ or routine maintenance procedures. Aspiration
Effects of Exposure Inhalation Aspiration means the introduction of liquid into the lungs. Products such as avia-
tion gasolines and kerosines can enter the lung causing rapidly developing inflam-
The volatility and vapour pressure of aviation fuels and methanol/water mixtures mation (chemical pneumonitis) which may prove fatal.
means that inhalation exposure may occur to vapours and mists evolved during
handling. Such exposure to high concentrations may cause irritation of the respira-
tory tract. In common with many hydrocarbons, exposure to high vapour concen-
Preventive Measures Inhalation
trations may cause drowsiness or loss of consciousness. Aviation fuels are Inhalation of mists and vapours should be avoided as far as possible, and expo-
complex mixtures which can contain small amounts of dangerous components. In- sures should be reduced to the lowest practicable level. Good local and general
halation, therefore, presents a potential hazard in that this could result in absorp- ventilation should be provided.
tion into the bloodstream and possibly systemic damage. Appropriate personal protective equipment should be available. If operations are
Under normal conditions of use, inhalation of aviation lubricants and hydraulic oil such that exposure to vapour, mist or fume may be anticipated, then suitable ap-
are unlikely. However, if the products are heated or used in situations where aer- proved respiratory equipment should be worn. The use of respiratory equipment
osolisation is likely then exposure to mists may occur. Apart from transient irritation must be strictly in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions and any statu-
of the respiratory tract, such exposure is not expected to cause any particular tory requirements governing its selection and use.
health effects. Overheating of the products may, however, result in hazardous de-
composition products being evolved. Skin Contact
Skin contact with fuels and lubricating oils of various types is a common route of
Skin industrial exposure. Adverse effects can be prevented by the use of good industrial
Frequent or prolonged skin contact with fuels and lubricants will de-fat the skin, and personal hygiene measures such as:
leaving it dry and susceptible to fissuring, dermatitis and subsequent infection. Ex- • the wearing of adequate protective clothing and the frequent laundering of
posure to fuels may also cause chemical burns particularly if contact is prolonged overalls;
or the affected area is occluded for example by clothing. • the provision of disposable ‘wipes’ (oily rags or tools should never be kept in
Skin exposure to used lubricants should be avoided as they may have a potential overall pockets);
to cause serious irreversible skin disorders, such as warty growths and cancer, • good washing facilities should be available with hot and cold water, proprie-
due to the presence of small amounts of harmful contaminants. tary hand-cleansers and clean towels (barrier creams and reconditioning
Injections through the skin arising from contact with high pressure/velocity sprays creams may be beneficial).
are SERIOUS MEDICAL EMERGENCIES.
Skin Care When Using Petroleum Products
Injuries may not appear serious at first but within a few hours tissue becomes swol-
len, discoloured and extremely painful with extensive subcutaneous necrosis. To minimise the possibility of skin problems arising during handling fuels and lu-
bricants, it is important that good hygiene (industrial and personal) practices are

followed. This section provides general advice on the prevention of occupational tact with the offending material(s) is avoided. Prevention of contact dermatitis
skin diseases when using petroleum products. The appropriate BP Materials Safe- developing must, therefore, be the primary consideration.
ty Data Sheet should be consulted for specific advice on safe handling precautions Oil Folliculitis (blocking of hair follicles) and/or Oil Acne (blocking of sebaceous
and emergency procedures for particular Air BP products. and/or sweat glands) may develop as a result of prolonged skin contact with min-
eral oil products (particularly where oil-soaked clothing has been allowed to remain
Healthy Skin in prolonged contact with the skin). The first sign is normally the appearance of
The skin is the main barrier protecting the body from harmful substances in the en- ‘blackheads’ but more susceptible individuals may suffer from boils or even car-
vironment and comprises a thin outer layer (the epidermis) and a thicker inner lay- buncles.
er (the dermis which contains sweat glands, hair follicles and blood vessels). The
Frequent and prolonged skin contact with some lubricants and fuels, especially if
epidermis consists of a layer of dead cells (cells being the basic structural and
accompanied by poor standards of personal hygiene, may lead to localised thick-
functional building blocks of the body) bound together by natural oils to form an
ening of the skin (keratosis) or to warty growths.
impervious barrier. The natural oils present are important in retaining water and
their loss (known as defatting) can lead to dehydration of the skin which becomes Rarely, a warty growth may become malignant (cancer). In addition, small growths
stiff and cracks open exposing the underlying living cells to harmful substances or or malignant ulcers may develop on otherwise normal skin. These occur most fre-
infection. quently on exposed areas (hands, forearms) but may also appear on other areas
where the skin is habitually chafed by oil-impregnated clothing. The scrotum is par-
Effects of Petroleum Products on the Skin ticularly susceptible and therefore oily rags or tools should never be put into trou-
Frequent or prolonged contact with mineral oil products can cause various skin ser pockets. Work clothes should be cleaned regularly and changed promptly if
conditions which may occur singly or in combination: they become contaminated. It is essential to maintain high standards of personal
hygiene.
Irritant Contact Dermatitis is inflammation of the skin resulting from contact with
an irritant material. The response of individuals to irritant materials may vary. Pe- Skin cancers may not appear for many years (usually more than twenty) after ex-
troleum products, particularly those of low viscosity, may defat the skin leaving it posure. Early medical treatment is essential. Personnel with prolonged occupa-
dry and susceptible to dermatitis and infection. Irritant dermatitis is the most com- tional exposure to petroleum products should be advised by management to
mon skin condition caused by frequent or prolonged skin contact with petroleum examine themselves regularly, for example when bathing. Handling instructions
products. for materials suspected of being able to cause skin cancer should be followed
carefully at all times. Anyone who develops a skin sore or ulcer which does not
Allergic Contact Dermatitis occurs only in individuals who have become allergic heal quickly (even though they have not handled petroleum products for many
(sensitised) to particular materials as a result of previous exposure. The inflam- years) should consult a physician.
mation of the skin in such cases is the same as in irritant contact dermatitis except
that severe inflammation may be caused by even trivial contact with small amounts Prevention of Skin Contamination
of the material.
The best way to protect the skin from any harmful effects of petroleum products is
In both irritant and allergic contact dermatitis, inflammation causes the skin to be- to prevent skin contamination. Personal protection is less effective than properly
come red and itchy. Small watery blisters may develop and burst, leaving the skin engineered containment. Work practices must be adopted to minimise contact and
surface dry and flaky which may result in cracking and in some cases bleeding. prevent the accumulation of material on the skin. Only disposable ‘wipes’ should
Dermatitis developing over a long period may result in skin which is thickened and be used – workers should never put oily rags or tools in pockets.
scaly. Occupational contact dermatitis commonly affects forearms, backs of hands
and between fingers, but may affect any exposed areas of skin. Although it may Protective clothing: cotton or polyester/cotton overalls normally provide ade-
quate protection where only intermittent or occasional contact is likely. Where a
occur at any age it arises most often in middle age, sometimes after exposure to
the same material for twenty years or more. Once contact dermatitis has devel- higher degree of contact is possible additional impermeable protective clothing,
oped, the skin does not always return to a normal healthy condition even if all con- such as gloves, aprons, oil-resistant footwear, should be worn as appropriate.

Clothes should be changed regularly (immediately if impregnated) and laundered

before re-use. Saturated clothing should not be allowed to chafe against the skin.
Barrier Creams may help to prevent grime becoming ingrained into the skin but
offer little or no protection against harmful substances. Petroleum products should
be washed off the skin using soap or proprietary skin cleansers and warm water.
Fuels, such as gasoline or kerosine, or solvents, such as white spirit, should never
be used as they themselves may cause dermatitis if used repeatedly. Workers
should be encouraged to wash regularly, particularly before eating. Skin cleansers
(moisturising creams) may be used, for example at the end of each shift, as they
can help replace natural oils and prevent defatting.

Electrical Safety Figure 8: Electrical Hazard
Every aircraft maintenance shop uses electrical power for day to day activities.
While electricity performs many useful functions, you must remember that it can
injure or kill if mishandled. Consider that the aircrafts structure is conductive and
there is always a certain amount of fuel in the tanks. On aircrafts, electrical power
should only be used to illuminate the work area. Electrical equipment such as drill-
ing machines are not allowed since they produce sparks (equipped with carbon
brushes). Pneumatically actuated equipment can be used as an alternative. Gen-
erally, electrical equipment must be approved and periodically checked for proper
condition. When plugging elect. equipment, make sure the outlet is equipped with
a fault current breaker.
It is the responsibility of everyone that uses electrical power to be aware of the
safety procedures regarding it.
Extension Cords of adequate Capacity

Do not use cords that are frayed, or that have any of the wires exposed, and
be sure to replace any plugs that are cracked.
The human body conducts electricity. Electrical current passing through the body
disrupts the nervous system and causes burns at the entry and exit points. Com-
mon 220/240-Volt AC house current is particularly dangerous because it affects
nerves in such a way that a person holding a current carrying wire is unable to re-
lease it.
Since water conducts electricity, you must avoid handling electrical equipment
while standing on a wet surface or wearing wet shoes. The water provides a path
to ground and heightens the possibility of electric shock.
Understand how common hand tools can create an electrical hazard.

Consider a typical electric drill that has an AC motor inside a metal housing, one
wire is connected to the power terminal of the motor, and the other terminal con-
nects to ground. If there are only two wires in the cord and the power lead becomes
shorted to the housing, the return current flows to ground through the operator's
body.
However, if the drill motor is wired with a three conductor cord, return current flows
through the third (yellow) wire to ground. To minimise the risk of shock, make sure
that all Electrical equipment is connected with three-wire.

Compressed Gases Colour Coding on Gas Cylinders

Colour coding on gas cylinders have been introduced. In Figure 9 on page 13 you
Usage and Safety can see the four different types of gas mainly used in the aircraft business. Keep
Compressed gases are found in all aircraft maintenance shops. We use com- in mind that the colour coding on gas cylinder heads does not exactly describes
pressed air to operate pneumatic drill motors, rivet guns, paint spray guns, the gas compound. There must be a label on the cylinder for precise differentia-
cleaning guns.To inflate tires, shock struts and accumulators use nitrogen only. tion. For medical use, the bodies are painted white.
Most shop compressed air is held in the tanks and lines under a pressure of about Figure 9: Colour Codes for Compressed Gases
100 psi. If a concentrated stream of compressed air is blown across a cut in your
skin, it is possible for the air to enter your bloodstream and cause severe injury or
death. For this reason, air dusting guns are equipped with a restrictor that reduces
the pressure at their discharge to 30 psi or less. Type of Gas Colours
Be very careful when using compressed air that you do not blow dirt or chips into
the face of anyone standing nearby. Always keep air hoses and fittings in good
condition.
Far too many accidents occur when inflating or deflating tires. A safety cage used Air green-yellow
for inflation will reduce the danger in case of a wheel failure during inflation. Always
use tire gauges, and make certain to use a regulator that is in good working con-
dition.
High-pressure compressed gases are especially dangerous if they are mishan-
dled. Oxygen and nitrogen are often found in aviation maintenance shops, stored
in steel cylinders under pressure of around 3,000 psi. If a cylinder falls over and Nitrogen N² intense black
the valve is knocked off, the escaping high-pressure gas will propel the tank like a
rocket. Be sure that all gas cylinders are properly supported, that the cap is
screwed securely on any tank that is not connected into a system, to protect the
valve from damage.
A common method of securing high pressure cylinders in storage is by chaining
Oxygen O² pure white
them to a wall.
It is extremely important that oxygen cylinders be treated with special care. Not tech. &
only do they have all of the problems inherent with other high-pressure gases, as medical
oxygen will cause the oil to ignite spontaneously and burn. Never use an oily rag,
or tools that are oily or greasy, to install a fitting or a regulator on an oxygen cylin-
der.
Never use a petroleum based thread lubricant on fittings. Use only an approved Acetylene C²H² oxide red
MIL Specification thread lubricant for oxygen systems.

Fire Protection Requirements for Fire

Chemically, a fire is a reaction between a material and oxygen, in which the mate-
Fire protection begins with a knowledge of the types of fires, what materials are
rial is reduced to its elements with the release of a great deal of heat. For example,
involved, and which extinguishing materials will work best for each type.
paper is an organic material composed basically of hydrogen and carbon. When it
is heated to its kindling temperature, it will unite with the oxygen in the air and will
Classification of Fires be changed into carbon dioxide and water. Other elements in the paper and in-
There are different classification systems all over the world. We only discuss complete combustion will result in a residue we know as ash, or black carbon. 
the system mainly used in europe and the USA. From the explanation, we can see that there are three requirements for fire to take
The very nature of aircraft makes them highly susceptible to fire. They carry large place. We must have fuel, which is any material that will combine with oxygen; we
amounts of highly flammable fuel, as well as oxygen under high pressure and to must have the oxygen with which the fuel can combine; and we must have some
complicate matters, smoking is allowed in many aircraft.  means of increasing the temperature of the fuel to its kindling point; the point at
In order to understand fires and fire protection, we should look at the classification which combustion can occur. 
of fires as defined by National Fire Protection Association. Different types of fuel have different kindling temperatures. For example, gasoline,
when raised to a relatively low temperature, will combine with oxygen. Some ma-
American System terial, such as wood, must reach a temperature considerably higher than that of
gasoline before it will ignite. 
Class A fires are those in which solid combustible materials such as wood, paper,
The concentration of the oxygen also determines the combustibility of the material.
or cloth burn. Aircraft cabin fires are usually of this class. (Symbol: Green Triangle)
A petroleum product, such as oil or grease, will ignite at room temperature if it is
Class B fires involve combustion liquids such as gasoline, oil, turbine fuel and blanketed with pure oxygen.
many of the paint thinners and solvents. (Symbol: Red square)
Figure 10: Fire Triangle / Three Elements of Fire
Class C fires are those in which energised electrical equipment is involved. Spe-
cial care must be exercised in the selection of a fire extinguisher for class C fires.
(Symbol: Blue circle)
Class D fires are those in which some metal, such as magnesium, is burning. The
Ox
use of the improper type of extinguisher can intensify these fires, rather than ex-
el
tinguish them. (Symbol: Yellow star)
yg
Fu
en
European System
1.060
Class A fires are those in which solid combustible materials such as wood, paper,
or textiles burn. Aircraft cabin fires are usually of this class.
Class B fires involve combustion liquids such as gasoline, oil, turbine fuel and
many of the paint thinners and solvents. Heat
Class C fires are those in which escaping gas is involved.
Class D fires are those in which some metal, such as magnesium, is burning. The Types of Fire Extinguishers
use of the improper type of extinguisher can intensify these fires, rather than ex- In order to extinguish a fire, we must either lower the temperature of the material
tinguish them. below its kindling temperature, or deprive it of oxygen. All of the fire extinguishers
Class E fires are those in which energised electrical equipment is involved. Spe- we have in common use work on one or the other of these principles.
cial care must be exercised in the selection of a fire extinguisher for Class E fires.

Water Extinguishers extinguishing fires in engine compartments of both piston and turbine powered air-
Water can only be used for Class A fires, such as aircraft cabin fires, where elec- craft. In engine compartment installations, the Halon 1301 container is pressurised
tricity is not involved. Most modern water-type extinguishers consist of a container by compressed nitrogen and is discharged through spray nozzles in the engine
of water in which some antifreeze material has been mixed. The water is propelled compartment.
from the extinguisher by a charge of carbon dioxide. Once the extinguisher is ac- Table 1: Toxicity Number
tivated, all of the propellant will be discharged and a new cartridge must be in-
stalled when the extinguisher is serviced. Toxicity Group Extinguishing Agent
Foam Extinguishers 6 (least toxic) Halon 1301 (Bromatrifluoromethane)

Foam Extinguishers are ideal where both Class A & B fire risks exist. AFFF (Aque- 5a Carbon dioxin
ous Film Forming Foam) is particularly suited to class B fires caused by the com-
bustion of materials that liquefy such as petrol, oils, fats, paints, tar etc. 4 Halon 1202 (Dibromodifluoromethane)
3 Halon 1011 (Bromochloromethane)
Carbon Dioxide Extinguisher - CO²
2 Halon 1001 (Methyl bromide)
“Carbon dioxide” CO², is an inert gas that is contained in a steel cylinder under
pressure. When the gas is released, it expands to many times its compressed vol-
ume, its temperature drops, and it blankets the fire in a form of a white snow. The Dry-Powder Extinguishers
carbon dioxide gas excludes the air containing oxygen from the fire and the fire Bicarbonate of soda, ammonium phosphate, or potassium bicarbonate are used
dies out. CO² fire extinguishers are available from the small two pound units that as dry-power extinguishants. Their main effectiveness is with Class B, -C, and -D
may be mounted in brackets in the cockpits of small aircraft, to the large units that fires: that is, fires liquids and fires in which electrical circuits are energised. They
are mounted on wheels and rolled around the shop as they are needed. are also the most effective type of an extinguishant for metal fires, such as fires
For this type of extinguisher to be used, the valve is opened and the CO² is direct- involving burning magnesium.
ed at the base of the fire from a horn attached to the valve. Carbon dioxide is heav- Dry powder is expelled from the container by compressed nitrogen and blankets
ier than air and is electrically non-conductive. It is effective for both Class B and of fire, excluding oxygen from the fuel, and preventing a refresh that would re-ig-
Class C fires. Never use CO² fire extinguishers on Class D fires. The cooling effect nite the fuel after it has been extinguished. Dry powder extinguishers are not rec-
of the carbon dioxide on the metal can cause an explosive reaction of the metal. ommended for aircraft because of the potential damage to systems components
from the loose powder, as well as the difficulty involved in cleaning the aircraft after
Halogenated Hydrocarbon Extinguishers a dry extinguisher is discouraged.
A halogen element is one of the group that contains chlorine, fluorine, bromine, or
iodine. When some of the hydrocarbons are combined with halogens, very effec-
tive fire extinguishing agents are produced. Since this extinguisher agent is very
harmful to the environment, they are only used for special aircraft applications.
Halogenated hydrocarbon fire extinguishers are most effective on Class B and
Class C fires, but can be used on Class A and D fires, although somewhat less ef-
fective.
The most popular fire extinguishing agent for cabin fires in modern aircraft is
Halon™ 1301 (also known as Freon™ 13), which is most useful as a fire extin-
guishment. It is not harmful to humans in concentrations as high as 203 parts by
volume. In addition to its use for cabin fires, Halon 1301 is extremely effective for

Figure 11: Different Hand Fire Extinguishers Correct behaviour in case of Fire
The correct behaviour in case of a fire is very important and decisive to protect
people and material assets. Unfortunately, the fire brigade is often called to late,
after an unsuccessful attempt to extinguish the fire. Valuable minutes are therefore
lost.
The following steps explain the correct procedure:
Alarm
• Immediately call the Fire Brigade. You should always know the local emer-
gency numbers. They will ask you about the location, your name and the gen-
eral situation.
• Inform endangered persons.
Save Life
• Avoid panic.
• Save live of peoples and animals and bring them out of danger.
• Shut windows and doors.
Water or Foam Powder Carbon Dioxide CO2
• Leave the scene of the fire. Do not use elevators.
Figure 12: Illustrated Fire Classification • In case of a smoky staircase or corridor, stay in the most save room with the
doors and windows closed and wait for the fire brigade.
Fight the Fire

A B C D E • Fight the fire with available equipment such as fire extinguishers, stationary
Metal fire extinguish equipment or fire blankets. (see Title “Classification of Fires” on
page 14)
Types of extinguishers Wood, Flammable Flammable Flammable Energized
suitable for different Paper and Liquids Gas Metals Electrical • Unplug burning electrical equipment before extinguishing.
classification of fire Textiles Equipment • Pay attention to your own safety.
✔ • Be always aware of the escape route.
Water
After leaving the scene of fire, you should go to an emergency meeting point
Foam ✔ ✔ and wait for further instructions. DONT GO HOME!
Powder ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
CO² ✔ ✔ ✔
Halon™ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

Figure 13: Fight the Fire Spilled Oil and Grease

Oil, grease, and other substances spilled on hangar or shop floors should be im-
mediately cleaned or covered with an absorbent material to prevent fire or person-
al injury. Drip pans should be placed beneath engines and engine parts whenever
dripping exists. Waste oil and dirty cleaning fluid should be stored in containers for
future salvage. Under no circumstances should oil or cleaning fluid be emptied into
floor drains. Fumes from this type of “disposal” may be ignited and cause severe
property damage.
Fight the fire in direction of the wind.
Aircraft Tyre Mounting
To prevent possible personal injury, tyre dollies and other appropriate lifting and
mounting devices should be used in mounting or removing heavy aircraft tyres.
When inflating tyres on wheels equipped with locking rings, tyre cage guards
should always be used.
Where possible, all tyres should be inflated in tire cage guards. Because of possi-
ble personal injury, extreme caution is required to avoid over inflation of high-pres-
In case of an extensive fire, start sure tyres. Pressure regulators should be used on high pressure air bottles to
extinguishing from the front. eliminate the possibility of over inflation of tyres.
Tyre cages can not be used when adjusting pressure in tyres installed on air-
craft. Therefore make sure that the hose between the pressure adjusting
equipment and the tyre is long enough to stay in a safe zone while servicing the
tyre.
Welding
Use more than one extinguisher at Welding should not be performed except in designated areas. Any part to be weld-
the same time, if ever possible.
ed should be removed from the aircraft, if possible. Repair would then be accom-
plished in the welding shop under controlled environment.
A welding shop should be equipped with proper tables, ventilation, tool storage,
and fire prevention and extinguishing equipment. Welding on an aircraft should be
performed outside if possible.
Watch the scene of the fire.


Training Manual 7.2 Workshop Practices
7.2 Workshop Practices

Care and Control in the use of Hand Tools Workshop Materials

As it is your employer’s duty to maintain safe working conditions. Always report • The storage area must be clean, well ventilated (maintained at an even level
any damaged or worn hand tools to your supervisor or to the responsible person of temperature and humidity) and with certain exceptions, well illuminated.
in the tool store. Hand tools can cause injuries when an incorrect, improvised or • Cement floors shall be protected to minimise the effect of dust and purpose
defective tool is used. Also, when the correct tool is not used carefully or not put built racking is used wherever possible for items such as tyres, pipes, sheet
away safely, there is a danger of injury. You should have only the tools that you material etc.
need in your work area. All others should be stored away when not in use. • Alternatively, open racks allow free circulation of air and are preferable when-
A few rules are listed below: ever it is possible and practical to use them.
• Make sure you select the correct type and size of tool for the job. • Care must be taken to separate materials which may have deleterious effects
• Check the condition of any tool before you use it. on other materials (e.g. Steels and Aluminium’s should not be stored together
• Do not use tools that are worn out or damaged. as they will cause corrosion).
• Maintain tools in good condition and remember that cutting tools need to be • Materials should be packed in such a manner that they will not get damaged.
sharp. Steel or aluminium should be protected against scratching etc.
• Make sure you use each tool in the correct manner. • Serviceable and unserviceable material shall at all times be stored separately.
• Store and carry your tools safely. • Serviceable and unserviceable material must be taged serviceable or unser-
viceable.
• Tools which are prone to rust should be cleaned and oiled frequently.
• All measuring tools should be stored together and kept away from other tools Figure 1: Parts or Material Identification
to prevent damage to them.
• Tool checks should be carried out frequently to help prevent loss of tools (after
every usage at the aircraft).
Keep always in mind! You are working on aircrafts.
SERVICEABLE
UNSERVICEABLE

Measuring Systems Figure 2: Origin of the Nautical Mile
In order to arrive at values of distance, weight, speed, volume, temperature, pres- Circumference at the
sure etc., it is necessary that we get familiar with the accepted methods for meas- α α = 1 angular minute = 1.852 km
Equator = 40'076,592 km
uring these values and the units used to express them.
Through the ages human beings have devised many methods for measuring.
However, it would be impossible to cover even a small part of the information ac-
cumulated for these several thousands of years. Now we shall concern ourselves
principally with the English (Imperial) system and the SI metric system, both of
which are used extensively throughout the world.
English or Imperial System

The majority of people in English-speaking countries are familiar to the English unit
system. Its units of length and weight are inch and pound. So the complete docu-
mentation of Boeing aircrafts as an example, is made in the english unit system.
English Length System

Originally the units inch, foot, yard and mile were not exact multi- 1 inch
ples or factors, of one another, but for the sake of convenience the
foot was made equal to 12 inch, the yard was made 3 ft, and the
mile was made 5280 ft or 1760 yd. It is said that the inch was the
width of a finger, the foot was the length of a human foot, and the
yard was the distance from the tip of the nose to the tip of the thumb
when the arm was extended to the side with the thumb pointing for-
ward. 
The mile was originated by the Romans and represented
1000 paces, each being two steps (approx. 5-6 ft). This distance
was later changed to 5280 ft, which is the present statute mile in the
United States.
The nautical mile, used internationally for navigation, is based on
one-sixtieth of one degree of the earth’ circumference at the equator. It is approx-
imately 6080 ft, or 1852 m. Many other units of length measurement have been
used in various countries; some being the rod, ell, fathom, and league. All these
units were established to meet particular needs in different areas. Because of the
increase in travel, international commerce, and scientific exchanges, there is a
need for standardization of measurements. This is taking place through the use of
the metric system.

Temperature Unit 10 millimetres = 1 centimetre

The temperature is the degree of heat or cold measurable in a body. The meas- 10 centimetres = 1 decimetre
urement is accomplished with a thermometer, and the value is expressed in de-
gree Fahrenheit or Celsius. 10 decimetres = 1 meter
Fahrenheit Unit 10 hectometres = 1 kilometre
In the English / American unit system, temperatures are usually given in degrees
One metre is equal to 39.37inch, which is a little longer than the U.S. yard. Thus 1
Fahrenheit. Many nations, including the United States, are now using or convert- decimetre (dm) is equal to 3,937 in. In practice, the units of length most commonly
ing to the SI metric system. In this system, units of length and distance are the mil- used are the millimetre, the centimetre, the metre and the kilometer.
limetre, centimetre, meter and kilometre.
Figure 3: Origin of the Metre
Metric System
The International System of Units, which is now called the SI (Système Interna- U = Earth's circumference ≈ 40'000'000metre
tional d'Unités), had its origin when the metre was selected as the unit of length 1 metre ≈ U x 1
and the kilogram as the unit of mass. These units were created by the national 4 10'000'000
Academy of Science and adopted by the National Assembly of France 1795.  U (Measured on
The United States Congress legalized the use of the metric system throughout the 2.045 4 the meridian)
United States on July 28, 1866, but it was not until December 23, 1975, that the
metric Bill was signed into law in the United States to convert all of our measure-
ments into the metric system. 
One of the great advantages of the metric system is the fact that it is built on dec-
imal units. Each basic unit may be multiplied or divided by ten as many times as it
is necessary to get a convenient size. Each of these multiples has a definite prefix,
symbol and name.
The basic unit of measurement in the metric system is the metre. The length of a
metre is based on a distance equal to one ten millionth of the distance equal from
the equator to the poles measured along the meridian, the meridian being the
shortest distance along the earth’s surface and at right angles to the equator. This
distance is equal to the length travelled by light in vacuum during 1/299’792’458 of
a second. Thus we see that the metre is based on a speed of light reference that
will always be the same. In order to provide an exact, reference metre for scientific
purposes, a bar of platinumiridium was inscribed with to lines exactly 1mm apart
at the freezing point of water. This is 32°F or 0° Celsius(C). The International metre
bar is kept at the “Bureau of Weights and Measures” near Paris. Copies of this bar
have been made and are kept in depositories in all the principal nations. 
Its name comes from the Latin metrum and the Greek metron, both meaning
“measure”. The unit is spelled meter in the U.S. and metre in Britain.

Units and Conversion Unit Conversion

For exact work, it is an absolute must to know the conversion of metre and inch.
The following table shows units with its abbreviations commonly used in aviation
Hole sizes, material gages etc. are often given in inch and must be often converted
business.
to the metric system.
Table 1: Abbreviations and Units
Conversion English - Metric
Weight: Please keep in your mind: 1 inch = 25.4 mm
g Gram (1/1000 kg)
kg Kilogram (1000g) 1--- 25.4 3 25.4  3
in = ---------- = 12.7mm ------ in = ------------------- = 4.76mm
2 2 16 16
lbs Pound (453.6 g)
Volume: 1--- 25.4
in = ---------- = 6.35mm 0.312in = 25.4  0.312 = 7.92mm
lt Litre 4 4
US gal US Gallon (3.785 lt)
Imp gal Imperial Gallon (4.546 lt) For reason of convenience, and to reduce errors caused by wrong calculation,
conversion tables have been developed. See Table 2 on page 6.
liq Qt American Quart (0.946 lt)
Qt British Quart (1.136 lt)
Length:
in Inch (25.4mm)
ft Foot (0.3048 m)
mi Mile (1.609 km)
Nm Nautical Mile (1.852 km)
Speed:
kts Knots (1.852 km/h)
m.p.h. Miles per hour (1.609 km/h)
Pressure:
psi Pounds per Square Inch (0.0689 bar)
bar 14.5038 psi
Power:
hp Horse Power (745.7 W)
W Watt (0.001341 hp)

Table 2: Inch/Metric Conversion Table Conversion Fahrenheit - Celsius

Decimal Millimetre To convert one type of temperature to the other we use the following formulas:
Inches
Equivalent Equivalent
1/64 0.0156 0.397 5 9
°C = ---  °F – 32  °F = --- °C + 32
1/32 0.0313 0.794 9 5
3/64 0.0469 1.191
1/16 0.0625 1.586
5/64 0.0781 1.985 For reason of convenience, and to reduce errors caused by wrong calculation,
3/32 0.0938 2.381 conversion tables have been developed.
7/64 0.1094 2.778 Figure 4: Temperature Conversion Table
1/8 0.1250 3.175
9/64 0.1406 3.572 K ˚C ˚F
5/32 0.1563 3.969 373.15 100 212 Boiling Point of
11/64 0.1719 4.366 370
200 Water at Standard
3/16 0.1875 4.762 360
90
Sea Level Pressure
13/64 0.2031 5.159 80
180
350
7/32 0.2188 5.556
70 160
15/64 0.2344 5.953 340
1/4 0.2500 6.350 60 140
330
17/64 0.2656 6.747
50 120
9/32 0.2813 7.144 320
19/64 0.2969 7.541 2.020
40
310 100
5/16 0.3125 7.937 30
21/64 0.3281 8.334 300 80
11/32 0.3438 8.731 290
20
60
23/64 0.3594 9.128 10
3/8 0.3750 9.525 280
40
25/64 0.3906 9.922 273.15
270
0 32 Freezing Point of
20 Pure Water
13/32 0.4063 10.319 -10
260
27/64 0.4219 10.716 0
-20
7/16 0.4375 11.112 250
29/64 0.4531 11.509 -30 -20
240
15/32 0.4688 11.905
-40 -40
31/64 0.4844 12.303
1/2 0.5000 12.700

Tolerances Calibration
Tolerances are used on engineering drawings to indicate acceptable limits of size Calibration and Graduation of Measuring Instruments
for parts. You will need to be able to recognise how tolerances are specified. Tol-
erances are usually specified for all dimensions affecting functioning or inter- Calibration is defined as the process of determining the characteristic relationship
changeability whenever it is doubtful that ordinary or established workshop between the values of the physical quantity applied to the instrument and the cor-
techniques can be relied upon to achieve the required standard of accuracy. Also, responding positions of the index, i.e. a chart of measured quantity versus instru-
tolerances are used to indicate where unusually wide variations are permissible. ment readings is required.
The wider the tolerance which can be machined, the cheaper will be the cost of Calibration may be achieved by comparison with:
production. Wide tolerances permit the use of less accurate machines and less ex- • a primary standard.
perienced machinists.
• a secondary standard which has a higher accuracy than the instrument to be
Tolerances are given: calibrated.
• By a general note • a known input source.
• By tolerances assigned to individual dimensions The first step in the graduation of an instrument scale is to locate certain fixed
points. The division of the scale into a specified number of increments is then
General Tolerances made with reference to the fixed points. As an example consider a simple liquid in
Drawings are simplified by the use of general tolerance notes. These are often in- glass thermometer. For most purposes the scale can be assumed to be linear and
cluded in the title block of the drawings but may appear anywhere on the drawing. has 100 Celsius units between the freezing point and the boiling point of water at
When you are using working drawings, first look carefully for any general tolerance standard atmospheric pressure. The fixed points 0°C and 100°C are obtained by
notes or any other general directions. If no tolerances are shown, make sure you standing the thermometer in melting ice and steam from boiling water respectively,
find out what the generally accepted tolerances in your shop are. the distance between the fixed points then being divided into 100 equal parts.
See also Sub Module 7.5 "Engineering Drawings and Diagrams" and Sub Module For an instrument having an arbitrary scale, the factor by which the indication has
7.6 "Fits and Clearances" and for further information. to be multiplied in order to obtain the nominal value of the quantity measured is
known as the scalefactor.
It is essential that, after a measuring instrument has been graduated and calibrat-
ed, the instrument be tested for the purpose of assessing the instrument errors.
This process is known as verification and is employed to determine whether an in-
strument does in fact comply with a prescribed specification.
Sources of Error in Measuring Instruments

The main sources of error in a measuring system may be summarised as follows:
(a) The observation error, which is the error committed by the observer when read-
ing the indication of an instrument. The main reasons for errors of this type are sim-
ple misreading, errors due to parallax, or faulty estimation of the fractional part of
a scale interval.
(b) The scale error, due to the difference between the actual position of the scale
mark and its theoretical position on a scale correctly graduated in accordance with

the assumed law of operation of the instrument, i.e. the instrument scale may not Checking of Torque Wrenches
be perfect.
Torque wrenches should be tested at least once each month, and at more frequent
(c) The indication error which is defined as the error obtained by subtracting the intervals if they are used regularly. They are calibrated normally every 12 Months.
true value of the quantity measured from the indicated value, due regard being Note that the calibration interval may vary depending on the national regulations.
paid to the sign of each. When the instrument is in the specified conditions of use, Torque wrenches must be treated as precision measuring instruments. If a torque
and a physical quantity is presented to it for the purpose of verifying the setting, wrench is dropped or subject to any shock it must be tested for accuracy before
the indication error may be referred to as datum error. further use. 
(d) Zero-error which is the indication when the instrument is in the specified con- Methods of testing are by static test rig, or with a spring balance. The test rig, is
ditions of use and the magnitude of the physical quantity presented to it is zero. the most accurate and reliable method but may not always be available, in which
case a spring balance may be used.
The limits of error for a measurement system are the positive and/or negative val-
ues of the errors which must not be exceeded under test. In the case of indication Figure 5: Torque Wrench Calibration
errors the limits may be expressed in the following ways:
a) Directly in units of the measured quantity.
b) As a percentage of the full-scale deflection (e.g. error 10% F.S.D.).
c) Is a percentage plus or minus of the expected reading (e.g. ± 1% error
at 30°C). Errors are often expressed in this form when the error varies
over the working range.
Calibrating Micrometers and Verniers

This is achieved by the use of a gauge block of a known thickness to calibrate the
measuring Instrument.
2.050
Calibrating Weighing Scales
This is achieved using a known weight placed on the scales.

Training Manual 7.3 Tools
7.3 Tools
12.367
REF mm/in ON/OFF 0 HOLD

Hand Tools hex bits. The bits come in many types and sizes and typically fit inside the hollow
handle of the screw-driver for storage.
Hand Tools are these tools commonly used in everyday maintenance and repair.
Some of these are common while others have a very specialized usage. The most Powered Screwdriver
common tools are listed in the following text. Most aeroplanes have stressed inspection
panels held on with many countersunk re-
Screwdrivers cessed-head screws. On each inspection,
A screwdriver is the most familiar and, often times, the most these screws must be removed and replaced.
misused tool. The screwdriver’s handy shape and wide assort- The time involved to complete this process
ment of sizes makes it tempting to use as a punch, a chisel, or makes this a major part of an inspection. To
a pry bar. However, screwdrivers should only be used for their help decrease the time spent removing in-
intended purpose to turn screws. spection panels, most shops are equipped
with air or battery powered screwdrivers.
The blades come in a wide variety of shank and blades sizes. These tools accept a standard 1/4 inch screwdriver bit. Many of these screwdriv-
Standard screwdrivers are typically available with shanks from ers allow you to adjust the amount of torque applied to a screw. Once the preset
about 1 1/2 inches up to lengths of 10 to 12 inches. torque value is reached, a chuck slips inside the screwdriver preventing the screw
from being over-torqued. Prior to using an air-driven screwdriver you should make
sure you understand how to set the proper torque.
Wrenches
Offset Screwdriver The majority of removable fasteners used in aircraft construction are bolts and
nuts. Therefore it makes sense that the largest number of individual tools in a well-
Offset screwdrivers are available for turning screws where
equipped tool box is an assortment of wrenches. Aircraft usually use nuts and bolts
there is no clearance for a straight screwdriver. There are two
with English sizes. However, now that the metric system is becoming the standard
types of offsets, one with two blades at right angles to each
across the globe, metric size wrenches may also be needed for aviation mainte-
other, and one with four blades oriented in 45° increments.
nance. Good quality wrenches are forged of chrome-vanadium steel. This combi-
nation of metals is an extremely tough alloy. After being forged, burrs are removed
and then the wrenches are plated with cadmium or hard chrome to protect them
from rust. The plating process improves the wrench’s appearance and makes it
Changeable Head Screwdriver easier to clean.
Two types of screwdrivers that are useful for line
technicians working away from their tool boxes are
the reversible-blade screwdriver and the inter-
changeable head screwdriver. The reversible-blade
screwdriver has a regular slotted blade on one end,
and a blade that fits a recessed-head screw on the
other end. The interchangeable head screwdriver
has a hollow magnetized shaft that holds 1/4 inch

Open-End Wrenches where the swinging of the wrench handle is severely restricted. To help remedy
Open-end wrenches have an opening in each this, a special type of box-end wrench is used. A slot is cut into the box end to allow
end that fits a bolt head or nut. The openings of the wrench to slip over a fluid line and then the hex of the nut is engaged.
an open-end wrench are parallel to each other
and are normally angled at 15 degrees to the
handle. This angle allows you to turn a nut even
when the space for the handle is severely re-
stricted. However, while the 15 degree head an-
gle is standard, there are many other angles
available.
Ratcheting Box-end Wrenches
This type of wrench consists of a box-end wrench set into a handle with a ratchet-
Box-End Wrenches ing mechanism. Most ratcheting box-end wrenches are locked in one direction,
Nuts that are exceptionally tight can spread the jaws on even the best open-end thus to change the direction of movement, the wrench is turned over.
wrench. To break the torque on tight nuts a box-end wrench is used. Box-end
wrenches have a six- or twelve-point opening attached to each end and offset from
the axis of the handle by about 15 degrees.
Combination Wrenches Sockets

The disadvantage of a box-end wrench is the limitation of always having to lift and Sockets are tools that typically have a square hole in one end for a drive handle,
reposition the wrench in order to continue loosening a fastener. On the other hand, and another end with a six- or twelve-point opening designed to fit different sized
an open-end wrench is much easier to slip off and onto a nut. The combination nuts. They can be used with a wide variety of handles and extensions. 
wrench has the advantage of both a box-end and an open-end wrench. This pop- Socket sets are available in a wide variety of drive sizes. However, in aviation
ular configuration has a box end broached on one end, and an open end of the maintenance the 1/4 inch square drive and the 3/8 inch square drive are the most
same size attached to the other end. This allows hard nuts to be broken loose with popular. Additional drives that are available include the 1/2 inch, 3/4 inch, and
the box end and then removed with the open end. 1 inch square drives. In fact, for extremely large work, socket wrenches are avail-
able in square drives as large as 2 1/2 inches.
Standard Sockets
Standard sockets are available in all of the popular
drive sizes and with either four-, six-, eight-, or twelve-
point openings. These sockets are also deep enough to
Flare Nut Wrenches fit over a bolt head or a nut if too much shank does not
protrude. The six- and twelve-point sockets are usually
As you know, aircraft fluid lines are connected to components with flare nuts. While used in aviation.
these nuts are typically not tightly torqued, they are often situated in locations

Deep Sockets Adapters

There are several applications where a bolt extends Adapters are available to allow different size sockets and
through a nut too far for a standard socket to grip the drives to fit together. For example, an adapter allows a 1/
nut. In these cases deep sockets are available to al- 4 inch drive socket to fit onto a 3/8 inch drive handle or
low the socket to grip the nut and still allow room for vice-versa. Adapters are also available between 3/8 inch
the bolt end. Deep sockets aid in the removal of items and 1/2 inch drive components. When using an adapter
such as spark plugs. to put a smaller socket on a larger drive, use good judg-
ment because the additional leverage obtained on the
Flex Sockets drive can break the adapter or the socket. There might
When additional clearance is needed between the also be enough added force to strip the threads of a fastener.
socket drive and the socket, a flex socket is used. Flex
sockets have a pivot point between the drive handle Impact Tools
end of the socket and the nut end. Impact tools are turning tools that come in both hand and power types. They are
used when corrosion or rust on a fastener causes it to resist any loosening effort.
A sharp blow from a hand-held impact driver utilizes mechanical advantage to give
Crowsfoot Sockets the fasteners a quick twist.
Nuts are sometimes placed in locations on aircraft where An impact driver set for aviation maintenance
neither a box-end, nor open-end wrench, or standard socket technicians consists of a driver, an assortment
wrench can be used. The crowsfoot socket is designed to of special six-point impact sockets, and bits for
reach these nuts and is available with open, box, and flare- the screw sizes and types most often found on
nut ends. Furthermore, crowsfoot sockets are available in aeroplanes. To use an impact driver, select the
several drive sizes. proper bit or socket and insert it onto the driver.
Next, place the impact driver on the fastener
and strike the driver with a sharp hammer blow.
Handles and Adapters Some stubborn fasteners may need more than one blow before they can be turned
with a conventional wrench. An impact driver has both a forward and reverse set-
The chief advantage for using socket ting. The reason for this is that it is sometimes necessary to slightly tighten a fas-
wrenches over any type of nut-turning de- tener in order to break it free. However, use care not to over tighten the fastener
vice is the wide variety of handles and and further damage the structure.
adapters available. Some accessories in-
clude ratchets, breaker bars, speed handles, Hand-held impact drivers typically break loose most stuck fasteners. However,
extensions, universal joints, and adapters. some fasteners may require an air-driven impact tool. Power impact wrenches ap-
For example, when a socket is snapped onto ply force in a series of jerks or impacts. This means that an impact wrench set to
a ratchet handle, minimum handle move- a specific level of torque actually applies a much higher peak torque than what the
ment is required to turn a nut or bolt. wrench is set for. These torque spikes, or peaks, cannot be used on any fastener
whose torque is critical, because it over stresses the fastener.

Torque Wrenches amount of bar deflection. The deflection is calibrated in inch-pounds, foot-pounds,
or in meter or centimetre-kilograms.
The holding power of a threaded fastener is greatly increased when it is placed un-
der an initial tensile load that is greater than the loads the fastener is subjected to. Figure 2: Torsion Bar Torque Wrench
This task is accomplished by tightening a bolt or nut to a pre-determined torque,
or pre-load, with a torque wrench.
A torque wrench is a precision measuring tool that measures the amount of force
applied to a fastener. Under controlled conditions, the amount of force required to
turn a fastener is directly related to the tensile stress within the fastener. The
amount of torque, measured in inch-pounds or foot-pounds, is the product of the A toggle torque wrench is pre-set to the desired torque before it is put on a fasten-
force required to turn the fastener multiplied by the distance between the centre of er. When this preset torque is reached a sound is heard and the handle releases
the fastener and the point at which the force is applied. For example, a torque a few degrees. The release indicates that the desired torque is reached. Once the
wrench has a length permanently established between the centre of the drive release is reached all force should be removed.
square and a pivot in the handle. The force applied is measured by the amount the
Figure 3: Toggle Torque Wrench
beam deflects. Hooke’s law states that the amount a beam deflects is directly re-
lated to the force applied. Therefore, if the lever is exactly 12 inches long and a
force of 30 pounds is applied to the handle, a torque of 360 inch-pounds is pro-
duced on the fastener.
12 in. x 30 lbs. = 360 in./lbs.
There are three basic types of torque wrenches typically found in aviation mainte-
nance shops. They are the deflecting-beam type, the torsion bar type, and the tog-
gle type. The deflecting-beam torque wrench is one of the simplest. The square The force required to cause a toggle-type torque wrench to snap is determined by
drive is on one end of an accurately ground beam with a handle mounted on a pivot the amount of compression on the spring in the wrench handle. 
at the other end. The pivot ensures that force is always applied at a specific point. Rather than measuring the deflection of a beam, the toggle-type torque wrench
A pointer attached to the end of a beam holds the drive square, and a scale is uses a calibrated compression or spring to apply a force to a load lever. When the
mounted near the handle end. When force is applied to the handle, the beam torque applied to the drive square reaches the preset value, the toggle forces the
bends and the pointer moves across the dial measuring the amount the beam toggle slide bar back enough for the toggle to snap over.
bends. The amount of bend is directly proportional to the amount of torque applied.
Figure 4: Build up of a Toggle Torque Wrench
Figure 1: Deflecting Beam Torque Wrench
A bar accurately deflects in torsion as well as bending when a force is applied. This
principle is used in the torsion bar torque wrench. The drive square of a torsion bar-
type wrench is accurately ground and has a rack gear on one end. When the bar
is twisted, the rack moves across a pinion gear in a dial indicator which shows the

Using of Extensions Figure 5: Torque Calculation with Extensions

When an extension is used to reach a particular fastener, the indication of torque
on a torque wrench has to be modified to find the actual torque being applied. Re- E L
member, when the length of a torque bar changes, the scale used on the torque
wrench is no longer accurate. For example, a torque wrench has a length between
the drive square and the handle pivot of 20 inches, and a five-inch extension. To
find the torque applied to a fastener with an indication of 120 inch-pounds on the
wrench, use the following formula:
TA = Actual (desired) torque
Tw = Apparent (indicated) torque TW  L + E 
T A = -------------------------
L = Length of torque wrench L
E = Added length TA  L
T W = ------------------
L + E E L
3.076.eps
L
E
When this formula is used and the torque wrench reads 120 inch-pounds, the TA  L
amount of torque actually applied on the fastener is 150 inch-pounds. T W = -----------------
L – E
By shifting the variables the same for-
mula can be used to determine what a TA  L
torque wrench will indicate for a given T W = ------------------
torque on a fastener. The formula to do
L + E
this is:
Using the same figures as before, it is found that in order to apply 150 inch-pounds
of torque on a fastener with a five-inch extension, the torque handle scale needs
to read 120 inch-pounds.

Standard Tightening Procedure for Threaded Fasteners • The calibration of the tools is correct.
The threaded fasteners are identified with a standard number written on the head • The torque is applied correctly.
(example: ABS, AN, ASNA, NAS, ASN, NSA, MS). They are installed in standard You can apply unwanted torsion or flexing to the component if:
condition what means, no lubricant is applied to the thread. • The position of the wrench (or the screwdriver) is incorrect.
If lubrication is required by the maintenance manual, a corrected torque value is • You apply the tightening torque incorrectly:
given. Note: If you use a screwdriver, you must tighten at the correct speed to prevent too
Before you apply a tightening torque to a fastener, make sure that you know its much heat on the fasteners. This can cause damage to the protection and the lu-
correct part number. To find the correct part number of a fastener (screw, washer, bricant and can make the fastener seize.
nut), refer to the installation figure of the IPC. Do not apply more than the maximum torque value. Make sure that you get
The torque values of the nuts and the screws are given with their initial lubricants. correct part mating before the maximum torque value is applied.
These torque values are available for the different screw/nut diameters:
• The minimum value
• The nominal value
• The maximal value.
Installation of used Screws and Nuts

If you use screws and nuts again:
• The pre load is weaker because the effect of the lubricant decreases.
• It causes local damage to the protection of the screws and nuts which can
cause corrosion (nuts and screws in plated steel) or seizure (nuts and screws
in titanium or stainless steel).
• It can cause damage to the mating surfaces.
• It can decrease the torque for self-locking nuts.
To use nuts and screws again, obey the conditions that follow:
• Do not use aluminium nuts again.
• For other materials, get the approval of your inspection department.
The protection (or the fasteners) must not be damage. (Examine the threads of the
screw and the nut, the mating surfaces of the nut and the wrench, the shank and
the head of the screw).
Tightening Procedures
Apply the tightening torques with:
• Torque wrenches
• Calibrated screwdrivers.
If you use torque wrenches or calibrated screwdrivers, make sure that:

Checking and Handling of Torque Wrenches Figure 6: Torque Wrench Tester (Acratork))
Torque wrenches must be treated as precision measuring instruments. If a
torque wrench is dropped or subject to any shock it must be tested for accu-
racy before further use. They are calibrated normally every 12 Months. Note
that the calibration interval may vary depending on the national regulations.
Torque wrenches should be tested before each job with a torque wrench tester as
shown in Figure 6. Methods of testing are by static test rig, or with a spring bal-
ance. The test rig, is the most accurate and reliable method but may not always
be available, in which case a spring balance may be used.
Check that the torque wrench is not overdue for calibration. Never use an out of 3.080
date wrench.
Physically check that the wrench is not damaged. If there is any doubt about the
wrenches accuracy or serviceability, return it to the tool store for calibration or re-
pair. Attach a label indicating that it is unserviceable.
When accessories are to be used with a torque wrench, be sure to make the nec-
essary corrections in the wrench setting. Failure to do so may result in serious in-
stallation errors.
A reliable torque reading cannot be obtained by using a torque wrench on a nut
which has already been tightened. The final turn of a nut should be made with the
torque wrench.
Apply a smooth pull to the torque wrench and allow the torque to build up uniform-
ly, not with a series of jerks.
Apply the force at the torque wrench handle only and try to keep the pull at right
angles to the handle.
Try to select a torque wrench that will require 80% or less of full-scale deflection
to do the job. Never exceed the full-scale limit of the torque wrench.
When a torque value is not specified for a fastener in the relevant Maintenance
Manual, use the standard torque charts or the relevant Manufacturers Specifica-
tion.

Chisels Figure 8: Correct Cutting Angle

Various types of chisels are used to cut, chip or remove metal where this cannot
be done economically in a machine. Large amounts of metal may be removed by
pneumatic chisels. Metals made red hot may be cut with special chisels. But, in A = Angle of Rake
90˚
general metalwork, unheated metals are cut by cold chisels. B = Cutting Angle
C = Angle of Relief
Uses of Cold Chisels A
Cold chisels are used for:
B
• Bringing a job to approximate size and shape by quick removal of waste ma-
terial before it is finished by filing or scraping.
C
• Dressing castings
• Cutting up light stock and sheetmetal
• Preparing edges for welding
• Cutting out rivets or seized nuts
Figure 7: Chisel
Head chamfered and

left relatively soft
Cutting edge
Hardened and
tempered

Power Tools Figure 9: Drill
Drills Body Shank

The technicians are often faced with the necessity of drilling accurately sized
round holes in order to make attachments and to join parts in an assembly. The
tool usually used for drilling such holes is the spiral, or twist, or drill. The steel drill
usually consists of a cylinder into which has been cut spiral grooves or flutes. One
end is pointed, and the other is shaped to fit a particular drilling press such as a
hand-drill motor. 
Drills are made of both carbon steel and high speed steel (HSS). The carbon steel
drill costs less, but they will overheat and lose their hardness when they are used Point Flute
to drill very hard or tough material. For this reason HSS drills are by far the most Margin Land
economical for use in aviation work. 
There are several types of drills available so in general we have to use different
materials, different drills, drill speeds, cutting agents and pressure. In Figure 9 you
can see the drills nomenclature.
Chisel Point
Angle Cutting Edge
115˚-135˚ Web
Margin
Land
Dead
Center Body
Flute Clearance

Metal Drills Figure 10: Drills
Jobber Drills
The jobber drill is the most often used twist drill in sheet metal work. It is a pointed
tool that is rotated to cut holes in material. It is made of a cylindrical hardened steel
bar having spiral flutes (grooves) running the length of the body, and a conical
point with cutting edges formed by the ends of the flutes. Twist drills have from one 3.100
to four spiral flutes. Drills with two flutes are used for most drilling. Those with three
or four flutes are used principally to follow smaller drills or to enlarge holes.
The principle parts of a twist drill are the shank, the body, and the point. The drill
shank is the end that fits into the chuck of a hand or power drill. The straight shank
generally is used in hand, breast and portable electric drills.
Extension Drill
The extension drill has a long shank for reaching limited access areas. The drill
should not be used unless absolutely necessary. Use a drill guard (a plastic tube
slipped over the drill to protect adjacent structure from drill whip, and to make it
possible to guide the drill by hand). Hold the drill guard as near the drill point as
possible.
Taper Shank Drills

Tapered shank drills have a tape called the Morse taper. The size of taper incor-
porated on any particular drill depend on the drill diameter. At the end of the taper
shank of a drill is a tongue called the tang, and when the taper shank is fitted into
the socket or machine spindle, this tang engages in a slot.
If the taper itself is in good condition the frictional grip between this and the surface
of the taper hole should be almost, if not entirely, sufficient to drive the drill, but if
the taper becomes damaged, more load will be thrown on the tang in driving the
drill, and if the drill sizes in the hole the tang may be twisted off. For this reason,
taper shanks should be given every consideration in use and always extracted with
the proper taper drift.

Figure 11: Using the Drill Drilling Hints

1. For soft metals use a drill having a quick twist to its flutes, and vice versa for
hard metals. For chilled iron, a flat drill gives best results.
2. Cut with soluble oil for steel and malleable iron, kerosene or turpentine for
very hard steel. Cast-iron or brass should be drilled dry, or with jet of com-
pressed air.
3. If the corners wear away rapidly, the speed is too high.
4. If the cutting edges chip, reduce feed or grind with less clearance.
5. If drill will not start drilling there is no clearance on lips.
6. Examine relative sizes of turnings issuing from each flute. They should be ap-
proximately the same, and if not, the drill is wrongly ground with one lip doing
3.105 more cutting than the other.
7. Drill breakage may be caused by point wrongly ground; feed too great; not
easing drill at "break through"; binding in hole due to lands being worn away;
drill choked in a long hole.
8. The blueing of a high-speed steel drill is not detrimental but it is fatal to a car-
bon steel drill.
9. A hard spot encountered may be removed by reducing speed and using tur-
pentine
10. For holes larger than 4.8 mm (3/16in) it is necessary to drill at first a pilot hole
and enlarge it to the required hole size.

Work Clamping Hand Drill Clamping

When using a hand drill motor, the work to be drilled must be properly secured so
General it cannot move. It should never be held by hand, because in the event of a broken
Unless work is so large and heavy that there is no danger of its moving, or being drill, the broken end may pierce the hand or a finger and can cause painful injury.
rotated with the drill, it should always be clamped or held by some method, and too Angle vices, pin vices, hand vices, etc. are to be used to hold the work to be drilled
much attention cannot be given to clamping because unclamped or insecurely in position.
clamped work is not only a danger to the operator, but also a cause of inaccurate
Figure 12: Work Clamping
work and broken drills. The chief danger in drilling occurs just as the drill point
breaks through the underside of the part being drilled.
Whilst the point is being resisted by solid metal, the feeding pressure causes some
spring to take place in the machine and the work, putting them into a similar con-
dition to a strong spring which is compressed slightly under the load. As soon as
the drill point breaks through, most of the resistance against it suddenly vanishes
and the stress in the machine releases itself by imparting a sudden downward
push to the drill, just as a sudden relieving of the load from a spring would allow
the end of it to jump up. The sudden downward push on the drill generally causes
one or both of the lips to dig in, often with disastrous results. When feeding the drill
by hand the pressure should be eased off when the point is felt to be breaking
through, and for this reason small drills should always be fed by hand. Special care
is necessary when drilling thin plate as the drill point often breaks through before
the drill is cutting its full diameter.
Drill Press Clamping

To secure work by using the drill press the vice, clamps and dogs are often used.
Vise
The most works will be secured by the vise. The main use of the vise is to hold the
work during drilling, reaming etc. in a correct position. Care should be taken to en-
sure that when the drill passes through the work it does not drill into the bottom of
the vise.
Clamps and Dogs

The tables of most drill presses are provided either with Tee slots to accommodate
bolt heads, or with long slots running through which ever be the case the slots en-
able bolts and clamps/dogs to be used.

Drill Stop Figure 14: Drill Jig Handling

The drill stop regulates the hole dept, cushions the break through, eliminates sur-
face marks, and reduces drill breakage. The drill stop locks onto the drill with a set 1 2
screw.
Drill Guide
The hand held drill guide keeps the drills 90° to the skin surfaces. The guide as-
sembly consists of a clear plastic housing and special screw in type hardened steel
bushing. The bushing can be interchanged.
Nut Plate Drill Jig 3.135

The nut plate drill jig is designed for accurate drilling of rivet holes for nut plates. It
is manufactured with a flexible handle to provide hand clearance when jig is in use.
There are a lot of different drill jigs available.
Figure 13: Drilling Auxiliary Devices
1. Align pilot with pilot hole when drilling the first hole.
2. Align pilot with pilot hole and pilot pin with hole drilled in the first operation and
then drill the second hole.
3.130

Hole Finder Deburring

When replacing an old skin with a new one, if there aren't any pilot holes drilled in
the new skin, it is quite difficult to locate precisely the holes in the structure. For When holes are drilled through two sheets of material, small burrs are formed
this procedure, a hole finder resembles a clamp that slips over the new skin, and around the edges of the holes, and chips were pressed between the two sheets.
on its underside is a pin that exactly fits through the hole in the structure. A hole in So it is absolutely necessary to remove the burrs and the chips. It is usually done
the top side guides the drill in making a hole in the new skin that will align with the with a countersink, or a special deburring tool. Removal of burrs from drilled holes
one in the structure. A hole in the top side guides the drill in making a hole in the may be accomplished with a manufactured deburring tool, a countersink using a
new skin that will align with the one in the structure. very light cut, or other tool which will clear the edges of a drilled hole. Care must
be taken to remove only the rough edges and chips from the hole.
Figure 15: Hole Finder
Figure 16: Deburring
3.115
When two or more sheets were drilled at the same time, it is necessary to remove
chips from between the sheets. The illustrations show the results of leaving mate-
rial between drilled sheets.
Figure 17: Drilled Sheets / Trapped Burrs
3.140
3.110
Special Deburring Tool

These tools are designed to debur holes on the exit side which you could not reach
with standard deburring tools (limit access area). This tool is chucked in a drill mo-
tor for rapid work. The retractable blade is held in place by spring pressure. To use,
push the tool through the hole and remove burrs from the exit side. Then draw the
tool back through the hole and remove burrs from the entry side. This burring tool
comes in common hole sizes from 5/32 to 3/8 inch.

Drill Gage Drill Sizes

Twist drills used in aircraft sheet metal are usually of the number drill sizes be-
The size of a drill is stamped on its shank. If the size cannot be read, it can be de-
tween one and sixty; however, for larger sized holes, either fraction drills or letter
termined by using the proper drill gage. Drill gages are available for all three series
drills may be used. Following pages show a twist-drill-size chart that lists sizes
of drill sizes; fractional, letter, and number. Fractional drills are furnished in sizes
from No.80, the smallest normally in use, up through 1/2 inch. There are, of
from 1/16 to 1 inch in diameter, graduated in sixty-fourth of an inch. Letter drills
course, drill sizes smaller and larger than those listed, but they fall outside of the
range in size from A (the smallest) to Z (the largest). Number drills range from 1
(the largest) to 80 (the smallest). general use of the aircraft mechanic. You will notice that the smallest drills have
the largest numbers; for example, A No.80 drill is much smaller than the No.1 drill.
To gage a drill, insert the point into a hole in the drill gage. If the drill slips easily In addition to the number drills, there are letter drills from A through Z, with A being
into the hole, insert it into the next smaller hole. When the correct size has been the smallest. The fraction drills are interspersed among the number and letter
determined, the drill will rub lightly in the hole. drills, and only at one place do we find a fraction and a number or letter drill of the
same size, both the quarter-inch drill and the E drill are 0.250 inch.
Figure 18: Drill and Wire Gauge
Table 1: Drill Size Table
3.155
3.145

Drilling Speeds terial being out. The proper speed for aluminium alloy will not produce the best
results with stainless steel or titanium. When harder materials are drilled, slower
The drill speeds are an important factor in getting good results. Drill speed deter-
speeds are required.
mines the rate at which the outer cutting edge of the drill is moving across the ma-
Soft Plastics and Annealed Mild Malleable Hard Cast Tool or Alloy Steel
Diameter
Metals Hard Rubber Cast Iron Steel Iron Iron Hard Steel Cast Steel
Of Drill
300 F.P.M. 200 F.P.M. 140 F.P.M. 100 F.P.M. 90 F.P.M. 80 F.P.M. 60 F.P.M. 40 F.P.M.
1/16 (No. 53 – 80) 18320 12217 8554 6111 5500 4889 3667 2445
3/32 (No. 42 – 52) 12212 8142 5702 4071 3666 3258 2442 1649
1/8 (No. 31 – 41) 9160 6112 4278 3056 2750 2445 1833 1222
3.160
5/32 (No. 23 – 30) 7328 4888 3420 2444 2198 1954 1465 977
3/16 (No. 13 – 22) 6106 4075 2852 2037 1833 1630 1222 815
7/32 (No. 1 – 12) 5234 3490 2444 1745 1575 1396 1047 698
1/4 (A – E) 4575 3055 2139 1527 1375 1222 917 611
9/32 (G – K) 4071 2712 1900 1356 1222 1084 814 542
9/16 (L,M,N) 3660 2445 1711 1222 1100 978 733 489
11/32 (O – R) 3330 2220 1554 1110 1000 888 666 444
3/8 (S,T,U) 3050 2037 1426 1018 917 815 611 407
13/32 (V – Z) 2818 1878 1316 939 846 752 563 376
7/16 2614 1746 1222 873 786 698 524 349
15/32 2442 1628 1140 814 732 652 488 326
1/2 2287 1528 1070 764 688 611 458 306
9/16 2035 1357 950 678 611 543 407 271
3/8 1830 1222 856 611 550 489 367 244
11/16 1665 1110 777 555 500 444 333 222
3/4 1525 1018 713 509 458 407 306 204
Figures are for High-Speed Steel (HSS) Drills. The speed of Carbon Drills should be reduced one-half.
Use drill speed nearest to figure given.

Cutting Agents Table 2: Drill, Reamer and Countersink Cutting Agents
General Material Cutting Agent Application

Drilling agents are recommended (unless prohibited by the engineering drawing)
to improve tool life, hole tolerance, and hole finish. Recommended cutting agents Aluminium and Freon TB-1 Mist
for drilling, reaming, and countersinking are shown in the following table. Magnesium
Water Soluble Coolants or Flood, Mist or through Oil
Cutting agents are mandatory only when so specified. BOELUBE Hole Drill or Reamer or
Directly to the Cutting Tool
Boelube™
Boelube is used as an agent for drilling aluminium, magnesium, steel, as well as BOELUBE (Countersinking) Directly to the Cutting Tool
titanium. Boelube consists of cetyl alcohol, a non toxic lubricant from the fatty al-
coholchemical family. It is suitable for many production operations and manufac- Steel (incl. Water Soluble Coolants or Flood, Mist or through Oil
tured in solid, paste, and liquid forms. It is approved for use with aluminium, steel, Stainless Steel) BOELUBE Hole Drill or Reamer
or titanium materials. Also it is sealant and paint compatible, and is non-corrosive.
Mineral Oils Directly to the Cutting Tool
Disassembly for cleaning is not required in sealant or paint areas.
Boelube lubricants have the following characteristics: BOELUBE (Countersinking) Directly to the Cutting Tool
• non-toxic, non-polluting, and non-irritating under normal conditions
Titanium Freon TB-1 Mist
• excellent lubricating properties under extreme pressure
• removed by solvent wiping or washing with warm water and mild detergent Water Soluble Coolants or Flood, Mist or through Oil
• compatible with most lubricant application systems BOELUBE Hole Drill or Reamer
Remaining Boelube residue must be removed within 48 hours after use. BOELUBE (Countersinking) Directly to the Cutting Tool

Hand-held Drill Motors Flat Offset Drilling Head

Another tool designed for use in close quarters is the flat offset drilling head or
General "pork chop". This tool uses threaded shank drills up to 1/4 inch diameter. The pork
The most universally used drill motor for drilling aircraft sheet metal is the pneu- chop is ordered by spindle direction (up or down) motor speed, and offset dimen-
matic or so called air drill. The main advantage of an air drill, over an electric drill sion.
is its safety. It is far less hazardous to have air hoses in the crowded structure
where many sheet metal repairs are made, than to have electrical wires. Most drill Flexible Snake Drill
motors are equipped with quick change chucks or keyed chucks. The flexible snake drill is used only in limited-access areas where an angle drill
motor cannot be held perpendicular to the surface. The drill motor should be held
Common Drill Motors in one hand, the snake drill steadied with the other.
These types are the most often used drill motor. These tools are ordered by drill
size capacity and speed. Figure 20: Offset Drilling
Angle Drill Motors

Angle drill motors or power vanes are designed to be operated in tight places or
under limited-access conditions. Three head angles 30, 45, and 90 degrees, are 3.170
available.
Figure 19: Hand-held Drills
Drill Press
A drill press is a bench-mounted or floor-mounted machine designed to rotate a
drill bit and press the sharpened point of the bit against metal in order to drill a hole.
The drill press is driven by an electric motor through a speed-changing mecha-
nism, either a belt transmission or a gear transmission.
3.165

Drill Grinding Figure 21: Drill Angles

Cutting
General Edge
Lip Relief
or Heel Angle
Do not use dull drills or attempt to sharpen them. Using dull drills wastes time and (Lip)
makes poor holes. Return dull drills to the tool shop. The drills will be sent to drill
grind for resharpening. Only machine grinding is sufficiently accurate to produce
sharpened drills that will cut holes to correct size. A hand-sharpened drill usually
12˚-15˚
has the point off-center and will cut oversize holes.
Grinding Drill Point Angles Lip

In order to perform correctly, the drill must be ground or sharpened properly. For Angle
general-purpose work, the drill point should be sharpened to a cone angle of 59˚
118°(angle,59°). This point will work satisfactorily for most drilling jobs. For very 59˚
hard or tough metals, a greater angle may be reduced to 40°. Plastic materials are
usually drilled most satisfactorily with a cutting angle of about 30° (included angle, 118˚
60°) for shallow holes and with an angle of up to 70° for very deep holes. The cut-
ting edge is ground off to produce a zero-rake angle for soft plastics such as plex-
iglass. For drilling stainless steels or titanium, the drill-point angle should be about
140°. For standard aluminium alloys, a drill-point angle of 135° is very satisfactory
(NAS 907). The point is ground with a lip relief angle ranging from about 12 to 15
degrees for drills used in normal hard materials, this angle is usually increased to
somewhere around 18 to 20 degrees.
In grinding the drill point, it is important to see that the desired point angle and the Drill Grinding Sequence
proper lip-clearance angle are obtained. Further, it is essential that the lengths of 1. Adjust the grinder tool rest to a convenient height for resting the back of the
the lips be made equal. Where they are unequal, the drilled hole will be oversize hand while grinding
and possible out of round. If the cutting lips are ground with different cutting an-
2. Hold the drill between the thumb and index finger of the right or left hand.
gles, the drill will bind on one side and may break. Otherwise, it will produce an
Grasp the body of the drill near the shank with the other hand.
oversize hole.
3. Place the hand on the tool rest with the center line of the drill making a 59°
angle with the cutting face of the grinding wheel. Lower the shank end of the
drill slightly.
4. Slowly place the cutting edge of the drill against the grinding wheel. Gradually
lower the shank of the drill as you twist the drill in a clockwise direction. Main-
tain pressure against the grinding surface only until you reach the hell of the
drill.
5. Check the results of grinding with a gage to determine whether or not the lips
are the same length and at a 59° angle.

Figure 22: Drill Grinding
3.200

Point Thinning
The metal at the center of a drill (called the web) tapers
and gets thicker towards the shank. This causes the
center of a drill point to get thicker as its length is re-
duced by grinding, and to prevent this thick edge from
reducing the efficiency of the drill it should by ground
thinner. The point thinning of a drill will usually remain
the drill in a proper position during starting the hole.
Grinding Problems
1. Lips of different lengths
Drill moves off starting position
2. Lips at different angles
Hole will be enlarged, rough hole surface.
Figure 23: Grinding Problems

Countersinking Figure 25: Countersinking Methods
To install countersunk fastener, it is necessary to provide a conical depression in

the surface of the skin so that the head of the fastener will be flush with the surface.
This provides smooth aerodynamic surfaces on airplane structures or smooth sur- Top skin countersunk, bottom skin drilled
faces for attaching adjoining members. The use of countersinks on riveted joints
also provides a weight savings by eliminating the weight of the rivet head material.
This depression is made by means of a countersink tool when the skin is sufficient-
ly thick and by dimpling when the skin is thin. The use of a machine countersink is Top skin coin dimpled, bottom skin countersunk
limited by the size of the fastener and the thickness of the skin. Generally, sheet
metal should not be countersunk entirely through the sheet (See the SRM. Mini-
mum sheet thickness for countersinking fasteners).
A countersink tool is usually provided with a straight shank, for use in a hand drill,
Top skin coin dimpled, bottom skin dimpled
a drill motor, or a bench drill. Countersinks are made with a variety of point angles.
(coin or radius)
In sheet metal work countersink cutters are available for both 82-degree and 100-
degree fastener heads, and for special NACA rivets. Always be sure that the cutter
angle you use is the correct one for the fastener to be used. Standard Countersink / Plain Counter
In general all sheet metal work is done using 100-degree fastener heads. A standard countersink can be used in a drill motor or a hand drill, but the difficulty
in cutting the depression to the correct depth makes this tool impractical when you
have more than some holes to countersink Standard countersinks are available
Figure 24: Limits with one, three, or multiple cutting lips.
Figure 26: Countersink Tools
Desired: top skin thicker than head of rivet
Acceptable: top skin as thick as head of rivet 3.215
Not acceptable: top skin thinner than the head

Instruction to use the Microstop Countersink Tool Figure 27: Microstop Countersinking Tool
The shaft of the microstop countersinking tool rotates on a bearing inside an ad-
justable "locking sleeve and foot piece assembly". The foot piece (or "stop" as it is
often called) threads onto the shaft bearing, enabling depth adjustments to be
made.
Markings, indicating depth differentials in 0.001-inch increments, surround the
beveled circumference of the locking sleeve to aid in dept adjustments.
The adjustment is made by pulling the sleeve back and turning the stop, to deepen
or shallow the cut. The sleeve is then dropped back into its original position to ef-
fect a lock.
Make sure that the locking splines intermesh, only then is the adjustment se-
curely locked. In general adjustment of the microstop will be made on
scrapped sheets.
The stop countersink may be adjusted or set up on the part to be countersunk, pro-
vided the following precautions are taken:
1. Be sure the adjustable foot piece is extended far enough to ensure that the
Adjusting of microstop countersink tool
cut will not be too deep.
2. Gradually increase the depth adjustment until the depth and diameter of the 3.220
hole are the same as the size of the fastener head.
3. If at all doubtful of the accuracy of the adjustment, try the countersink on a
piece of scrap sheet stock before using.
Holding of microstop countersink tool

Back Countersinking Figure 29: Spotfacing

The back countersinking tool is to be used to countersink inaccessible holes. The
tool consists of a pilot rod and a countersink cutter. The rod must be slightly small-
er than the hole.
Work sequence:
1. Install the rod in a drilling motor 3.235
2. Insert the pilot rod through the hole
3. Attach the cutter to the rod end.
4. Start drilling motor and push back the motor. Rules for Countersinking
• Because countersinking is done through skin tape or through a protective
Figure 28: Back Countersinking spray coating, allow for this added thickness when adjusting countersink cut-
ter depth.
Pilot Rod • Be sure the skirt of the countersink tool is smooth and polished; burrs or nicks
on the skirt may mark the skin.
• Do not allow the skirt to rotate on the metal, this can scratch the skin
• Countersink depth requirements are given in the SRM (aerodynamic smooth-
ness) for each airplane.
• Periodically check countersink depth throughout the countersinking operation
to ensure that flushness requirements are being met. Countersink depth will
vary depending upon the skin thickness and understructure support.
• Before using, check countersink cutter for pilot size, sharpness, degrees of
3.230
cutter, and true running.
• Hold countersink at a 90-degree angle to material.
• Take full depth of cut each time.
Countersink Cutter • Apply pressure directly behind countersink.
• Face on the top countersink must be highly polished to prevent marring the
material.
• Do not allow the stop to spin on the material.
Spotfacing
Spotfacing is the method used for cutting a flat area or seat for a bolt head or nut
on a contoured or uneven surface. This operation should be done in a drill press
whenever possible, but most occasionally be done with hand-held equipment.
Spotfacers have interchangeable pilots that must be slightly smaller than the fas-
tener hole. Spotfacer diameter will be called out on the drawing. The mechanic will
check out a pilot 1/32 inch smaller than the hole.

Dimpling Process of Dimpling

Different kinds of dimpling are required for various types and thickness of materi-
In this Submodule, we only discuss about the tools used for dimpling. You can
als.
read more about dimpling in Sub Module 7.8 Riveting".
In order to install countersunk rivets, it is necessary to provide a conical depres- Radius Dimpling
sion in the surface of the skin that the head of the rivet will be flush with the surface. When dimpling a hole, rest the female die on some solid surface, place the mate-
This depression is made with a process called dimpling when the skin is thin.  rial on the female die, insert the male die in the hole to be dimpled, and then ham-
Dimpling for countersunk rivets is a common practice when using a relatively thin mer the male die. Strike with several solid blows until the dimple is formed.
skin such as 0.016 to 0.025 in (0.4 - 0.6 mm) thickness.
The tools for some sheets must be heated. See Title "Hot Dimpling" on page 27. Coin Dimpling
The major difference between radius and coin dimpling is in the construction of the
Dimpling Tools female die. In radius dimpling a solid female die is used. Coin dimpling uses a slid-
Coin dimpling may be accomplished with stationary or portable equipment using ing ram female die that makes this process superior.
heated or non-heated coin dimpling tools. The preferred method of coin dimpling, During the coin dimpling process, the metal is coined (made to flow) into the con-
when using portable equipment, is use of a squeezer or squeeze gun.
tour of the dies so that the dimple assumes the shape of the die.
Figure 30: Dimpling Tools Coin dimpling offers several advantages.
• It improves the configuration of the dimple.
• It produces a more satisfactory aerodynamic skin surface.
• It eliminates radial and circumferential cracking.
• It ensures a stronger and safer joint.
Figure 31: Dimpling
3.250
3.240

Hot Dimpling
It is sometimes necessary to dimple heavy sheet in a highly stressed part of the
aircraft in order to retain the maximum strength of the sheet. A process called hot
coin dimpling has been developed for this purpose. Hot coin dimpling is performed
with a special hot-dimpling machine consisting of heated dies which can be
pressed together to form a dimple.
Figure 32: Hot Dimpling
Heater

Measuring Instruments Figure 34: Vernier Scales
Vernier Calliper
Vernier calipers / sliding gages are used to make accurate inside or outside as well
as depths measurements faster than can be made with a micrometer, and for 0 4 8
measurements that exceed the practical range of a micrometer. In Figure 33, an

1/128 in.
analog and digital calliper are shown.

0 1 2
10 20 30 40 50
Figure 33: Vernier Callipers

0.05 mm
3.275
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
3.270
1/10 Metrical Vernier

12.367 The accuracy reading is 0.1 mm.
1/20 Metrical Vernier

REF mm/in ON/OFF 0 HOLD
The most often used vernier caliper is the caliper with the 1/20 vernier and an ac-
curacy reading of 0.05 mm. Have a look at Figure 35 on page 29.
It will be seen that 20 divisions on the nonius scale are equal to 39 mm on the fixed
scale. The length of the nonius is 39 mm / 20 = 1.95 mm, and since the top division
The vernier calipers consists of the bar and the two measuring jaws. One jaw is is 2 mm, the difference is 2 mm – 1.95 mm = 0.05 mm. This distance represents
fixed to the bar, the other one slides on the bar. The bar of a metric vernier caliper the accuracy to which readings may be taken.
is equipped with a graved in scale, graduated in mm or inch, the so-called fixed or
main scale. Opposite to this scale, there is the so-called vernier scale (in German: 1/50 Metrical Vernier
nonius) on the slide. These scales are normally divided in 8 equal spacings for The accuracy reading is 0.02 mm.
Inch measuring(1/128), and 10, 20 or 50 equal spacings for metrical measuring,
the so-called 1/10, 1/20, or 1/50 vernier (nonius).

Figure 35: 1/20 Metrical Vernier Scale
0 10 20 30 40 50
0.05 mm
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0 10
2.00 mm
Fixed Scale
1.95 mm
Nonius Scale
0 1 2 3 4
Two units on the Fixed Scale: 2.00 mm

One unit on the Nonius Scale: - 1.95 mm
Accuracy: 0.05 mm

1/128 Inch Vernier (Fraction Inch) Figure 36: 1/128 Inch Vernier Scale
Vernier callipers with a reading accuracy of 1/128 inch fraction are used to deter- 1/128"
mine the length and the thickness of bolts, hi-locks, rivets and cables.  Nonius Scale (8 Units)
In Figure 36, one inch is divided into 16 equal units on the fixed scale. Thus each 0 4 8
unit is 1/16 inch. To convert the fraction into 128 inch, the numerator and the de-
nominator has to be multiplied by 8.
1/128 in.
8  1- --------
8-
------------ = inch
8  16 128
This means that each unit on the fixed scale is 8/128 inch. The nonius scale is di-
vided into 8 equal units. These equal the length of 7 units on the fixed scale. 7 units
on the fixed scale are:
1/16"= 8/128"
8 56 Fixed Scale (16 Units) 1
7  --------- = --------- inch 0
128 128 7/16" is 8 Scale Units
of the Nonius Scale
One nonius unit is therefore:
56 7
---------------- = --------- inch
128  8 128
The reading accuracy is determined by subtracting one unit of the nonius scale
from one unit of the fixed scale:
8- 7 1-
-------- – --------- = 8-----------
– 7- = --------
inch
128 128 128 128

Vernier Calliper Readings Figure 38: Vernier Calliper Readings (Inch)

The reading will be done as follows: 0 4 8
Count the total length indicated on the fixed scale(1.) and note the mark on the no-
nius scale which is level with a mark on the main scale(2.). The latter amount will 1/128 in.
represent the number of dimensions which must be added to the first reading. d)
Do the following examples. You will find the results on Page 56.
Figure 37: Vernier Calliper Readings (Metric)
0 1
0 10 20 30 40 50
1. 2.
a) 0 4 8
3.280
0.05 mm 1/128 in.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 e)
0 1
0 10 20 30 40 50
b) 0 4 8
0.05 mm
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1/128 in.
f)
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 1
c)
0.05 mm
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 a) 7.3 mm
b) 11.45 mm
c) 2.4 mm
d) 48/128 inch = 3/8 inch
e) 45/128 inch
f) 68/128 inch = 17/32 inch

Micrometer Micrometer Readings

When a part has to be measured to the second place of decimals in the metric sys- The screw in this micrometer has a pitch of ½ mm, so that the jaws open ½ mm
tem, or the third place in the English, we need a more accurate method of meas- for each turn of the thimble. The rim of the thimble is divided into 50 parts, which
urement that can be obtained with a vernier caliper. In this case, the micrometer is gives a reading of 1/2mm : 50 = 1/100 mm. The barrel is marked in millimetres and
commonly used. ½ mm divisions, so that to take a reading, we add the number of hundredths indi-
cated on the thimble to the millimetres and ½ mm uncovered on the barrel.
Description
A micrometer consists of a semi-circular frame having a cylindrical extension (the Reading Example (Metric)
barrel) at its right end, and hardened anvils inside, at the left end. The bore of the The thimble has moved out 25 complete turns or 25 x 0.50 = 12.5 mm. Plus
barrel is screwed ½ mm pitch and the spindle, to which the thimble is attached, 35 x 0.01 = 0.35 mm.
screws through. Adjustment is provided for the longitudinal position of the spindle, The reading is 12.85 mm.
and for tightness of the screw head. The barrel is graduated in mm and ½ mm for
a length of 25 mm in this case, and the rim of the thimble is divided into 50 equal Figure 40: Micrometer Reading (Metric)
divisions. The measurement is taken between the face of the anvil and the end of
the spindle, and the range of the micrometer is 25 mm, so that if we wish to meas-
ure up to 150 mm we must have six micrometers; 0 to 25, to 50, 50 to 75, and so 40
on with 125 to 150 mm as the largest size. 0 5 10
Figure 39: Micrometer 35
Ratchet 30
Scale Thimble
Anvil Spindle Stop
0 5
0 For accurate measuring, use only the ratchet stop.
45
Measuring
Faces Barrel
3.290
Temperature Shield
Frame
Testing the Accuracy

As every test equipment, micrometers have to be tested periodically. This is done
by measure a calibrated ingot. To get an accurate test result, the temperature must
be considered.

Reading Examples (Inch) Micrometer Handling

1. Adjust the thimble until the object to be measured exactly fills the space be- • Set the micrometer to a oversize dimension.
tween the anvil and the spindle. • Set the frame anvil straight to the work.
2. Read the number of graduations on the barrel beyond which the thimble has • Clamp the spindle against the subject using the ratchet stop.
moved. The thimble has moved out beyond the 2 mark on the barrel and three
marks beyond it. Figure 42: Micrometer Handling
3. Read the number on the thimble that has just moved past the horizontal line
on the barrel. In this case it is the number 10.
4. Find the line on the vernier scale that exactly lines up with one of the marks
on the thimble. In this case the 1 line is exactly aligned with one of the marks,
the 1.5 mark.
5. Add the number of ten thousandths of an inch (the number of the line on the
vernier scale) to the number of thousandths of an inch from the barrel and
thimble.
Barrel 0.2750
Thimble 0.0100
Vernier scale + 0.0001 3.300
Total reading 0.2851 inch
Figure 41: Inch Micrometer Reading (Inch)

Measurement Dial Indicator Depth Measurement of small Blendouts

General Work Sequence
The dial indicator is high precise measurement tool with mostly an accuracy of • Clean up the damaged area.
0.01 mm (written on the scale). It is especially used in the mechanical engineering • Put the dial indicator with the measuring stand on a straight surface and rotate
section to measure alignments of shafts or to check smoothness of surfaces. the rotary scale mark to zero.
One revolution of the large hand corresponds to 1 mm. The second smaller hand • Put the dial gage on the inspection area as shown.
of the rotation tachometer counts the revolutions of the large hand. The measuring • Do the inspection at different points in the inspection area until you find the
range is normally 10 mm. Set to zero by revolving the rotary scale. maximum depth of clean up.
Figure 43: Dial Indicator 1/100 mm This procedure measures the depth of the material. The thickness of the ma-
terial which remains must be found out by calculation.
Tolerance Figure 44: Depth Measurements using a Dial Indicator
Marks
3.310
Rotation
Rotary 3.305 Tachometer
Scale (mm)
Climb Shaft
Spindle
Pin
A special type of the dial indicator is an excellent tool to measure for example the
removed material after corrosion strike clean up.

Radius Gage Protractor

Radius gages are used to measure either inside or outside radii. Find a blade that The Protector consists of an adjustable blade with a dial that is graduated from 0
fits the surface being checked. to 180 degrees. To use a Protractor, set the blade to the angle being checked and
lock the nut. The angle is indicated on the Protractor head. The Protractor is gen-
Figure 45: Radius Gage erally used in assembly area to check part flanges or to verify jig-located angles,
clips, etc.
Inside Radius
Figure 46: Protractor
3.320
5/32
3.325
Outside Radius
1/3
2

Thickness (Feeler) Gage

The feeler gage is made up of a number of thin steel leaves that fold into a handle
like the blades of a pocked knife. The thickness in thousandths of an inch or hun-
dreds of a millimetre is marked on each leaf. The marked leaves are inserted into
a gap until the closet fitting leaf is found. The thickness of that leaf represents the
size of the gap. The gage is generally used in assembly areas to check interface
gaps or gaps under bolt heads or nuts.
Figure 47: Feeler Gage

Marking out Dividers

Dividers are used for scribing arcs and circles, for measuring between points, and
Marking out means marking on the material all lines and points we need to provide
for transferring dimensions taken from a steel rule. The contacts are the sharp
work from it. In general this is will be done by a dimensioned drawing, this is a
points of the straight legs, and measurement is by visual comparison. Dividers are
drawing sowing the exact shape with all dimensions indicated. So we take a piece
difficult to use accurately when the legs are widely extended and the points steeply
of material and accurately copy the drawing. Last step is cut out the piece material
inclined to the work surface. Dividers or compasses should not be used when
with work marked out on it.
marks or reference lines are drawn on metal skin surfaces, since the metal points
Figure 48: Marking Out will cause permanent damage. Instead, pencils are commonly used to lay out
skins.
Figure 49: Marking Tools
3.335
3.340
Marking out Tools

• Ruler
For setting out length, a rule or a steel tape is used.
• Try Square
For squaring and for lines at right angles a try square is used.

Scriber
The scriber is used to mark lines on metal surfaces.
Note: A scriber is used only when the material within the scribed line is to be cut
out and the scribble mark is removed as part of the scrap.
Pencil
When working with aluminium, a soft lead pencil may be used for layout work or
for marking reference lines in areas that will not be removed.
Marking Out Rules:

• Never use a lead pencil on titanium.
• When using a scriber or pencil with a straightedge, hold it as a slight angle so
that the line will be parallel to and as close as possible to the straightedge.
• For marking of aluminium, use only a soft lead pencil.
• Mark only thin lines.
• Mark lines only once.
Figure 50: Use of Scriber
3.345

Lubrication usual method and the type of lubricant to be used is shown in diagrams or illustra-
tions. A symbolic system is used and could look like Figure 52 on page 40.
Hinges, bearings, sliding numbers etc. on aircraft must be lubricated at regular in- Guns and oil cans must be kept clean and must be filled with new lubricant from a
tervals to reduce friction and prevent seizure. Grease or oil is used as the lubricant. container marked with what it contains. The lubrication point and its surrounding
Grease, which has greater viscosity and adhesive properties, is more suitable than area should be wiped clean to prevent grit being pumped in with the lubricant, any
oil in positions where prevention of lubricant leakage would be difficult. Grease excess should be wiped off to prevent it attracting dirt and grit. Always ensure that
also excludes moisture and dirt, giving additional protection from corrosion and the correct quantity is applied, the Maintenance Manual will- specify the amount
wear of moving parts. required, normally with a greased joint when new grease extrudes from the bear-
ing it is sufficient.
Lubrication Diagram
Oil systems are normally filled to a point on a dipstick or sight glass to ensure the
Lubrication is carried out in accordance with a schedule approved for the particular correct quantity. Use new oil of the correct type and ensure that the area around
aircraft. The intervals normally being related to flying hours. Certain positions may the fillpoint is clean.
require additional lubrication after ground de-icing operations and after cleaning
the aircraft. The types of lubricant and the position of the lubrication points, are After cleaning aircraft with high pressure washing equipment or after de-icing, the
shown in the lubrication diagrams in the aircraft maintenance manual. lubricant in exposed bearings could be diluted or contaminated so lubrication may
be required after these operations. Some types of bearings containing Teflon must
Minor lubrication points have a drilled hole into which oil is fed using an oil can. not be lubricated as the lubricant causes deterioration of the Teflon coating and
Nipples are provided where it is necessary to force grease or oil into bearings etc. reduces its life.
Some bearings are self lubricating, and other are packed on assembly with suffi-
cient grease for the life of the bearing. These bearings will require no further lubri- Figure 51: Lubrication Nozzles
cation during service.
Lubricating Gun
A typical lubricating gun is designed for use with oil or soft grease. It consists of a
barrel that is closed at one end by a spring-type cap, and at the other end by a
pump head. The barrel houses a piston follower assembly. The pump head, which
screws on to the barrel, houses a lever-operated piston and a spring loaded non-re-
turn-valve. In addition, fitted in the front face of the head, is an adapter for fitting
accessories, and a pressure relief valve.
The accessories supplied with the gun consist of four nozzles. The standard noz-
zle is for use with the gun nozzle is for use with Tecalemit standard size hexagon
nipples. The miniature nozzle is for Tecalemit miniature size hexagon nipples. The
push-on nozzle is for Tecazerk ' and similar type nipples. The hydraulic nozzle is
for use with hydraulic nipples.
Application
Lubrication must be carried out at the intervals specified in the Maintenance Man-
uals, the lubricant used and the method of application will also be detailed. The

Figure 52: Lubrication Symbols Figure 53: Lubrication Diagram
Grease gun
Oil can
Brush
Hand
3.350
Clean linth-free cloth
Aerosol spray

Electrical General Test Equipment Troubleshooting Tools

Electrical system requires troubleshooting that you open up the system and meas-
This part of the submodule deals with measuring in electrical cirquits. It deals in ure values of voltage, current and resistance. Therefore you need specialized
particular with a description of the measuring instruments used for aircraft mainte- equipment. This can be as simple as a test light or as complex as an oscilloscope.
nance. Taking of accurate and reliable measurements, the correct setting of the Let's look at some of the most frequently used instruments.
measuring instruments and the correct reading of measuring values.
Test Lights
The avionics systems of an aircraft have been designed to be used as efficiently Continuity Tester
as possible. In spite of this, failures can always occur due to malfunctioning of in- Analog Multimeter
dicators or parts of the transmission/receiving equipment. Other failures which oc- Digital Multimeter
cur very often are loose contacts in connectors or broken wires. Failures obstruct Voltage measuring
the functioning of systems and must be remedied quickly and correctly. To do this, Current measuring
it is important to locate the failure first and then determine the cause of a failure Clip-On Ammeter
(trouble shooting). There are various techniques to locate failures: via BITE checks Resistance measuring
(Built in Test Equipment), by using trouble shooting trees or by electrical measur- Wheatstone Bridge (Pontavi)
ing. MilliOhm Meter
There are three basic for electrical measuring: Isolation Resistance Meter (Isolavi)
• Measuring electrical current with the help of an ammeter or clip-on ammeter.
• Measuring of voltage with the help of a voltmeter or a measuring probe.
Safety Checklist
• Measuring of resistance in a circuit with an ohmmeter or with a Wheatstone 1. Use a meter that meets accepted safety standards.
bridge. The isolation resistance meter is used for the measuring of very high 2. Verify that the meter is calibrated and the time period therefore is not expired.
resistances with high voltages. 3. Only use test leads that have shrouded connectors and finger guards.
There are electromechanical multi meters as well as electronic multi meters. The 4. Use test leads with correct fitting pins, sockets and clips for taking measure-
aircraft maintenance technician uses both. Each of these measuring instruments ments. Common test probes may slip off. Damage of electric cirquits will re-
has its own Operator’ s Manual. This is a handbook supplied by the manufacturer. sult.
It describes how to use the instrument. The settings of the various electrical meas-
uring instruments can differ. 5. Inspect test leads for physical damage before making a measurement.
6. Use the meter to check continuity of the test leads.
7. Select the proper function and range for your measurement. At unknown volt-
ages and currents start to read with the highest possible range.
8. Be aware of high current and high voltage situations and use the appropriate
equipment, such as high voltage probes and high current clamps.
9. When measuring current without a clamp, turn the power off before connect-
ing into the circuit.
10. Always disconnect the “hot” (red) test lead first.
11. Follow all equipment safety procedures.
12. Don't work alone.

Test Light Figure 54: Test lights and continuity tester

The simplest electrical system troubleshooting tool you can use is a test light.
Many technicians build their own test light with a 24-volt bulb and an other one with
a 115 volt bulb. This is used to determine whether there is voltage in the part of the
system you are testing.
The test light feature is handy for determining the presence of voltage at various
points in the system. If you touch the one leads of the test light to the point you
want to check for voltage, and the other lead to some ground point on the aircraft
structure, the light will come on if there is voltage, or stay off if there is no voltage.
Continuity Tester
A continuity tester, using a flashlight batteries, a 3-volt flashlight bulb, and two test
leads. With this simple home-made tool, you can trace wires through a system, lo-
cate shorts and open circuits, and quickly determine whether a fuse is good or bad.
Instead of an indicating bulb also a buzzer is sounding at continuity.
When using the continuity tester, all electrical power must be off to the circuit. Con-
nect one test lead to one end of the circuit and the other lead to the other end. If
there is continuity, the bulb will light up. If there is an open circuit, the bulb will not
light.
Test Lights and Continuity Tester are simple, inexpensive to make, and can be
easily carried in your tool box, but they are limited in what they can do.
Piercing
It is not allowed when troubleshooting an aircraft electrical system to follow the au-
tomotive practice of piercing the insulation with a sharp needle point on the test
lead to contact the wire for checking continuity or voltage. The insulation is differ-
ent and there is a danger of damaging the wires.

Multimeters Figure 55: Analog Multimeter (Metrix)

A versatile troubleshooting tools is the multimeter. These multimeters measure AC
and DC voltages and currents. Also electric resistance can be measured.
A popular multimeter for aircraft electrical system troubleshooting is shown in next
Figure. It does not require any outside power and its range of scales and sensitiv-
ities makes it ideal for complex troubleshooting. 365
This meter has following range:

Voltage: DC 50 mV - 1’000 V AC 15 V - 1’000 V
Sensitivity: DC 40’000 /V AC 1’000 /V
Current: DC 25 A - 5 A AC 50 mA - 5 A
Voltage drop: 50 mV - 350 mV
Resistance: 10  - 2 M
Other specifications: (Symbols shown on the scale)

DC and AC 30 Hz-20 KHz, Voltage Isolation maximum 3 KV, horizontal use, 
Accuracy DC 1.5% and AC 2.5%, adjustable pointer, Moving coil instrument.
With optional accessories the measuring range can be enlarged.

High voltage probe 3 KV
Clamp on current probe 1’000 A
Note:
• Make sure, that the date of instrument-calibration is not expired. Voltmeter. An electrical instrument used to measure voltage. Most analog voltme-
• With unknown voltages and currents to be measured, always start with the ters determine the voltage by measuring the current forced through a series of pre-
highest range. If the meter is placed away, select the 500 Volt AC range, to cision resistors inside voltmeter.
prevent any damage by the next user. Ammeter. A measuring instrument installed in series with an electrical load to
• For resistance reading, first check that the pointer is showing zero Ohm (0 measure the amount of current flowing through the load. The current is measured
with both probe leads shortened. in amperes.
• This meter must be placed horizontally for exact read-out. A mirror behind the Ohmmeter. An instrument used to measure resistance in an electrical circuit or
pointer eliminates the read-out parallax error. component. A known voltage is applied across the unknown resistance, and the
resulting current is measured.

Digital Multimeter Figure 56: Digital Multimeter (Fluke)

The digital multimeter (DMM) is a new technology test instrument that replaces the
older and more conventional analog multimeter. Digital multimeters have internal
circuits that convert analog values of voltage, current, and resistance into digital
signals and produce an indication in the form of numbers in a liquid crystal display.
DMMs cover a wide range of AC and DC measurements, have an extremely high
input impedance usually between 10 and 11 mega ohms and an accuracy be-
tween about 0.03% and 0.25%. This contrasts with between 1.5% and 3% for
analog type multimeters.
Most DMMs can be used to check the condition of semiconductor diodes, and
some of them even have an audible tone for indicating continuity.
The main limitation of digital meters for troubleshooting is the difficulty in determin-
ing the trends of changing values. The needle of an analog instrument rises or falls
to show trends, but it is more difficult to interpret the trends as the digits change.
To compensate for this limitation, some DMMs have a small analog meter in par-
allel with the digital read-out, and others have a bar graph liquid crystal display that
shows the trend.

Voltage Measuring When a voltmeter is connected across an open switch, a blown fuse, or an open
component, it will read the system voltage. When it is connected across a closed
Voltmeters are connected in parallel with the component whose voltage is to be switch or a good fuse, it will read zero voltage.
measured. The (+) terminal of the voltmeter must be on the side of the component
to which the positive terminal of the power source is connected. Figure 58: Instrument used to measure voltage drop over switches
Figure 57: Connecting a Voltmeter
Voltmeter Voltmeter
- -
+
+ +
L V + +
Voltmeter
- L L
-
- -
A B
V
0 Table 3: Voltages on Aeroplanes
System Voltage
Lights 5 - 6 V and 28 V
Direct Current Power System and Battery 14 or 28 VDC
Alternating Current Power System and Generator 115 VAC

200 VAC
Strobe Lights 5’000 V!
Ignition System 26’000 V!

Measuring Voltage with DMM Figure 59: Measuring Voltage with DMM
One of the most basic tasks of a DMM is measuring voltage. A typical DC voltage
source is a battery, like the one used in your car. AC voltage is usually created by
a generator. The wall outlets in your home are common sources for AC voltage.
Testing for proper supply voltage is usually the first thing measured when trouble-
shooting a circuit. If there is no voltage present, or if it is too high or too low, the
voltage problem should be corrected before investigating further.
The waveforms associated with AC voltages are either sinusoidal (sine waves) or
non-sinusoidal (sawtooth, square, ripple, etc.) DMM’s display the “RMS” (root-
mean-square) value of these voltage waveforms. The RMS value is the effective
or equivalent DC value of the AC voltage.
Most meters, called “average responding”, give accurate RMS readings if the AC
voltage signal is a pure sine wave. Averaging meters are not capable of measuring
non-sinusoidal signals accurately, Special DMM’s, called “true-RMS” DMM’s, will
accurately measure the correct RMS value, regardless of the waveform, and
should be used for non-sinusoidal signals.
A DMM's ability to measure AC voltage can be limited by the frequency of the sig-
nal. Most DMM’s can accurately measure AC voltages with frequencies from 50
Hz to 500 Hz, while others can measure AC voltages with frequencies from 20 Hz
to 100 kHz, DMM accuracy specifications for AC voltage and AC current should
state the frequency range of a signal the meter can accurately measure.
Voltage measurements determine:
• source voltage
• voltage drop
• voltage imbalance

Current Measuring Current measurements are made in series, unlike voltage or resistance measure-
ments, which are made in parallel. The entire current being measured flows
Ammeters are connected in series with the circuit whose current is to be meas- through the meter. Also, the test leads must be plugged into a different set of input
ured. The (+) terminal of the ammeter connects to the portion of the circuit to which
jacks on the meter.
the positive terminal of the power source connects.
Current measurements determine:
Figure 60: Instrument used to measure Ampere • Circuit overloads
Ammeter • Control circuit current (4-20 mA current loop)
+ - • Circuit operating current
I
• Current in different branches of a circuit
+
Figure 61: Measuring Current with DMM
mA
0

Clip-on Ammeter Figure 63: Clip-on Ammeter

One very handy tool for electrical system troubleshooting is a clip-on ammeter.
This instrument has a set of jaws that can be opened, slipped over a current car-
rying wire and then clamped shut. Current flowing in the wire produces a magnetic
field that acts on a special type of semiconductor material to produce a voltage
proportional to the strength of the magnetic field. The strength of this field is pro-
portional to the amount of current flowing in the wire.
Clip-on ammeters are also used for troubleshooting for battery charging, starter
motors, hydraulic and fuel pumps. The load in a electric wire can be determined
fairly well by the amount of current the pump motor is drawing. By clamping an am-
meter over the lines to the pumps, you can determine which pumps are operating
and get an idea of the amount of load they are carrying.
Figure 62: Electric current producing magnetic field

Resistance Measuring Figure 64: Ohmmeter to measure resistance

Ohmmeters measure the resistance of a component by measuring the amount of
current that flows through the component from the known voltage of a self-con-
tained battery. They contain a battery and a variable resistor to adjust the voltage +
so it will furnish the correct amount of current to cause full scale deflection of the
meter when the test leads are shorted together. Ω
When using an ohmmeter to measure a circuit component, the component must
be disconnected from all other components so the current from the ohmmeter will
not flow through them and give an inaccurate indication. - Ohmmeter
Any voltage coming from a not disconnected power source may destroy the ohm-
meter.
Resistor
Ω
0
8
Resistance Figure 65: Resistance measuring with DMM

Resistance is measured in ohms (). Resistance values may vary from a few mil-
liohms (m) for contact resistance to billions of ohms for insulators. Most DMM’s
measure down to 0.1 ; some measure as high as 300 M (300,000,000 ohms).
Infinite resistance is read as “OL” on some displays and means the resistance is
greater than the meter can measure. Open circuits will also read OL on some me-
ters' displays.
Resistance measurements must be made with the circuit power off, otherwise
damage to the meter and the circuit may result. Some DMM’s provide protection
in the ohms mode in case of accidental contact with voltages. The level of protec-
tion may vary greatly between different DMM models.
For accurate low resistance measurements, resistance in the test leads must be
subtracted from the total resistance measured. Typical test lead resistance is be-
tween 0.2  and 0.5 . If the resistance greater than 1 , they should be replaced.
If the DMM supplies less than 0.3V DC test voltage for measuring resistance, it will
be able to measure the values of resistors that are isolated in a circuit by diodes
from semiconductor junctions. This often allows you to test resistors on a circuit
board without unsoldering them.
Resistance measurements determine:
• Resistance of a load
• Resistance of conductors
• Value of a resistor
• Operation of a variable resistor
Continuity
Continuity is a quick go/no go resistance test that distinguishes between an open
and closed circuit.
A DMM with a continuity beeper allows you to complete many continuity tests eas-
ily and quickly. The meter beeps when it detects a close circuit, so you don't have
to look at the meter as you test. The level of resistance required to trigger the beep-
er varies from model to model of DMM.
Continuity tests determine:
• Good or blown fuse
• Open or shorted conductors
• Operation of switches
• Circuit paths (by circuit or conductor tracing)

Wheatstone Bridge Operation of the Wheatstone Bridge

The ohms scale of a multi meter can be used for measuring resistances. However, To summarize, it can be said that if a Wheatstone bridge is in balance, no voltage
the multi meter is not suitable for accurate measuring of resistances. Therefore, a will be given. However, if the bridge gets out of balance, then there will be voltage.
Wheatstone bridge can be used for these purposes. In business, the word  The amount of this voltage depends on the amount of unbalance of the bridge. The
“Pontavi” is often used. given voltage is conveyed to a galvanometer.
The following is important when measuring with a Wheatstone bridge:
Principle of the Wheatstone Bridge • the galvanometer must be handled very carefully because it is a very sensitive
According to following figure, the galvanometer is included in the Wheatstone instrument;
bridge. If the bridge is in balance, then no current will flow through the meter. There • the bridges are very expensive instruments. Therefore, always measure on a
will be no voltage difference between points C and D. This is the situation when resistance that is definitely not connected to power.
R1 x R3 = R2 x Rx. This means that if Rx changes, there is a voltage difference
between C and D. The meter then deflects to a certain side, depending on whether The zero point of a galvanometer is in the center of the scale. The pointer can de-
the resistance Rx increases or decreases. By making R3 variable, the galvanom- flect to both sides. The scale has a division, but it is not standardized because only
eter can be set back to zero with R3. A scale division on R3 makes it possible to the center position is important.
see how many ohms R3 has used to get the galvanometer to zero. The value of
Figure 67: Galvanometer scale
Rx can now be read directly. So the value of the resistance to be measured is not
read from the scale but from the adjustment switch.
0
Figure 66: Principle of the Wheatstone Bridge
C
R1 R2
U S
A B
Rx R3
R1 Rx
Balanced Bridge = ------- = -------
R2 R3

Resistance Measurement with the Wheatstone Bridge Figure 68: Wheatstone Bridge (Pontavi Wh2)
• The resistance to be measured must be connected between the terminals (3).
• Before measuring, the user must check if the pointer is in the middle. If this is
not the case, then a mechanical zero point correction can be made with the
adjustment screw (8).
• Then, the user must check if the battery is still in good condition. This is done
by pressing S2. The pointer should move to the right and remain within the
green band (7).
• If S1 is pressed, the meter is operational. As soon as S1 is not pressed any-
more, the meter is switched off.
• While pressing S1, the user must check if the pointer deflects and to which
side. If the pointer moves to the + side of the scale (6) the value of the con-
nected resistance will be greater than the resistance measuring setting of the
meter.
• To find the correct resistance value, choose a higher range with range switch
S3. The potentiometer for zero setting (9) can also be turned to the left until
the pointer is in the middle.
• The resistance value will then be readable on the resistance scale (1). If the
pointer deflects to the - side of the scale, the user must choose a lower range
and/or the switch for the zero setting must be turned to the right.
R1 R2
U S
A B
Rx R3

Milliohm-Meter Figure 70: Milliohm-Meter (MetraHit)

Today also very accurate test equipment for low resistances are available.
The electrical resistor measurement is generally a two-pole measurement. This is
done by passing a measuring current of a defined magnitude through the device
under test and measuring the resulting voltage drop; the quotient of both yields the
resistance value searched for.
Decisive for the measured result are the two potential points between which the
voltage is measured. Each resistance between these two points adds to the meas-
ured total resistance. Counting among them are transient resistances just as well
as the resistance of the leads.
Four/Two Pole Measurement

If a very low-ohmic resistance is to be measured, e.g. the only some milliohms
counting contact resistance of a contactor, the potential points of the voltage
measurement must be run out of the meter as close to the device under test as
possible. That is why this meter has separate connectors for current input and volt-
age measurement. A simple, correct connection is possible with the correct clips
or tips.
It is also possible to make a two-pole measurement: For this purpose, only the two
outer connectors are used but this is useful only, when the resistances of the leads
bear no important effect on the measured result that is, resistances above 100
Ohm.
Figure 69: 4 or 2 Pole Connection of Milliohm-Meter
Measuring range: 10 20 Min 10 different ranges

Measuring current: 100 mA - 0.1 A
Voltage limit: <2 mV - <2V

Isolation Resistance Meter Using the Isolation Resistance Meter

The resistance between isolated conductors must be so high, that there are no Below are a few points of attention for measuring isolation values of wiring:
leakage currents. This means that the isolation resistance can often have values • The supply voltage must be switched off;
of many millions of ohms. Isolation resistances are, therefore, expressed in million • No equipment may be connected to the wiring;
ohms (1 million ohm = 1 Mega Ohm = 1M). High voltages are necessary to be • Do not touch the wiring to be measured if the isolation tester is operable;
able to measure those high resistance values. They vary between 100 V, 250 V,
• Prevent the forming of sparks in the tank when checking the isolation value of
500 V up to 1000 V.
tank wiring;
Operation of the Isolation Resistance Meter • Determine the maximal measuring voltage by means of the Aircraft Mainte-
nance Manual or the Wiring Diagram Manual.
The isolation resistance meter needs a supply source for the necessary measuring
voltage. For this reason, the instrument has an (exchangeable) battery. The direct Insulation Resistance Test
voltage supplied by the battery is converted to alternating voltage by an electronic
circuit. The alternating voltage is first amplified via a transformer and then rectified. 1. Ra-b -> Measure isolation resistance between the conductors
In this way, low direct voltage is converted to high direct voltage. 2. Ra-gnd -> Measure isolation resistance between conductor a and ground
Setting the Isolation Resistance Meter 3. Rb-gnd -> Measure isolation resistance between conductor b and ground
Isolation resistance meters have a range switch, just as multi meters. An aircraft
Figure 71: Insulation testing of a two wire line
maintenance mechanic can choose various measuring voltages with this switch.
100 V, 250 V, 500 V and 1000 V are most frequently used. The meter can also a
have various scales. The most suitable scale can be chosen by means of push-
buttons; this is the scale where the meter can be read as accurately as possible. LINE TO BE TESTED
MEGA b
Battery Check OHM
Each isolation tester can check the condition of the internal battery. This can be
done in different ways depending on the manufacturer. The range switch might
gnd
have a separate mode for testing the battery.The isolation tester might also have INSULATION
a special button (or combination of buttons), which must be pressed to perform the RESISTANCE
METER
battery check. In this battery test mode, the pointer will deflect to a (colored) part
of the scale. When choosing a higher voltage, it is advisable to check if the batter- The insulation resistance should be between 5 - 10 Mega Ohm (M
ies are still sufficiently loaded. Warning:
• Working with high voltages can be dangerous to your health and to the envi-
ronment.
• Make sure that nobody can touch the circuit to be measured during measur-
ing;
• Make sure that the circuit to be measured cannot be damaged by the high
measuring voltage. Consult the Aircraft Maintenance Manual or the Wiring Di-
agram Manual.

Figure 72: Isolation Resistance Meter

Results:
Vernier Calliper Reading on Page 31:
a) 7.3 mm
b) 11.45 mm
c) 2.4 mm
d) 48/128 inch = 3/8 inch
e) 45/128 inch
f) 68/128 inch = 17/32 inch

Training Manual 7.4 Avionics General Test Equipment
7.4 Avionics General Test Equipment

Electrical Bonding Following table shows different bonding resistance values. Actual values must be
taken from the maintenance manuals.
Bonding provides a path for return current from the components and provides a
low-impedance path to ground to minimize radio interference from static electrical Table 1: Example
charges collected on the component. Therefore all isolated components are elec-
trically connecting to the aircraft structure. Low-resistance wire (bonding jumper) Bonding Resistance between  Resistance
or metal strap are used to connect a structural component or an electrical compo- Primary Structure and: (Milli-Ohm)
nent to the basic structure of an aircraft.
Bonding carries the return current from an electrical component back to the elec- Wing, Stabilizer, Engine and APU-Structure 2
trical power sources like generators, transformer-rectifiers and batteries.
Cabin- Cargo- and Access-Doors, Fuel Tank Access Panels 10
Bonding connects flight control surfaces to the main structure to carry static elec-
trical charge that build up when air flows over the surface into the main structure. Pipes for Fuel, Hydraulic and Air 10 - 500
Bonding prevents sparks that could cause radio interference.
Electrical Components 1 - 10
Testing
Shielding Conduits 5 - 10
In general, most bonding jumpers or ground straps must have each connection
made to have 0.003 ohms or less in resistance. This measurement must be taken Cockpit and Cabin Installations 10 - 500
between the surface being bonded and the bonding jumper.
This test may be performed using an extremely sensitive ohmmeter or a bonding Main Grounding Points of Electrical Power Distribution System 0.05
tester, and should be done any time a connection has been modified, added to or
temporally disconnected.
Figure 1: Bonding Resistance Test

Determination of Bonding Resistance by Low Current Method Figure 2: Determination of Bonding Resistance
• A variable DC current power supply unit feeds a continuous current of 
10 Ampere through the bonding connection under test.
• The voltage drop over the bonding is determined with a millivolt meter.
• Calculate the resistance in milli ohm by following formula:
Voltage  mV 
Bonding Resis tan ce  m  = ----------------------------------------
Current  10A 
Make sure that the measured values are not higher than the maximum permitted
published in the respective aircraft maintenance manual.

Milliohm Meter Figure 4: Milliohm Meter (MetraHit 17)

The electrical resistor measurement is generally a two-pole measurement. This is
done by passing a measuring current of a defined magnitude (see section 7)
through the device under test and measuring the resulting voltage drop; the quo-
tient of both yields the resistance value searched for. Decisive for the measured
result are the two potential points between which the voltage is measured. Each
resistance between these two points adds to the measured total resistance.
Counting among them are transient resistances just as well as the resistance of
the leads. If a very low-ohmic resistance is to be measured, e.g. the only some mil-
liohms counting contact resistance of a contactor, the potential points of the volt-
age measurement must be run out of the meter as close to the device under test
as possible. That is why this meter has separate connectors for current input and
voltage measurement. This type of four-pole contacting is called a connection ac-
cording to Thomson/Kelvin. A simple, correct connection is possible with the cor-
rect clips or tips.
Figure 3: 4 Pole and 2 Pole Measurement of low Resistance
Measuring range: 10 20 Min 10 different ranges

Of course, it is also possible to make a two-pole measurement: For this purpose, Measuring current: 100 mA - 0.1 A
only the two outer connectors are used but this is useful only, when the resistances
of the leads bear no important effect on the measured result that is, resistances Voltage limit: <2 mV - <2V
above 100 Ohm.

Loop Resistance Tester Figure 5: Loop Resistance Tester

A unique instrument that allows the integrity of cable shielding to be tested without
demating the connectors. The Loop Resistance Tester (LRT) works by magneti-
cally coupling low-power, low-frequency AC current onto the cable shield and then
measuring the induced voltage.
The complex ratio of these can be used to determine the loop resistance, which is
an indicator of the quality of the electrical bonds between the cable shield, connec-
tors, and metallic structure.
The measurement process of the LRT begins when the operator clamps two mag-
netic couplers around the cable of interest. One coupler generates the AC current
that is induced in the cable shield and measures the voltage around the loop while
the other measures the current induced in the loop. The operator can also use a
pair of probes that measure the resistance across a portion of the loop (e.g. a joint)
by measuring the differential voltage between two points.
Data summary:
Resistance range: 3.5 m to 199.9 m
(for a loop induced current of 1 Ampere)
Induce current frequency: 1KHz
Current injection source output voltage: 3.5 to 199.9 V
(at induction transformer)

Theory of Operation Figure 6: Good Current Loop and Faulty Current Loop (Interrupted)
The tester is designed to measure the electrical resistance of a closed loop; typi-
cally that formed by a conductive specimen bonded to a conductive structure, by
the induction of an alternating current AC into the loop so formed.
Normal Operation
Current is induced into the loop under test by the generator in the Current Injection
Source, via the Clip-on Transformer (CT1) and flows through the specimen, its
bonding connections with structure and the structure itself. Loop induced current
is detected by the Clip-on Transformer (CT2) and measured by the Multimeter (set
to read current). The generator voltage present at Clip-on Transformer (CT1), that
which gives rise loop induced current, is displayed on the panel meter of the Cur-
rent Injection Source.
Loop resistance (R Loop) is calculated using the formula:
Voltage  displayed on current injection source 

R Loop = --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Current  measured by multimeter 
In the normal operating mode for acceptance testing, a current of 1 Ampere is

made to flow in the loop under test; the panel meter then displays loop resistance
directly in milli-ohms.
Examination of Out Of Tolerance Reading

Whenever the loop under test is interrupted by a high resistance or open circuit
joint, loop induced current is restricted or non-existent. Examination of the loop can
be made using the Multimeter (set to read volts), to locate high resistance or open
sections. These show as high voltage drops.

Air Data Pitot Static Test Sets Manually operated Test Set
There is a wide variety of different testers varying from those with hand pumps to
To verify the correct function of the Air data Computers and Instruments mainte-
those with electric pumps and computers.
nance facilities needs the appropriate equipment. This equipment is used:
• To read the errors of Altimeter and Airspeed-Indicators. Figure 8: Sextant 301 Tester with Hand Pump and Electronic Displays
• After disconnection of Pitot/Static-Lines leak test must be performed.
The art of test equipment has a wide variation. Roller-Pumps (for leak-test only),
Hand-driven Pumps, electric driven and computer controlled units are available.
Figure 7: Roller Pump with Static Port Adapter (Used for Leak Test only)
• For all pitot- and static-test use approved adapters for connecting the hoses
to pitot tubes and static ports. If connections inadvertent falls off, damage of
the instruments or airdata computers can be the result!
• Drain holes and opposite static ports must be closed during test. Don’t forget
to remove the adhesive red tape or adapter after the test is finished!
• Example: Static pressure: 20’000 ft Pitot pressure: 320 kts
maximum Leak rate: 100ft/min 2kts/min

Druck GE Sensing ADTS-505 Max Limits

The Druck GE Sensing ADTS-505 avionics test equipment which is the most re-
cent in a group of reliable, compact and precise Air Data Test Sets. This flight line Parameter Limit
design of the device has been designed from constant research and development. MIN ALT -2,000 ft
The end product leads to acquiring high performance, ease of maintenance, and
operational simplicity to be optimized. In an effort to improve the amount of avail- MAX ALT 60,000 ft
able flight paths, Reduced Vertical Separation Minima (RVSM) regulations were
created. MIN CAS 0.0 knots
The objective of RVSM is to safely reduce the allowed separation between air- MAX CAS 650.0 knots
borne aircraft from the current 2000 ft to 1000 ft (between altitudes of 29,000 feet
and 41,000 feet). MAX MACH 2.800 Mach
MAX ROC 40,000 ft/min
Features and Specifications
• A compact portable Air Data Test Set ideal for civil aircraft applications. ARINC LIMITS OFF
• Full automatic control ALT CORRECTION 0 ft
• High accuracy, RVSM compatible
MIN Ps 10.90 mbar
• Rugged flightline construction
• Rugged flightline construction MAX Ps 1355.00 mbar
MIN Qc -1355.00 mbar
MAX Qc 2490.00 mbar
MAX Rate Ps 1000 mbar/min
MAX Rate Qc 1000 mbar/min

Figure 9: Pito-Static Testset

Figure 10: Pito-Static Testset

Automatic Air Data Tester (Sextant 410) Figure 11: Sextant 410 Air Data Tester Front Face
Pressure test unit
1. High pressure gauge showing the high pressure HP.
2. Fuse 1A to protect 9 VAC (RCDU power supply).
3. Fuse 1. 5A mains protection.
4. Remote Control Display Unit.
5. Failure warning light.
6. IEEE connector (to connect an external computer with standard IEEE port).
7. Address switches (used to select address in automatic mode.
8. Openings using screwdrivers to the Ps and Pt channel venting valves.
9. Pt warning light (Pt pressure is available).
10. Ps warning light (Ps pressure is available).
11. Black Ps self-sealing pneumatic coupling.
12. Red Pt self-sealing pneumatic coupling.
These needle valves can be separately adjusted by the user in order to select the
venting speed.
13. On/Off switch.
14. Main Power on indicator light of the generator.
15. Vacuum gauge showing the low pressure value BP.

Remote and Control Display Unit Figure 12: Sextant 410 RCDU
The man-machine interface was developed based on a software using multiple
windows with drop-down menus activated by the operator.
The RCDU is made up of:
• 320 x 240 pixel monochrome screen managed in graphic mode
• Keypad with 23 keys
• Potentiometer for adjusting brightness
• Connector for a parallel output (printer)
The screen is composed of:
• 12 keys: 0 . . .9 used to define the order values, program and acceptance
numbers.
• ESCAPE used to Exit from the window displayed and return to the menu at a
higher level menu.
• DELETE used to delete the last numerical value entered and not yet validat-
ed. It can also be used to delete line in certain auxiliary functions.
• PAUSE used to stop the change in progress when in generator mode.
• UP and DN keys used to change zones in a window and to decrease or in-
crease the generated pressures.
• 4 keys: UP, DN, LH and RH used to move the cursor in a menu.
• ? / EXEC used for obtaining information if there is an error message (M ?) or
for executing an order (EXEC).
• ENTER used to validate the current command or value.
The screen is made up of three main zones:

• A menu bar with three functions:
– Mode, Channel select status (Ps and Pt)
– Selection
– Menus associated with the different functions
• QFE display if operation in QFE mode is selected
• The permanent display of the following parameters:
– Ps, Pt, Qc, Hp, Vc and M and the status of the Ps and Pt channels.

RF - Wattmeter (Thruline) Figure 13: Model 43 Thruline RF - Wattmeter
Purpose and application

The Model 43 THRULINE Wattmeter is an insertion type RF wattmeter, designed
to measure power flow and load match in 50-ohm coaxial transmission lines. It is
intended for use on CW, AM, FM, and TV modulation envelopes, but not pulsed
modes. The Model 43, when used in 50-ohm applications, has an insertion VSWR
of less than 1.05:1 up to a frequency of 1000 MHz. The meter is direct reading in
watts, expanded down scale for easy reading, and is graduated 25, 50, and 100
watts full scale. The power ranges used are determined by the Plug-In Elements,
which fall in six frequency band groups covering form 2 to 2200 MHz plus addition-
al special Elements in various power and frequency ranges.
Description
The Model 43 THRULINE, is a portable unit contained in a die cast aluminum
housing, with a formed metal enclosure on the back which is easily removed. In-
cluded with the unit is a leather carrying strap, four rubber shock feet on the base,
and four rubber bumpers on the back, which allow the Model 43 to stand or lie flat
when used.
A shielded cable connects the microammeter to the dc jack which is attached to
the side of the RF line section casting. This cable, nearly three feet long, permits
removal of the RF line section from the Wattmeter housing. Meter connections
may be maintained with any installations outside of the housing. This permits per-
manent additional installations to be made. See Section 3, INSTALLATION.
To make measurements, the cylindrical shaped Plug-In Element is inserted into
the line section socket and rotated against one stop.
These contacts make connection with the spring finger of the de jack only when
the Plug-In Element is in the precise forward or reverse position, and with the index
pin on the Element on the lower level of the line section castingface against its re-
spective stop.
Usage
The wattmeter will be connected with coax cables between the transmitter and the
associated aircraft antenna.
Different Plug-In elements for 25 W, 50W and 100W are used. The Arrow on the
Plug-In elements shows the direction of the RF-power, forward- or reflected power.

Antenna Line Tester Figure 14: Transmission Line Tester
Distance-To-Fault (DTF) is a performance verification and failure analysis tool for

antenna and transmission line service. It uses Frequency Domain Reflectometry
(FDR). FDR is a transmission line fault isolation technique which precisely identi-
fies signal path degradation for transmission lines. FDR technology is different
from traditional time domain reflectometry (TDR) techniques. The FDR technique
uses RF frequencies instead of TDR type DC pulses. FDR can locate RF faults,
not just DC open or short circuit conditions. This dual role of predicting future fail-
ure conditions and isolating existing problems makes DTF an important part of ser-
vice/maintenance planning.
DTF displays RF return loss or SWR data versus distance. The effects of poor con-
nections, damaged cables, or faulty antennas are quickly identified. Since DTF au-
tomatically accounts for attenuation versus distance, the display accurately
indicates the return loss of the antenna - allowing technicians to perform fault iso-
lation from ground level.
Many components can cause problems. Transmission lines are typically the most
common failure point in a communication system. Transmission lines are exposed
to worse environment, and will degrade over time. Lightning can sever a portion of
the antenna.
Each causes unwanted signal reflections. Poorly tightened connectors and poor
environmental seals are exacerbated by acid rain corrosion. Failures of transmis-
sion lines like: frayed, dented, open or shorted cables can be detected and locat- Figure 15: Principle of TDR
ed.
As transmission lines age, the number of service calls increases rapidly. With DTF
available, the root causes of RF problems can be identified. For example, connec-
tor corrosion can be detected early and weather seals replaced before moisture
destroys expensive cables. DTF finds these problems because the FDR technique
can accurately detect very small performance changes within the transmission
line.
Preventative maintenance has another set of benefits even more important than
cost. Quality is improved. Up time is maximized by preventing failures. Transmitter
performance is optimized by eliminating poorly performing components.

VOR, LOC, GP, Marker and VHF-COM Tester Figure 16: NAV402AP Navigation/Communication - Radio Tester
The NAV-402AP is a bench and ramp test set designed to meet the electronic
functional test requirements of Category I, II, and III ILS Systems, Communication
(COMM), Navigation (NAV), and Marker (MKR) Systems.
The tester contains features to allow testing of sophisticated autopilot systems.
These features include: automatic LOC DDM (Difference in Depth of Modulation)
automatic sweep, two crystal controlled VOR frequencies; and two crystal con-
trolled, paired LOC and GS frequencies.
It is housed in a compact, portable case and includes a signal generator with a var-
iable attenuator which can be connected to the equipment under test by a radiated
signal from a self-contained antenna or by a coax line. It can be operated under
either crystal frequency control or in variable frequency mode in each band.
The RF generator can be modulated internally by a 1020 Hz Ident tone, Marker,
VHF Omnidirectional Range (VOR), Localizer (LOC) or Glide Slope (GS) tones, or
by an external signal.
Six-digit counter indicates the RF frequency of the signal generator on any band,
the frequency of a COMM transmitter under test, any external signal input from 1
MHz to at least 300 MHz, or the VOR bearing selected by Bearing Select Switch-
es.
RF power meter is built-in to measure COMM transmitter power from 0-10W or 0-
100W either peak or average power by selecting a switch position located on the
Front Panel. A COMM transmitter demodulation output permits viewing or listening
to COMM modulation.
Modulation Meter measures Signal Generator Percent of Modulation on any fre-
quency band from 0-30% or 0-100%. Front Panel controls permit quick setting of
modulation percentages.
A 90° bearing check monitor allows quick verification of basic VOR bearing from
the VOR demodulated signal.
A nickel-cadmium battery and built-in charging system permit completely portable
operation up to 2 hours continuous duty. Any time the set is plugged to an AC line,
the battery is being charged. In battery operation, an automatic timer turns the set
off after 6 to 10 minutes. The set can be recycled by pressing power switch to BAT
position.

ATC Transponder / DME Tester Figure 17: ATC-600 ATC-DME Tester with Antenna
The ATC-600 is designed for ramp use and is capable of exacting functional test
of aircraft transponder {XPDR) and distance measuring equipment {DME) sys-
tems.
The test set contains built-in signal generators and modulators for XPDR and se-
lected DME frequencies. Its radio frequency {RF) output is coupled to airborne
equipment by a remote tripod mounted antenna system. Functional bench testing
requires a 34 dB external attenuator and a three foot coaxial cable between the
test set and the unit under test.
The type of transponder interrogation desired is selected from Modes: 
A/C ALT aircraft altitude and A/C Code aircraft code.
The A/C ALT Mode displays the altitude code.
The A/C CODE Mode displays the pilot’s code. Code pulses and numerical read-
out are displayed simultaneously in all modes.
FREQ/PWR Meter indicates peak RF power and the transmitter frequency of the
unit under test.
TXPDR% RPLY/DME PRF Meter indicates XPDR percent reply and DME interro-
gation pulse repetition frequency {PRF).
Interrogation Spacing Control allows precise checking of the XPDR input pulse de-
coder gate.
FRAMING Pulse Spacing Control allows checking of the F2 pulse width and its po-
sition relative to F1.
Front Panel Altitude ENCODER Input Connector allows altitude display from an
encoding altimeter without a transponder.
DME fixed range is variable from 0 to 399.0 NM
and velocity from 50 to 2400 knots.
X Channel (108.00 or 108.10 MHz paired channel) and 
Y Channel (108.05 MHz paired channel) are provided.
An internal Ni/Cd battery permits ramp operation for over two hours. A built-in
charger functions when the set is connected to an ac line.

ATC / TCAS Tester Figure 18: TCAS 201 Ramp Test Set with Antenna
The TCAS-201 Ramp Test Set provides three simulations:

• Active Mode C or Mode S Transponder transmits continually changing replies
to interrogations from a specific TCAS interrogator or unit under test.
• Mode C or Mode S Reply Generator transmits preset replies to interrogations
from a specific TCAS interrogator.
• TCAS Interrogator Monitor decodes information from interrogations received
from any interrogator transmitting in the operating mode of the tester.
Interrogations are received on an RF carrier Signal at 1030 MHz, through the RF
I/O Connector or ANTENNA Connector.
Scenario Test
The TCAS-201 simulates a moving mode C or mode S transponder when scenario
test is initiated. Once a second, the tester calculates a new position for the test.
Using range rate information from the Scenario Test Screen, the tester calculates
and implements a new reply delay for simulating the updated position. 
Using the altitude rate from the Scenario Test Screen, the tester1 calculates new
altitude data for the next Mode C or Mode S reply. Screen edits are incorporated
at any time during operation.
Reply Test
The TCAS-201 simulates a stationary Mode C or Mode S transponder (reply gen-
erator) when Reply Test is initiated. The tester sets replies according to informa-
tion loaded into the applicable Reply Test Screen. Information is updated only
when edits are made to the Reply Test Screen.
Monitor
The TCAS-201 monitors the Whisper-Shout sequence in ATCRBS operation and
interrogations including the TCAS Broadcast in Mode S operation.
Power & Frequency

Power & Frequency is a cyclic program. The test transmits Mode S squitters start-
ing with the address loaded in the Mode S Reply Test Screen.

Positioning of the Antenna The position of the test set is not too critical. For optimum results however, obsta-
For proper results the test set antenna must be ‘in sight’ of the ATC or TCAS an- cles must be located outside the main antenna lobe. Distance to the antenna must
tenna. The Mode-S transponders and the TCAS computer are connected to two be between 6 and 300 feet (1,8 to 90 meters). Signal strength is adjusted automat-
antennas, that both must be able to exchange valid signals, only one antenna may ically.
be checked at a time. Thus the antennas must be in the signal beam of the test set Figure 20: Avoiding of signal reflections
one by one. During testing the upper antenna, the lower one must be shielded. But
shielding the upper antenna during the lower antenna test is not so easy. Using
the aircraft fuselage as a barrier between the test set and the upper antenna
solves the problem.
Figure 19: Testing of upper and lower antenna

Portable Data Loader Figure 21: PDL Set
The Portable Data Loader (PDL) is a device used to load data bases and opera-
tional programs into an aircraft‘s Flight Management Computers and other avion-
ics subsystems. The PDL is designed to meet the requirements pertaining to the
portable version of the data loader listed in the ARINC Report 615.
The PDL is housed in an aluminium case and is designed to be lightweight and
rugged. The top of the case includes storage space for cables and disks and can
be removed during operation.
The front panel contains a backlit LCD display. four function push buttons and
three discrete LED annunciators to indicate power and status. The push button
function keys are not required for normal operation but provide optional functions
such as self test and disk directory information.
The PDL uses the 3.5 inch floppy storage media specified in ARINC Report 615.
Both high and low density MS DOS disks formatted for 1.44 MB and 720 KB ca-
pacity can be used.
Two cables are provided with the PDL The primary cable links the PDL to ARINC
615 high speed load devices and an adapter cable interfaces the PDL to ARINC
603 devices.
The PDL contains two independent ARINC 429 serial bus transmitters and four in-
dependent receivers, each capable of either high speed (100 Kbits/second) or low
speed (12.5 Kbits/second) operation. An RS232 serial bus interface is available
through the J1 connector or through a separate 'D' type connector.
ARINC Report 615 is a commercial aircraft bus specification defining loading pro-
tocols. The specification includes the use of a high speed ARINC 429 bus and au-
tomatic protocol for up loading and down loading data to and from avionics
devices.
ARINC Report 615 allows provisions for various loading methods but defines cer-
tain protocol that require Iittle operator intervention. In most cases, the operator is
only required to turn the unit on and install the floppy disk containing the data files.

Operation Overview Figure 22: PDL Front view and Connection-Cables
Displays and Annunciators

The data loader contains a liquid crystal display (LCD), 1 line by 20 characters.
The display is used to prompt the operator, provide load status information, identify
errors and to facilitate support functions such as selecting load files and initiating
self test.
Three annunciators are used to indicate the PDL status and can be monitored from
a distance.
POWER ON: This green annunciator is turned on whenever power is applied to
the unit.
READY: This green annunciator is turned on to indicate the PDL has found a use-
able disk and is processing the CONFIG.LDR file on the floppy disk. The annunci-
ator will be turned off only if the data loader has completed all bus transactions
required for the load process. At turn-on this annunciator is flashed on and off dur-
ing the heating phase, if required.
FAlL: This red annunciator is turned on when a failure is detected during the turn-
on test, during the operator initiated self test, or following a load transfer failure.
The annunciator is reset if the self test is performed and no errors are detected.
Push Button Operation

The data loader contains four momentary contact push buttons. They are enabled
by pushing down until an audible click is heard. The push buttons have protective
caps installed on them for environmental considerations.
FILES: Pressing this button causes the directory to be read from the floppy disk
and the first file name to be displayed. A number indicating the total number of files
on the disk is also displayed. Subsequent button activation will cycle the display
through each of the file names in the directory. The FILE button is only active when
the data loader is not involved in a data transfer.
LOAD: This button is not used in normal operations and pressing it during a load
operation will have no effect. It use is reserved for initiating the POLL ID function.
ABORT: This button terminates any activity that is pending or in progress. The
data loader is returned to the state just prior to the last activity.
TEST: This button commands the data loader to perform a self test.

Mass Storage Device and Ethernet capability Notes:

An optional build in mass memory (80 Mbyte solid state Flash Memory eliminates
the use of floppy disks at every aircraft. An ethernet interface will allow the mass
storage device in the PDL to be updated from the next described PMAT 2000
(Portable Maintenance Access Terminal).
Features
• Library of Loadable Software Airplane Parts on a 
Mass Storage Device (80Mbyte Solid State Memory).
• Capable of supporting loadable software for an entire fleet.
• Interface to PMAT 2000 via Ethernet link for fast transfer to libraries.
• Provide user with the ability to select airplane loads by aircraft type, 
tail number, LRU type, or software part number.
• Updating and storage/editing capability via Loadstar.
Benefits
• Eliminates need to use floppy disks at the flight line.
• Load times will be reduced for large loads that require multiple disks 
(no swapping required by operator).
• Future updates of PDL operational program performed in the field
no EPROM's need to be swapped.

Portable Maintenance Access Terminal Figure 23: PMAT Rear and Top view
The PMAT 2000 is the perfect “on-the-spot” cost effective solution for all onboard
electronic aircraft maintenance, service, and data loading applications. Capable of
over 5 hours of portable operation on a single battery charge, this unit combines
integrated electronic maintenance manuals, wiring diagrams, Fault Isolation Man-
uals, on board fault code access, hard drive based ARINC 615 data loading, and
a variety of custom applications in a single, easy-to-use tool.
The primary functions of the PMAT 2000 are:

• Maintenance Control Display Panel (MCDP)
Remote Panel. Allows the user to perform maintenance data functions and
ground tests on B757/767 in the cockpit;
• ARINC 615 Portable Data Loading
Allows data loading functions between the PMAT 2000 and ARINC 615 Load-
able Systems;
• Hard Drive Library Maintenance Utility (Archived Data) 
Allows the user to perform file management on PMAT 2000 hard drive;
• Supports Digital Maintenance Manuals 
The PMAT 2000 is compatible with a variety of Digital Documentation pack-
ages such as Boeing PMA, JOUVE (AirGTI, Pinpoint, CAATS), Jeppesen,
etc. which provide Airplane Maintenance Manuals, Fault Isolation manuals,
IPC, and others;
• LoadStar Loadable Software Library Configuration Management 
For B777's PMAT and other ARING 615 Software Allows users quick access
to the B777 PMAT Mass Storage Device(MSD), Tecstar Demo Systems' PDL/
MSD, and performs loadable software configuration control for ARINC 615
Portable Data Loading;
• B777 Maintenance Access Terminal (MAT) HDD Loading Support
Supports Aircraft Data Report Analysis Systems (ADRAS) PMAT 2000 is
compatible with Honeywell (formerly owned by Allied Signal)'s ADRAS, which
allows users to view and analyze downloaded data.

System Description Figure 24: PMAT Display showing Main Menu

The PMAT 2000 runs the Microsoft Windows NT 4.0 operating system, offering the
user a simple, familiar, and secure interface. Its computer system contains a 233
MHz Pentium Processor (upgradable to Pentium II 350 MHz or Pentium III 500
MHz) with 64 MB of RAM (upgradable to 256 MB) and the following hardware in-
terfaces:
• ARINC 429, 615 and 615A Ethernet interface
• Discrete I/0 interface
• 10/100 base T Ethernet interface
• Two PCMCIA Type III slot (one external)
• One RS232/RS422 serial port
• Floppy drive
• 12 GB IDE hard drive (optional 20GB)
• Lithium-ion five-hour battery (2)
• Internal battery charger
• Wireless data link option.
The PMAT 2000 has the following controls, displays, and special features:
• 75 key sealed keyboard with cursor directional buttons
• Sealed mouse pointer with two execution buttons
• 14.1" sunlight readable colour display (LCD) 1024 X 768 resolution
• Shatterproof, scratch-proof display glass cover
• ON/OFF switch
• Power fault, and temperature annunciators. Battery Status
• Two handles.
Additional operating and environment features of the PMAT 2000 are: 
Size 13.5 inches X 13 inches X 2.5 inches Weight approximately 10 pounds Op-
erating Temperature -10C to +55C Ground Survival Temperature -50°C to +70°C
Skydrol, weather, and solvent proof.
The PMAT 2000 is designed to operate from:
115VAC - 250VAC, 5OHz - 40OHz, via the PMAT 2000 AC Power/Ethernet cable
(P/N 80035) or from internal 11-34 VDC batteries.
Main Menu
The main menu is displayed after boot up. The main menu is the default display.
The user can select any function from the main menu. The available functions are
shown on the figure below.

ARINC 429 Micro DITS Reader Figure 25: Micro DITS Reader
Today aircraft avionics system is using the Digital Information Transfer System
(DITS) like ARIN429, ARINC 571 and ARINC 629. Common of all this buses is that
the data transfer from one unit to the other units occurs over two wires in serial for-
mat.
To verify that the desired data is correct the Micro-DITS Tester can be used in line
maintenance and avionics workshop. For example M56BAM SFENA/SEXTANT.
It is used for checking 32-bit serial transmissions.
After selecting the Label and Identifier, any of the display modes may be chosen
by means of the Keyboard.
Decoded Display
• Display of the information corresponding to the selected Label in hexadecimal
or data value.
• Display of Sign/Status Matrix (SSM) and Source Destination Identifier (SDI).
• Display of update interval and Message Parity.
Binary Display
• Display of 32-bit word in real time.
• Display and storage of a word transmitted once only. (Snapshot)
Connections
• Line Voltage 115 VAC 400 Hz or 230 VAC 50 Hz or internal battery.
• Signal to be verified at connections A and B between 5 - 6.5 Volt 200 KOhm.

Training Manual 7.5 Engineering Drawings and Diagrams
7.5 Engineering Drawings and Diagrams

Drawings Note: Since european aerplane drawings are made using well known ISO-
norms, only the drawing norm of the USA is explained in this section
The purpose of this training section is to familiarise individuals from these and oth-
er areas with the engineering production drawing, procedures, and specifications Figure 1: Production Drawing Layout
most commonly used in the fabrication, assembly, and installation of the compo-
nents that make up today's modern aircraft and vehicles.
Drawings used in the design, construction, and maintenance of engineering pro- Rev.
jects are called "production drawings". Drawings used in the design, construction,
and maintenance of the jigs, tools, and checking fixtures that held in the building D
of an engineering project are called "tool drawings".
Blueprints are simply copies of engineering drawings. Many "blueprints" are not C
Picture Area
blue at all, but black lines on white, blue lines on white, or even brown lines on
white. "Blueprint" has come to mean almost any colour of drawing reproduced on
paper. Blueprints reproduced on metal or Mylar film are also available. B
Microfilm / Microfiche Title

The practice of recording drawings, parts catalogues, and maintenance and over- 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 Block
haul manuals on microfilms was introduced at the end of 1960 decade. Microfilm
is regular 16-mm. or 35-mm. film. Since 35-min. film is larger, it provides a better
reproduction of drawings. Depending on the size of the drawing to be reproduced,
The information that the engineer adds to the drawing form is located in three ar-
a varying number of drawings can be photographed on one reel of 35-mm. film. To
eas:
view or read drawings or manuals on a reel of film, you need either a portable
35-mm. film projector or a microfilm reader or viewer. 1. Title block
The advantage of microfilm is that several reels, which represent perhaps hun- 2. Revision block
dreds of drawings, require only a small amount of storage space. Too, a person 3. Picture area
working on an aircraft may need to refer to a specific dimension. He can place the
reel of microfilm in a projector, Iocate the drawing or desired information, and read 4. Scale
the dimension. If he has to study a detail of the drawing, or work with the drawing The title block and revision block are found in the same location on all drawings.
for a long period of time, an enlarged photographic reproduction can he made, us- Preprinted notes appear on all drawings. Their location and contend vary from
ing the microfilm as a negative. drawing to drawing.
Microfiches are no longer in use and Microfilms are more and more replaced by
Title Block
computer based applications.
A title block is generally printed in the lower right-hand corner of every aircraft
Aircraft Production Drawings drawing. It contains the information necessary to manufacture the illustrated part.
If special or additional information is needed, it is typically listed to the left of the
Every aircraft factory has its own drawing room. Likewise, most drawing rooms title block (see “Figure 4” on page 4).
have a manual that lists the standards used by the company when making draw-
ings. The information given in this text is typical and, while it may differ from some
company manuals, it applies to most of them.

Revision Block Aircraft Drawings Dimensioning System

In the upper right-hand corner of a drawing is a block where revisions are record- Depending on the manufacturer the linear dimensions on aircraft drawings are in
ed. For example, if revision A is issued by the engineering department the letter A mm or in inches with decimal fractions.
is indicated in this space along with the description of the revision, the date the re-
In order for a drawing to be meaningful it must show the shape of a part as well as
vision was released, and the initials of the person approving the revision. You
accurately give all needed dimensions. Dimensions that appear on a drawing rep-
should always check to make sure you have the most current revision.
resent the perfect size, and are called basic, or nominal dimensions.
Figure 2: Revision Block Layout
Placement of Dimensions
Most aircraft drawings are dimensioned using a reference edge from which all di-
mensions are made. Holes are typically located with reference to one corner of a
Revision part. This makes finding the center of each hole easier to locate, with no cumula-
tive errors. Cumulative errors exist if one hole is measured from the center of the
Let. Description Date Appr. adjacent hole (see “Figure 3” on page 3).
There are two ways of placing dimensions on a drawing. One way is to write all
dimensions perpendicular to the dimension lines. When this is done, the numbers
are parallel to the right edge of the drawing for vertical dimension lines and at var-
ious angles across the drawing for parts that have angled surfaces. The second
and more conventional method is to write all dimensions parallel to the bottom of
the drawing (see “Figure 3” on page 3).
Scale
Figure 3: Dimensioning Examples
The scale defines the size of the picture as compared to the size of the actual part,
assembly, or installation. The scale appears in the title block of only those sheets
on which pictures are shown. K Drill
A drawing may be full scale; that is, it may be made exactly the size of the part. .281 +_ .0005
Detail parts and small assemblies are often drawn in full scale. Typ. for
Other standard drawing scales are 1:2, 1:4 and 1:10-size. Drawings to smaller 3 Holes
scale (1:20- or 1:40-size) are also used. Assemblies and installations are drawn to
87
the largest possible scale consistent with drawing clarity. the drawing scale is en-
2.
tered in the title block. 45˚
Some drawings contain pictures of small parts drawn twice or even four times ac- + + +
0.50
tual size to show their details clearly. In such cases, the scale is noted directly be- 2.50
neath the picture of the part. 0.75
If various scales are used on any one picture sheet of an commercial program 1.50
drawing, the scale is noted beneath the picture and the word "noted" is entered in 2.25
the scale block of the title block.
3.00

Figure 4: Production Drawing Example

Aircraft Drawings
Methods of Illustration
The methods of illustrating a part refer to its orientation with respect to how it is
viewed on a flat plane. The orthographic projection, auxiliary, isometric, oblique,
and perspective methods of illustration are all common to the aviation mainte-
nance industry.
Orthographic Projection
Most drawings used in the construction of a detailed part are drawn using the or-
thographic projection method of illustration. In orthographic projection there are six
possible views from which an object can be drawn: the front, rear, top, bottom, left
side, and right side. Each view is drawn as if you put an object in a transparent box
and viewed it from one of the box faces. All rays extending. from the part are par-
allel and perpendicular to the side they are viewed from.
More often than not, six views are not needed to illustrate a part. In fact, one-view,
two-view, and three-view drawings are the most common. In a three-view drawing
the front, right side, and top views are illustrated. When drawn, these views are
positioned on paper according to the same relationship they have if the sides of
the transparent box are opened out.
Auxiliary Drawings
Although an orthographic drawing can represent up to six individual views, it is
sometimes necessary to see a view that is not at a 90 degree angle to the face of
an object. In this situation, an auxiliary drawing used.

Figure 5: Projection Methodes

Isometric Drawings drawing, and the cavalier drawing. A cabinet drawing gets its name from draw-
The form of pictorial presentation that is most used for aircraft drawing and sketch- ings used for cabinet work. In these drawings, the oblique side is at a 45 degree
ing is the isometric drawing. An isometric drawing is a projection of a three-dimen- angle to the front side and is 1/2 the scale. This allows for an accurate and undis-
sional object on a flat plane. With this type of drawing an object is rotated so three torted front view. The remainder of the drawing is present only to illustrate depth.
sides are visible. In other words, to make an isometric drawing, an object is rotated Cavalier drawings use the same scale for the front view as the oblique side lines.
so that three views are visible and touching the drawing plane. When doing this, However, the oblique sides are still set at a 45 degree angle to the front view. This
you must ensure that the edges all form the same angle to the drawing plane. creates a distorted picture of an object's true proportions. These drawings are pri-
In an isometric drawing all distances are the same length as the actual sides. This marily used when detailing is required on the oblique side.
makes an isometric drawing fairly easy since no changes are made to any dimen- Figure 7: Oblique Drawing
sions. Since an isometric drawing allows you to visualize a part, most pictorial
drawings are illustrated in this way.
Figure 6: Isometric Drawing
Full Lenght
1/2 Lenght
A 45˚ 45˚
Cabinet Drawing Cavalier Drawing
30˚ 30˚
Oblique Drawings
An oblique drawing is an isometric drawing with one object face parallel to the
drawing plane. In other words, two axes are perpendicular to each other, with the
front of the object identical to the front view of an orthographic drawing. The depth
axis of the oblique drawing is typically any convenient angle and most often about
30 degrees. There are two special types of oblique drawings. They are the cabinet

Types of Drawings Figure 8: Detail Drawing
Detail Drawings
Drawings used in the detailing or fabrication of single parts are called "detail" draw-
ings. Sometimes these drawings may be called "fab" drawings. Detail drawings do 5.015
not put parts together.
Most detail drawings are easily recognised by their titles. If the word "assembly" or
"installation" does not appear in the title, the drawing is a detail drawing.
An inseparable assembly delineates items-parts separately fabricated and perma-
nently joint together, such as welded or riveted parts not subject to disassembly.
The size of the drawing gives no indication of the drawing type. Some detail draw-
ings are small, whereas others are large. The size of the drawing is governed only
by the size the part or parts being detailed.
Note: Detail drawings do not ordinarily show location, position, or fastening meth-
ods. They will occasionally show where a fastener eventually be installed, but they
do not show the fastener itself. Sectional Drawings
Detail drawings are designed primarily to give instruction for fabrication personnel It is often necessary to show the internal construction or shape of a part, and this
and provide only information used to make a part, since the assembly and instal- is most generally done with the use of the sectional drawing.
lation information is of little value in fabrication work.
There are four types of sectional drawings, the revolved section, the removed sec-
Detail information includes: tion, the complete section. and the half section.
– Size and shape description If only the shape of a cross section of a part needs to be shown, this can be done
– Material and heat treatment requirements with either a revolved or removed section.
– Protective finish instruction (painting, plating, etc.) In a revolved section, a portion of an object is turned or revolved to show a different
– Machine finish if required (surface smoothness for metal) view (see “Figure 9” on page 9). The T-beam has been broken in two places with
– Part numbering and marking instructions long break lines and the cross section is shown between the breaks.
– The next higher drawing number (where the part will be used)
The engineer may not issue a separate detail drawing for each individual part. Fre-
quently several parts are detailed on one detail drawing, or some parts are detailed
on assembly or installation drawings.

Figure 9: Revolved Section Figure 11: Complete Sectional View
Figure 10 shows a removed section drawing, the object illustrated is cut and a sec-
tion is removed to illustrate another angle.
Figure 10: Removed Section
A The half-sectional view allows the inside and outside of a part to be seen at the
A-A same time (see “Figure 12” on page 9).
Figure 12: Half Sectional View
Figure 11 shows the use of a sectional view to illustrate a union and makes it easy
to identify the unit’s separate parts.

Drawing Practices A center line divides a part into symmetrical halves and is made of a thin line of
alternate long and short dashes.
Line Types and Weights Dimension Iines are thin lines with arrowheads on each end. The arrowheads
touch the extension lines that locate the points from which the dimension is taken.
Different types and weights of lines are used to make aircraft drawings.
Dimension lines are broken in their center, and the dimension is noted in the break.
"Figure 13: Line Characteristics" on page 10 shows the most generally used lines.
A leader line is a thin line with an arrowhead. It joins a call-out on the drawing with
It is to say that the norm used here belongs to the USA and has nothing to do with
the point to which the call-out is referring.
ISO.
A short break line showing where a part is broken away from the view is a thick
Figure 13: Line Characteristics wavy line. Long break lines are thin straight lines that are broken, with zig-zags in-
serted, to show that the line is not continuous.
Extension lines are thin lines used for dimensioning when it is not practical for the
dimension line to touch the actual part from which the measurement is made. The
arrowheads on the dimension lines touch the extension lines.
Phantom lines showing the location of a part that is used for a reference are made
up of a medium-weight line of alternating one long and two short dashes.
The visible outline of a part is made with a thick solid line A hidden line, showing
an edge of the part that is not visible in the view, is a medium-weight dashed line.
The alternate position of a part may be shown on a drawing by thin dashed lines.
A cutting plane, or viewing plane, is a thick line with arrowheads showing the di-
rection the part is viewed.
Section lines are used to identify the material of which a part is made.

Assembly Drawings
Assembly may comprise only two parts or it may comprise many, depending on
the judgement of the designer. In some cases a large assembly may comprise
several small assemblies fastened together. Information about how to locate the
parts in reference to each other (not in reference to the entire aeroplane) and
about how to fasten them together is called "assembly information". The primary
function of the assembly drawing is to show the relationship of two or more parts
and subordinate assemblies, or a group of assemblies to form an assembly of a
higher order (see “Figure 19” on page 49).
A part can be shown on an assembly drawing by means of a symbol, incomplete
picture, or even by location only, with no picture actually shown.
The word "assembly" is defined as follows: "An assembly is a multiple-piece item
that can be disassembled into its component parts or units without destruction; it
does not independently of itself perform or fulfil a specific complete function but is
essential for the completeness or proper operation of a more complex item of
equipment with which it is mechanically combined".
Assembly drawings give locations of parts only as they pertain to each other; in-
stallation drawings give position within the aircraft structure.
Actually, most of the installation drawings are combination assembly-installation
drawings. The drawing name describes the final operation performed.
Detailed information about some or all of the assembly or installation components
may also be given on the installation drawing. Thus, many of the installation draw-
ings are actually combination detail-assembly-installation drawings.
Assembly and installation drawings, often involve several parts. Because these
large assemblies and installations cannot conveniently described on a single
sheet of paper or metal, many drawings consist of more than one sheet. These are
called "multisheet drawings". Some multisheet drawings consist of only two
sheets; others consist of many sheets.
Exploded-View Drawing
Illustrated parts lists often make use of exploded-view drawings to show every part
that is in an assembly. All of the parts are in their relative position, but are expand-
ed outward, so that each part can be identified both with its physical appearance
or by its name or by a reference number that is coded to the parts list.

Figure 14: Assembly Drawing Table 1: Parts List
Fig Item Part Number Nomenclature
-1B A3-929-001-01 Switch Assy-Toilet
-10 774-101-79 . Plate-Front
-20 774-101-81 . . Foil-Front
-30 774-081-31 . Frame

Installation Drawings as any instructions required for the installation. Dimensions are given only for
those adjustments necessary for the part to function. Often, portions of an aircraft
All subassemblies are brought together in an installation drawing. This type of that are not involved in the installation are shown using phantom lines. This helps
drawing shows the general arrangement or position of parts with respect to an air-
you locate where a part is installed.
craft and provides the information needed to install them. Like the assembly draw-
ing, the bill of material on an installation drawing lists the fasteners needed, as well
Figure 15: Installation Drawing

Block Diagrams Figure 16: Block Diagram

With electrical and electronic systems and components becoming more complex
all of the time, methods and procedures have been developed to aid the technician
in locating troubles. And since much of the maintenance of these systems consists
of identifying a malfunctioning subassembly and replacing it, block diagrams such
as the one shown are useful. Each block shown in this diagram represents many
components and is usually a printed-circuit board or some other type of replacea-
ble module.
When troubleshooting a system using this type of drawing, the technician identifies
the problem and then replaces the module that receives the correct input, but does
not produce the required output.

Logic Flowcharts
As a further aid to troubleshooting, the logic flowchart has been developed.
When troubleshooting a system or problem using this aid the technician starts at
the oblong START/INSPECTION symbol and follows the arrows. Rectangular
boxes tell what to do, and the diamonds are decision points. Match the condition
that exits after the instructions in the rectangular boxes have been followed. Each
diamond has one input and only two outputs so, by using the logic, the chart can
be followed to the oblong END OF TEST/TERMINATE INSPECTION symbol.
This type of charts identifies the probable faults a system can develop and speci-
fies the fix for each one. And by using this chart, troubleshooting time is reduced
to a minimum.

Figure 17: Logic Flowchart

Inspect Fitting for
Corrosion per Part l
Is
yes Corrosion no Reinspect
Found?
Is Has
no Corrosion yes Clean up Corrosion Fitting been yes
within per Part ll Modified or
Limits? Repaired?
no
Inspect for Cracks

per Part l
no
Is
yes no Modify
Crack
Airplane
Round?
yes
Accouplish Modification
per Part lll
Are
Cracks Con-
no yes Repair Fitting
tained Within
Horizontal per Part ll
Replace Fitting Flange
per Part lV
Terminate Inspection
per this Service Bulletin

Schematic Diagrams
A schematic diagram is to explain a principle of operation, rather than to show the
parts as they actually appear, as they actually function.
However, schematic diagrams do indicate the location of components with respect
to each other and in the case of a hydraulic system, the direction of fluid flow. be-
cause of this, schematic diagrams are best utilized for troubleshooting cad train-
ing.

Figure 18: Schematic Diagrams

General Symbols Table 2: Schematic Symbols (Continued)
In order to show different components (Valves, Indicators, Circuit Breakers, etc.) Description Schematic
in various drawings; simplified symbols are commonly used. these symbols are
standardized. However, manufactureres often use their own layout for illustrations
issued in various manuals. (Maintenance Manual, Schematics Manual, etc.) • Gearcase vent
air
Table 2: Schematic Symbols
Description Schematic
• Scavenge
Pressure
Hydraulic motor
Return
Power transfer unit

Depressurization
Case drain RAT
Suction
Pumps:
• Electric
Motors:
• Pump inlet
• Regulated pres-
sure

Table 2: Schematic Symbols (Continued) Table 2: Schematic Symbols (Continued)
Description Schematic Description Schematic
• Engine • HP gear
• Hand
• Impeller
Filter
• Hydraulic
Self sealing coupling
• Vane Ground connector
Solenoid valve
• Gerotor
Electrical selector
valve

Mechanical selector Check valve

valve
3-way valve
Hydraulical selector
valve
Pressure relief valve /

Change over valve Check valve
Motor shut-off valve

Hydraulical safety
valve
Solenoid shut-off
valve
Priority valve
Hydraulical shut-off
valve
Pressure relief valve

Pneumatical shut-off
valve

Metering valve Igniter plug
Mechanically oper-
ated selector valve Smoke detector
Regulating valve Exchanger air/oil
Exchanger oil/fuel
Pressure transmitter
Pressure accumula-
Pressure switch tor
Hydraulic actuator
Temperature sensor
Toggle circuit breaker

Circuit push breaker Circuit breaker with

reverse current trip
Push-pull circuit
breaker
Push-pull circuit
breaker
Three poles circuit

Three poles circuit breaker
breaker
Circuit breaker with

blow out coil
Circuit breaker with

thermal overload trip

Remote control circuit Motor DC compound

breaker excitation
Single phase motor
Two phase motor
Motor DC seperate
excitation
Motor DC shunt
excitation
Motor DC series
excitation

Three phase motor Cluth disengaged
Electronic filter
High-pass filter
Low-pass filter
Band-stop filter
FAN
Band-pass filter
Cluth engaged

Logic low
Converter Negation indicator
Inverter
Square wave genera-

tor
Delay function
And function Schmitt trigger
Or function
Or exclusive

Multipler
Divider
One cell battery

Amplifier
Multicell battery
Thermocouple
Photovoltaic cell
Integrator

Igniter plug typical Varmeter
Continous loop
Thermometer bulb
Hall generator Quartz
TV-camera
Ammeter
TV-monitor
Wattmeter
Voltmeter

Voltammeter
Induction position
Frequency meter transmitter
Current comparator
Synchro transmitter
Desyne type position

transmitter
Synchro differential
transmitter

Vibration detector 3-phase 4-wire star
6-phase double zig-

Direct current zag
Alternating current
3-phase delta
Positive polarity
3-phase scott or t
Negative polarity
Ohm
Phase
Incomplete compo-
nent
Single phase
Ground connection
2-phase 4-wire
3-phase 3-wire star

For reference only
Single test point
Zone
Component for ref

Resistor
Unit complete Resistor inside
Heater element
Unit incomplete
Variable resistor
Full provision Preset resistor

Resistor with adjusta-

ble contact and off • Linear
Variable resistor
• Non linear
Tapped resistor Capacitor general
Capacitor polarized
Resistor module
Capacitor variable
Capacitor preset
Instrument shunt
Feed through capaci-

Thermal Resistor: tor
• General

Inductor general Shunt winding
Magnetic core induc- Compensating wind-

tor ing
Magnetic core induc-

tor with air GAP
Winding
Ferrite core inductor
Adjustable inductor Constant current gen-

erator
Adjustable magnetic
Electromagnetic actu-
core inductor
ator
Saturable core induc-

tor
Tapped induction coil

Single phase auto-

transformer
Transformer dots
Single phase trans-

former

Three phase auto-

transformer
Current transformer
Transformer rectifier
Three phase trans-

former

Double pole switch
Single pole switch
Three position switch

Thermal switch
Four position switch
Thermal relay
Single pole
microswitch
Double pole
microswitch
Centrifugal switch
Multicontact
microswitch
Inertia switch
Rotary switch

Table 2: Schematic Symbols (Continued)
Liquid level switch
Wafer switch
Push type switch

Push-pull switch
Protection fuse
Pushbutton

Pressure switch
Single pole relay
Magnetic relay

Reversing relay Time delay closing

relay
Rotary switch 2
Plug-in relay com-
plete
Time delay opening Static relay

relay

Contactor Unijunction transistor
Thyristor
Photosensitive diode
Photoemissive diode
Relay coil
Thermal resistor
Schottky diode
Thermistor
Schottky transistor

Varistor
Photoconductive
transducer
Indicator light
Lamp
Monitoring indicator
Glow lamp
Indication segment
Fluorescent lamp

Strobe light Double antenna
Radar antenna
Buzzer
Bell
Microphone
Horn
Receiver
Antenna
Headset
Loop antenna

Table 2: Schematic Symbols (Continued)
Loudspeaker
Handset

Standards Used in Transport Aviation

Standards are documented agreements containing technical specifications or oth-
er precise criteria to be used consistently as rules, guidlines or definitions of char-
acteristics. This is to ensure that material, products, processes and services are fit
for their purpose. Table 3 is a list of the most used Standards for transport aviation.
Table 3: Standards
AAA American Aluminium Association

AISI American Iron and Steel Institute
Materials (Corrosion resistant steels)
AMS Aerospace Material Specification
SAE Society of Automotive Engineers
AN Airforce Navy Standard.
MS Military Aviation Standard
HMS Harrison Military Aviation Standard
MILSPEC Military Specification
NAS National Aerospace Standard
Hardware
AS Aeronautical Standard
UNC United National, Coarse (Fretting standard)
UNF United, National, Fine (Fretting standard)
BPS Boeing Process Standard
ISO International Standard Organisation
Aircraft JAR Joint Aviation Regulations
Manufacturing FAR Federal Aviation Regulations
Regulations
Aircraft ATA Air Transport Association

Manuals
More detailed informations about standards are to find in the applicabe sub-mod-
ule descriptions.

Air Transport Association (ATA) – Consumable Products Manual (CPM)

– Engine Cleaning Inspection and Repair Manual (CIR)
Introduction – Engine (Shop) Manual (EM)
Founded by a group of 14 airlines meeting in Chicago in 1936, it was the first, and – Fault Reporting Manual (FRM)
today remains, the only trade organization for the principal U.S. airlines. In that ca- – Fault Isolation Manual (FIM)
pacity it has played a major role in all the major government decisions regarding – Non Destructive Testing Manual (NDT)
aviation since its founding, including the creation of the Civil Aeronautics Board,
– Power Plant Buildup Manual (PPBM)
the creation of the air traffic control system, and airline deregulation.
– Service Bulletin (SB)
Aeronautical publications are the source of information for guiding aviation me-
– Structural Repair Manual
chanics in the operation and maintenance of aircraft and related equipment. The
proper use of these publications will greatly aid in the efficient operation and main- – Weight & Balance Manual (WBM)
tenance of all aircraft. These include manufacturer's service bulletins, manuals, • Configuration Control of Product Definition
and catalogues, as well as airworthiness authority regulations, airworthiness direc- – Aircraft Illustrated Parts Catalog (AIPC)
tives, advisory circular and aircraft, engine and propeller specifications. – Tool and Equipment Manual (TEM)
At one time, the organisation of data in manufacturer's publications was left up to – Wiring Manual (WM)
the individual producing the manual. As a result, there was little uniformity among • Flight Operations
different publications and much time was wasted as technicians had to learn each
– Flight Crew Operations Manual (FCOM)
manufacturer's particular system.
– Master Minimum Equipment List (MMEL)
ATA 100 • Universal Applications
To correct this, the Air Transport Association of America (ATA) issued specifica- – Component Manual Index (CMI)
tions for the organisation of Manufacturers Technical Data. The ATA specification – PubIications Index (PI)
calls for the organisation of an aircraft’s technical data into individual systems – Service Bulletin Index (SBI)
which are numbered. Each system also has provisions for subsystem numbering. – Service Letter (SL)
Types of Manuals Note: for detailed usage of each manual, refer to the INTRODUCTION sec-
tion in the appropriate manual.
ATA100 describes not only a standard for numbering system, but also specifies
the kind of manuals, lists and bulletins that aircraft manufacturers should issue and Maintenance Planning Document (MPD)
deliver to aircraft operators. The following documentation is supplied to the cus-
The MPD provides the data to assist an operator in developing and revising an ap-
tomer and reflect the customer's configuration (this means: customized for the re-
proved scheduled maintenance program. It shall include, as a minimum, all sched-
lated aircraft):
uled on-aircraft maintenance tasks mandated by the manufacturer's governing
• Maintenance Requirements regulatory authority as well as other tasks recommended by the airframe manufac-
– Maintenance Planning Document (MPD) turer.
• Maintenance Procedures Note: Scheduled maintenance is defined as that maintenance performed at
– Aircraft Maintenance Manual defined intervals to retain an item in a serviceable condition by systematic
– Aircraft Recovery Manual (ARM) inspection, detection, replacement of worn out items, adjustment, calibra-
– Component Maintenance Manual (CMM) tion, cleaning, etc.

Aircraft Maintenance Manual

The Maintenance Manual contains the information necessary to enable the me-
chanics to service, functionally check and repair all systems and equipment in-
stalled in the aircraft. It includes information necessary for the mechanic to perform
maintenance practices or make minor repairs to any unit in the aircraft normally
requiring such action on the line or in the maintenance hangar.It covers the con-
figuration of the aircraft as delivered to the customer.
The Maintenance Manual does not contain information relative to work normally
performed on units or assemblies away from the aircraft.

Figure 19: Example of AMM Pages

Aircraft Recovery Manual (ARM) Fault Reporting and Fault Isolation Manual (FRM/FIM)
The Aircraft Recovery Manual is the manufacturer's mean of describing aircraft re- The FRM/FIM will:
covery operations in terms of equipment and tooling requirements as well as pro- • Enable effective use of electronic fault indicating features in the flight compart-
cedures necessary to lift, shore and recover aircraft from any abnormal condition ment
to which it may be subjected. • Enable effective use of electronic fault isolation features and maintenance
data retrieval features of the aircraft.
Component Maintenance Manual (CMM)
The FIM will provide the technical data required by the maintenance crew to isolate
Procedures contained within a component maintenance manual are intended for
the cause of the fault and to determine the corrective action. The FIM will be com-
work on the applicable components in a workshop environment. The manual shall
patible with airline maintenance concepts, maintenance training, and maintenance
contain sufficient detail for the return of the component to a serviceable condition.
manual procedures to the maximum degree possible.
Consumable Products Manual (CPM) The FRM will provide technical data for flight crews to easily identify and commu-
A complete shopping guide of consumable materials is provided by the aircraft and nicate details of aircraft faults to maintenance personnel. The (FRM) will also con-
engine manufacturers, as a separate manual / listing or included as a separate tain listings of faults recognized by flight, cabin, servicing, and maintenance
section of a stand-alone Standard Practice Manual. personnel.
Engine Cleaning Inspection and Repair Manual (CIR) Non Destructive Testing Manual (NDT)
The purpose of the CIR Manual Specification is to provide the technical data re- The Nondestructive Testing Manual is intended to provide specifications and
quirements for information needed to maintain the engine and associated parts guidelines in the various methods of nondestructive testing.
when it is removed from the aircraft. The CIR Manual is an optional manual and NDT shall contain the Standard Practices and explanations of each testing proce-
may be offered by manufacturers as an alternative to the single-document Engine dure. Procedures shall be defined including effectivity, tooling / equipment, prepa-
Manual. ration, equipment calibration, inspection procedure, evaluation and acceptance /
rejection standards.
Engine (Shop) Manual (EM)
The Engine Manual / CIR (Cleaning-Inspection-Repair) Manual Specification is to Power Plant Buildup Manual (PPBM)
provide technical data requirements for information needed to maintain the engine The Power Plant Build-up Manual shall contain all information necessary to as-
and the maximum potential number of parts that could remain with the engine semble the power plant to the desired configuration from the "Basic Engine"
when it is removed from the aircraft. Additionally, the data file shall include cover-
For this manual, the demountable power plant includes the engine, nacelle and
age for those interrelated parts (e.g. thrust reverser, cowling, mounts, electrical
certain accessory components.
looms, etc.) that while remaining with the aircraft when the QEC unit (Quick Engine
Change unit) is dropped, can be removed for maintenance purposes at the time Service Bulletin (SB)
the engine is removed.
Service Bulletins shall be issued to describe changes that fall into the following cat-
The EM / CIR Manual is a double-document set, which may be offered by manu- egories:
facturers as an alternate to the single-document Engine Manual.
• Modifications to the aircraft, engine or accessory including embedded soft-
The term CIR Manual and EM are also applicable to the Airborne Auxiliary Power ware.
Plants (engines). • Modifications, which affect performance, improve reliability, increase safety of
operation, provide improved economy or facilitate maintenance or operation.

• Substitution of one part with another superseding part only when it is not com-
pletely interchangeable both functionally and physically, or when the change
is considered to be sufficiently urgent or critical that special scheduling or re-
cord of accomplishment will be required.
• Special inspections/checks required to maintain the aircraft, engine, or acces-
sories in safe operating condition.
• One-time inspections/checks to detect a flaw or manufacturing error.
• Special inspections/checks required to be performed until a corrective action
can be taken. (e.g., an inspection to detect cracks in a radius until the radius
can be ground out.)
• Special functional checks of an urgent nature required to detect an incipient
failure, such as pressure checks, functional checks, etc.
• Reduction of existing life limits or establishment of first time life limits for com-
ponents.
• Conversions from one engine model to another.
• Changes affecting the interchangeability or intermixability of parts.
Structural Repair Manual (SRM)

The SRM shall contain descriptive information for identification and repair of the
aircraft's primary and secondary structure. The manual shall serve as a medium
for advising operators of repair procedures developed by the manufacturer or by
operators.
Weight & Balance Manual (WBM)

The WBM shall be the manufacturer's means of transmitting weight and balance
data to an airline. This manual shall contain data in sufficient detail so that the air-
line Weight Engineer or other personnel concerned may analyze and establish
weight and balance procedures for airline operation.
Aircraft Illustrated Parts Catalog (AIPC)

The Illustrated Parts Catalog is intended for use in the identification and requisition
of replaceable aircraft parts and units. The AIPC is a companion document to the
Aircraft Maintenance Manual and shall contain all parts information for which main-
tenance practices coverage has been provided.

Figure 20: Example of AIPC Pages

Figure 21: Example of AIPC Pages - Component Lists

Engine Illustrated Parts Catalog (EIPC)

The EIPC is intended for use in the identification and requisition of replaceable en-
gine parts and units. It is a companion document to the Engine Manual.
Engine Parts Configuration Management Section (EPCM)

The Parts Configuration Management Selection Process Manual is intended to im-
prove management of parts, by providing in one place the parts application data
for all basic models (engine, the thrust reverser, nacelle / pod, etc.).
Tool and Equipment Manual (TEM)

The Tool and Equipment Manual contains all of the special tools and equipment
(including testing equipment) recommended by the manufacturer and its vendors,
for servicing, fault isolation, and repair of the airframe, engine, components, and
accessories.
Wiring Manual (WM)

The Wiring Manual is provided to illustrate all aircraft, engine, and component
electrical/electronic circuits. The wiring and schematic diagrams, lists, and location
charts shall sufficiently describe the circuits to enable fault isolation and servicing
of electrical systems during maintenance.

Figure 22: Example of WM Diagram Page

WIRING DIAGRAM
AF0306 AF0316
28V DC
BUS 1 1 2
24-54-11 7.5 W006- 103-20 42 12 W4339- 078-20 8
LE FLAP CONT
C595 J D40506P D17242P J
GRP B DRIVE 1
P6 PANEL-MAIN POWER DISTRIBUTION
AE0417
NC
W3846
A3 44U-20 8 W4758- 078-20 ACO901
C NO J D40316P AC0802 AC0802 PRESS SEAL LE
A1 54M-20 GDX1-DC W076 W/B JT STB L
27-81-12 21
A2 44V-20 23 W4415- 004-20 26 572-20 H18 099-20 9 W4425- 025-20 7 W4584- 102-20 11 28V DC
44X-20 25 008-20 D40581P J TB390
X2 50T-22 AR0422
44W-20
X1 44Y-20
DR7772 B1 27-81-12
R7772 RLY-LE 30 W4415- 095-20 B2 27-81-12
FLAP PROT GRP B
27-81-12
X1
X1 37 27-81-82 SH 1 27-81-12 DR380
A1 44F-20 36 W4415- 119-22 B9 27-81-82 R380 RLY-LE
J D40294P DW2278B DQ2278 FLAP DR RETR
GDX2-DC
A2 44G-20 E2-2 EQPT CTR-
MN R-SHELF 2
12D X1 098-20
X2 2ND-22 36 W4555- 518-22 13D 091-20
GDX2-DC 35 215-22 A1 032-20
D2 2NC-20 34
D1 45C-20 37 126-22 12D C2 301-18Y 21
21 2 309-18Y 2 305-18Y 2 115V AC B
DR8075 D2 302-18R 21 1 307-18R 1 304-18R 1 115V AC A
SAME AS B2 303-18B 4 308-18B 4 306-18B 3 115V AC C
R361 X2 097-20
R8075 RLY-ALT A3 083-20 3 022-20 3 103-20 5 BRAKE
FLAP 3 LE GRP 8 086-20
A2 085-20 21
B3 304-18B 21
NO 5 61N-20 D3 306-18Y 21
PWR 7 78-34-11 C3 305-18R 21
C 2 61R-20 GDX6-DC D1 308-18Y 21
GND 3 61S-20 B1 307-18B 21
DR7722 C1 309-18R
R7722 RLY-T/R 1 DR362
R362 RLY-LE FLAP
12D DRIVE RET
B2 2NN-22 38 W4555- 127-22
A2 J D40324P NC
27-81-21 C3
A3 NO B3
B3 2NJ-22 16 27-81-12 NC
X1 J D40294P D3
27-51-21 NO
X2 NC D1
DR8076 C1
R8076 RLY-ALT NO B1
LE RET INTLK NC A2
A3 5 024-20B 5 202-20B 8 NOT RETRACT
P414 PANEL-POWER DISTRIBUTION CENTER-LEFT X2 087-20 7 W4425- 023-20R 6 W4584- 201-20R 10 NOT EXTEND
AF0311 NO A1 J D40583P J D43114P
LE GRP B RET 4 W4001- 629-22 XA25 W4009- 046-22 1 7 RETRACT
10 630-22 XB25 047-22 2 27-81-12 27-88-11 9 EXTEND
LE GRP B OFF 19 653-22 XA30 W4009- 050-22 11 095-20 A1 12 RETURN
XB30 27-81-12
TD232 X1 096-20 X1 W4584- 006-18 6 RETURN
27-81-12 1GD618-DC
LE GRP B ARM 40 W4001- 558-22 XC26 W4009- 054-22 12 B2 21 319-18B B2
TD232 27-81-12
P2-3 PNL-LDG
D12462P D40892P J D2 21 330-18Y D2 W4584- 004-18 4 NEUTRAL
27-81-12 1GD624-AC
GR CONT P1 PANEL-CAPTAINS MAIN C2 21 329-18R C2 DM876B
M876 UNIT-
INSTRUMENT 27-81-12
P2 PANEL-PILOTS CENTER INSTRUMENT DR361 DR379 ELEC PNEU DR-
R361 RLY-LE FLAP R379 RLY-LE 1 LE FLAP-L
DRIVE EXT FLAP DRIVE EXT STA 1401
NOTES: P54 PANEL-CENTER EQUIPMENT
SHIELD PIGTAIL TO DISCONNECT BACKSHELL 2 INCH MAXIMUM
001 LEADING EDGE FLAP DRIVE 1 27-81-11

PRIMARY ELECTRIC- PAGE 1
LEFT

Figure 23: Example of WM Schematics Page
PRIMARY ELECTRIC PAGE 101

001 LEADING EDGE FLAP DRIVE-1 27-81-01
M7881 FCU LEFT (E1-2) 1 LE FLAP LEFT STA 1401
W/B JOINT M876 ELECTROPNEUMATIC DRIVE
(P54) PRESS SEAL
PRI PNEU GRP B DISB2 ALT RETRACT
R7650 RLY-GROUP B (P54) 12
PRI ELEC GRP B EXTE3 DRIVE EXTEND 10 NOT EXTEND
R361 RLY-LE FLAP (P54)
PRI ELEC GRP B RETD3 X2 DRIVE RETRACT 9 FULLY EXTEND
X1 R362 RLY-LE FLAP 27-88-02
PRI ELEC GRP B DISE4 NC B1 X2 7 FULLY RETRACT
27-51-01 DM7881BA B2 NC X1
NC B3 D1 X2 8 NOT RETRACT
A1 D2 X1
A2 D3 D1
M7880 FCU CENTER (E2-2) A3 DR7650 D2 1
DR7650 C1 D3
C2
PRI ELEC GRP B RETD3 C3 C1 MOTOR
B1 C2 2 DRIVE
PRI ELEC GRP B EXTE3 B2 C3 ALTERNATE
DR361 B3 B1
PRI PNEU GRP B DISB2 B2 3
B3 DR362 4
PRI ELEC GRP B DISE4 A2 A2
27-51-01 DM7880BA A1 A1 6 SOLENOID
5 BREAK
A3 A3 VALVE
M7879 FCU RIGHT (E2-2) DR361 DR362 11
ALT EXTEND (P54) DM876B
R7651 RLY-GROUP B
PRI ELEC GRP B RETD3
PRI ELEC GRP B EXTE3 X2
X1
PRI PNEU GRP B DISB2 NC B1
B2 NC
PRI ELEC GRP B DISE4 NC B3
27-51-01 DM7879BA A1
A2
A3 DR7651
DR7651
P415 PNL-PWR DIST CTR-R
ELEC DR 1 (A5)
C902 LE FLAP
24-51-02
BUS 2
115V AC
27-81-05 POWER UNIT
PNEUMATIC DRIVE
TYPICAL ELECTRO
(P2-3)
ALT DR ARM SW
S1710 SW-OUTBD FLAP 3 (P414) 1 LE FLAP RIGHT STA 1401
R8075 RLY-ALTN M885 ELECTROPNEUMATIC DRIVE
ARM
11 X2 12
12 X1 (P54)
DS1710 10 A1 DRIVE EXTEND 10 NOT EXTEND
OFF DS1710 A2 R379 RLY-LE FLAP (P54)
NC A3 DRIVE RETRACT 9 FULLY EXTEND
27-51-02 D1 R380 RLY-LE FLAP 27-88-01
D2 X2 7 FULLY RETRACT
(P2-3) NC D3 DR8075 X1
S1709 SW-ALT CONT DR8075 D1 X2 8 NOT RETRACT
D2 X1
D3 D1
27-51-02 4 RET D2 1
19 OFF 10 C1 D3
3 EXT C2 MOTOR
27-51-02 C3 C1 DRIVE
(P414) B1 C2 2 ALTERNATE
PROTECT GROUP B B2 C3
R7772 RLY-LE FLAP DR379 B3 B1
B2 3
P6 PNL-MN PWR DIST B3 DR380 4
X2 A2 A2
DRIVE 1 (L21) X1 A1 A1 6 SOLENOID
ELEC CONT GRP B A1 5 BREAK 27-81-12
C595 LE FLAP A2 A3 A3 VALVE 27-81-11
24-54-01 A3 DR7772 DR379 DR380 11 27-51-21
BUS 1 DR7772 DM885B
28V DC
WIRING DIAGRAMS
SCHEMATIC

Flight Crew Operations Manual (FCOM) ATA Chapters

The Flight Crew Operating Manual (FCOM) includes information required by the This section describes only the numbering system of the manuals that are impor-
flight crew for airplane operation. The manual contains all supplementary and am- tant for the aircraft maintenance mechanic (line and base)
plified normal operating procedures. Also included are descriptions of all aircraft
The numering system is a conventional three element dash-number brakedown It
systems and related controls and indicators, plus airplane performance data.
provides a mean for dividing material into Chapter, Section, Subject and Page-
Master Minimum Equipment List (MMEL) block.
The Master Minimum Equipment List contains a listing of the allowable minimum The number is composed of three elements which consists of two digits as depict-
ed in Table 4 :
serviceable equipment and systems that are necessary for the safe operation of
an aircraft. This document is governed by the applicable Aviation Authority (JAA Figure 24: Three Element Numbering System
or NAA).
Component Manual Index (CMI)

The manufacturers Component Manual Index identifies all component manuals re-
26 - 22 - 03
quired to support a manufacturer's component.It includes component manuals
prepared by the manufacturer and their vendors where separate manuals are ap-
plicable.
Chapter Section Subject
PubIications Index (PI)
(System) (Subsystem) (Unit)
The Publication Index provides a status list of all technical support data (i.e. man-
uals, catalogs, temporary revisions, information letters, etc.). Table 4: Number Composition
Service Bulletin Index (SBI)
First Second Third Coverage
Periodically the manufacturer shall issue an index of Service Bulletins. This index
Element Element Element
is to be a complete listing of all Service Bulletins.
Service Letter (SL) 26- 00- 00 System: Fire Protection

The Service Letter (SL) is the document used to notify the Airlines of the types of 26- 20- 00 Subsystem: Extinguishing
information that are not outlined under "Service Bulletins".
26- 22- 00 Sub-subsystem: "Engine Fire
Extinguishing"
26- 22- 03 Unit: "Bottles"
The first number in the three-part subject number is the chapter number and
serves to identify the major functional system to which the subject pertains.
The middle part of the number is the section number and serves to identify all of
the coverage pertaining to a system, subsystem, or group of related assemblies.

The last part of the number is the subject number and serves to identify all infor-
mation relative to a specific unit, minor assembly, simple system or simple circuit.
Complete system information is included in subjects identified by the third part of Table 6: Major Section 1 - Aircraft General
the subject number being a dash-zero (-0) number. The descriptions of units
which comprise the system or subsystem are also included with the complete Chapter Title
system information to the extent necessary for understanding how they work in
performing their function in the system. In those cases where the units are suffi- 01 Introduction
ciently complex, additional description and operation type information is given at
05 Time Limits / Maintenance Checks
the unit level.
Manuals like AMM, CMM, FIM are further divided into reasonably small Page 06 Dimensions and Areas
Blocks to enable the user to locate the desired information more readily. The topics 07 Lifting and Shoring
are listed in the :
08 Leveling and Weighing
Table 5: Pageblocks
09 Towing and Taxiing
Topic Pageblock 10 Parking and Mooring
Description and Operation 001 - 100 11 Required Placards
Troubleshooting 101 - 200 12 Servicing
Maintenance Practices 201 - 300 18 Vibration and Noise Analysis (Helocopter only)
Servicing 301 - 400 20 Standard Practices
Sub-topic
Table 7: Major Section 2 - Airframe Systems
Removal / Installation 401 - 500
Chapter Title
Adjustment / Test 501 - 600
21 Air Conditioning
Inspection / Check 601 - 700
22 Auto Flight
Cleaning / Painting 701 - 800
23 Communications
Approved Repairs 801 - 900
24 Electrical Power
Familiarise yourself with structure of each Manual by reading introductory para- 25 Equipment and Furnishings
graphs and contents pages.
26 Fire Protection
Manuals are divided into four main sections. The sections are then separated into
chapters, with each having its own table of contents. The manual divisions are as 27 Flight Controls
follows:

Table 7: Major Section 2 - Airframe Systems Table 8: Major Section 3 - Structures
28 Fuel 53 Fuselage
29 Hydraulic Power 54 Nacelles and Pylons
30 Ice and Rain Protection 55 Stabilizers
31 Instruments 56 Windows
32 Landing Gear 57 Wings
33 Lights
Table 9: Major Section 4 - Propeller / Rotor
34 Navigation
Chapter Title
35 Oxygen
36 Pneumatic 60 Standard Practices - Propeller / Rotor
37 Vacuum 61 Propellers / Propulsors
38 Water/Waste 62 Main Rotor(S)
39 Electrical - Electronic Panels and Multipurpose Components 63 Main Rotor Drive(S)
41 Water Ballast 64 Tail Rotor
42 Integrated Modular Avionics 65 Tail Rotor Drive
44 Cabin Systems 66 Rotor Blade and Tail Pylon Folding
45 On Board Maintenance System 67 Rotors Flight Control
46 Information Systems Table 10: Major Section 5 - Power Plant

47 Fuel Tank Inerting System
Chapter Title
49 Airborn Auxiliary Power
70 Standard Practices-Engine
Table 8: Major Section 3 - Structures 71 Power plant
Chapter Title 72 Engine
51 Structures 73 Engine Fuel & Control
52 Doors 74 Ignition

Table 10: Major Section 5 - Power Plant The Effectivity Code consists of a three digits number. In the manuals, it is printed
at the bottom of a page (see “Figure 25” on page 60). The Effectivity Code is also
75 Bleed Air printed following the subjects on the Table of Contents page of each chapter.
76 Engine Controls A six digit Effectivity code is located in the Effectivity block on each page. The first
three digits indicate the first aircraft to which this Effectivity applies. Then there is
77 Engine Indicating a hyphen followed by a further three digits which indicates the last aircraft.
78 Exhaust A page that applies to all aircraft of that type (e.g. A320) will have the word "ALL"
entered in the Effectivity block.
79 Oil
Open ended Effectivity, for example 476 - 999, 476 indicates the first aircraft to
80 Starting which this Effectivity applies and 999 indicates all subsequent aircraft.
81 Turbines Figure 25: Effectivity Block Examples
82 Water Injection
83 Accessory Gear Boxes
84 Propulsion Augmentation
Table 11: Major Section 6 - Miscellaneous
Chapter Title
91 Charts
Normally only one set of pages is issued for a subject, differences being indicated
115 Flight Simulator Systems
in the text as necessary. If configuration differences are extensive then additional
116 Flight Simulator Cuing Systems page block will be issued (Config 1, Config 2).
(e. g.: motion simulation)
Effectivity Code
ATA has developed a code to distinguish the configuration of a certain type of air-
craft from its “brothers” of the same ‘type family”. Aircraft manufacturers often build
various configurations of a particular aircraft type. You can find the specific infor-
mation which is relevant for an aircraft by means of a code unique to that aircraft.
This code is called the Effectivity Code.
Note:The aircraft maintenance mechanic must know the Effectivity Code of
the aircraft he is working on.

Maintenance Task Oriented Support System (MTOSS) Figure 26: Task / Sub-Task Number
With the introduction of computer technologies, ATA has enlarged its "ATA100
Specifications" to cover this media. The new name is: "ATA iSpec 2200" Task 29 - 11 - 53 - 400 - 801 - B
The MTOSS permits the use of Electronic Data Processing (EDP) of maintenance
data. The system uses standard and unique number combinations to identify
maintenance tasks and sub-tasks. It is an expansion of the ATA Chapter, Section,
Subject numbering system applied to the 200 through 800 pageblocks. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
AMTOSS
Aircraft Maintenance Manual - TOSS
The functional arrangement of data and the ATA 100 numbering system form the
Sub-Task 29 - 11 - 53 - 43X - XXX - A01 - CC1
basis for the assignment of maintenance Task/subtask numbers to each mainte-
nance operation (Task) described in the AMM. Table 12: Task / Sub-Task explanation
Note:TASK/Sub-task numbers are mainly for the use of the Production Man-
agement Data Base (PMDB) and have no significance for the reader of the 1 to 3 ATA six digit number
AMM. Task/Subtask numbers are included in the manual to allow the man-
agement of technical data contained in the PMDB and the AMM magnetic 4 The three digit numeric function code is used to indicate the particu-
tape lar maintenance function involved
Note: In principle the Sub-task numbers have no significance for the AMM 40 = Installation
reader, since the arrangement of technical data is unaffected.
5 The three digit numeral enables a unique identification number to be
allocated for all Tasks/Subtasks which are similarly numbered
The TASK/sub-task number contains five, six or seven elements. Tasks and sub- throughout the preceding elements.
tasks numbers are structured as follows:
6 The three digit alphanumeric indicator comprises of:
• First digit alpha to indicate a different configuration due to different
criteria configuration (modification, service bulletin(s), etc.).
• Second and third digit numerals to indicate alternative methods/
techniques of maintenance.
7 A three digit alphanumeric indicator is to be assigned by an airline to

highlight unique airline data


Training Manual 7.6 Fits and Clearances
7.6 Fits and Clearances

Common System of Fits and Clearences The type of fit between two assemble parts depends on the size to which each part
is made. Since no size can be exact then each part must be made within two siz-
In precision manufacture it is not possible to make an engineering component to es. The two sizes within which a part must be made are called limits. The term
an exact size. Gauge blocks are considered to be very accurate standards of limit implys also the minimum and maximum size of a component. If the basic per-
length but even these are not exact. manent size (also known as the normal size) of a shaft is 25mm then the limits
If a component cannot be made to an exact size then the amount by which it can could be given as:
be in error (known as the deviation from the exact size) must be known and includ- 24.98mm Upper Limit
ed with the dimension. 24.96mm Lower Limit
If moving parts in machines are to function properly, then the relationship between If you subtract the lower limit from the upper limit the result is known as the toler-
the size of one part and the size of the part which fits into it is of extreme impor- ance.
tance. In, for example, manufacturing a shaft which has to run freely in a bearing,
there must be enough space for a film of oil between the two in order to prevent Tolerance = Upper Limit – Lower Limit
wear. = 24.98 - 24.96
The ISO System of Limits and Fits = 0.02mm
The ISO system of limits and fits gives a range of sizes to which parts should be
made. The following list gives examples of the types of fits used: Figure 1: Ilustrating Fits and Clearences
• Clearance fit
• Transition fit
• Interference fit
Tolerance
Clearance Fit
Tolerance
In this assembly there is a space between the two parts. The shaft is always small-
er than the part it fits into.
Transition Fit
Basic Hole Size
Basic Shaft Size

Lower Limit
Upper Limit
Upper Limit
Lower Limit
This is a range of fits that can be either clearance or interference. The shaft can
be larger or smaller than the part it fits into.
Interference Fit
In this assembly there is no space between the parts. The shaft is always larger
than the part it fits into. This means that force is required to assemble the parts.
Tolerances
The difference between the maximum and minimum sizes (limits) is called toler-
ance. There are a number of limits and fits systems in use which give the largest
and the smallest size of a part for any required type of fit.

Systems of Fits The Shaft Basis System of Fits

There are two systems of fits in use: In this system the shaft is the fixed size and the hole sizes are varied. This system
• Hole basis system is sometimes used when a variety of components, e.g. bearings, couplings, gears
etc. are all to fit the same shaft.
• Shaft basis system
Figure 3: Ilustration of Shaft Basis System
The Hole Basis System Of Fits
The range of fits is obtained by manufacturing the hole to a fixed size and the shaft
size is varied. This system is preferred because reamers, for example, are made
in a range of standard sizes. (It would be impossible to make a range of reamers
to cover all types of fit.)
Figure 2: Ilustration of Hole Basis System
Clearence Fit Transition Fit Interference Fit
Clearence Fit Transition Fit Interference Fit

Bolt and Hole Sizes Figure 4: Example of Hole Diameter Table (Airbus SRM)
Clearance Fit in boltholes are permissible wherever bolts are used in tension and
are not subject to reversal of load. A few of the applications in which clearance fit
of holes may be permitted are in pulley brackets, conduit boxes, lining trim, and
miscellaneous supports and brackets.
In cases of oversized or elongated holes in critical members, obtain advice from
the aircraft or engine manufacturer before drilling or reaming the hole to take the
next larger bolt. Usually, such factors as edge distance, clearance, or load factor
must be considered. Aircraft Structural Repair Manuals give instructions about
hole sizes and oversizes (see “Figure 4” on page 4).
Oversized or elongated holes in noncritical member’s can usually be drilled or
reamed to the next larger size.
Many boltholes, particularly those in primary connecting elements, have close tol-
erances. Generally, it is permissible to use the first lettered drill size larger than the
normal bolt diameter, except where the AN hexagon bolts are used in lightdrive fit
(reamed) applications and where NAS close fit bolts or AN clevis bolts are used.
Note: boltholes are to be normal to the surface involved to provide full bear-
ing surface for the bolt head and nut and must not be oversized or elongat-
ed. A bolt in such a hole will carry none of its shear load until parts have
yielded or deformed enough to allow the bearing surface of the oversized
hole to contact the bolt. In this respect. Remember that bolts do not become
swaged to fill up the holes as do rivets.

Standard Methods for Checking Fits and Clearences Figure 5: Usage of Gap Gauges
Limit Gauges Shaft size is Shaft size too Shaft size too
The use of any system of limits and fits makes it possible to gauge the size of a between the small large
component. When limit gauges are used to inspect a component, there is no at- limits of size
tempt to determine its actual size. Essentially gauging a component is carried out
to ensure that the actual size is within the limits of size.
To this end two gauges are used for each basic size.
• one gauge for the upper limit
• one gauge for the lower limit
Gauging a Shaft
Gap gauges are used to check that the size of a shaft, bolt or cylinder is within lim- T GO T GO T GO
its. One gap gauge is made (by precision grinding of the faces) to the upper limit. NO NO NO
GO GO GO
This is the GO gauge. The other gauge is made to the lower limit. This is the NOT
GO gauge.
In practice the GO and NOT GO gauges are often combined.
Adjustable Thread Calliper Gauges
The go gauge should fit over the shaft. The not go gauge should not be able to
pass over the shaft. The anvils of these gauge’s can be set to the limit given on the data sheet. The go
anvil is set to the upper limit. The not go anvil is set to the lower limit.
• If the GO gauge did not fit over the shaft then the shaft diameter would be too
large. Figure 6: Adjustable Calliper Gauge
• If the NOT GO gauge passes over the shaft then the shaft diameter would be
to small.

Gauging Holes Figure 7: Usage of Plug Gauges

Plug gauges are used to check that the size of the hole is within limits (see
“Figure 7” on page 6).
The GO plug gauge is made to the lower limit.
The NOT GO plug gauge is made to the upper limit.
• If the NOT GO plug gauge passes through the hole then the hole diameter is NOT
too large. GO
• If the GO plug gauge does not enter the hole then the hole diameter is too
GO
small.
The hole is between limits
GO
NOT
GO
The hole is too small The hole is too large

Checking Shafts and Bearings Figure 8: Use of Dial Indicator
Dial indicators are precision measuring instruments used to measure such things
as shaft runout, gear backlash, end-play in a shaft or axle.
Checking Shaft End-Play

To measure shaft end-play, clamp the dial indicator to a rigid part of the structure
and push the shaft to one extreme of its travel. Move the indicator until its arm
presses against the shaft, a preload is then applied to the dial indicator by press-
ing it against the shaft until the pointer deflects a few tenth of a mm and rotate the
dial until the needle indicates zero. Move the shaft to the opposite end of its travel,
and read the dial of the indicator to see the distance the shaft has moved. This
movement is the shaft end-play.
Checking Shaft Runout

Shaft runout (the amount the shaft wobbles as it turns) is also measured with a dial
indicator. Place the shaft in v-blocks and mount a dial indicator so its arm presses
against the shaft at the point the runout measurement is to be taken. Rotate the
shaft until the lowest reading is shown, and zero the gage at this point. Rotate the
shaft for one full revolution, and record the amount the indicator needle travels.
Bowing Limits
The maximum amount of bow in members that can be classified as negligible is 1
in 600, or as stated in the relevant aircraft maintenance manual. When testing a
member for bow, the test must be done on that part of the member in which the
section is uniform. Hollow member are checked for bow by using straightedge and
feeler gauge.

Check Bearings for Wear

To determine the amount of bearing wear manually apply a reversing load to the
bearing in a simple holding fixture and measure play with a dial indicator (see
“Figure 8” on page 7). First radial wear should be measured by applying a revers-
ing radial of five to eight kg and total diametrical play measured. A reversing load
of the same magnitude should then be applied in an axial (thrust) direction and ax-
ial play measured.
Check Bearing Breakaway Torque

Breakaway preload torque checks are made by measuring the torque required to
rotate one race with the other race fixed. The bearing must be free of lubricants or
any other contaminants. Breakaway torque shall not exceed twice the allowable
rotational preload torque.
Check Bearing Rotational Torque

Rotational preload torque checks are made by measuring the torque required to
rotate one race with the other race fixed. The bearing must be free of lubricants or
any other contaminants.

Training Manual 7.7 EWIS (Electrical Wiring Interconnection System)
7.7 EWIS (Electrical Wiring Interconnection System)

Introduction To carry out any installation or repair on aircraft electrical systems

consult following manuals:
The installation of electrical aircraft systems compared with others is very different. • ASM (Aircraft Schematic Manual) and or
The installation technics changes very rapidly due to the new electronic systems
• WDM (Wiring Diagram Manual)
which are used in modern aircrafts.
• AMM (Aircraft Maintenance Manual chapter-20)
This submodule contains the basic informations to make a good tradesman instal-
• ESPM (Electrical Standard Practices Manual) Airbus
lation. If there are any difficulties to judge installation problems, so you have to use
the original Aircraft Manufacturers Manuals or General Specifications. • SWPM (Standard Wiring Practices Manual) Boeing
Information contained in this manual is of a general nature and does not pertain to
any specific system. This manual is an aid in the training of aircraft electrical per-
sonnel and not intended to supersede or substitute manufacturers recommended Below are listed some of the groups responsible for the design specifications for
material. aircraft electrical installations,
Airbus Industry (AI)
Boeing Aircraft Company (BAC)
This submodule covers following topics: Aeronautical Radio Incorporation (ARINC)
1. Electrical Wiring Interconnection System Federal Aviation Regulations (FAR)
2. Wiring installation British Civil Aviation Regulations (BCAR)
Military Wiring Specifications. (MIL-W)
3. Cable stripping International Standards Organisation (ISO)
4. Wire terminal Joint Aviation Requirement (JAR)
5. Wire splicing
6. Crimping
7. Heat shrinking
8. Soldering
9. Wire terminals
10. Wire splices
11. Plugs and receptacles
12. Contact insertion and retraction
13. Pins and sockets
14. Coaxial cable
15. Electrical tests continuity, short cirquit and insulation
16. Bonding

EWIS (Electrical Wiring Interconnection System) Figure 1: Fire
Background
Over the years there have been a number of in-flight smoke and fire events where
contamination sustained and caused the fire to spread. The FAA and the NTSB
have conduced aircraft inspections and found wiring contaminated with items such
as dust, dirt, metal shavings, lavatory waste water, coffee, soft drinks and napkins.
In some cases dust has been found completely covering wire bundles and the sur-
rounding area.
Research has also demonstrated that wiring can be harmed by collateral damage
when maintenance is being performed on other aircraft systems. For example a
person performing an inspection of an electrical power center or avionics compart-
ment may inadvertently cause damage to wiring in an adjacent area.
In recent years Federal government and industry groups have come to the reali-
sation that current maintenance practices may not be adequate to address aging
non structural systems. While age is not the sole cause of wire degradation, the
probability that inadequate maintenance, contamination, improper repair or me-
chanical damage has caused degradation to a particular EWIS increases over
time. Studies by industry and government agency working groups have found that
although EWIS management is an important safety issue, there has been a ten-
dency to be complacent about EWIS. These working groups have concluded that
there is a need to manage EWIS so that they continue to function safely.

The objectives of the EWIS training programme is to give operators, holders of Figure 2: Inspection Tools
Type Certificates (TC), holder of Supplemental Type Certificates (STC), mainte-
nance organisations and persons performing field approval modifications or re-
pairs a model for the development of their own EWIS training programme. This will
ensure that proper procedures, method techniques and practices are used when
performing maintenance, preventive maintenance, inspection, alteration and
cleaning of EWIS.
Levels of Inspection Applicable to EWIS

Detailed Inspection (DET)
An intensive examination of a specific item, installation or assembly to detect dam-
age, failure or irregularity. Available lightning is normally supplemented with a di-
rect source of good lightning at an intensity deemed appropriate. Inspection aids
such as mirrors, magnifying lenses or other means may be required.
A DET can be more than just a visual inspection since it may include tactile as-
sessment in which a component or assembly is checked for tightness/security.
This is of particular significance when identifying applicable and effective tasks to
ensure the continued integrity of installations such as bonding jumpers, terminal
connectors, etc.
Note: The term Detailed Visual Inspection remains valid for DETs using only eye-
sight. For this reason it is recommend that the acronym DVI not be used since it
excludes tactile examination from this level of inspection.

General Visual Inspection (GVI)

A visual examination of an interior or exterior area, installation or assembly to de-
tect obvious damage, failure or irregularity. This level of inspection is made from
within touching distances unless otherwise specified. A mirror may be necessary
to enhance visual access to all exposed surfaces in the inspection area. This level
of inspection is made under normally available lighting conditions such as daylight,
hangar lighting, flashlight or droplight and may require removal or opening of ac-
cess panels or doors. Stands ladders or platforms may be required to gain prox-
imity to the area being checked.
Recent changes to this definition have added proximity guidance (within touching
distance) and the allowance to use a mirror to enhance visual access to exposed
surfaces when performing a GVI.
It is expected that the area to be inspected is clean enough to minimize the possi-
bility that accumulated dirt or grease might hide unsatisfactory conditions that
would otherwise be obvious. Any cleaning that is considered necessary should be
performed in accordance with accepted procedures in order to minimize the pos-
sibility of the cleaning process itself introducing anomalies.
In general, the person performing a GVI is expected to identify degradation due to
wear, vibration, moisture, contamination, excessive heat, aging, etc. In making this
assessment, any potential effect on adjacent system installations should be con-
sidered, particularly if these include wiring. Observations of discrepancies, such as
chafing, broken clamps, sagging, interference, contamination, etc., need to be ad-
dressed.
Zonal Inspection
A collective term comprising selected GVI and visual checks that applied to each
zone, defined by access and area, to check system and power plant installations
and structure for security and general condition.
A Zonal Inspection is essentially a GVI of an area or zone to detect obvious unsat-
isfactory conditions and discrepancies. Unlike a stand-alone GVI, it is not directed
to any specified component or assembly.

Guidance for Zonal Inspections Figure 3: Wire Routing
Wire / Wire Harnesses

• "Contact, chafing
• "Sagging or improperly secured
• "Damage (mechanical, overheat, etc)
• "Lacing tape / ties missing / incorrect installed
• "Protection sheath / conduit deformity or incorrect installed
• "Grommet missing or damaged
• "Dust and lint accumulation
• "Contamination (shavings / swarf / liquids)
• "Deterioration
• "Inappropriate repairs
• "Inappropriate attachment to or separation to fluid lines
Connectors
• "Corrosion Figure 4: Wrong Connection
• "Backshell broken
• "Rubber pad or packing missing
• "No backshell wire securing device
• "Fool proofing chain broken
• "Missing or broken safety wire
• "Discoloration / overheat on terminal lugs / blocks
• "Torque stripe misalignment
Switches
• "Rear protection cap damaged

Ground Points Figure 5: Clamp Inspection

• "Corrosion
Bonding
• "Braid broken or disconnected
• "Multiple strands corroded / broken
Clamps or Brackets
• "Corroded
• "Broken / missing
• "Bent or twisted
• "Faulty attachment
• "Protection / cushion damaged
Supports
• "Broken
• "Deformed
• "Fastener missing
• "Missing edge protection
• "Racetrack cushion damaged
• "Obstructed drainage holes Figure 6: Clamp Inspection
Circuit Breakers
• "Overheating
• "Arcing

General Cleaning For exactly cleaning procedures, methods and cleaning products consult the
ESPM or SWPM.
Cleaning of electrical Components
There are different contamination types: Cleaning Processes
Surface Contamination, Deep Contamination, External contamination, Internal General Cleaning
contamination and also:
Cleaning of electrical installation on aircraft.
• natural: the contamination agent is an identified material used in the aircraft
systems (hydraulic fluid, fuel, etc.), Contamination can be internal or external.
• accidental: the contamination agent comes from an external source (cleaning Internal Contamination
agent, etc.),
• the effect of ageing: the contamination agent is dust, lint or fluff. This type of contamination is an identified material used in the aircraftsystems (hy-
draulic fluid, fuel, etc...)
Procedure in relation to the type of contamination:
• stop the contamination source. External Contamination
• keep the area that has contamination to a minimum. This type of contamination agent comes from an external source (coffee,miscella-
• Estimate the damage in the contamined area. neous liquids carried on aircraft, metal shaving, etc...)
• Select the applicable cleaning procedure. Following safety practices during cleaning operation is mandatory.
Sequence of actions:
Cleaning Principle
• Stop the contamination source.
You must clean only the areas and items that have contamination. Before you
• Keep the contaminated area to a minimum.
clean, make sure that the cleaning materials and methods will not cause more con-
tamination. • Apply the correct cleaning procedure
Liquid contamination example:
Cleaning Method • Stop the contamination source.
Always start from the top to the bottom and from the periphery to the center of the • Make a sealed barrier.
area that has contamination. • Remove liquid with vacuum cleaner for liquids.
Using cleaning agents: For powder or granular or dust contamination, you must ensure there is no draught
• First, do a test with the cleaning agents and procedures in a low-risk area or (wind) and remove the contamination with a vacuum cleaner and a soft brush.
on a small surface.
For external contamination, you have to make an estimate of the risk of deteriora-
• Examine the results immediately to make sure that they are satisfactory for tion of electrical item (some agents can cause damage to the polymers used in
the task. If the results are not satisfactory, adapt the procedures and/or the electrical items).
materials as necessary.
In case of damage due to the contamination agent, refer to this table know if:
Using a cloth:
• you can clean the item.
• make sure that it is clean, dry and lint-free.
• you must replace the item.
Using a vacuum cleaner, make sure that:
• the filters are in position.
• its outlet is out of the aircraft to prevent contamination of a different area.

Typical Cleaning Method ESPM

Precautions:
Structure Overview
Always start cleaning from the periphery to the center or from the top to the bottom
of the area. General presentation of the ESPM:
When using cleaning agents, do a test to ensure the product give satisfactory re- E : Electrical
sult. S : Standard
When you use a cloth, make sure it is clean, dry and lint-free. P : Practices
When you use a vacuum cleaner, make sure the filter is in position and its outlet M : Manual
is out of the aircraft. The ESPM is a product that is updated every 6 months. It replaces the WDM chap-
Always use a small capacity can in the aircraft and always put the cleaning agent ter 20 which was duplicated in the different wiring manuals:
on the cloth. AWM, ASM, AWL and for each AIRBUS aircraft.
This table gives you the type of cleaning agent you must use. Consequently, your ESPM is applicable to all AIRBUS aircraft; this includes your
existing fleet and the aircraft that will integrate it.
The ESPM provides a quick and easy access to the information associated with
connectors and connecting parts, such as contacts, terminals and splices.
This is the ESP (Electrical Standard Practices).
Figure 7: Electrical Standard Practices
This document is only an extract of the ESPM. It has been created in pocket format
to permit you to have it in your toolbox.

Structure of the ESPM

Like all manuals, there is a list of effective pages (LEP) and a table of contents
(TOC).
The INTRO:
In the introduction, you have general information concerning the manual and the
HOW TO USE guide. The HOW TO USE guide explains how to retrieve and
search information with practical examples.
The INDEXES:
There are two different types of indexes. An alphabetical index, which allows you
to find information with a keyword, and an alphanumerical index, which allows you
to retrieve a Part Number in the document.
Now, the safety practices.
The safety practices give you warnings and cautions you have to closely follow.
This information does not replace your local regulations.
The standard tools:
This part gives you all the information on the tools quoted in the different tables of
the document. For example, you have a geometrical representation of each tool
and a typical utilization procedure.
To easily understand the document, the data is classified and standard rules and
recommendations are provided.
The standard electrical items and connecting parts.
And the maintenance processes.
All the information contained in theses different parts are retrievable through the
indexes.


Wiring Installation and Areas of Concern Grounding Point

Grounding points should be checked for security, condition of the termination,
Wiring Installation in Accordance with ESPM (Airbus) or cleanliness and corrosion. Any grounding point that are corroded or have lost their
SWPM (Boeing) protective coating should be repaired.
Clamping Points Splices
Wire chafing is aggravated by damaged clamps, clamp cushion migration, or im- Both sealed or non sealed splices are susceptible to vibration, mechanical dam-
proper installations. When replacing clamps use those specified by the aircraft age, corrosion heat damage, chemical contamination and environmental deterio-
manufacturer. Improperly installed tie wraps can have a detrimental effect on wire ration. Power feeder cables are very susceptible to installation error and splice
insulation. When new wiring is installed, the drawings will provide wiring routing, degradation.
clamp type and size and proper location. Adding new wire to existing wire bundles
may overload the clamps causing wire bundle to sag and wires to chafe.
Connectors Special attention is required working on critical, essential or sensitive system wir-
ing for example: Essential power supply, Auto Flight, Autopilot, Flight Controls etc.
Worn environmental seals, loose connectors, missing seal plugs, missing dummy (For wire separation (see Title “Wire Separation” on page 13) )
contacts, or lack of strain relief on connector grommets can compromise connector
integrity and allow contamination to enter the connector, leading to corrosion or Critical System Wiring
grommet degradation. Connector pin corrosion can cause overheating, arcing and Critical system wiring has shielded wires and overbraid shields for protection.
pin to pin shorting. 7 CS 25.981(b) states that "...visible means to identify critical features of the de-
Terminations sign must be placed in areas of the aeroplane where maintenance, actions, re-
Terminations, such as terminal lug and terminal blocks, are susceptible to me- pairs, or alterations may be apt to violate the critical design configuration
chanical damage, corrosion, heat damage and contamination from chemicals, limitations (e.g., colour-coding of wire to identify separation limitation)." The design
dust and dirt. High current carrying feeder cable terminal lugs can over time lose approval holder should define a method of ensuring that this essential information
their original torque value due to vibration. One sing of this is heat discoloration at will:
the terminal end. Proper build up and nut torque is especially critical. Corrosion on • be communicated by statements in appropriate manuals, such as wiring dia-
terminal lugs and blocks can cause high resistance and overheating. Dust, dirt and gram manuals, and
other debris are combustible and therefore could sustain a fire if ignited from an • be evident to those who may perform and approve such repairs and altera-
overheated in equipment power centers, avionics compartments and throughout tions.
the aircraft need to be kept clean and free of any combustibles. Sensitive Wires
Backshells The sensitive wires are identified either by pink sleeves with black printing at their
Wires may break at backshells, due to excessive flexing, lack of strain relieve or ends or directly on the wire with the S letter indicated after each wire identification
improper build-up. Loss of backshell bonding may also occur due to these and oth- (e.g.:2231 0015S) on all wire length.
er factors.
In the WDM, these wires are identified by letter S.
Sleeving and Conduits
Damage to sleeving and conduits, if not corrected, may lead to wire damaged.
Therefore, damage such as cuts, dents and creases on conduits may require fur-
ther investigation for condition of wiring within.

Wiring Installation Figure 9: Wire Bundle Installation
General
Design of the wiring installation shall conform to the following precedence:
1. Safety in flight
2. The ease of maintenance, removal and replacement of the wiring.
3. Cost effective aircraft production.
Installation
Mostly all wires are installed in bundles which includes different wire types, such
as single-, shielded-, multiple-wires. All wire bundles must be clamped at least at
every frame. Make sure, that no mechanical stretch on each wire is present.
Bundles
Wires and cables shall be arranged in bundles to facilitate installation and mainte-
nance.
Conduits and Sleeves

Wires shall not be tied or fastened together in conduits or insulating sleeves.
Wire Separation
Wire bundles of essential systems (e.g. Stabilizer Trim, Autoflight, Essential Pow-
er) must be separated. For example, Autopilot 1 must be installed on the left side
of fuselage, A/P 2 on the right side and A/P 3 in the middle of fuselage. If these
bundles comes adjacent to each other (e.g. near computers, in racks), they must
be separated by colored sleeves.
Figure 8: Wire separation

Caution with Kapton Wires It should be noted that resetting a circuit breaker which has tripped on this type of
fault, can result in a restrike of the arc and the continuation of the tracking process
The majority of the general purpose aircraft wiring is insulated with Kaptonbrand until power is, once again, removed.
polyimide film. On single conductor constructions, the film is spiral wrapped in sev-
eral layers around the conductor and then covered with a thin polyimide resin top Care should be exercised when working on or around all aircraft wiring. The insu-
coat to facilitate readability of the wire identification marking. Interior wires and the lation should be inspected for nicks or cracks which decrease the insulation thick-
jackets of shielded and jacketed construction do not receive the top coating. ness or expose bare conductor.
One characteristic of any type of wire insulation material is a failure mechanism These conditions may be repaired by procedures found in the maintenance man-
known as "arc tracking". This phenomena may occur with or without the presence uals. This type of insulation damage can occur due to improper handling, hot-
of moisture on wires which carry power, and whose insulation has been damaged stamp printing and excessive bending. Top coats can be damaged by pulling the
to the point of exposing bare conductor. wire through bulkheads, clamps etc. Proper tools and handling must be used when
working with Kapton as with all types of aircraft wire.
The arcof this phenomena may occur to another exposed conductor with another
power potential or to structure (ground). On Kapton insulated conductors, the arc- Figure 10: Kapton Insulated Wire
ing process volatilizes portions of the polyimide leaving a film of semi-conductive
carbon. The arc will continue to track across the affected conductor(s) until the pro-
cess severs the power lead, or the ground connection so a circuit breaker trips.

Lacing and Tying Wire Bundles Figure 11: Tie Wrap and Tool
In the aircraft factory wire bundles also called harnesses are made up on jig
boards. The individual wires are tied together every 5 - 8 cm with teflon coated
fiberglass tie tape (AIR-TEX). A convenience item that makes wire bundling fast
and neat is the nylon strap also called tie-wrap.
Nylon Straps
Nylon straps or tie-wraps are available in different sizes, and must be installed us-
ing the correct tool.
• Plastic ties can be used instead of lacing cord in pressurized areas only.
For tightening use the strap hand tool. Select the proper setting dependent of the
tie-wrap size by selector and tension indicator.
Plastic ties should not be used in restricted areas such as:

• High vibration areas.
• High temperature areas.
• with coaxial cables.
Important:
AIRBUS (Ref: ESPM 20-33-44)
Straps may only be used if the temperature in the zone is not more than 130 de-
grees centigrade/Celsius.
Only the following colours may be used: black, water green, natural.
Exeption: Fuel tanks - use red straps only
Special case of coaxial cables
• Install the coaxial cable on the bundle in the rack.
Point the head of the cable tie on the bundle at 90 deg. from the vertical axis
of the coaxial cable added.
• Put the cable tie in an eight shape to apply the pressure equally or put silicone
tape NSA935403 or equivalent (wind around 2 times).
Try not to put the cable tie head on the coaxial cable.
• Set the wiring tool (guns) to minimum tension.

Waxed Linen or Tying Tape Ties Figure 13: Clove hitch and square knot used in spot ties of wire bundle
Wire Bundles has to be tied off with or teflon coated fiberglass tie tape (AIR-TEX).
Special knots are used to make bundle ties and group ties.
Clove hitch with square knot is the basic binding of the individual spot ties.This
knot is to be used in low vibration - low temperature areas.
Wiring shall be arranged in groups and bundles to facilitate installation and main-
tenance. Individual groups shall be spot tied.
Put additional ties on the wire harness so that a wire does not sag or the harness
does not balloon between the ties.
This knot has a tendency to move along the wire bundle in high vibration areas.
Other tying techniques are used in:
• high vibration - low temperature areas and
• high vibration - high temperature areas.
For special knots withstanding this conditions consult the maintenance manual.
Figure 12: Double Clove Hitch Installation
STEP 4:
STEP 5:
~ 6 mm
(0.236 in)

Cable Clamps Figure 15: Clamps

Primary support of wiring shall be provided by cable clamps.
Listed below are the types of clamps used to support aircraft wire bundles:
– Plastic clamps (nylon).
– Rubber clamps.
– Serrated rubber clamps.
If you deal with installations, observe following items:
• Clamps must grip the wire bundle firmly, so that movement of the wire bundle
in the clamp cannot occur during vibration in service.
• The importance of proper clamp usage and fit cannot be over emphasised.
• No wire shall be pinched in a clamp.
• Wire bundles should be tied using lacing cord at intervals between clamps.
• Clamps spacing intervals should not exceed 24 inches.
Nylon Clamps
• Nylon clamps shall only be used in areas not exceeding 120°C.
• To prevent loose parts falling in the fuel system, nylon clamps without fillers
shall be used inside tanks, no washers or spacers are permitted.
Figure 14: Nylon Clamp
Nylon Clamp
Spacer Washer
Structure

Support of Cabling Figure 16: Installation of Clamps

The cabling must be adequately supported throughout its length, and a sufficient
number of cable clamps must be provided for each run of cable to ensure that the
unsupported lengths will not vibrate unduly.
Cables must be fitted and clamped so that no tension will be applied in any circum-
stances of flight, adjustment or maintenance, and so that loops or slackness will
not occur in any position where the cables might be caught and strained by normal
movement of persons or controls in the aircraft, or during normal flying, mainte-
nance or adjustment.
Bends in cable groups should not be less than eight times the outside diameter of
the cable group. However, at terminal blocks, where the cable is suitably support-
ed at each end of the bend, a minimum radius of three times the outside diameter
of the cable, or cable bundle, is normally acceptable.
Where it is necessary for cables to flex in normal use, e.g. connections to retract-
able landing gear, the amount and disposition of slack must be strictly controlled
so that the cable is not stressed in the extended position, and that the slack will not
be fouled, chafed, kinked or caught on any projection during movement in either
direction.
Cables should normally be supported independently of, and with maximum prac-
ticable separation from, all fluid and gas carrying pipelines. To prevent contamina-
tion or saturation of the cables in the event of leakage, cables should be routed
above rather than below liquid carrying pipelines. Cables should not be attached
to, or allowed to rub against, pipelines containing flammable fluids or gases.
Wire bundles run above or alongside pipings, at least 50mm distance from lines
carrying flammable liquids such as fuel, hydraulic or oxygen etc. The minimum dis-
tance may be reduced to 15mm if the lines don’t carrying flammable fluids (e.g. hot
air, static air etc.)
Wires passing through a bulkhead must be supported at each hole by a cable
clamp. If the clearance between the wires and the edge of the hole is less than
1/4 inch, use a suitable grommet in the hole.

Examples of Tying Bundles Figure 17: Adding wires to existing wire bundles
The following illustration shows a correct and an incorrect example for a good wire
bundle installation and a wire bundle installation in a high vibration area.
To keep the electrical wiring isolated, you can use separators and spacers.
When it is mandatory to use spacers or separators, they are shown on the instal-
lation drawings.
If necessary, you can add spacers to get a correct clearance but you must keep
them to a minimum.
For essential system harnesses, you can use spacers or separators as a tempo-
rary repair only. This repair can only stay on the aircraft for certain period of time
(Refer to ESPM/ SWPM). Route the harness again (refer to the segregation rules)
at the subsequent maintenance check.

Wiring Damage Prevention Employees working on aircraft takes care to wires and cables!
Modern lightweight wires using special composite insulators like Kapton. So the Especially:
aircraft wiring is very sensitive for damaging by wrong treatment and careless – Sheet Metal Workshop staff
working in their surrounding. Following table gives you an overview of different – Composite Workshop staff
possible damages and their prevention. – Paint Shop staff
Table 1: Wire Handling
Damages caused by: Damage prevention
Mechanical damages • Tools: Paint scrappers, Knives, Drills, Screwdrivers etc. • Use correct tools.
• Bad installations of cables: Chafing to structure & components.  Work with correct application of the tool.
Too much stretched cables. Bending radius to small. • Usage of protection devices like Covers and Drillstops.
Bad or defective cable clamps. Remove cables in working area by electricians.
Agents, Liquids • Water, Acid or Lye, Solvents, Paint, Fuel, Oil, Grease. • Use safe Liquid Containers for all Agents at work.
• Unspecified adhesive Covering Tape (remainders of glue) • Covering of working area for Stripping, Cleaning and Painting.
• Cleaning of contaminated Zones and Wire Bundles with dry
Clothes and call for inspected by Specialists.
Heat Sources • Overheating and drying out of Cable Insulation • Arrange the removal of Wires located at heated places.
(Heat-Lamps) • Monitor Ambient Temperature
Foreign Parts • Sanding and grinding Dust, Drilling-Swarfs • Covering and protection of Wire-Bundles and open Connectors.
• Lost remainders of Fasteners, Screws, Washers • Cleaning of working area after completion of work.
• Forgotten Tools • Inspection and searching for lost parts and tools.
Working Employees • Stepping on Cable Bundles • Watch Your Step ! Cover open Floor with Panels !
• Using Cable Bundles as a Hand-Hold • Do not use Cable Bundle as Hand holds ! Use proper Steps.
• Hanging Lights and other Items used at work on cables. • Hang Lamps and necessary Items on Structural Points.
• Unqualified Employees working on electrical cable installations. • Call Electricians if work or inspection on Wiring is needed.

Protection of Cabling Figure 19: Protection of cable bundles

The cables are required to be protected from abrasion, mechanical strain exces-
sive heat and against the deleterious effects of fuel, oil and other aircraft fluids, wa-
ter in either liquid or vapour form and the weather.
Exposed wire bundles should be wrapped with specific insulating tape and tied
with nylon or fibreglass cord. Different tapes based on teflon, fibreglass or alumin-
ium are available.
Shrink sleeves in different sizes are used for protection of cable bundles and con-
nectors.
Mechanical protection for the wire can be provided by routing the bundles through
either a flexible or rigid conduit (tubes) or raceways.
Figure 18: Cable Raceway protecting cables in exposed areas

Cable Stripping Figure 21: Unacceptable cable damages
General
This topic gives the requirements and the miscellaneous processes to strip the
various types and gauge of electrical cables encountered on aircraft. Any crimping
or soldering operation must be preceded by the stripping of the conductor.
• The stripping operation must remove the insulation from the cable over a giv-
en length with tolerances without damaging the core strands or the shielding
and without reducing the original performance of the cable.
• The insulation must be cut clean and not start tears or unwanted untwining of
the insulating sheath.
• Stripping of a wire end implies the quasi immediate connection of the wire. Do
not store stripped cables.
Stripping Procedure
With different cable the method to strip is not the same. A difference is made be-
tween the cable that require a specific procedure due to the cable types (sin-
glecore or multicore cables, standard, screened or coaxial cables). These
characteristics can be related to the materials that make up the cable, to their spe-
cific design in the case of coaxial cables (impedance), to the type of each conduc-
tor part of the assembly in the case of specific single or multicore cables.
Figure 20: Stripping with cutter or scalpel

Figure 22: Stripping with Stripmaster tool

Wire Terminals Figure 23: Terminals
General
Pre-insulated crimp-on terminals or terminal lugs are used on all wires connected
to terminal strips. The insulation is stripped from the end of the wire, which is in-
serted into the terminal until the insulation butts up against the sleeve of the termi-
nal and the end of the wire sticks out slightly beyond the end of the sleeve. When
the terminal is crimped with a special crimping tool, the terminal sleeve grips the
wire tightly enough to make a joint that is as strong as the wire itself.
The insulation around the sleeve is crimped at the same time, so it is forced tightly
against the insulation on the wire and helps remove some of the strain from the
wire strands when the wire is subjected to movement and vibration.
NOTE:
A maximum of 4 terminals are allowed on one pillar bolt.
Wires with AWG 26 may not be pressed onto terminals.
Boeing: AMM 20-30-10
Cadmium-plated steel washers must be installed between terminals of different
materials (copper-aluminium).
The colour of the insulation on the terminal indicates the wire size the terminal is
designed to fit. A small yellow terminal fits on wire gages 24 through 22, a red ter-
minal fits wires from 20 through 18, a blue terminal fits wires from 16 through 14,
and a large yellow terminal fits wire gages 12 through 10.

Wire Splices Aluminium Wires

Only aluminium or bimetal (AlCu) terminations should be used to terminate alumin-
General ium cables and the cable should be stripped immediately prior to making the joint.
At one time it was common practice to splice wires by wrapping the ends of the The barrel of some aluminium terminations may contain a quantity of inhibiting
wires together and soldering them, but now almost all wire splicing is done with the compound, others not so filled require that inhibiting compound be applied before
proper size pre-insulated solderless splices. To install the terminals, strip the insu- crimping takes place.
lation off the ends of the wires, slip the ends of the two wires into the splice, and Some specifications also require additional sealing after crimping. The compound
crimp the splice, using the proper crimping tool. will also minimise later oxidation of the completed connection by excluding mois-
There should not be more than 3 splices in any wire segment between any two ture and air.
connections or other disconnect points. When several wires in a bundle are to be
spliced, the wires should be cut so that the splices are staggered along the bundle.
Figure 24: Splices
Staggering of splices in a bundle
Single splice
To much splices on one spot

Wire or Cable Repair with Splices Figure 25: Various Splices

Two methods to be used, crimping and solder sleeves. Large gauge wires shall be
crimp spliced. For all other wire gauges, the preferred method shall be crimp splic-
ing, using T splices, multisplices, splice sleeves or standard crimp splices. The sol-
der sleeve method shall not be used in high temperature areas. A crimp splice,
post insulated with heat-shrinkable tubing, should be used.
• The replacement of a wire is recommended over the repair of that wire with a
splice.
• All splices must be moisture resistant splices.
• A splice must not be assembled or installed:
– Under a clamp or other support.
– Inside a connector backshell or adapter.
– Inside a conduit.
– On a wire in the fuel tank
Fuselage, Wing, Pylon and Empenage

Generally, it is permissible to splice wires and tie in bundles with cord ties. Splices
shall be installed in straight sections of the wire bundle.
In high temperature areas, the splices must be protected by glassfibre sleeves.
Use therefore specified splices (waterproof glassfibre-insulated splices)
Engine Areas
Splicing is allowed in engine areas only in exceptional circumstances.
Splicing must be recorded in the Hold Item List (HIL) for next engine change.
Use therefore specified splices (High Temperature Parallel Splices)
Fuel Tanks
Splicing is not allowed in fuel tanks.
Sensitives or Safety Wires

Permanent splices are not allowed in Airbus EFCS (Electrical Flight Control
System).
These wire bundles and connectors are identified by pink labels. In the WDM they
have the character "S". In cases where the cable cannot be replaced, splicing is
permitted but must be replaced at the next C-Check.

Crimping Tools Figure 27: Hand crimping tool for small terminals
General
Crimp tools used for aircraft electrical installations may be of the following types:
1. Hand Tools -> used for smaller terminals.
2. Hydraulic and Pneumatic Tools -> used larger terminals.
Hand Tools
The hand crimp tool is typical, used for crimping of small terminals and splices.
The crimp tool is of the ratchet type, meaning once the crimping action is started,
the tool cannot be opened until completion of the crimping operation.
Hand crimping tools have colour coded handles to indicate which terminals they
can be used with.
Figure 26: Colour coding of terminal, splices and crimping tool
AWG Colour
24 - 22 Yellow
20 - 18 Red
16 - 14 Blue
12 - 10 Yellow
< 10 Blank
There is vast amount of crimping tool suitable for different applications.

Consult the appropriate manual and ask competent colleagues.

Figure 28: Crimping tools for splices and terminals

Pneumatic and Hydraulic Tools Figure 30: Hydraulic crimping tool with handpump
Larger sizes of terminal lugs, splices and connector contacts are treated with the
more powerfull crimping tools.
Figure 29: Pneumatic crimping tool with large cable terminal

Heat Shrinking Infrared Gun

Solderguns working with infrared heat are used at workbenches to manufacture
Hot Air Gun cable harnesses. Solder-sleeve-splices ca n be treated in one working step. The
Used to shrink solder-sleeve-splices and different diameters of shrink-sleeves. It diameter of the finished splice connection is very thin and reliable.
works like a hair-dryer. The air coming from the outlet can be more than 500°C. Figure 32: Infrared Solder Gun with Generator and solder sleeve splices
A special type of heatgun with pneumatic air connection and remote heat gener-
ating system is allowed to use on aircrafts.
Figure 31: Hot Air Gun with different heads and Crimp and Shrink Splices
WARNING:
BE CAREFUL WHEN YOU USE ELECTRIC TOOLS IN AREAS WHERE THERE
ARE RISKS OF EXPLOSION (FUEL TANKS, FUEL VAPOUR AREAS, ETC.).
REFER TO YOUR LOCAL REGULATIONS AND MAKE SURE THAT YOU OBEY
THEM. SOME ELECTRIC TOOLS SUCH ASHEAT GUNS, SOLDERING IRONS
AND TOOLS WITHOUT INTRINSIC PROTECTION ARE NOT PERMITTED IN
THESE AREAS.

Plugs and Receptacles Figure 34: Connector Types
Connector Removal and Installation

Connectors should be removed, installed and tightened by hand. Normally no tool
must be used. In cases of need, use a plug wrench or strap wrench.
• Note: Deutsch-connectors is a push/pull slide types.
The connector would be damaged if its slide-ring is instead of pulling twisted.
Figure 33: Connector Wrenches

Contact Arrangement Figure 35: Contact Arrangement

To identify position of contacts in aircraft connectors, letters and numbers are
used. Some examples of this are shown below.
• Connectors using numbers to identify contact position normally employ a cir-
cle to illustrate the contact running order.
• For connectors that use letters to identify contact position, both capital and
lower case letters are used.
If the connector has many contacts, the running will be as follows:
– First 23 contacts - starts "A".
– Second 24 contacts - starts "a".
– Third 23 contacts - starts "AA".
– Fourth 24 contacts - starts "aa".
• Following letters are nor present to avoid misinterpreting:
capitaI: I O Q small: l o
• Connectors using numbers to identify contact position normally employ a cir-
cle to illustrate the contact running order. Contact # 1 in centre, the circle
starts here and then encircles each contact to show each contact position.
For ease of counting, every tenth contact is circled individually.

Removal and Insertion of Wired Contacts Figure 36: Connector with Contacts
There are two basic types of contact (pin or socket) retention used in plug and re-
ceptacles connectors in aircraft, one which the contacts being released for remov-
al from the rear and one where release is from the front using the insertion/
extraction tools. Therefore, it is essential that the correct procedures and tools are
used for a particular type of plug or socket.
• Front Release - The contact is removed by pushing from the front of the con-
nector and removing from the rear.
• Rear Release - The extraction tool enters the connector from the rear of the
connector and the contact is also removed from the rear.
Multiway connectors, terminal junctions, inline single wire connectors, switches,
motors, indicators, instruments and other electrical components; all may now be
terminated by a rear release system which requires the use of a few tools and the
minimum of operator training.
Contacts crimped with a standard crimping tool are inserted and removed using a
single fail-safe plastic tool for each size of contact.
Contact Insertion and Extraction

To facilitate maintenance of connectors, their contacts, in most cases can be ex-
tended individually, manually inspected and then replaced or re-inserted.
Accompanying most manufactures connectors is the recommended contact - in-
sertion / extraction tool.
Care should be taken before contact removal to see if the contact is of the:
• Front release type.
• Rear release type.
The correct procedure for the removal and installation of contacts must always be
follow otherwise the following could result:
• Contact may be damaged.
• Wires may be broken.
• Contact insert holding spring could be damaged.

Rear Release Contacts Figure 38: Removal/Insertion

Pins or sockets are inserted and removed by a single expendable plastic tool
which is fail-safe in that mishandling will result in damage to the tool rather than to
the connector or termination modules.
The tines of the clip snap in behind the shoulder of the contact. The removal tool
displaces the tines of the clip sufficiently to allow the contact to be withdrawn rear-
wards
Figure 37: Contact retension for rear release
Contact Removal
1. Slip the removal tool (with white tip) around the wire of the contact to be ex-
tracted.
2. Slide the tool along the wire into the insulator until it buts against he shoulder
of contact.
3. Remove wire and tool together.
Contact Insertion
1. Press the conductor into the conical end of the slot with the thumb and press
the wire into the slot by moving it along the tool.
2. Under this pressure, the slot will open to accept the wire.
3. Hold the connector in one hand and insert the contact into its cavity, pushing
with the tool perpendicular to the insulator face. When contact is in place a
metallic click is audible.
4. Remove tool to the rear. Check that contact is firmly in position by pulling gen-
tly.

Front Release Contacts Figure 40: Removal/Insertion

Two separate tools are used. Make sure, that the plug is a front release type, oth-
erwise the retension mechanism inside the plug could be damaged.
Figure 39: Contact retension
Contact Removal
Note: Use the correct tool and make sure that it is in a good shape.
1. Align tool squarely insert face,
2. Push tool squarely into insert hole until it butts against insert face.
3. Holding the tool firmly, advance the slider knob so that the contact is ejected
from its seated position.
4. The contact may then be pulled free of the grommet with the hand.
Contact Insertion
1. Slip insertion tool over the wire and put it against the contact shoulder.
2. Align tool and contact axially with the grommet.
3. Guide contact carefully through grommet hole, pushing tool axially to grom-
met all times.
4. Remove tool and check that contact is firmly in position by pulling gently.

Soldering Type Connectors Figure 41: Soldering of Connector

Many of older type connectors have the wires soldered into solder pots in the end
of the pin or socket. When soldering a wire into a connector, leave about 0.8 mm
of stranded wire between the top of the solder pot and the end of the wire insula-
tion. When the solder in the connection has cooled, slip a piece of close-fitting in-
sulation tubing over the end of the connector to insulate it.
In commercial aircrafts only connectors of passenger related items like ovens are
soldered. All others are crimped.
Recommendations for soldering connector contacts.

• Arrange the contact in such a position that the solder bucket always points up-
wards.
• Use a bench vice with insulated clamp teeth to hold the connector.
• Clean the individual contacts with spirits and let them dry.
• Heat the contact bucket and fill a small amount of solder into the contact buck-
et.
• Bring the blade of the iron below the contact and place the stripped wire into
the bucket.
• Apply solder to the wire in the bucket, as soon as the solder becomes liquid
push the stripped wire in further.
• When the soldered is melted and freely flowing through the wire strands in the
contact bucket, remove the soldering iron.
• Hold the cable in position until the solder has set, make sure that the solder
does not extend outside of the bucket up toward the insulation.
• Ensure that the solder is between all the strands.
• No wire strands will be outside of the contact bucket.
After each soldering task (contact), the soldered connection should

be checked, for the following:
• The conductor strands are each covered in solder.
• No solder drop or bulge appears outside of the contact bucket.
• The soldered connection looks smooth and shiny.
• Wire insulation does not touch the contact bucket.

Coaxial Cable Connectors Figure 42: Coaxial Cable Connector Crimping

Two different manner are existent to install coaxial connectors to the cable:
• Soldering
• Crimping
Crimping
Following example shows the process performed in two steps
Contact crimping:
1. Place contact on die of crimp tool
2. Close handles just enough to hold contact in place
3. Insert center conductor into contact until dielectric touch against contact
4. Close handles until ratchet releases
Sleeve crimping:
5. Place assembled cable, connector and sleeve in crimp tool with shoulder of
connector resting against die
6. Close handles until ratchet releases
Cable Installation
To install coaxial cable, the bending radius should be 10 times the cable diameter.
Avoid hot locations like pneumatic ducts.
Cable Repair
It is not practicable to repair damaged coaxial cable.
First clarify whether or not the coaxial cable may be shortened.
(ATC, TCAS, R/A System)
If not, the cable must be replaced by a new cable of same type and length.

Figure 43: Repair of Coaxial Cable (Airbus) Figure 45: Repair of Coaxial Cable (Airbus)
TECHNICAL TECHNICAL NUMBER OF REPAIRS
TYPE SYSTEM ROUTE REQUIREMENTS NUMBER OF REPAIRS COMMENTS TYPE SYSTEM ROUTE REQUIREMENTS COMMENTS
AT ENDS (*) (ATTENUATION VALUE) AT ENDS (*)
(ATTENUATION VALUE)
UHF 1 1V 3dB AT 400MHz IT IS NECESSARY TO
IDENTIFY THE REPAIR
VHF 1 1T ON THE TWO ENDS
VHF 2 2T 5dB AT 137MHz OF THE CABLE.
VHF 3 9T THE REPAIRS MUST
AGREE WITH THESE
VOR 1 1U REQUIREMENTS:
6dB AT 118MHz
VOR 2 2U
a) EITHER 2 REPAIRS
HF 1 7T
3dB AT 30MHz MAXIMUM ON
HF 2 8T TRANSMISSION CABLE
R.ALTI 1 5T
DME 1 4T R.ALTI 2 6T 2 REPAIRS PER CABLE
5dB AT 1210MHz RECEPTION CABLE
DME 2 4T ONLY LIMITED
1 NOT LIMITED BY AVAILABLE CABLE b) OR 0 REPAIR ON
GLIDE 1/2 3U 3dB AT 332MHz
LENGTH TRANSMISSION CABLE
LOC 1/2 4U 3dB AT 112MHz
ON RECEPTION
MARKER 5U 6dB AT 75MHz CABLE
MLS 1 7U c) OR 1 REPAIR MAXIMUM
11dB AT 5GHz 2
MLS 2 6U ON RECEPTION CABLE
GPS 1 11T ON TRANSMISSION
1.5dB AT 1.6GHz
GPS 2 12T CABLE
ELT 10T 1dB AT 406MHz
AIRBONE 13T 3dB AT 30MHz IT IS NECESSARY TO
ATC 1 3T 2db ± 1db AT 1030MHz 3 REPAIRS MAXIMUM IDENTIFY THE REPAIR
BBC ON THE TWO ENDS
ATC 2 3T
OF THE CABLE.
(*) ONE REPAIR CORRESPONDS TO A DECREASE IN
CABLE LENGTH OF APPROXIMATELY 50 mm (1.9685 in) 3 REPAIRS MAX PER
CABLE (3 REPAIRS ON
EACH 4 CABLES OF
TCAS ANTENNA) WITH IT IS NECESSARY TO
Figure 44: Repair of Coaxial Cable (Airbus) TCAS 3TS 2.5db ± 0.5db AT
1030MHz
MAX DIFFERENCE IN IDENTIFY THE REPAIR
CABLE LENGTH <200mm ON THE TWO ENDS
(7.8740in) (BETWEEN OF THE CABLE.
TECHNICAL NUMBER OF REPAIRS
TYPE SYSTEM ROUTE REQUIREMENTS COMMENTS THE LONGEST AND THE
(ATTENUATION VALUE) AT ENDS (*)
SMALLEST CABLE)
SAT COM (TX) 3V (*) NOTE: ONE REPAIR CORRESPONDS TO A DECREASE IN CABLE
SAT COM (RX) 5V NOT REPAIRABLE LENGTH OF APPROXIMATELY 50mm (1.9685in)
UNLESS AUTHORIZED
IN VENDOR
DOCUMENTATION FOR
CABLE REPAIR
3
COAXIAL CABLE
SDU UNIT CONNECTION:
UNITS 1db AT 1.6GHz 1 REPAIR TO EACH
PART
AIRPHONE 4V 1.5db at 900MHz NO REPAIR PERMITTED

(TFTS) REPLACE CABLE
(*) ONE REPAIR CORRESPONDS TO A DECREASE IN CABLE

LENGTH OF APPROXIMATELY 50 mm (1.9685 in)

Pins and Sockets (Contacts) Figure 47: Crimping Tools

Each connector half has a number of pin or socket contacts held in place and in-
sulated from each other and the outer shell by means of an insert. The contacts
are removable and crimpable. Typical examples of removable contacts are illus-
trated in the figure below.
Daniels
For crimping the contact to the wire, make sure that the correct contact and crimp-
ing tool is used. Many different types shown on the right side are available.
Figure 46: Contact Types
Daniels

Connector Maintenance Treatment

Plugs and receptacles are provided to ensure a secure connection for one or more Check the condition of the connector for:
circuits. They are designed to prevent entry of moisture and to provide a positive • Corrosion
connection for a multi pin system. They are small and have light mass but may be • Disfigurement
difficult to assemble and are expensive. • Condition of Stone-Key, position of Stone-Key Cleanliness
• Disfigured contacts, contact inserted correctly.
To prevent damage, debris and moisture entry, protective caps are provided and If a bent pin is found on no account should it be straightened as it will almost cer-
should be fitted at all times other than when the connectors are being worked on tainly fracture. The pin should be removed and a new one crimped into position.
and in their assembled condition. During work protection may then be in the form
of a linen or plastic bag, totally enclosing the connector and secured to the cables.
This temporary protection should only be removed just prior to connection being Cleaning
made in the aircraft.
For the cleaning of connectors the following must be used, for all connectors on
Extreme care should be taken when handling and connecting miniature and aircraft:
sub-miniature connectors. Both plugs and sockets should be checked for any • Isopropanol
signs of dirt, bent pins or physical damage to the shells before attempting to con-
nect. If connectors will not mate, check the reason, and rectify or renew. On no ac- No other solvent cleaners are allowed. After cleaning, dry the contacts before re-
count should force by used to effect mating. connection.
Some ranges of plugs and sockets require the engaging threads to be lubricated Corrosion Protection with WD-40
with a suitable lubricant to ensure that they can readily be disconnected.
To protect connectors against corrosion, use WD-40 outside the connectors ac-
To ensure connectors always operate to the required standards, care must be tak- cording following procedure procedure:
en in the handling of connectors, whether in the disconnection and connection of • Clean and dry connector
connectors or in the maintenance of connectors.
WD-40 can be used in radio and navigation equipment connectors. 
WD-40 makes the removal of connector contacts easier.
Note: Do not use WD-40 in high temperature areas over 200 degrees.
– Engine
– APU compartment
– Pneumatic compartment
NOTE:
According standard practice manual, the use of contact cleaner spray is not any-
more allowed.

Electrical Tests Figure 48: Continuity and insulation testing

CB
General
Each time a wire is added, repaired, disconnected or reconnected, it is necessary: a
• To make sure that the wire is correctly mechanically connected to the plug or
JUMPER
terminal block module. For wires with crimp contacts, pull the wire lightly to POWER <1
LINE UNDER TEST SYSTEM
make sure the locking is correct.
SOURCE
Ω
• To do a continuity test and then do an operational or a functional test of the
related function. b
CONTINUITY TEST
Each time a connector is disconnected/reconnected:
• Do a visual check of the connector locking
• Do an operational test or a functional test of the related functions
CB
Wiring Test a
Measuring the continuity and insulation-resistance is a basic need for trouble
8
shooting electric and avionics system. POWER
SOURCE MΩ LINE UNDER TEST SYSTEM
Principle of wiring testing and trouble shooting
1. Disconnect the system from power source b
2. Disconnect all systems from the line has to be tested ISOLATION TEST
LINE TO LINE
3. Make sure that all other system are disconnected from the line
4. Test for continuity with ohmmeter, pontavi or milliohmmeter
Shorting jumper or jumper to ground simplifies the continuity test
8
CB
5. Test for insulation between the conductors of the line  MΩ
with isolation resistance ohmmeter
6. Test for insulation of the conductors against ground or cable shielding a
with isolation resistance ohmmeter POWER
SOURCE LINE UNDER TEST SYSTEM
b
ISOLATION TEST
8
MΩ LINE TO GROUND

Continuity Test Figure 49: Continuity test with extension wire

There are two methods of the continuity test of an aircraft wire:
Continuity test with an extension wire:

1. Disconnect the aircraft wire at the two ends.
2. Connect the extension wire to one end of the aircraft wire.
3. Connect the extension wire to one probe of the ohmmeter.
4. Connect the second ohmmeter probe to the second end of the aircraft wire.
5. Make sure that the current flows through the conductor (the indication on the
ohmmeter changes).
Testing Components
For trouble shooting its useful to test the resistance of bulbs, fuses, switches, re-
lays etc. to determine its functionality.

Continuity test with aircraft wire connected to a grounding point Figure 50: Continuity test with grounded aircraft wire
1. Disconnect the aircraft wire at the two ends.
2. Connect one end of the aircraft wire to a grounding point.
3. Connect one of the ohmmeter probes to the other end of the wire.
4. Connect the second ohmmeter probe to a grounding point.
5. Make sure that the current flows through the conductor (the indication on the
ohmmeter changes).

Tests for Short Circuit Figure 52: Short cirquit between wire and structure
For test for short circuit of an aircraft wire, disconnect the aircraft wire at the two
ends.
1. Test between two wires:
• Connect one of the ohmmeter probes to the wire to be tested.
• Connect the second ohmmeter probe to other wire of the connector.
2. Test between the wire and structure

• Connect one of the ohmmeter probes to one end of the aircraft wire.
• Connect the second ohmmeter probe to a grounding point.
• Make sure that the current does not flow from the conductor to the structure
(the indication on the ohmmeter does not change).
3. Perform an isolation test in the same manner (see next page)

Figure 51: Short cirquit between wires

Insulation Test Figure 53: Insulation between wire/wire and wire/structure

To avoid any damage of avionics system, make sure that all electronic com-
ponents like computers and other "blackboxes" are physically removed
from the system being testet.
Procedure
To do this test, you must connect the conductor to one probe of the Megohmmeter
that supplies 500 VDC +/- 10%. With the other probe, touch, for 25 ms, all the oth-
ers conductors commoned together with the main assembly and any other metallic
parts (braid, backshell, etc.) that are not bonded together to the return line.
The insulation test value must not be less than 20 Mohms in all temperature and
relative humidity conditions.
Do this procedure for each conductor.

Bonding and Grounding Important

• Remove surface protection from bonding areas with grade 200 emery cloth.
General • Remove oil and grease contamination from the contact areas with cleaning
agent like Trichlorethane.
Bonding • If the connection can not be made within 15 minutes apply pure mineralvase-
Bonding is the practice of connecting various aircraft components to the metal airline for surface protection against oxidation.
frame with an appropriate conductor for the purpose of eliminating the buildup of • Make sure that the ohmic resistance is correct (2 m500 m
unwanted static charges. Eliminating the buildup of unwanted static charges will with ohmmeter or bonding tester
reduce radio interference, material corrosion and the possibility of fire. • After the connection is made, apply sealants according maintenance manual.
Grounding • Incorrect bonding may cause a fire, or material corrosion.
Grounding also connects various aircraft components using appropriate wires;
however, grounding is done to provide a return path for electrical components
which are not mounted directly to the airframe metal structure. Grounding is also
performed on most ground (earth bases) equipment which comes into contact with Figure 54: Metal to metal bond joints
the aircraft. This is particularly important during fueling. If a static charge causes
an electrical spark at the fuel opening, there is an extreme fire hazard.
Primary Bonding
Primary bonding is supplied by all the conductive strucrural parts (fuselage, wings,
control surfaces, nacelles, landing gears, etc.) of the aircraft to:
• Collect high energy (as caused by lightning).
Secondary Bonding
The secondary bondings which include the other cases of conductibility related to
electrical potentials circulating in the aircraft and especially the following:
1. Current return through aircraft ground return.
2. Electrostatic potential circulation.
3. Grounding of various shieldings.
4. Electrostatic potential discharging.
5. Grounding of the aircraft.
6. Protective grounding against electric shock in case of defective insulation.

General Requirements for Bonding 12. The attaching hardware used in electrical bonding must be such that low im-
1. Non conductive finishes that must be removed from bonding surfaces before pedance conductivity and minimum corrosion effects are achieved.
conductive chemical treatment, sealing (if required) and bonding. 13. Bonding applications are divided into six classes. Each of these classes indi-
a) All paints and primer coatings. cates the specific bonding application (See next table)
b) Organic markings (crayons and dyes) and tapes.
Table 2: Application of electrical bond classes
c) Chemical treatment (anodize, Dow #17, Parkerize and Alumilite).
2. All bonding surfaces must be solvent cleaned if not assembled (mated) within Class Application Maximum DC Resistance and Path
24 hours after removal of non conductive finishes and application of conduc-
tive chemical treatments. A Antenna Installation 0.0025 Ohm through Bond
3. All surfaces where non conductive finishes have been removed and before or
after the application of a conductive chemical treatment, must be protected C Current Path Return 0.0025 Ohm from Terminal-Lug to Structure
when stored outside. Surfaces must be inspected for corrosion after outside
H Shock Hazard 0.1 Ohm from Component to Structure
storage, any corrosion must be removed, if present, before application of con-
ductive chemical treatment. L Lightning Protection 0.0025 Ohm through Bond
4. Bonding jumpers must be installed so that there is no interference with the op-
eration of movable components of the aircraft. R RF Potentials 0.0025 Ohm from Component to Structure
5. Bonding clamps must be installed so as not to crush or damage the metallic S Static Charge 1.0 Ohm from Object to Structure
conduit or tubing.
6. All prepared metal surfaces that remain exposed after assembly and applica- 14. Mating metal surfaces must have all non conductive material and treatments
tion of sealant (if required) must have the original finish paint re-applied within removed. The exposed metal surfaces must extend a maximum of 0.130 in.
48 hours after assembly. (3.302 mm) beyond the mating surfaces.
7. All faying surfaces must be smooth, flat and free from any scratches deeper 15. Attachment holes surface must have all non conductive material and treat-
than 0.010 in. (0.254 mm). ments removed before bonding. The exposed metal surfaces must extend a
NOTE: Faying surfaces are the mating areas which fit or join together. minimum of 1.25 times the diameter of the terminal lug or attachment hard-
8. Sealant fillets must not be applied to metal surfaces that are colder than 10° C ware
9. Sealant fillets must not be applied to any joint until after sufficient permanent 16. Attachment hardware carrying the current load through each interface, hard-
fasteners are installed to prevent separation of parts. ware (nuts and washers) must be cleaned on each faying surface area.
10. When installing grounding and bonding tabs or brackets which are fastened NOTE: Nuts and washers must not be abraded or sanded.
to a structure, prepare the mating surfaces to the same requirements as the 17. If radio frequency (R.F.) bond is required, the bonding connection must meet
basic structure surfaces. the electrical bonding requirements that are specified.
11. Screws and bolts must be sufficiently tightened so that the lock washer is
completely compressed.
NOTE: Do not use lock washers between electrical current carrying members,
such as between terminals or between terminals and structure.
NOTE: Do not use self tapping screws.

Bonding Jumpers Testing

Bonding is essentially the connection of the equipment to ground, normally using In general, most bonding jumpers or ground straps must have each connection
a braid or some type of flexible uninsulated wire. In some instances, the bonding made to have 0.003 ohms or less in resistance. This measurement must be taken
connection will also act as the ground connection for an electrical component. between the surface being bonded and the bonding jumper as illustrated in next
When installing bonding jumpers, be sure that they are as short as practical, and figure.
the resistance is no more than 3 milliohms (0.003 ohms). This test may be performed using an extremely sensitive ohmmeter or a bonding
If the bonding strap must also carry very much ground return current, you must be tester, and should be done any time a connection has been modified, added to or
sure there is no appreciable voltage drop across the bonding connection. temporally disconnected.
Since the bonding braid carries current, take special care to prevent its flowing Figure 56: Bonding Resistance Testing
through dissimilar metals, which would cause corrosion. Aluminium alloy jumpers
are used to connect between an aluminium alloy structure and an aluminium alloy
component. Cadmium-plated copper is used to bond stainless steel, cadmium
plated steel or brass.
If it is impossible to avoid dissimilar metal junctions, be sure to use a bonding jump-
er that is more susceptible to corrosion than the structure it is bonding. Before con-
necting a jumper to an anodized aluminium alloy part, remove the oxide coating
that protects the metal, as this coating is an insulator. After the connection is
made, apply an appropriate protective coating.
If the component that is bonded is shock-mounted, be sure there is sufficient slack
in the bonding braid that it will not be under a strain when the unit flexes to the max-
imum extent allowed by the shock mounts.
Figure 55: Bonding jumper over Shockmount

Training Manual 7.8 Riveting
7.8 Riveting

The Rivet Joint Layout of Rows and Rivets

Rivets are necessary for fastening two or more pieces of metal together. The metal It is important when making a riveted repair that the rivet be installed in such a way
pieces to be joined have holes of the proper size drilled through them. The shank that it will develop the maximum strength of the repair. To get this strength, we
of the rivet is inserted through these holes and a bucked head is formed on the end must consider not only the relationship between the strength of the rivet and the
opposite the manufactured head. With rivets it is possible to transfer two different sheet, but we must space the rivets so the holes will not weaken the joint.
kinds of load from one sheet of metal to the another sheet of metal.
Edge Distance
Figure 1: Rivet Joint
It is important when installing a row of rivets that they be placed neither too close
to the edge of the sheet nor too far away. If they are too close to the edge, the
Manufactured Head sheet is likely to tear, but if they are too far back, the edge of the sheet will lift. The
normally accepted practice is to place the centre of the hole no closer than two di-
ameters from the edge and no further back than four diameters. A good rule is to
place the centre of the holes about two and one-half diameters back from the edge
of the sheet.
Driven Head Pitch
The distance between adjacent rivets in a row is called the pitch of the rivets. In
order that the sheet not be weakened by too many holes in a row, the adjacent riv-
ets should be no closer than three diameters to each other. And to prevent the
sheet buckling between rivets, they should be no further apart than ten to twelve
diameters.
Gauge or Transverse Pitch

The distance between the rows of rivets in a multi-row layout should be about 75%
of the pitch, and the rivets in adjacent rows should be staggered.
Rivet Layout
For example: lets assume that we want to join two 3 3/4" straps of 0.040” sheet
aluminium alloy with 11 MS20470AD4-4 rivets. We immediately see that we will
need more than one row of rivets, because for one row, the spacing would be so
close that the joint would be weakened. We can use two rows with six rivets in the
first row and five in the second. First, mark off the edge distance of two and one-
half diameters, or 5/16" from the end of the sheet. Mark this with a soft lead pencil
so you will not scratch the metal. Measure in 5/16" from both edges of the sheet
along this line to locate the end rivets so they will have the proper edge distance
from both the end and the sides. Mark both of these locations with a prick punch.
Then with a pair of dividers, divide the distance between these two locations into

five equal spaces. This gives us the location of the six rivets for our first row. These Please notice that the
rivets will be 5/8" apart, which is five diameters and is well within the allowable holes made by drills are
spacing of between 3D and 12D. usually three or four thou- Burrs or Chips
The gauge, or distance between the rows, should be about 75% of the pitch and, sandths of an inch larger
from a too small
in this case, will be 0.468”; to be practical, though, 0.50 (1/2") will be entirely ade- than the diameter of the
rivet. This allows the rivet Hole
quate. Mark a line across the strap 1/2" from the first row of rivets and locate the
five holes needed on this line. These holes should be centred between the rivets to be slipped in place with-
in the first row. Mark the location of all of the rivet holes with a prick punch. out forcing it and scraping
the protective oxide coat-
Figure 2: Two-row splice ing off the shank. The
clearance is small enough
that, in the process of driving the rivet, the shank will swell up enough to complete-
ly fill the hole and make a good tight joint.
Drilling the Hole

Most rivet holes in aircraft structures are drilled with a hand-held drill motor that is
1/2" operated either electrically or with air. In most shops, air drills are favoured. The
speed of all air drills may be controlled by the amount we pull the trigger, and some
5/16" electric drill motors have a built-in speed control. This is very handy as it allows us
to start the drill at a slow speed and then use full speed to cut the hole. When you
select the correct size drill for the rivet, examine the point to be sure that it is prop-
5/8" Typ
2-1/2 D 5/16"
erly ground and is sharp. Put it in the chuck and tighten it with a proper fitting chuck
key. Mark the location for the hole with a centre punch and make the indentation
just large enough for the drill to start cutting. Too small a mark will allow the drill to
walk, and too heavy a blow on the punch will distort the metal. Allow the point of
the drill to go all of the way through the metal, but do not allow the chuck to touch
the work, as it will damage it.
Deburring the Hole

Hole Preparation When aluminium alloys are drilled, they usually leave sharp burrs on the edge of
the hole, and unless these are removed, the pieces will not fit together closely
Drill Size enough to give us a good riveted joint.
The twist drills used for aircraft sheet metal work are most generally of the number A good tool to remove the burrs from a hole is a countersink cutter held in a file
and letter sizes, rather than the fractional sizes commonly used in other forms of handle. You must keep in mind when burring a hole that you do not want to coun-
mechanical work. Most of the rivets used in sheet metal work are between 3/32" tersink it, just cut the burrs off of the edges.
which is the smallest rivet generally allowed in aircraft structure, to 3/8" in diame-
ter. Rather than using rivets larger than 3/8”, some other form of fastener is nor-
mally used.

Figure 3: Deburring the Hole shaft. Pilots are available for all of the popular rivet sizes and the shank of all of
the pilots are the same. Because of this, one cutter will work for all size rivets: you
need only replace the pilot to countersink holes of different sizes. The body and
stop fit over the cutter shaft and may be held still while the cutter is driven by the
drill motor.
Adjust the countersink to cut the proper depth by using a piece of scrap metal the
thickness of the top sheet being riveted. Drill some holes the size used for the rivet
and adjust the stop of the countersink by screwing it up or down on the body and
locking it with the locknut. Hold the stop with one hand and run the countersink into
a hole until the fibre collar touches the sheet, and then take it out. Slip the proper
rivet into the hole. It should fit so its top is flush with the skin. When the stop is ad-
justed and the, Locknut is tightened against it, the countersink should cut all of the
Hole Preparation for Flush Rivets holes to a uniform depth. When using it, be sure to keep the stop from spinning
It is extremely important for high-speed aircraft that the skin and marking the metal.
be as smooth as possible. In order to have the rivet heads at
flush with the surface, we must prepare the skin by either cut- Figure 4: Stop Countersink
ting away a portion of the metal to match the taper of the rivet
head, or by bending, or forming, the edges of the hole to fit the
rivet head. The flush rivet used in modern aircraft has mostly
a head angle of 100°.
Countersinking
If the top sheet of the metal being joined is thicker than the tapered portion of the
rivet head, the material should be countersunk; that is, it should be cut with a ta-
pered cutter. The thinnest material that can be countersunk for the various rivets
is given here:
Rivet Diameter Minimum Skin Thickness

3/32" 0.032”
1/8" 0.040”
5/32” 0.051"
3/16” 0.064”
A standard countersink can be used in a drill motor, but the difficulty in cutting the
hole to the correct depth makes this tool impractical when you have more than one
or two holes to countersink.
The stop countersink is used far more than the standard countersink. A cutter shaft
fits into the chuck of an air or electric drill motor, and the cutter, screws onto this

Dimpling Figure 5: Radius Dimpling

If the skin is too thin to countersink, the edges of the hole may be formed to ac-
commodate the head of the rivet by using a set of dimpling dies. There are two
methods of dimpling sheet metal: coin dimpling which forges, or coins, the metal
into the dies and radius dimpling, which folds the material down to form the dimple.
There is no sharp break at the edge of a radius dimple.
Coin Dimpling
In coin dimpling, the male die fits
through the rivet hole in the material
and the coining ram in the female ex-
erts a controlled pressure on the under-
side of the hole while the male die is
forced into the upper side. The pres-
sure on the dies coins, or forges the
edges of the hole to exactly fit the
shape of the dies. Coin dimpling gives
the hole sharply defined edges that al-
most resemble machine countersink-
ing. Both the top and the bottom of the
dimple are formed to a 100” angle so
dimples may be stacked, or nested.
Radius Dimpling
In this form of dimpling, the pilot on the
male die is passed through the hole in
the material and the male die is pressed into the female die. The dimple formed in
this way does not have parallel sides, as the lower side has an angle greater than Hot Dimpling
100°. So these dimples cannot be nested unless the radius dimple is used only as Magnesium and some of the harder aluminium alloys such as 7075 cannot be suc-
the bottom member of the stack. Radius dimpling is done because its equipment cessfully cold dimpled, as the material is so brittle it will crack when the dimple is
is smaller than that needed for coin dimpling and can be used in locations where formed. To prevent this cracking, the material is heated as the dimpling is done.
coin dimpling cannot. The equipment for hot dimpling is similar to that used for either coin or radius dim-
pling except that the dies are heated. The material is put in place and heat and
pressure are applied. The heat from the dies transfers into the metal and softens
it, then the pressure is increased to form the dimple and the pressure is released.
The amount of heat and the time the heat is applied, or the dwell time, is carefully
controlled to prevent destroying the temper condition of the metal being dimpled.

Stacking of Sheets for Flush Riveting eted joint, always choose a rivet whose shear strength is near to, but slightly Iess
than the bearing strength of the metal sheet.
The proper preparation of the holes for flush riveting depends upon the thickness
of the sheets being joined. If the top sheet is thick enough to be countersunk, the If two sheets of 0.040 aluminium alloy are riveted together with 1/8-inch 2117T riv-
substructure, or lower skins, need nothing more than to have the holes drIlled for ets and the joint is loaded until it fails, it will fail in shear. The rivets will shear and
the rivet. But if the top skin is too thin to be countersunk, it must be dimpled and the sheets of metal will be undamaged. We know this because the shear strength
the bottom skin either countersunk or dimpled. The top skin must be coin dimpled of 1/8-inch 2117T rivets is 331 pounds (Table 1 on page 6) and the bearing
so the bottom of the dimple will fit into the 100° inside angle of the dimple or coun- strength for 0.040 aluminium alloy sheet for a 1/8-inch rivet is 410 pounds (Table 2
tersink in the lower skin. on page 7). If the same size higher strength 2024T rivets were used in this joint,
the sheet would tear at the rivet holes because the shear strength of the rivet is
Figure 6: Stacking 429 pounds, which is greater than the 410 pound bearing strength of the sheet.
Table 1: Shear Strength (pounds)

Top skin countersunk, bottom skin drilled
Rivet Diameter of Rivet (inch)
Alloy
3/32 1/8 5/32 3/16 1/4
Top skin coin dimpled, bottom skin countersunk 2117T 186 331 518 745 1.325
2017T 206 368 573 828 1.472
2024T 241 429 670 966 1.718

Top skin coin dimpled, bottom skin dimpled
(coin or radius) Shear strength of aluminium alloy rivets in a single-shear joint. 
Double shear strength is approximately twice that shown in the chart 
(Figure 7 on page 7).
Selection of the proper Rivet
When we make a repair to an aircraft structure, we must restore it to the condition
of structural integrity and aerodynamic shape that was needed for its original cer-
tification. And the easiest way to be sure that our repair meets these criteria is to
match the manufacturer’s methods and use the same material he used. When we
choose a rivet for a particular repair, we must match the shear strength of the rivet
with the bearing strength of the material we are riveting. These two values should
be very nearly the same.
Bearing and Shear Strength

A riveted joint in a piece of sheet aluminium alloy must be designed so it will fail by
the rivet shearing rather than the sheet of metal tearing. By using charts, you can
determine whether a riveted joint will fail in shear or bearing. When designing a riv-

Table 2: Bearing Strength (pounds) The length are measured only on the cylindrical shank for universal head rivets. In
the case of countersunk-head rivets, the length is given to include the head of the
Sheet Diameter of Rivet (inch) rivet. 
thickness The diameter of a rivet is standardised in 1/32”. The rivet lengths are graduated by
3/32 1/8 5/32 3/16 1/4 1/16” increments.
Figure 8: Measuring using the Grip Scale
0.020 153 205 256 307 410
0.025 192 256 320 384 512
0.032 245 328 409 492 656
0.040 307 410 512 615 820
0.051 391 522 653 784 1.045
0.064 492 656 820 984 1.312

Figure 9: Rivet Head and Upset-Head Sizes
Bearing strength of 2024-T3 aluminium alloy sheet.
D D
Figure 7: Types of riveted Joints
T L
Single Shear Double Shear

≅ 0.5D
≅ 1.5D
Determining the Total Length of a Rivet
When determining the total length of a rivet for installation, the combined thickness ≅ 1.5D
of the material to be joined must be known. This measurement is known as grip The following tables shows you the required Upset-head dimensions.
length. The total length of the rivet should be equal to grip length plus the amount
of rivet shank necessary to form a proper shop head (Upset-head). This is approx-
imately 1.5 x of the rivet shank.
In our example, if we are joining two pieces of 0.040” metal with a 1/8" rivet, we
will need one that is 0.2675” long (0.040” + 0.040” + 0.1875” = 0.2675”). The near-
est standard rivet to this is a 1/4" (0.250”).

Rivet Installation Compression Riveting

When there are a large number of rivets to be driven along the edge of a sheet or
In addition to the proper preparation of the hole for the rivet, the strength of a riv-
in a stringer, a compression, or squeeze, riveter can reduce the time require and
eted joint is determined by the way the rivets are driven. Essentially, they should
will produce a far more uniform row of rivets than can be driven by a rivet gun and
be driven with as few blows as possible so the materials will not work-harden and
bucking bar.
crack.
A squeeze riveter consists of a pair of jaws, one stationary and the other moved
Hand Riveting by a piston in an air cylinder. A dolly with a cup that fits the rivet head is put into
the stationary jaw and a flat dolly is fitted with a movable jaw. When the handle is
Almost all rivets are driven with either a rivet gun or squeeze riveter, but there are depressed or the trigger is pulled, air flows into the cylinder and squeezes the jaws
times when building small components that it is convenient to drive a rivet by hand. together.
A bucking bar with the proper cupped de- Shims placed between the jaws and the dollies control the separation of the dollies
pression in its head is clamped in a vice
at the end of the piston stroke, and this determines the height of the shop head
with the cup upward. The rivet is put formed on the rivet. The number of shims needed is determined by trial and error,
through the holes in the metal and the using scrap material of the same thickness as that to be riveted. Once the dollies
rivet head is put in the cup of the bucking
are adjusted, all of the rivets will have exactly the same height and diameter. The
bar. A draw set is slipped over the rivet smooth compressive pressure used to upset the rivet will have a minimum strain-
shank and tapped lightly with the ham- hardening effect on it.
mer to draw the sheets of material tightly
together. Now, hold the hand set on the Figure 10: Squeezers
top of the rivet shank so it is perfectly
straight up and hit it sharply with the
hammer. Be sure to use the hand set
rather than striking the rivet directly with
the hammer. Upset the shank with as few
blows as possible to prevent work-hard-
ening it.

Gun Riveting Figure 11: Rivet Gun

Hand riveting and compression riveting are used for special conditions, but most
of the rivets used in aircraft construction are driven by a reciprocating air hammer,
more commonly called a rivet gun.
Types of Rivet Guns

There are a number of different types of guns used, but these can be divided into
two basic categories: fast-hitting, short-stroke guns which produce light blows, and
guns with long strokes that produce heavy blows. The fast-hitting guns are usually
used for 3/32" or 1/8" rivets and the bodies of these guns are made of aluminium
alloy castings so they are light enough that the user will not be fatigued after using
the gun all day. The long-stroke gun may be of either the slow-hitting reciprocating
type, or it may be a one-shot gun that drives the rivet set only one blow each time
the trigger is pulled. These guns are used to drive the larger rivets and are much
heavier than the fast-hitting gun.
When the trigger, or throttle, as it is sometimes called, is pulled, air enters the slid-
ing valve and drives the piston forward against the stem of the rivet set. When the
piston reaches the end of its stroke, a port is uncovered by the valve that directs
air to the forward end of the piston and moves it back so it can get air for another
driving stroke. As long as the trigger is held down, the gun will reciprocate, or ham-
mer, on the rivet set. A regulator either built into the handle of the gun or in the
hose restricts the flow of air into the gun. If the regulator is wide open, the gun will
hit hard and fast, but by restricting the airflow, you can make the gun hit slower and Rivet Sets
softer. There must be a rivet set for each rivet size
A rivet gun can be severely damaged if the trigger is pulled when there is no rivet and each rivet head style. Fortunately, the
set in the gun, or if the set is not pressed tightly against either a rivet or a piece of universal head rivet can be used to replace
scrap wood. Without the proper restraint, the piston will be damaged. almost any protruding head rivet, and so a
technician will rarely need more rivet sets
than those that fit the various sizes of a uni-
versal head. It is important when selecting
a rivet set for the job that you use the cor-
rect size. The radius of the depression in
the set must be larger than that of the rivet
head so the force of the blow will be con-
centrated at the centre of the rivet head
rather than on the side. If the set is too large, it will produce small indentations in
the skin around the rivet head. These are called “smiles” and must be avoided. If
the set is too small, it will produce a similar type of mark on the head of the rivet.

Not only must the rivet set have the correct size and shape of depression, but it In Figure 13 on page 10, we see several of the more commonly used shapes of
must fit squarely on the rivet head. Because the structure inside an aircraft some- bucking bars, along with a chart to indicate the weight of the bucking bar best suit-
times makes it difficult to align the gun exactly with the rivet, rivet sets are made in ed for the various diameters of rivets.
many lengths and shapes; some straight, some having a single offset, and some Bucking bars must be polished and free from any scratches or tool marks that
even having two offsets. Be sure to use a rivet set that will allow you to direct the would be impressed on the upset end of a rivet.
blows from the gun straight in line with the rivet.
Figure 13: Bucking Bars
Figure 12: Rivet Sets
Bucking Bars Direct and Indirect Riveting

A rivet is actually driven, not by the rivet gun, but by the bucking bar. This hardened Direct riveting means that the bucking bar is placed against the manufactured rivet
and polished steel bar is held against the end of the rivet shank and pressure is head and impact is applied to the shank to upset the rivet. Indirect riveting, on the
applied as the gun vibrates the rivet against the bar. The position of the bucking other hand, means that the shank is backed up and impact is applied to the man-
bar is critical in the formation of the shop head, or bucked head. If the bar is tipped ufactured rivet head. 
slightly, the rivet will dump over and not form a concentric head. If too much pres- The indirect method has only one advantage, but a big one: 
sure is held on the bar or if the bar is too large, the shop head will be driven too The first impact drives in the rivet and ensures that the manufactured rivet head
thin. If the bar is too small or is not held tightly enough, the hammering of the rivet seats flush on the structure surface. This advantage has made indirect riveting the
gun will distort the skin. dominant method today, because elimination of gaped rivet head is of great impor-
There are many sizes and shapes of bucking bars used in aircraft maintenance, tance. These diminish durability, reliability and strength of the rivet joint. However,
and yet each job presents the challenge of finding a bar that will clear the structure the method also brings some disadvantages: 
and fit squarely on the end of the rivet shank. With heavy structures, indirect riveting may be very difficult, sometimes impossi-
ble. This method requires the entire structure and the rivet to be moved to the
bucking bar. More energy is consumed and riveting efficiency is reduced. In a nor-
mal, indirect application, approximately two thirds of the impact energy is diverted

to the structure, and only one third is utilized to upset the shank. To avoid the rivet Table 3: Upset Head Dimensions for A, AD, DD and B Rivets
being cold worked and brittle with less strength as a consequence, few but power-
ful impacts are required. Therefore the indirect method sometimes requires more Nominal Upset Diameter (d) Upset Height (H)
powerful riveting tools than the direct method. As hand riveting is certain to remain Diameter (D)
the dominant method in the foreseeable future, and with operators likely to be ex-
minimum maximum minimum maximum
posed to noise and vibration during the major part of their working life, it is neces-
sary to reduce or eliminate these problems through still another approach- inch mm inch mm inch mm inch mm inch mm
redesigning the riveting tools. 3/32 2.50 .125 3.18 .156 3.96 .031 0.79 .062 1.57
1/8 3.25 .156 3.96 .203 5.16 .047 1.19 .078 1.98
Evaluating the Rivet
5/32 4.00 .203 5.16 .265 6.73 .047 1.19 .109 2.77
In the process of developing your skill in riveting, you will drive some rivets improp-
3/16 4.80 .234 5.94 .312 7.92 .063 1.60 .125 3.18
erly, and a good technician must be able to identify those that are good and those
that are not, and know the cause of improperly driven rivets. 1/4 6.40 .312 7.92 .423 10.7 .078 1.98 .172 4.37
A properly formed shop head is one-half the shank diameter high, its diameter is 5/16 7.90 .391 9.93 .515 13.1 .108 2.74 .203 5.16
one and one-half times that of the shank, and it is concentric with the hole. 3/18 9.50 .469 11.9 .625 15.9 .125 3.18 .250 6.35
Table 3 on page 11 and Table 4 on page 11 shows the required Upset-head di-
Table 4: Upset Head Dimensions for D, Stainless steel, monel and A-286
mensions.
Rivets
Figure 14: Rivet Head and Upset-Head Sizes
Nominal Upset Diameter (d) Upset Height (H)
D D Diameter (D)
minimum maximum minimum maximum
T L
inch mm inch mm inch mm inch mm inch mm
3/32 2.50 .125 3.18 .140 3.56 .047 1.19 .063 1.60
1/8 3.25 .156 3.96 .187 4.75 .063 1.60 .078 1.98
5/32 4.00 .203 5.16 .234 5.94 .078 1.98 .109 2.77
≅ 0.5D 3/16 4.80 .234 5.94 .281 7.14 .094 2.39 .125 3.18
≅ 1.5D
1/4 6.40 .312 7.92 .375 9.53 .125 3.18 .172 4.37
≅ 1.5D 5/16 7.90 .391 9.93 .569 14.5 .156 3.96 .203 5.16
3/8 9.50 .469 11.9 .562 14.3 .187 4.75 .250 6.35
The manufactured head of the rivet must be perfectly flat against the metal. If you
can slip a thin feeler gauge blade between the manufactured head and the skin,
the rivet must be removed and the cause of the improper fit determined. The rivet
may be cocked in its hole by a small burr (Figure 15 on page 12).

Figure 15: Evaluation the Rivet either use a pin punch the size of the drill to pry the head off, or you may tap it light-
ly with a cape chisel to knock the head off of the shank.
Back up the side of the skin near the shop head with a bucking bar or a piece of
wood. Gently drive the rivet out, using a pin punch slightly smaller than the shank.
When the rivet is out, examine the hole, and if it is not elongated, another rivet of
the same size may be used as a replacement. If the hole is damaged, pass a drill
that is correct for the rivet of the next size larger through the hole and install the
larger rivet, If you must use a larger rivet, be sure that the pitch, gauge, and edge
distance values are all satisfactory.
Removal of Rivets
Removal of Bad Rivets

If a rivet has been improperly driven, it should be removed and a new one installed
To remove a rivet, lightly indent the centre of the manufactured head with a centre
punch. Be sure to back up the shop head with a bucking bar when you centre
punch it so you will not distort the skin. Use a drill whose diameter is slightly small-
er than the rivet shank and drill just through the manufactured head. Now, you may

Training Manual 7.9 Pipes and Hoses
7.9 Pipes and Hoses

Fabricating Rigid Tubing Tube Bending

Thin-wall tubing must be bent carefully to prevent it collapsing in the bend.
When it is necessary to replace a rigid fluid line, the technician may either secure
Figure 2 shows an example of a good bend and three examples of bends that are
a replacement tube assembly from the aircraft manufacturer, or fabricate the re-
not satisfactory. The tubing in the bend is often deformed, and the bend is not sat-
placement in the shop. Most shops are equipped with the necessary tools to fab-
isfactory if its small diameter is less than 95% of the outside diameter of the
ricate replacement lines, and the technician should be familiar with their operation,
straight tubing.
and limitations.
Thin-wall tubing that is to be bent with many complex bends is often filled with a
Tube Cutting special metal alloy that melts at a temperature lower than that of boiling water to
prevent it collapsing in the bends. After the tubing is bent, it is placed in a vat of
It is important that metal tubing be cut with a square end that is free of burrs. A fine- boiling water, and the metal melts out and is used again. In the event the special
tooth hacksaw blade can be used, but it is much better if a special tubing cutter
alloy is not available, the tubing can be filled with clean sand and the ends plugged
such as the one seen in Figure 1 is used. Place the tubing in the cutter and turn with wooden plugs. When using sand, it is extremely important, of course, that
the knob on the handle to bring the cutting wheel up snugly against the tubing at every trace of the sand be removed before the tubing is installed in the aircraft.
the location the tubing is to be cut. Rotate the cutter around the tubing and then
turn the knob to move the cutting wheel in. Continue to rotate the cutter around the Tubing with an outside diameter of 1/4 inch or less may be bent by hand without
tubing, advancing the cutter in with each rotation until the tubing is cut. Be careful collapsing in the bend, and soft aluminium alloy and copper tubing may be bent by
not to screw the cutting wheel in too tightly, as it will deform the tubing or cause an placing it in a special coil of spring steel that prevents flattening.
excessive burr to form inside. Aircraft maintenance shops often have large table-mounted benders that prevent
After the tubing is cut, carefully use a knife or the deburring blade on the cutter to the tubing from collapsing in the bend by placing a mandrel, or a smooth, round-
remove any burrs or raised metal resulting from the cutting operation. If the tubing end bar inside the tubing in such a way that it is always at the point the bend is
is to be flared, the cut end should be polished with fine abrasive paper to remove being made. The tubing is bent around a radius block so that the bend is smooth
any sharp edges that could cause the tubing to crack. and has the correct radius.
Figure 1: Wheel Type Tubing Cutter Figure 2: Correct and Incorrect Tubing Bends
good bad bad bad
perfect bend flattened bend wrinkled bend kinked bend

7.9.005
Tubing up to 3/4 inch in diameter may be bent with hand benders as in Figure 3
on page 3. Choose the proper size bender and raise the slide bar upward. Place
the tubing in the radius block with the location of the beginning of the bend at the
0” mark, and drop the clip over the tubing to hold it securely while the bend is being
made. Rotate the slide bar down over the tubing, and the incidence mark on the
bar will coincide with the 0” on the radius block. Force the tubing around the radius

block with the slide bar until the incidence mark aligns with the degree mark on the Figure 3: Using a hand operated Tubing Bender
radius block for the desired degrees of bend.
Incidence mark
Thin-wall tubing installed in aircraft fluid systems must not be bent with a bend ra-
dius smaller than shown in Table 1 on Page 3. The bend radius in this table is Slide bar
measured to the center line of the tubing.
Table 1: Minimum Bend Radius
Tubing OD (inches) Minimum Bend Radius (inches) Tubing
Aluminium Alloy Steel Radius

block
1/8 3/8 Clip
3/16 7/16 21/32
1/4 9/16 7/8
5/16 3/4 1 1/8
3/8 15/16 1 5/16

Incidence mark coincides
1/2 1 1/4 1 3/4 with zeri mark on radius block
5/8 1 1/2 2 3/16
3/4 1 3/4 2 5/8
1 3 3 1/2
Springback
90˚ mark
The material along and on either side of the neutral axis or centerline is not
stretched or compressed as much as the material in the extrados and intrados ar-
eas, which have been stretched and compressed. The centreline material , there-
fore, is trying to return to its original shape, yet it is constrained by the unyielding
material on either side. A bend of 90˚
The effect of this is noticed immediately when the clamp and/or pressure die is re- done as shown
tracted. The pipe tends to straighten out slightly, and this is what is referred as in the above
springback. steps

Methods of Joining Rigid Tubing ameter. To use this tool, the dies are rotated until the two halves of the correct size
are aligned and the tube is inserted against the stop.
Sections of rigid tubing may be joined to another tube, or to a fitting, by any of sev- The dies are clamped together and then a lubricant is placed on the flaring cone.
eral methods, including; single and double-flares, flareless connectors, or a hose The flaring cone is turned into the end of the tube. Rollers in the cone burnish the
and clamps over a beaded tube. We will examine each of these and detail the pro- metal as it is expanded into the die, and a smooth flare results. When the flare is
cedure necessary to prepare the tube for connection. formed sufficiently, the handle is reversed and the dies released, the tube can be
removed from the tool.
Tube Flaring and Flared Fittings
Much of the rigid tubing used in modern aircraft is joined, or connected, to the com- Figure 4: Flared Tubing
ponents by flaring at the ends of the tube and using flare-type fittings. The actual Single Flare Double Flare
sealing is done by the close fit between the inside of the flared tube and the flare
cone of the fitting. These two surfaces must be absolutely clean and free from
cracks, nicks, and scratches. Aircraft fittings have a flare angle of 37º and are not
interchangeable with automotive type fittings, which have a flare angle of 45º.
There are two types of flares used in aircraft plumbing systems; the single flare
and the double flare. These two types are shown in Figure 4. The flare provides
the sealing surface, but is also subject to extremely high pressures and must be
properly formed to prevent leaks or failures.
A flare which is made too small will produce a weak joint, which may leak or pull
apart. If the flare is too large it may interfere with the installation of the nut, and
result in leakage. A common mistake is overtightening a leaky fitting. If the fitting
leaks when properly torqued, inspect the flare and the fitting components for prop-
er manufacture and assembly and for mechanical damage.
Single Flare
A single flare may be formed on a piece of rigid tubing with either am impact-type
flaring tool, or one having the rolling action of the flaring cone.
To form a flare using an impact type flaring tool, the tube must be cut squarely and
the ends polished. Before the tube is flared, a B-nut and sleeve are slipped over
the end. The tube should be clamped between the halves of the vice block with
only about 1/16 inch of the tube sticking above the blocks. The blocks are clamped
in a vice and the pipe-type flaring tool is driven into the tube with a few light blows
of a hammer. It is important that as few blows as possible are used, as to many
light blows will work-harden the tubing.
Rolling-type flaring tools are quite popular in aviation maintenance shops because
they are entirely self-contained and it is easy to make a good flare with this type of
tool. The tool pictured in Figure 4 will flare tubing from 1/8 to 3/4 inch outside di-

Double Flare Flared Tube End Fittings

Soft aluminium tubing having an outside diameter of 1/8-3/8 inch may be double- There are two types of nuts that may be used on a flared tube; the singlepiece
flared to provide a stronger connection to the fitting. A double-flare is smoother AN817 nut and the two-piece AN818 nut and AN819 sleeve.
and concentric than a single flare, resulting in a better seal. It is also more resist- The AN817 nut cannot be used on tubing where there is a bend near the end. The
ant to the shearing effect of torque. AN818 nut and AN819 sleeve combination is the preferred type of connector be-
To double-flare a piece of tubing, cut it off in the same way as was done for a single cause it lessens the possibility of reducing the thickness of the flare by the wiping
flare, remove all of the burrs and polish the end. Insert the tubing into the flaring or ironing action when the nut is tightened. With the twopiece fitting, there is no
die to the depth allowed by the stop pin and then clamp the dies. Insert the upset- relative motion between the fitting and the flare when the nut is being tightened.
ting tool into the die and, with as few blows of the hammer as possible, upset the
tubing. Then insert the flaring tool and strike it with the hammer to fold the metal Figure 6: Flared Tube End Fittings
down into the tubing and form the double flare.
Figure 5: Double Flaring
AN 817 Nut AN818 Nut AN819 Sleeve Assembled

AN 818 - 819 Fitting
MS Flareless Fittings
The fluid lines used in some of the high-pressure hydraulic and pneumatic systems
are so hard they are difficult to flare without cracking, so a system of flareless fit-
tings has been developed. These fittings as shown in Figure 7 on page 6 consist
of a body, a sleeve, and a nut. The actual seal is between the outside of the sleeve
and the inside of the body.

Figure 7: MS Flareless Fitting Presetting MS Flareless Fitting

Preset Tool or 1. Cut the tubing to the correct length, with the ends perfectly square. Deburr the
inside and outside of the tube. Slip the nut on first, and then slide the sleeve
Connector Fitting Nut Sleeve Tube over the end of the tube.
2. Lubricate the threads of the presetting tool and nut with hydraulic fluid. Place
the tool in a vice, and hold the tubing firmly and squarely on the seat of the
tool. The tube must bottom firmly in the tool. Tighten the nut until the cutting
edge of the sleeve grips the tube. This point is determined by slowly turning
the tube back and forth while tightening the nut. When the tube no longer
turns, the nut is ready for its final tightening.
3. Final tightening depends upon the tubing. For aluminium alloy tubing up to
and including 1/2-inch OD, tighten the nut from 1 to 1 1/6 turns. For steel tub-
ing and aluminium alloy tubing over 1/2 inch OD, tighten from 1 1/6 to 1 1/2
turns.
Figure 8: Presetting a Flareless Tube Fitting
Sleeve Properly Bowed
Sleeve Cuting Edge
MS flareless fittings are attached to the end of the metal tubing by presetting the
sleeve on the tube. Presetting puts enough pressure on the fitting to deform the
sleeve and cause it to cut into the outside of the tube.

Figure 9: Characteristics of a properly preset Sleeve HMS Fitting

An HMS fitting is a modified and improved MS fitting.
Figure 10: Harrison Fitting.
1. The cutting lip of the sleeve should be embedded into the tube OD between
0.003 and 0.008 inch, depending upon the material (A).
2. A lip of material will be raised under the pilot (B).
3. The pilot of the sleeve should contact or be quite close to the outside diameter
of the tube (C).
4. The tube projection from the sleeve pilot (D) should be between 7/64 inch for
No. 2 tubing to 9/32 for No. 32 tubing.
5. The sleeve should be bowed slightly (E), and the sleeve may rotate on the Metal Seal Fitting
tube and have a maximum lengthwise movement of 1/64 inch.
There are many types of metal-seal fittings: unions, reducers and plugs. It is nec-
6. The sealing surface (F) of the sleeve which contacts the 24° angle of the fitting essary that the metal-seal fitting touches against the surface of the boss to seal
body seat should be smooth and free from scores. There should be no evi- correctly. The new metal-seal fittings have an O-Ring and a backup ring. The met-
dence of any lengthwise or circular cracks. al-seal fittings with the secondary seal are identified by notches on the edges of
When installing the fitting in an aircraft hydraulic system, tighten the nut by hand the hex flats.
until resistance is felt, and then turn it 1/6 to 1/3 of a turn (one hex to two hexes)
with a wrench. Overtightening a fitting to stop a leak will damage the fitting and will Figure 11: Metal Seal Fitting
probably cause the leak to become worse.
Notch
Backup
Washer
Ring
O-Ring
O-Ring
(Seconadry
Seal)

Inspections Tube Damages

Following damages to thin wall ducts is cause for rejection:
Damage Limitations • Scratches and curs with depth in excess of 10 % of wall thickness.
These limitations are too be used as a general guide. Limitations are given in the • Sharp dents in excess of 1/8 inch in depth where surface of metal is scratched
manufacturers maintenance manual. or broken.
Nicks scratches chafing galling or fretting damage not exceeding these limitations • Bend wrinkles in excess of 3/64 inch unless otherwise specified.
may be repaired by polishing out the damage area using fine grade emery cloth • Damage to precision mating surface or couplings.
and oil finish polish following specification. • Bends in which flattening at any point exceed 5 % (bends in which minimum
Replace tubing which has nicks, scratches, chafing, galling or fretting damage outside diameter is less than 95 % of maximum outside diameter)
deeper than 5 % of tubing wall thickness with working pressure of 500 psi and
more. Figure 12: Damage Limits
Replace tubing which has nicks, scratches, chafing, galling or fretting damage
not acceptable
deeper than 10 % of tubing wall thickness with working pressure less than 500 psi.
Replace tubing which has damage on heel of tube bend radius. This is not accept-
able due to metal in area being stretched thin during bending of tube.
Replace pipes which have sharp bottom dents deeper than 2 percent of the tubes
outside diameter.
sharp dents
Replace lines which have round bottom dents deeper than 5 percent of tube out-
deeper than
side diameter.
2% OD
When surface defects is present in combination with dents, each imper- pressure < 500psi pressure > 500psi
fection must be evaluated with regards to the applicable criteria for that and WT deeper and WT deeper
type of defect. Sharp bottom dents are those which have an included an- than 10% than 5%
gle of 90° or less at the bottom. All others are round bottomed.
Check that dents in heel of bent radius of suction line is smooth and not deeper
than 2 1/2 % of tube outside diameter.
Polish out burrs on inside surface of tube flair. round dents
deeper than
Scratches or deformations of any kind are not acceptable on inside surface of 5% OD
flare.
OD = outside diameter
WT = wall thickness

Repair of Rigid Fluid Lines Figure 14: Approved Repairs
Scratches and nicks that are no deeper than 10 % of the wall thickness of a piece
of metal tubing can be repaired by burnishing, provided the damage is not in the
heel of a bend. Tubing containing damage in the heel of a bend must be replaced.
Dents that are less than 20 % of the tube diameter are not objectionable unless
they are in the heel of the bend. Dents can be removed by pulling a bullet-shaped
forming tool of the correct diameter through the tube. This can be done by using a
length of cable.
Damage in a section of tubing may be repaired by cutting out the damaged area.
Then, insert a new piece of tubing and join the ends with the proper nuts and un-
ions. Figure 13 on page 9.
Figure 13: Approved Repairs
9.33
Swaged fittings may also be used to make a permanent repair on a damaged fluid
line. "A" shows the way a pinhole leak or circumferential crack can be repaired with
a single swaged fitting; "B" shows how more extensive damage is repaired by
splicing in a new section of tubing.

Installation of Fluid Lines Figure 15: Clamp Installation
Not only must the correct fluid lines be installed in an aircraft, but they must be in- Correct Incorrect
stalled properly. Here are a few basic rules regarding their installation: Liner properly Liner improperly
positioned positioned
When a fuel or hydraulic line is routed through a compartment parallel with an elec-
trical wire bundle, the fluid line should be installed below the wire bundle to prevent
a leak wetting the wires.
Fluid lines must be installed in such a way that they are supported and protected
from physical damage. They should be installed in such a way that they cannot be
used as a hand hold or a step.
Each section of rigid tubing should have at least one bend in it to absorb vibration
and the dimensional changes that occur when the tubing is pressurized, and the
tubing should fit squarely against the fitting before the nut is started. Pulling a tube
to the fitting with the nut will deform the flare and can cause a flare to fail.
Metal fluid lines are installed in an aircraft with bonded cushion clamps. These
clamps have a strip of metal inside the cushion that electrically connects the tubing
to the aircraft structure. When installing a bonded clamp, remove all of the paint
and the anodized oxide film from the location to which the clamp is fastened. This
will provide a good electrical connection between the tubing and the aircraft struc-
ture. The table below gives the maximum distance between supports for rigid tub-
ing installed in an aircraft.
Table 2: Max. Distance between Supports
Tubing OD (inches) Distance Between Supports (inches)

Aluminium Alloy Steel
1/8 9 1/2 11 1/2
3/16 12 14
1/4 13 1/2 16
5/16 15 18
3/8 16 1/2 20
1/2 19 23
5/8 22 25 1/2
3/4 24 27 1/2
1 26 1/2 30

Rigid Lines Flexible Lines

When manufacturing a replacement rigid fluid line, be sure that all of the angles Any time there is relative movement between the two ends of a fluid line, there
are correct, and inspect all of the bends to be sure that none of them are collapsed, should be a section of flexible hose installed.
kinked, or wrinkled. Fit the line in place to ensure that the tube aligns with the fit- • The lay line along a flexible hose should never spiral. This would indicate the
tings at each end. The line should be straight with the fitting and should apply a hose has twisted and had a built-in strain. Pressure surges in a twisted line
slight pressure against it. can cause failure.
1. No tube, regardless of how short, should be installed unless there is at least • Always use a fitting that allows the hose to approach it without any bends near
one bend in it. This bend provides for vibration, and for the inevitable expan- its end. Elbows are available in both 90° and 45° angles.
sion and contraction that are caused by temperature changes and by the line • Never attempt to pull a hose up to its fitting with the nut. When pressure is ap-
being pressurized. plied to a hose, it will tend to expand its diameter and shorten its length. Allow
2. Never attempt to pull a tube up to the fitting with the nut. This will place a strain the line to have slack of about 5 to 8 % of its length.
on the flare or the preset bite, and vibration can easily cause the tube to fail. • Use the proper size cushion clamp to support the hose any time it goes
3. Where a fluid line is brought through a buIkhead, if it is not carried through with through a buIkhead, or any place where vibration may place a twisting force
a bulkhead fitting, it must be supported with bonded cushion clamps and cen- on the fitting.
tered in the hole in such a way that there is protection against chafing. • The liner of Teflon hose is extruded, and it has ample strength for applications
in which there is no twist, but it is susceptible to failure if it is twisted or if it is
4. All fluid lines should be run below electrical wire bundles so that there is no
bent with too small a bend radius.
possibility of fluid dripping onto the wire.
• Be sure to observe the minimum bend radius for all flexible hose. For an MIL-
5. All fluid lines should be identified at each end, and at least once in each com- H-8788 hose as an example, the following are the minimum acceptable bend
partment with color-coded tape to identify the type of fluid it carries. radii:
– -4 hose 3.0 inch minimum bend radius
• If the hose is subjected to flexing, this radius must be increased.
It is possible to make up high-pressure hose if your shop is equipped with the prop-
er tools. But, because of the extremely critical nature of highpressure fluid lines, it
is generally advisable to buy the replacement highpressure fluid lines from the air-
craft manufacturer, or from an approved supplier that makes them according to the
manufacturer’s specifications. By installing only fluid lines that carry the correct
manufacturer’s part number, you will be assured that the line is constructed of the
proper material, and that it has been tested according to the procedure required
by the manufacturer.
Before installing any fluid line, be sure to blow it out with compressed air to remove
any obstructions or particles that may have been left in the process of manufac-
ture, or which may have been allowed to enter the hose while it was in storage.
Before a line is stored, cap both ends to prevent the entry of any contaminants.

Figure 17 shows the right and wrong way of installing flexible hose in an aircraft Figure 17: Flexible Hose Installation
fluid system.
Flexible hoses should be approximately 5 % to 8 % longer than the distance be-
tween the fittings. This slack allows for contraction as the line expands its diameter
and shortens its length when it is pressurized. See this in view A.
In B, we see an example of using the correct type of elbow fittings to prevent fluid
lines from making sharp bends.
In C, we see the correct way to connect a movable actuator into the aircraft hy-
draulic system. The hose must be of sufficient length, and installed in such a way Wrong A Correct
that it is not crimped in any position of the actuator.
Lay Line
The flexible hose is marked with yellow, white or red strip running the length of the
hose.
This lay line not only identifies the hose but also indicates if the hose is twisted dur-
ing installation. When installed properly, the line will run straight and not spiral
around the hose as shown in Figure 16.
Figure 16: Lay Line Wrong
Correct Installed Correct

MIL H 8794 Size 6-2 92MFG
B
Incorrect Installed(Twisted)
MIL H 87
94 Size
6-2 92
MFG
Wrong C
Correct

Clearances Torquing Procedure

Verify that piping tubing and hose is properly routed so that no other lines will block Torque coupling nuts as per applicable torque value.
access to their connections or supports. Clearance for use of wrenches and other Whenever possible torque fitting in sub assemblies to eliminate unnecessary final
similar maintenance tools must be obtained. tightening in the aircraft.
Rubbing of pipes or any other metal to metal contact on pipe is not accept- Hold the mating fitting firmly with another wrench while the coupling nut is being
able.  tightened so as to prevent rotation or distortion of pipes and the adjacent system
Vibration will cause chafing and wear of piping in service.  parts.
In general a minimum clearance of 3/32 inch must always be obtained.
Never tighten the B-nut or the coupling while the system is under pressure. If the
Clearance is normally obtained by adjusting the pipes into proper position prior to joint leaks after torquing, disassemble the joint, clean and re-lubricate and re-
swagging the run unions the swaged connection permanently fixes the piping into torque as given in the specification.
the aircraft structure.
If tubing can be deflected by very light finger pressure subsequent vibration during Leaks After Installation
flight is likely to cause chafing. Minimum clearance for Hydraulic Fuel and Pneu- Probable causes for leaks at end fitting joints after installation and torqueing pro-
matic piping shall be provided unless specifically excepted by engineering and or cedures are as follows:
applicable specifications. • Incorrect torque
Figure 18: Clearances • Thread seizure or galling
• Careless assembly such as cross threading
• Misalignment of the connection
• Burrs and sharp edges
• Eccentric flare rough surface cracks
• Splits, deep scratches on flare or foreign material under flare
9.075
3/32 Inch
3/32 Inch = 2.38mm

Flexible Hose End Fittings Figure 20: Installation of End Fittings

Flexible hoses may be equipped with either swaged or replaceable end fittings. If Locate and
a hose having swaged fittings is damaged, the entire hose must be replaced with slit cover
one carrying the same part number or one that is approved by the aircraft manu- with knife
facturer as a replacement. to wire braid
Replaceable end fittings consist of three pieces: a nut, a nipple, and a socket.
Clamp the hose in a vice and cut it to the correct length with the ends cut off
square, using a fine-tooth hacksaw blade or a cutoff wheel. Remove the outer cov-
er of the hose that goes into the socket, and twist the socket onto the hose, twisting
in a counterclockwise direction. Place the nipple in the nut and screw the nut onto Twist off
a fitting and tighten it securely. Lubricate the inside of the hose and the threads on cover with
the nipple, using mineral-base hydraulic fluid for hoses that will be used with this pliers
A B
fluid, or with vegetable soap for hoses that will be used with Skydrol fluid. Screw
the nipple into the socket until it bottoms, and then back it off until there is a clear-
ance of between 0.005 and 0.031 inch between the nut and the socket. Remove
the fitting from the nut and be sure the nut turns freely on the nipple.
Nut Socket Figure 19: Hose End Fitting

When the fittings are installed, the hose
must be installed on a hydraulic test
stand and pressurized to 200 % of the
operating pressure of the hose. Hold this
pressure for at least 30 seconds, but not
more than five minutes. There should be
no leaks at the fittings while the pressure
Nipple is being. After the test is completed, C D
drain the hose and seal the ends with the
proper plugs until the hose is installed on A Cut the hose to the correct length with a fine tooth
the aircraft. hacksaw blade or a cutoff wheel.
B Cut the outer cover with a knife and slit it so it can
be twisted off to expose the outer braid for the distance
that will be inserted into the socket.
C Twist the socket onto the end of the hose, twisting
in a counterclockwise direction.
D Lubricate the inside of the hose and the threads on
the nipple.
E E Screw the nipple into the socket until it bottoms,
and then back it off until there is a slight clearance
between the nut and the socket.

Removal and Installation of Tubing and Hoses Figure 21: Teflon Hoses with Support Wire
Removal Tubing or Hose

• Cap all tubing, hoses and fitting immediately upon disconnecting from system
to prevent contamination.
• When several lines or hoses are disconnected in the same working area, tag
lines or hoses for identification on reinstallation.
• After installation of a teflon hose, it will take a set. This means that the hose
becomes some-what rigid. When the hose is removed from the aircraft is
should NOT be bent against its set. Therefore, a support wire should be used
to keep it in the set radius. (See Figure 21)
Installation of Hoses
• Visually check hose for cleanliness before installation.
• Hose with protective cap missing should be thoroughly cleaned before instal-
lation.
• Check hose of chafing, cuts or evidence of kinking before installation.
• Make certain that fittings are properly aligned and secured before installation
of the hose.
• Apply anti size lubricant to fitting only when required by maintenance specifi-
cation.
• Install hose on fitting and tighten connections to torque values as per applica-
ble specification.
• Hose assembly installing on non moving connections should have not twist af-
ter B-nut has been tightened.
• Hose should not be under tension or cause any deflection of rigid tubing when
subjected to full system pressure.
• Check that hose installed on moving connections is free from torsion or ten-
sion stresses through entire range of travel when subjected to full system
pressure.
• Hose should not cause any deflection of rigid tubing to which hose is connect-
ed.
• Check that hose is free to expand contract and is clear of all structure.
• Where inadequate clearance exists between hose and structure protection
must be provided.
• Do not use support clips on hose unless specifically authorised to do so.
• Make certain not to exceed minimum bend radius for hoses.

Fuel Lines Figure 22: Flexible Couplings
Fuel lines are made from stainless steel. Where hoses are required, the hose must Split Retainer
be made of fire resistant material. As a common rule, self locking line connections Gland Washer
are used inside the fuel tanks. Wire locked connections are used in fuel lines out-
side the fuel tanks. However, for safety requirements consult the applicable main- A
tenance manual.
Fuel System Couplings

Fuel pipe ends are flared or beaded to accept the specified type of coupling.
Standard pipe couplings are available in sizes up to 2.5 inches diameter, and
these are often used in aircraft fuel systems. Where flexibility is required in joints,
because of flight loads and temperature variations, specially designed couplings
may be used.
Flexible Couplings
Two types of flexible couplings are illustrated.
Sketch (A) shows a coupling which has provision for a certain amount of misalign- Nut Body O-Ring Seal
ment, as well as both angular and axial movement of the pipes. The pipe ends are
beaded, and the surfaces within the joint are smooth and polished, so that the
seals may slide freely over the pipes. Outer Sleeve Inner Sleeve
A split retainer encloses the beads. When the coupling nut is tightened on the
body, the 0-rings are squeezed between the gland washers and the split retainer,
and expand to form a seal between the body and the pipes. B
Sketch (B) shows a coupling which is less flexible, but which has provision for a
limited amount of misalignment and movement.
When the inner and outer sleeves are screwed together and pressure is applied to
the split collars, the rubber seal is squeezed out to form a seal between the inner
sleeve and pipe beads.
Seal Split Collar

Gamah Coupling™ Figure 23: Gamah Coupling

Gamah Couplings are mainly used for fuel line connections.
Zero Gap
Installation Directives (at One Point Only)
1. Position fuel line to obtain gap between lines as applicable. Sleeve
Nut Flange Packing
2. Tighten fuel line support clamps.
3. Slide sleeve over flange until sleeve contacts entire circumference of packing. Snap Ring
Make certain that O-ring is entirely within its cavity. Excessive cocking of sleeves Fuel Line
undue forcing or twisting could cause O-ring damage. GAP
4. With slight rocking motion slide sleeve over O-ring.
5. Move the sleeve on the second packing.
6. Move the nuts along the flange until they fully touch the sleeve.
7. Turn the coupling nuts on the sleeve threads.
After the initial turn, the coupling nut moves on to a locking insert.
8. Continue to turn the coupling nuts until it moves tightly against the sleeve
shoulder.
9. Ensure that couplings are properly tightened before safetying and that safety
holes are exposed.
10. Do not loosen or over torque parts beyond specific values in order to improve
the location of safety hole.

Pneumatic and Air System Pipes Fitting and Removal

Before a V-clamp is fitted, its bolt must be checked for freedom of movement and
Ducts are mainly used to transfer air from one point to another. Ducts carry differ- its stiff-nut for satisfactory friction. It may be necessary to reject the clamp bolt al-
ent sorts of air to and from various systems: so, if the nut is defective. Refer to the Aircraft Maintenance Manual.
• Engine bleed air (High and low pressure) If a clamp bolt does not pivot freely, it must be soaked in a suitable dismantling
• De-icing system fluid. If it still fails to pivot freely it must be sent for overhaul. Before fitting or re-
• Air conditioning moving a clamp, lubricate the threads of the bolt. 
• Cabin pressurisation Ensure that the locking tang passes freely through the strap slot to its locking po-
sition. 
• Ventilation
When fitting V-clamps which use two bolts and fail safe links, the links must be cor-
• Ambient air rectly positioned prior to fitting the clamp securing nuts. 
These ducts are mainly made from: Tighten the clamp bolts initially so that both flanges are just nipped, and check that
• Stainless steel the amount of thread protruding from each nut is approximately equal. Continue
• Titanium tightening the clamp by applying small torque increments to each nut in turn until
the required torque, usually stamped on the clamp, is reached. The clamp periph-
• Aluminium alloy in a wide range of configurations ery should be tapped frequently during the tightening process to assist settling of
Ducts require break point to facilitate both installation of ducts and maintenance. the flanges. 
These break points are usually provided by installing flanges or hoses on each end When removing clamps which incorporate a locking tang, unscrew the nut until at
of ducting. Holding the flanges and duct sections together is different kind of least 1.0 in. of thread is visible. Slightly contract the clamp and depress the locking
clamps and couplings. Care is required in assembly handling and installation of tang to release it. Lift the bolt clear of its channel and remove the clamp.
ducts that requires special clamps and couplings.
Keep protective covers in place at all times on precision flanges and precision mat-
ing surfaces etc.
V-Band Clamp Couplings

These are high temperature, high pressure couplings used in engine bleed pneu-
matic systems, pressurisation and air conditioning systems. They may be made
from stainless steel, Inconel or Titanium.
Each coupling usually consists of a single metal clamp and two precision formed
metal flanges which are welded to the ends of the duct sections.
Some couplings provide a metal to metal seal without the use of a gasket. The
coupling can be repeatedly disconnected and reconnected without affecting its de-
sign leakage rate. Other couplings incorporate metal sealing gaskets. Low-pres-
sure couplings incorporate 0-rings.
V-band clamps may also be used to attach generators to gearboxes and
blanking plates to unused blower outlets etc.

Figure 24: Pressure Joints
Low Pressure Connection High Pressure Connection

Flange Clamp Flange
Clamp Strap Locking Tongue
V-Clamp
Janitrol Clamp
Check Clearance Maximum Clearance

at "A" on both side "A" 0.015 inch
Duct Flange
Duct Flange
O-Ring
Corrujoint Seal

Janitrol T-Bolt Clamp

Slip the expanded clamp over the matting surfaces and insert the t-bolt into the
trunnion. Tighten the nut using a torque wrench to the value stamped in the clamp.
Hit the clamp slightly with a hammer and retorque it again.
Figure 25: T-Bolt Coupling
Bolt Support
Support
Bolt
Nut
Nut
ds
/p
in e:
ch
55 rqu
To
-
45
Segment
Bolt Support
Locking pin Support
Bolt
Lock tounge
Nut Nut
Locking pin
ds
/p
in e:
ch
55 rqu
To
-
45
Segment Tapered one-phase lock tounge

Training Manual 7.10 Springs
7.10 Springs

Training Manual 7.10 Springs
Inspection and Testing of Springs The weight used to gain the test length should fall within the limits given.
Table 1: Measuring Data
Checking Springs for Wear
Before testing, the spring should be always visualy inspected. Special care should MP Length(L) Desired Measured Deviation Condition
be given to the hooks where they connect to their mounting points. Value (F) Value (F) Error
Measuring the Spring Tension 1 403.5 mm 90 kg +/-9 88 kg -2 kg In Limit

Springs can be proofed with measuring equipment as shown in Figure 1. The way 2 454.5 mm 147 kg +/-13 140 kg -7 kg In Limit
to do this is to compress or pull (depends on the spring type) to a given length and
to read the measured value. The spring tension should then be within the limits giv- MP = Measuring Point
en in the manufacturers datasheet. If a spring is out of limit, the spring has to be
Figure 2: Compression Spring Test Diagram
replaced according to the Illustrated Parts Catalog related to the Aircraft. Two ex-
1200 N
amples are illustrated; Table 1 shows a extension spring test data sheet with its
results, Figure 2 an compression spring test diagram where the measured value 1100 N
are out of the given limits.
1000 N
Figure 1: Test Equipment
900 N
800 N
mm
700 N
40
600 N
30
20 500 N
10
400 N
300 N
200 N
100 N
0N
0 100 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 mm
N
Range of Tolerance Measured Value

Training Manual 7.11 Bearings
7.11 Bearings

Bearings are heavy-duty machine elements with high-precision components. We bearing. In service, the oil combines with the bearing lubricant and provides for
must give special attention to mounting, dismounting, lubrication, sealing and sufficient lubrication in the run-in period. The seats and mating surfaces must be
maintenance of bearings. wiped clean of anticorrisive oil before mounting. Wash out anticorrisive oil with
Appropriate means for mounting and dismounting of rolling bearings as well as ut- cold-cleaning agent from tapered bearing bores prior to mounting in order to en-
most cleanliness and care at the assembly site are necessary in order to enable sure a safe and tight fit on the shaft or sleeve. Then thinly coat the bore with a ma-
the bearings to reach a long service life. chine oil of medium viscosity. Prior to mounting, wash used and contaminated
bearings carefully with kerosene or cold-cleaning agent and oil or grease them im-
mediately afterwards.
Rolling Bearing Storage
Store bearings in their original package in order to protect them against contami-
Cleanliness in Mounting
nation and corrosion. Open package only at the assembly site immediately prior to Absolute cleanliness is essential! Dirt and humidity are dangerous offenders, since
mounting. Larger bearings with relatively thin-walled rings should not be stored up- even the smallest particles penetrating into the bearing will damage the rolling sur-
right but flat and supported over their whole circumference. Prior to packing, rolling faces. The work area must, therefore, be dust-free, dry and well removed from ma-
bearings are dipped in anticorrisive oil. This oil does not gum and harden and is chining operations. Avoid cleaning with compressed air. Ensure cleanliness of
compatible with all commercial rolling bearing greases. In their original package shaft, housing and any other mating parts. Castings must be free from sand. Bear-
rolling bearings are safely protected against external influences. ing seats on shaft and in housing should be carefully cleaned from anti-rust com-
pounds and residual paint. Turned parts must be free from burrs and sharp edges.
Prepare Bearings for Mounting and Mismounting Surrounding Parts
Work Planning All surrounding parts should be carefully checked for dimensional and form accu-
racy prior to assembly.
Prior to mounting and dismounting of rolling bearings, several preparatory steps
should be taken. Study the shop drawing to familiarize yourself with the design de-
tails of the application and the assembly sequence. Phase the individual opera- Bearing Mounting
tions and get reliable information on heating temperatures, mounting and
dismounting forces and the amount of grease to be packed into the bearing. The various bearing types and sizes require different mounting methods. Depend-
ing on the individual conditions these can be mechanical, hydraulic or thermal. As
Whenever rolling bearing mounting and dismounting require special measures,
the mechanic should be provided with comprehensive instructions on mounting the hardened bearing rings are sensitive to blows, these must never be applied di-
details, including means of transport for the bearing, mounting and dismounting rectly to the rings. On mounting of non-separable bearings, the mounting forces
must always be applied to the ring which will have the tight fit and therefore is the
equipment, measuring devices, heating facilities, type and quantity of lubricant.
first to be mounted. Forces applied to the ring with the loose fit would be transmit-
ted by the rolling elements, thus damaging raceways and rolling elements. Mount-
The „Right“ Bearing ing of separable bearings is easier, since the two rings can be mounted separately.
Prior to mounting, the mechanic must make sure that the bearing number stamped In order to avoid score marks during assembly, slightly rotate the parts.
on the package and on the bearings thrustface agrees with the designation given
in the parts list.
Handling of Rolling Bearings before Mounting

New bearings are preserved in their original package, with an anticorrisive oil. If
no further procedure is given, the oil need not be washed out, when mounting the

Mechanical Methods Figure 2: Mounting a bearing on the shaft and the housing at the same time
Bearings with a maximum bore of approximately 80 mm can be mounted cold. The
use of a mechanical or hydraulic press is recommended. If no press is available,
the bearing can be driven on the shaft by gentle taps with a hammer or mallet.
Disk
However, a mounting sleeve of soft steel and with a flat face must be used in order Sleeve
to distribute the mounting force evenly over the entire ring circumference and to
avoid damage to the bearing.
Figure 1: Mounting a bearing by tapping
Sleeve
If a tight fit is required for the inner ring of a non-separable bearing, the bearing will
first be mounted on the shaft; then the shaft and bearing assembly is pushed into
the housing. Pushing the bearing in to the housing can be done with a plate and
screws as shown in Figure 3. Tightening the screws must be done symmetricaly
to avoid jaming.
Figure 3: Mounting a bearing with the shaft already installed
The inside diameter of the sleeve should just be little larger than the bearing bore
and, to avoid damage to the cage, its outside diameter should not exceed the inner
ring shoulder height. If a self-aligning bearing has to be pressed on the shaft and
pushed into the housing at the same time, a disk should be used which bears
against both bearing rings, thus avoiding misalignment of the outer ring in the
housing as shown in Figure 2.

Thermal Methods der. A slight twisting motion during fitting facilitates the work. It is advisable to use
heat-protective gloves or non-fraying cloths, but never cotton waste.
If tight fits are specified for the inner rings on cylindrical shaft seats, the bearings
are heated for mounting. Sufficient expansion is obtained when heated between Hot Air Cabinet
80 and 100°C. Accurate temperature control is essential in heating the bearings.
If the temperature exceeds 120°C there is the risk of alteration of bearing grain A safe and clean method of heating rolling bearings is by use of a hot air cabinet.
structure resulting in a drop of hardness and dimensional instability. For bearings Thermostat regulation enables accurate temperature control. Careful operation
with moulded cages of glass fibre reinforced polyamide the same temperature lim- excludes contamination of the bearings. However, heating the bearings in hot air
its are valid as for the other rolling bearings. Bearings with shields and with seals takes considerable time, therefore adequately dimensioned hot air cabinets
are packed with grease during manufacture. They can be heated up to 80°C max- should be provided.
imum, but never in an oil bath.
Induction Heating Device
Heating Plate With an induction heating device, rolling bearings are brought up to mounting tem-
Provisionally, rolling bearings can be heated on a heating plate which should be perature in a fast, secure and clean manner. The devices can be used for any roll-
thermostatically controlled. Turn the bearing over several times in order to ensure ing bearing types including greased and sealed bearings. They operate on the
uniform heating. If the temperature of a heating plate without thermostatic control transformer principle.
exceeds 120°C, polyamide cages must not contact the heating plate. This can be The heating device is suitable for rolling bearings of a minimum bore diameter of
avoided by inserting a ring between the plate and the bearing inner ring. 20 mm. The device can also be used to heat other ring-shaped steel parts such as
shrink rings or labyrinth rings. After heating, the parts are automatically demagnet-
Figure 4: Heating Plate ized.
Figure 5: Induction Heating Device
Oil Bath
For uniform heating, rolling bearings are generally immersed in an oil bath which
is thermostatically controlled to a temperature of 80 to 100°C. The bearing should
not be in direct contact with the heat source. The best arrangement is to have a
screen several inches off the bottom of the oil tank which will prevent uneven heat-
ing of the bearing and protect it from contaminants settling on the tank bottom. The
bearings may also be suspended in the oil bath. After heating, any oil adhering to
the bearing should be well drained off and the fitting surfaces should be carefully
wiped clean. Mounting of heated rings or bearings requires some skill. The parts
should be rapidly pushed on the shaft and positioned squarely against the shoul-

Cooling Figure 6: Tappered Roller Bearing

For a tight fit of the outer ring, the housing is heated in most cases to mounting outer inner
temperature. With large and bulky housings, this may cause problems. In this
case, the rolling bearing is cooled in a mixture of dry ice and alcohol. The temper-
ature should not drop below -50°C. The condensation water resulting from temper-
ature equalization must be completely rinsed out of the bearing with oil in order to
prevent corrosion.
Clearance Adjustment on Tapered Roller Bearings

Angular contact ball bearings and tapered roller bearings are always mounted in Lock ring
Tapered
pairs. The axial and radial clearance of two bearings mounted in opposition is ad-
justed on mounting, the clearance or preload depending on the operating condi- roller bearing
tions. Angular contact ball bearings of universal design can be mounted in pairs or
groups in any arrangement.
High loads and high speeds cause a temperature rise at the bearing location. This
leads to thermal expansion and clearance variation. The type of clearance varia- Grease dam
tion, i. e. an increase or a decrease, depends on arrangement and size of the bear-
ings, the shaft and housing material and on bearing centre distance.
Grease seal
If close shaft guidance is required, the clearance is adjusted by stages. Each ad-
justment should be followed by a trial run and a temperature check. Thus, it is en-
sured that the clearance does not become too small, resulting in a higher running
temperature.
A welcome effect of trial runs is that the whole bearing mounting "settles" and that,
afterwards, the clearance practically remains stable. The right temperature for a
bearing, operating in the medium to high speed range under medium load, can,
indicatively, be defined as follows: In the absence of extraneous heat, a correctly O-Ring seal
adjusted bearing is allowed to attain, during the trial runs, a temperature of about
60 to 70°C. After 2 or 3 hours running, this temperature should, however, drop, es- The changeover from clearance to preload during adjustment is found by constant
pecially when in the case of grease lubrication, the churning action diminishes, af- manual rotation of the shaft. Simultaneously, a dial gauge is applied to check the
ter the excess grease is expelled from the bearing interior. axial freedom of the shaft. A simpler method for correct bearing adjustment is the
Bearings exposed to vibration at low speeds are mounted with zero clearance or use of a torque wrench. The adjusting nut is tightened to the appropriate torque.
even preloaded to avoid the risk of the balls or rollers brinelling the raceways. An- The right torque is determined in tests; the values are specified in the Maintenane
gular contact ball bearings and tapered roller bearings are adjusted against one Manuals).
another by nuts on the shaft as shown in Figure 7 on page 6, by shims or threated
rings in the housing. Axial clearance or preload of adjustable bearings is estab-
lished by loosening or tightening the adjusting nut or by the insertion of calibrated
shims. From the thread pitch, axial clearance and preload can be converted into
turns of the adjusting nut.

Figure 7: Wheel Installation Mechanical Methods

Small bearings are usually dismounted with the aid of mechanical extracting de-
vices as shown in Figure 8, or hydraulic presses. These are applied either directly
to the tight-fitted ring or to the mating parts, such as the labyrinth ring.
Figure 8: Extracting Device
Tapered bearing
Provisionally, small bearings can be driven off their seat with a hammer and a met-
Wheel-nut al drift, usually made of brass, as shown in Figure 9 (right). The light hammer
blows should be applied evenly round the whole circumference of the tight-fitted
Wheel assy ring.
Figure 9: Driving off a bearing with a hammer
Bearing Dismounting
If the bearings are intended for re-use, dismounting must be performed most care-
fully; it is imperative that the extracting tool be applied to the ring to be extracted
to prevent the rolling elements from brinelling the raceways. In addition, thin-
walled outer rings involve the risk of ring fracture. With non-seperable bearings,
first withdraw the ring with sliding fit from its seat and then dismount the tight-fitted
ring. The force required for dismounting is generally higher than the mounting
force, since, as time passes, the ring becomes embedded on its seat. Even with
loose-fitted rings, fretting corrosion may make dismounting work difficult. Wrong Correct

Lubrication contact and carries off heat. Its disadvantage is that it involves a more complex
design of the bearing location and especially of the sealing system.
The primary purpose of the lubricant is to build a load-carrying film separating the The following factors determine the selection of lubricant:
bearing components in rolling and sliding contact in order to minimize friction and
wear. The lubricant should also protect the bearing against corrosion. If required, Operating Temperature
it should also act as a sealant, and in case of circulating oil lubrication, as a cool-
The viscosity of lubricating oils decreases with increasing temperature and in-
ant. Due to deterioration and mechanical stressing, the lubricants become unuse-
able. Change of oil or grease or replenishment, i.e. bearing maintenance, has a creases when the temperature drops. The higher the expected operating temper-
favorable influence on the bearing service life. Under certain sealing and environ- ature, the higher should be the nominal viscosity of the oil. The nominal or mid-
point viscosity is the viscosity for oils at 40°C. The permissible temperature range
mental conditions, appropriate lubricant selection allows for a lubrication for life.
of greases varies with the saponification bases.
Greases As a rule, the upper limits are:
Only high-grade greases, generally on a metal soap basis, should be used. Rolling Calcium soap base: + 50°C (120°F)
bearing greases for extreme temperatures contain different thickeners and a syn- Sodium soap base: + 70°C (160°F) to 120°C (250°F)
thetic oil instead of the mineral oil.
Lithium soap base: + 110°C (230°F) to 130°C (265°F)
Greases containing extreme pressure(EP), additives are used in high-load and
In selecting oils and greases, it should be borne in mind that a high temperature
low-speed applications. High-speed bearings and bearings which ask for low fric-
speeds up deterioration and decreases the lubricant service life.
tion, are lubricated with greases containing a thin synthetic base oil. The operating
temperatures specified by the grease supplier should be kept in mind. Rolling Exact values for the commercial greases are available from manufacturers cata-
bearing greases should be stable against deterioration and must not change their logues.
structure, even after long periods of operation.
Loads and Speed
Oils Under the given operating conditions, the lubricant must form a load carrying lubri-
For rolling bearing lubrication, mineral oils are generally used. They should have cating film. With oil, the load carrying capacity of the film is primarily a function of
the following properties: viscosity. The lower the bearing speed, the higher the oil viscosity in operating
condition.The use of solid lubricants as e. g. graphite and MoS2 is limited to ultra-
• Utmost cleanliness
low speeds and creeping motions only. High-load applications call for oils contain-
• stability against deterioration ing EP additives. Greases for high-load applications are characterized by base oils
• good viscosity-temperature behaviour of high viscosity and EP additives.
• good water repellency
Moisture
In addition, the lubricating oil must ensure satisfactory protection of the bearing
against corrosion. Very high and very low operating temperatures require the use The reaction of rolling bearing greases against moisture is different from one
of synthetic oils. Oils for highly loaded and low-speed bearings should contain EP- grease to the other. Only the water-repellent calcium base greases (Ca-greases)
additives. possess a safe sealing action against water. They are used, therefore, in laby-
rinths for operating temperatures not exceeding 50°C, acting as sealing agents.
Selection of Lubricant The sodium base greases feature a higher limiting temperature than the calcium
greases. They emulsify with water and are indicated for applications with a limited
Greases are generally preferred to oils because they simplify maintenance and amount of moisture (e. g. condensation water). Since the sodium base greases are
can be used as sealants. The asset of oil is that it readily feeds into all areas of water-absorbing, there is the risk that so much water will be absorbed that they will

wash out of the bearing. Lithium base greases do not absorb as much water as
sodium base greases. Because of their reasonable resistance to water and their
wide temperature range they have become the greases of preference for rolling
bearings.
Also with oils, their moisture and water resisting properties must be considered.
Oils that separate water well should be preferred, because they allow the water to
settle in the oil sump or reservoir when the machine is at rest. The protection
against corrosion is improved by anti-corrosive additives in the oils or greases.
Contamination
Relubrication involves the risk of bearing contamination. High standards of clean-
liness should, therefore, be maintained for the lubricant reservoir and the lubrica-
tors and also when handling the lubricant.
Grease nipples should always be cleaned before relubrication!
Mixing of Lubricants
Lubricants of different saponification bases should not be mixed to avoid impair-
ment of temperature stability and lubricating properties. The same applies to oils.
Lubricant Quantity
With grease lubrication, the bearing cavities should be packed to capacity. Only
partly fill (20 to 35% of free space) extremely fast running bearings.
Overgreasing at medium and higher speeds causes churning resulting in an unde-
sirable temperature rise which may harm both bearing and lubricant.
Rolling bearings with seals or shields are packed with grease to approx. 35% only
during manufacture.
With oil lubrication, too much oil in the housing has similarly detrimental effects:
the churning action overheats the oil and exposes it to air oxygen, causing oxida-
tion and foaming. With sump lubrication, the oil level in the housing should be no
higher than the centre point of the lowest ball or roller when the bearing is at rest.

Rolling Bearing Damage Figure 11: Damage due to Faulty Mounting
The life of a rolling bearing depends on the total number of stress cycles and the
loads incurred by rolling elements and raceways. The standardized calculation
method for dynamically stressed bearings is based on material fatigue (pitting)
causing the damage. Normal fatigue manifests itself by flaking or spalling of the
rolling surfaces as shown in Figure 10. An increasing local stress may result in
fracture of the ring. If the bearing fails earlier than predicted by the life calculation,
it should be checked for overloading. With this failure cause excluded, faulty
mounting or poor maintenance or wear might be the cause for the damage.
Figure 10: Normal Fatigue of a Bearing
Contamination
Foreign particle indentations in the functional surfaces may lead to premature fa-
tigue. Foreign particles with abrasive effect, however, accelerate bearing failure
due to wear. The surfaces are roughened and look dull. Progressive wear causes
excessive clearance.
Possible causes:
Why does a Bearing fail? • Contaminated parts
Faulty Mounting • Moulding sand in housings
Local damage to the raceways, such as nicks, score marks or indentations sug- • Inadequate seals
gest faulty mounting. This type of damage occurs, if, for instance, the inner ring of • Contaminated lubricants
a cylindrical roller bearing is inserted out of square into the outer ring, or if the • Metallic abrasion from gears brought into the bearing by the lubricant.
mounting force is applied through the rolling elements (Figure 1 on page 3). Sur-
face damage is also caused, when foreign particles enter the bearing and are cy- Figure 12: Indentations of Foreign Particles
cled. The damage can be recognized for instance by a louder running noise; in the
long run, it may lead to premature fatigue of the functional surfaces. The typical
sign for surface damage are the raised edges of the indentations.

Corrosion Figure 14: Craters due to passage of Electric Current

Corrosion in rolling bearings may occur in various forms and have different caus-
es. The damage shows in an uneven and loud running noise. The rust abraded by
the rolling elements causes wear. Figures Figure 13 shows corrosion damage due
to moisture or other corrosive media.
Possible causes:
• Inadequate sealing against moisture,
• acid fumes,
• lubricants containing acids,
• condensation,
• unsuitable storage of the rolling bearings in the warehouse.
Figure 13: Corrosion Marks Imperfect Lubrication
Starved lubrication is caused by an insufficient lubricant supply or by use of an im-
proper lubricant. If the lubricating film does not sufficiently separate the parts in
rolling contact, sliding motion and wear result. Since maximum material stressing
occurs at the raceway surfaces, micro pits and consequently large-area superficial
flaking is produced. In the case of overlubrication, the lubricant heats up due to the
churning action and looses its lubricity. Overheating, a catastrophic failure of the
bearing, may be the result. Prevent lubricant retention within the bearing, especial-
ly for high-speed bearings.
Figure 15: Lubrication Failure
Passage of Electric Current

Continuous passage of electric current causes brownish flutes parallel to the axis
over the entire circumference of one or both raceways as well as on the rolling el-
ements.

Training Manual 7.12 Transmissions
7.12 Transmissions
Lubricating Nipple

Gear Drives Figure 2: Normal and Abnormal Particles
There are a few methods to inspect gears about the condition. Some of them are
described on the following pages.
Observing the Gears Condition in Service

On Engines, as an example, gears and bearings are often periodically checked
with a component called "Chip Detector". A Chip Detector is simply equipped with
a magnetic probe tip. It can be installed at the bottom of a gearbox, in a filter hous-
ing or in an oil tube where the oil passes the magnetic tip and returns to the Oiltank.
Figure 1: Gearbox equipped with a magnetic Chip Detector
Limits and Flowcharts given by the manufacturer will help you to decide whether
the gearbox or the engine can stay in service or not. Have a look at Figure 3 on
page 3.
The operator has now the possibility to inspect the chip detectors for abnormal par-
ticles and to verify, that the gears and bearings are in normal condition. To judge
the importance of the particles needs experience. Often, particles are carefully re-
moved and sent to a lab for further analysis.

Figure 3: Flowchart Inspecting Gears in the Workshop

CHIPS OR FLAKES
ARE IDENTIFIED!
Visually
The first step to check a gear for its condition is to inspect it visually. Use a mag-
nifying glass to have a close look to the surface. If there is pitting or other damag-
ARE EXAMINE THE MAIN es, the gear is unservicable and must be replaced. Gears with damaged surfaces
YES THERE MORE NO OIL FILTER AND OIL are noisy and they will, sooner or later, malfunction. In any case, check the limits
THAN 5 CHIPS? FROM THE FILTER given by the manufacturer.
HOUSING
Composite Check using a Master Gear
Perhaps the most widely used method of determining relative accuracy in a gear
is to rotate the gear through at least one complete revolution in intimate contact
with a master gear of known accuracy (Figure 4 on page 4). The gear to be tested
WILL THE CONTAMINANT
YES
COVER AN AREA LARGER THAN A
NO and the master gear are mounted on a variable centre distance fixture and the re-
12.5 mm DIAMETER CIRCLE? sulting radial displacements or changes in centre distance during rotation of the
gear are measured by a suitable device. Except for the effect of backlash, this
so-called "composite check" approximates the action of the gear under operating
DISASSEMBLE THE 1. MAKE AN ANALYSIS OF THE
conditions and gives the combined effect of the following errors:
ENGINE OR COMPOSITION OF THE • Runout;
CONTAMINATION ON THE
DAMAGED • Pitch error;
COMPONENT TO PLUGS WITHIN 200 HOURS
FIND THE SOURCE 2. PUT THE ENGINE ON • Tooth-thickness variation;
OF THE MATERIAL 25 - HOUR INTERVAL WATCH • Profile error;
FOR 200 HOURS
• Lateral run out (sometimes called wobble).
YES IS THE CONTAMINATION BEARING NO

OR GEAR MATERIAL?
YES IS DEBRIS FOUND NO RETURN TO

ON SUBSEQUENT SERVICE
INSPECTION

Figure 4: Gear Pair Measuring Backlash In Gears

The general purpose of backlash is to prevent gears from jamming together and
Moveable Fix making contact on both sides of their teeth simultaneously. Lack of backlash may
cause noise, overloading, overheating of the gears and bearings. In general, back-
lash in gears is play between mating teeth. For purposes of measurement and cal-
culation, backlash is defined as the amount by which a tooth space exceeds the
thickness of an engaging tooth. It does not include the effect of center distance
0050 changes of the mountings and variations in bearings. When not otherwise speci-
Gear to be fied, numerical values of backlash are understood to be given on the pitch circles.
Master Gear Excessive backlash is objectionable, particularly if the drive is frequently revers-
inspected
ing. On the other hand, specification of an unnecessarily small amount of backlash
allowance will increase the cost of gears, because errors in run out, pitch, profile,
and mounting must be held correspondingly smaller. Backlash in no way affects
involute action and usually is not detrimental to proper gear action. Backlash can
be measured with the methods shown in Figure 5 and Figure 6 and can be correct-
ed by moving one of the shafts. In Gearboxes, the shaft distance is normally fixed
what means if the backlash is out of the limit, the related gear is defective and has
to be replaced.
Measured Distance Figure 5: Measuring Backlash with a clock gauge
Recorded Measurement fixed rotatable
fr
fi
Damaged Tooth 5μm
fr Radial run-out
fi Movement of one tooth

Figure 6: Measuring Backlash with a Feeler Gauge Measuring the Base Tangent Length
Measuring the base tangent length with an external micrometer, equipped with
special plates, gives information about tooth thickness and therefore infos about
wear. The number of teeth to measure over have to take out of charts given by the
manufacturer.
Figure 7: Tooth Thickness
Wk
It can be seen that the backlash between a pair of gears will vary as successive
teeth make contact, because of the effect of composite tooth errors, particularly
run out, and errors in the gear mounting centres and bearings. 5
Other important considerations are speed and space for lubricant film.  0
Slow moving gears, in general, require the least backlash. Fast-moving fine-pitch 45
gears are usually lubricated with relatively light oil, but if there is insufficient clear-
ance for an oil film, and particularly if oil trapped at the root of the teeth cannot es-
cape, excessive tooth loading will occur.

Measuring the Reference Diameter Inspection after Assembly

The dimensional inspection of the rollers diameter MdR, respectively the balls di- After assembly of gears, a few measurements have to be done to guarantee a
ameter MdK of thoothed wheel work is to determine the tooth thickness. This meas- trouble-free operation.
uring method is mainly used on narrow, helical gears or gears with a high angle.
Measuring balls or rollers will be placed in two opposite tooth spaces. To hold the Alignment
variation as small as possible, the correct diameter DM has to be selected accord- To reach a flawless contact pattern between the mating gears, the two shafts have
ing to charts. The smallest variation is when the point of contact is near the refer- to be correct assembled and aligned according to the tolerances given in the man-
ence diameter of the gear. ufacturers manual. A pattern test can be done with blue ink. By painting the teeths
Figure 8: Rollermethod surface with ink and turning the gears one revolution under load, the contact pat-
tern becomes visible. If the blank points are one-sided or not balanced, the gear
DM DM
DM
M dR /MdK
DM
M dR /MdK
needs further adjustment.
Backlash
See Title "Measuring Backlash In Gears" on page 4.
DR Nomenclature of Gears
Figure 10: Technical Terms
MdR = Roller- ø of the toothed Wheel p
MdK = Ball- ø of the toothed Wheel
DM = Roller- or. Ball- ø
DR = Reference - ø
Figure 9: Micrometer ha
mm/inch RANGE ON/OFF
Reference Line hd
h c
0
30 0.00I 30
mm
ABS
PRESET ABS 0 RESET

dr d d
SET
Extramess 2000
o
p Pitch c Bottom dlearance

d Reference diameter h Depth of deeth
do Outside diameter ha Addendum
dr Root diameter hd Dedendum

Belt Drives Figure 12: Installation of a V-Belt

correct wrong wrong
V-Belts
In obtaining the proper tension on V-belts, it is not necessary to pull them exceed-
ingly taut. They should be tightened only enough to take out slack and undue sag.
A good method for checking the proper tension of a V-belt drive is by "striking" the
belt with the fist. Slack V-belts feel dead under this test, while properly adjusted
V-belts vibrate and feel alive. Another simple test which can be made is to press
down firmly on each individual belt in a multi-belt drive. When the top can be de-
pressed so that it is in line with the bottom of other belts on the drive, the correct
amount of tension has been applied. There are more methods to adjust tension to
a belt such as tension gauges or strobelights. In any case, follow the procedures Pulleys
given in the manuals.
To adjust the tension, two methods are used:
• changing the distance between the shafts
Toothed Belts or Synchronous Belts
• belt tensioning roller
Figure 11: Applying tension to Belts Proper Fit
On toothed belts, the load is transmitted via the teeth and not via the flanks as in
a V-Belt drive. Therefore, the tension on a toothed belt is different to a V-Belt. The
tension on a toothed belt should be not to tight nor to loose to avoid overriding of
the teeth. While developement of a drive, the tension is determined with a frequen-
cy measuring equipment and thus, the manufacturers specification has to be used
in any case to apply the correct tension.
Figure 13: Toothed Belt Drive
Proper Fit
The V-belt should ride in the sheave groove so that the top surface is just above
the highest point of the sheave. If the belt rides too high, it loses contact area. A
low-riding belt may "bottom" in the groove, reducing the wedging action on the
sides, resulting in slipping and burring.

Destructive Elements
Belts should be kept clean, free of oil, and protected from sunlight as much as pos-
sible. Mineral oil is especially destructive. To clean belts they should be wiped with
a dry cloth. The safest way to remove dirt and grime is to wash it with soap and
water and rinse it well. If by accident the belts become grease or oil spattered, re-
move it with a suitable cleaning agent as e.g. carbon tetrachloride.
Belt dressing should never be used on a V-belt drive.
Visible Inspection
Whenever a belt is inspected visualy, make sure that no broken fabric is visible. If
there is, the belt has to be replaced according to the parts catalogue. In any case,
use the limits given in the manuals to judge any anormality found on a belt.

Chain Drives Installation and Inspection of Chain Wheels and Pulleys

During installation, chain wheels and pulleys should be checked to ensure that
In installing chain transmissions of any kind, horizontal drives are those having
they are attached in the manner and method specified in the relevant drawing or
driving and driven shafts in a horizontal plane. These are always preferable to ver-
manual. The correct positioning of chain wheels is of particular importance when
tical drives, which have a vertical centre line. Chains are not designed for vertical
non reversible chains are used. During maintenance, chain wheels should be
drives, as chains may not be moved in two axis. If practicable, an adjustment
checked for security and wear on the teeth. Pulleys should be checked for damage
should be provided for the centre distance between the driving and driven shafts.
Driving motors are often mounted on adjustable base or slide rails to provide this and excessive wear on the walls and on the chain guide section.
adjustment for the centre distance.
Inspection of Chains
Slack Side of Chain: As a general rule, the slack strand of a chain should be on
the lower side of a horizontal drive. If the drive is not horizontal but angular, the Chains are reliable components of a transmission machine. If you use it within its
slack should preferably be on that side which causes the strand to curve outward specified conditions, the chain will last for a long time. However, you must perform
or away from the centre line of the driving and driven shafts. regular inspections on the chain to make sure it is in good condition and operating
correctly. Why are inspections important? Over the life of a chain, the pins and
Figure 14: Applying tension to Chains bushings wear gradually. There may have been an unexpected shock load or an
foreign object on the line.
During an inspection, make sure to check for the following conditions:
• Cracks in the link plates
• Cracks in the rollers
• Rotated pins
• Wear in general (Elongation)

• Articulation
If you find any of these conditions, take immediate steps to correct the problem. A
quick checklist is included in the following table.

Table 1: Checklist Checking Elongation

If elongation through wear is suspected, the following procedure should be adopt-
Visually check the In addition to the items to check during operation, ed:
chain during operation also confirm that the lubrication conditions are suita-
ble. The chains should be cleaned by immersion in clean paraffin and brushing with a
stiff brush; after cleaning, the chains should be dried immediately by hot air to en-
Stop the chain and 1. Check the external cleanliness, corrosive, and lu- sure that no paraffin remains, otherwise the chains will corrode. The chains should
carefully inspect each brication conditions; also look for scratches or be measured when clean but before an oil is applied.
part of the chain and other damage to the link plate side and edge sur- The chains should be placed on a flat surface and stretched. Charts give you the
sprocket face, pin edges, and roller surfaces. load applicable to the various sizes of chains. The length should then be measured
2. Inspect for pin rotation and the gap between the between the centres of the bearing pins, elongation being calculated by the formu-
plate and the pins. la given.
3. Inspect the sprocket teeth surfaces and teeth The percentage extension over the nominal length should be calculated by the fol-
side surfaces for scratches or marks and wear. lowing:
(See Figure 15)
M – X  P
4. Measure the elongation of the chain due to wear. Extension in Percent = ---------------------------  100
XP
5. Check the flex of the chain and the spin of the roll-
ers. where:
6. When using a terminating device, inspect the M = Measured length under load
wear of the terminator and the wear of the pins. X = Number of pitches
Also, check for proper installation.
P = Pitch of chain
7. Inspect the alignment of the shafts. See Title
"Horizontal Precision and Parallelism of the If the extension is in excess of 2% on any section of the chain the whole run of
Shafts" on page 12. chain should be replaced.
Should localised wear be likely to occur in a chain run, additional checks should
Figure 15: Sprocket Conditions made on such sections and the percentage extension ascertained. If the extension
in such sections is in excess of 2%, the chain should be rejected. The chain should
Normal Condition Worn Condition be checked for kinks and twists by suspending it freely and sighting along the
length; if kinks or twists exist, the chain should be rejected.
Example:
Given: X = 100 P = 20mm M = 2035mm
2035 –  100  20  35 35 3
Ext = ------------------------------------------  100 = ------------  100 = ------ = 1 --- = 1.75%
100  20 2000 20 4

Checking Articulation Care should be also taken to ensure that the chain is not pulled out of line by the
The chain should be checked for tight joints by articulating each link through ap- chain wheel; the chain should engage smoothly and evenly with the wheel teeth
proximately 180°. and there should be no tendency for the chain to ride up the teeth. The pretension-
ing of chains should not be excessive, as this will cause friction, but should be just
The most suitable method being to draw the chain over a finger. Tight joints may sufficient to prevent any backlash in the system. The guarding should be checked
be caused by foreign matter on the bearing pins or between the inner and outer to ensure that jamming could not occur and that the chain would not come off the
plates; this may be remedied by cleaning. If cleaning is not successful, the end of wheel should it become slack. The security of end connections should be checked,
the bearing pin may be very gently tapped with a light hammer, but if this does not care being taken to ensure that the split pins in the chain connecting bolts are cor-
clear the joint, the chain should be replaced. Tightness may also be caused rectly locked.
through lack of clearance, between the inner and outer plates due to damage; if
this is so, the chain should be replaced. Chain Slack
Proof Loading The chain slack that you can move by hand (length S-S', see Figure 17) should be
about 4 percent of the span (length A-B) unless one or more of the following con-
It is not necessary to proof-load a chain after removal for routine examination. ditions apply:
However, if it is desired to replace a portion only of the assembly, proof-loading of • The center line of sprockets is vertical or almost vertical.
the complete assembly is necessary. • The center distance of sprockets is more than 1 m.
• The chain is subjected to heavy loads and frequent starts.
Installation of Chain Assemblies
• The chain is subjected to suddenly reversing loads.
Install both ends of the chain onto sprockets and join it with the connecting links.
If one or more of these conditions apply to your operation, make the chain slack
Be sure to install the clips or cotter pins as shown in Figure 16.
(length S-S') about 2 percent. In any case, consult the limits given in the manuals.
Figure 16: Installing the Chain
Figure 17: Chain Slack
B
running direction
S'
Installation Accuracy
After installing the chain, you need to check the accuracy of the installation. This
involves verifying the amount of slack and the precise positioning of the shafts.

Horizontal Precision and Parallelism of the Shafts Start-Up

Correct alignment of the sprockets is very important to the drive to reacha smooth
and wearless operation. Prestart Checklist
• Check the parallelism with a scale.  Before you start running the chain, check the following:
They should be within (length A - B) / L = ±1/300. 1. Connecting plates, clips, and cotter pins are installed correctly.
• Check the horizontal alignment with a level. The shafts should be horizontal 2. The chain slack has been properly adjusted.
within ±1/300.
3. Adequate lubrication is available.
• Align the sprocket faces within tolerances as given.
4. The chain doesn't touch any objects, like chain cases, etc.
Figure 18: Alignment of Sprockets
5. There are no objects in the chain area, and all is clean.
Parallelism Sprocket Faces Start-up Test
Before bring the system back to service, operate it and check the following:
Sound:
There should be no strange noises. Make sure the chain doesn't touch the case.
Vibration:
A B Look for excessive chain vibration.
Sprocket-chain interaction:
Make sure the chain doesn't climb over the sprockets.
Sprockets:
L Be sure the chain separates smoothly from the sprocket.
Chain articulation:
The chain should be articulating smoothly.
If you notice any of these conditions, do not begin operation. Equipment or
Horizontal Alignment chain could be damaged. Correct any problems before proceeding.

Lubrication
The life of a silent chain depends largely upon the wear of the joints. On account
of the high speed and whipping action, it is important to have the chains well oiled.
When splash lubrication is employed, the supply pipe should be placed so that the
oil will be directed against the inside of the chain. It is preferable that silent chains
be operated in an oil-retaining casing with provisions for lubrication. Greases
should be applied in a heated bath so the grease may penetrate the chain thor-
oughly and after cooled down wiped off. Whenever possible avoid using greases
of any kind as oil is preferred.
Lubricate the chain where the tension is minimal, applying the lubricant in the
clearance between the link plates.
Protection and Storage

If not required for immediate use, the chain should be laid on a flat surface, care-
fully oiled and wrapped in greaseproof paper, care being taken to ensure the ex-
clusion of dirt and the prevention of distortion during storage.

Push-Pull Linkages Inspection

On modern aircrafts, push-pull linkages are often used in connection with servo-
Push-pull tubes are used as linkage in various types of mechanically operated sys-
valves in the hydraulic system. Servo valves need very short travel to operate and
tems. This type linkage eliminates the problem of varying tension and permits the
thus, the clearance in the endfittings should be as small as possible. Therefore,
transfer of either compression or tension stress through a single tube. A push-pull
inspecting the endfittings and levers as shown in Figure 20 for excessive wear is
tube assembly consists of a hollow aluminium alloy or steel tube with an adjustable
very important. Lubricate endfittings with suitable grease where lubricating nipple
end fitting and a checknut at either end. The checknuts secure the end fittings after
the tube assembly has been adjusted to its correct length. Push-pull tubes are are provided. If there are no nipples, use oil as specified in the manual.
generally made in short lengths to prevent vibration and bending under compres- Push pull linkages should be inspected visually or non-destructive for cracks and
sion loads. chafe marks according to the limits given.
Figure 19: Push-Pull Tubes with different Endfittings Figure 20: Push-Pull Assembly
Lubricating Nipple
Installation
Alignment
Fittings can be fastened in various positions in relation to the rod. When installing
the control rod, it is necessary to align the fitting correctly at the mounting points.
Figure 21: Alignment of a Fitting

Inspection Hole Screwjacks

If the fitting is rotated to far out can be checked via the inspection hole. The main-
tenance mechanic can feel with a locking wire if the fitting is present or not. If the Inspection
wire can be inserted through the fitting, the fitting is rotated to far out and must be
Inspecting a screw and its nut for wear can be done either visually for corrosion,
corrected. It is save to assume if the fitting is to far out, the linkage is unbalanced
damages and debris, or with a measuring equipment as shown in Figure 23. With
installed or there is a trouble in the whole system.
a measuring equipment as shown, the axial clearance will be measured while
Figure 22: Inspection Hole moving the nut or the screw. To get correct results, the measuring should be done
according to the manufacturers procedure.
Fitting safe Inspection Hole Figure 23: ACME Nut
installed!
Measuring
Gauge
Fitting rotated Inspection Hole

Screw Shaft
to far out!
Ball Nut
Lubrication
To reach a long trouble free operation, lubrication is very important. Since aircraft
operate in zones where temperatures reach near -60°C, components get very cold
and must be free from water. During the approach the landing aids (slats/flaps) are
extended and therefore screwjacks are exposed. Water from rainfall or condensa-
tion-water comming from temperature differences between the surrounding air
and the components gets between the screwshaft and the nut. This can freeze and
can lead to a jamed system. A further problem is, that water penetrates the lubri-
cant. 
A suitable water-resistant grease must be used for lubrication. Usually there are
lubrication ports installed at the nut to lubricate with a grease gun. The screwshafts

thread must have a small coat of grease that can be applied with a brush. Lubri- Figure 26: Detailed Drawing of a Ball srew jackt
cate only as specified in the manuals. SCREW SHAFT
Figure 24: Screwjack and Nut SHAFT MACHINED THREADS
BALL NUT RETAINER

DETAIL I
BALL GUIDE WITH

SHAFT BALL GROOVES DEFLECTOR METHOD
BALL NUT
MACHINED THREADS
BALL GUIDE CLAMP
BALL NUT ASSEMBLY
BALL GUIDE
(See Detail I & II)
CLAMP FASTENER DETAIL II

BALL GUIDE
PICK-UP FINGER
BEARING BALLS METHOD
BALL NUT GROOVES
YOKE DEFLECTORS
Figure 25: Screwjack and Ballnut (See Detail I)
PICK-UP FINGERS
YOKE DEFLECTOR

Training Manual 7.13 Control Cables
7.13 Control Cables

Installation of Swaged End Fittings Inserting the Cable into a Fitting

Choose a fitting matching to the cable and install it into the terminal until it bottoms.
Control cables can be fitted with a wide range of end fittings. It is possible to install
The distance until the cable bottoms must be measured before the swaging pro-
those fittings inhouse if you have all the correct tools, the test equipment and of
cess.
course the approval to do a job like that. The following procedure explains how to
swage a fitting on to a cable. Figure 2: Cable and Fitting before inserting
• Cut the cable to the proper length using a cable cutter.
• Kink the end of cable so that it will not slid out during swaging.
• Install the cable into the terminal until it bottoms.
• Use the proper swaging tool to compress the terminal to the cable.
• Check the swaged terminal using a “Go/No Go” gauge. Swaging Methods
• Proof load the cable.
Cable Fittings can be swaged on using different tools. Keep in mind that some of
them are not allowed to use on commercial aircrafts as e.g. the hand- and hydrau-
Cutting the Cable lically operated squeezer.
Cables are normaly stored on a reel. You have to unwind the length of cable as The known tools are:
specified in the manual. The cable should be cut off with a cable cutter as shown
• Hand operated squeezer (Figure 3)
in the figure below. Remove any burrs on the cables end using a grinding
maschine or any other suitable equipment. • Hydraulically, hand operated squeezer (not shown)
• Rotary swager (Figure 4)
Figure 1: Cable Cutter
For professional manufacturing of control cables, the rotary swaging method is
used. Therefore we’ll only discuss this method.
Figure 3: Swaging Terminals manualy

Rotary Swager Figure 6: Fitting after swaging
Figure 4: Classical Rotary Swager

The principal of operation of a classical
rotary swager are dies, rotating around
the workpiece. While rotating, the dies
deliver blows to the workpiece. This oper-
ation continues several times and result
in a reduced round cross section of the
fitting.
Figure 7: Fittings before and after swaging
Dies are used to form the fitting by delivering blows to the fitting while rotating. The
Checking the Swage
correct set of dies must be installed in the swager to reach a satisfactory result.
The figure below shows a set of dies installed in the swager. After the swaging process has been fin-
ished, the swage must be within given limits.
Figure 5: Changable Dies used in a Rotary Swager This can be done by using a Go/No-Go
Gauge as shown below, or by using a mi-
crometer.
A properly swaged fitting is shows in
Figure 8.

Figure 8: Sectional View of a swaged Fitting Figure 10: Hydraulical Test Rig
Proof Loading
After installation of the end fittings, the cable must be proof loaded to guarantee a
safe operation. The cable will be installed in a manual test rig as shown in Figure 9
or in a hydraulical operated test rig as in Figure 10. A certain load will then be ap-
plied to the cable.
A broken cable is shown in Figure 11. As you see, a properly swaged end fitting is
always stronger than the cable itself.
Figure 9: Manual Test Rig for Proof Loading
Movable Spring Cable Screw Figure 11: Broken Cable
Anchorage Balance Under Test Jack
Protection and Storage

Cables are often diped in a bath of warm conservation fluid to protect it from cor-
rosion. Cables should be stored laid down on a flat surface. When the cable is
rolled up, make shure that the radius is not to small.

Control Cable Installation

Cables ready to install must be clearly identified per specification prior to installa-
tion.
Terminal threads shall be protected to prevent thread damages during installation,
then threads shall be cleaned with specified (applicable) solvent and dry with a
clean cloth.
Before installation of cable assemblies, dirt moisture or other contaminations shall
be removed with a clean cloth.
A small kink in the cable can be worked out with finger manipulation.
Cable Clearances
To prevent cables from chafing/riding conditions certain clearances must be ob-
tained. In general, clearance to structural members such as pipes, ducts and elec-
trical conduit installations etc., shall not be less than the minimum specified in the
applicable manuals.
The permissible clearance of cables from other parts depends on type of cable and
part with categories 1, 2 or 3. (e.g. cat. 1: primary flight control cable)
Critical elements with regard to clearances are:
• Hydraulic lines
• Fuel and oil lines
• Bleed pneumatic ducts
• Electrical conduits and wires
• Instrument and oxygen lines
• High pressure lines
In certain cases engineering approves installation of nylon chafing strips. Limited
contact is acceptable. However, the degree of acceptable rubstrip contact is de-
fined by specification.
Cables routed through fairlead grommets may also have limited contact.
The degree of acceptable contact is defined by applicable specification.
Rubstrips are not acceptable for salvage without engineering approval.

Measuring Cable Tension Figure 12: Measuring Cable Tension

As discussed in Module 6.10 "Control Cables", tension regulators are installed in
long cable runs to maintain the cable tension. This is different in short cable runs
where no tension regulators are installed. Turnbarrels are there used to adjust the
tension and the rigging. In long runs, turnbarrels are only used to adjust the sys-
tems rigging on control valves as an example, and not to adjust the tension.
To determine the tension on a cable run, a tension meter is used. Cable tension is
determined by measuring the amount of force needed to make an offset in the ca-
ble between two steel blocks called anvils. A riser is pressed against the cable to
form the offset.
Several manufactures make a variety of tension meters. Each type is designed for
different kinds of cable size and cable tension.
In addition each tension meter has a calibration which is used to convert dial read-
ing to pounds. To use the chart determine the size for the cable that is to be ad-
justed and the ambient temperature; e.g. cable size 1/8 inch in diameter, a 7 x 19
cable and the temperature of 85° Fahrenheit.
Follow the 85° F line upwards to where it intersects the curve for the 1/8 inch cable
in Figure 13.
Extend the horizontal line from the point of intersection to the right edge of the
chart. The value at this point indicates the rigload in pounds to be established on
the cable.
Tension meters used on nylon coated cable shall be calibrated using a riser which
corresponds to the outside diameter of the nylon coating.
Tension meters shall bear the current calibration dates. Prior to use tension meters
verify the serviceability.
Example:
Inner steel cable without nylon coating: 3/32 inch
Nylon coated cable: 5/32 inch
• Use the riser size for a 5/32 cable
• Read the tensiometer
• Follow the temperature line until it intersects with the curve for the 3/32 cable

Figure 13: Cable Tension Chart

Table 1: Control Cable Tension Chart relating to a given Tensiometer Safety Methods of Tensioning Devices
1/16 3/32 1/8 5/32 3/16 Cable Diameter (inch) Safeting Turnbuckels(Turnbarrels) using Lock Clips
(see “Figure 14: Lock Clip Application” on page 9)
Tensiometer Indication Cable Tension in pounds These days, turnbuckels and also other tensioning devices are usually safetied by
lock clips rather than safety wires. The following procedure explains the installation
12 16 21 12 20 30 pds of lock clips:
19 23 29 17 26 40 pds • Check that the end fittings are not rotated to far out and enough thread is en-
gaged.
25 30 36 22 32 50 pds • Check the turnbarrel and the end fittings groove before assembly for possible
obstructions which may prevent proper installation of locking clip.
31 36 43 26 37 60 pds
• Align slot in barrel with slot in cable end fitting.
36 42 50 30 42 70 pds • Insert straight end of clip into aligned slots and slide into place until hook loop
is over the hole in centre of the turnbarrel. 
41 48 57 34 47 80 pds Both lock clips may be inserted in the same barrel hole or may be inserted in
opposite hole!
46 54 63 38 52 90 pds • Verify proper engagement of hook lip in barrel by application of slight pressure
in disengaging direction.
51 60 69 42 56 100 pds
Lock clips are removed by pulling the hook loop out of the turnbarrel hole with a
46 60 110 pds pair of pliers and sliding the straight end out of the slot.
50 64 120 pds Do not reuse lock clips after removal!
Use Riser No. 1 with 1/16, 3/32 and 1/8 inch cable
Use Riser No. 2 with 5/32 and 3/16 inch cable

Figure 14: Lock Clip Application threads visible provided enough room is left on the shank for wrapping lock-
wire.
Straight End • Cut enough lockwire using the correct material and diameter as specified in
Hook Shoulder End Loop the maintenance manual.
• Follow the procedure as shown in the following figure.
• Cut away excessive wire.
Figure 15: Lockwiring Turnbuckles
Hook Loop
Hook Lip
Groove
Turnbuckle Body
Locking Pin
Safeting Turnbuckels using the Lockwiring Method

Lcokwiring can be used on different fittings. These are:
• Cable eye or fork end fitting turnbuckle
• Swaged or soldered end fitting
• Turnbuckles (those which are not safetied with lock clips)
• ect.
In general aviation, turnbuckels are often safetied using lockwire. When safeting
in flight control systems, always use one of the double wrap methods. Anyway, re-
fer to the procedure given in the maintenance manual.
• Check that no more than three threads of the turnbuckle end fitting are ex-
posed. End fitting shank may be threaded in to the barrel to any depth with no

Cable Inspections Corrosion, Wear and Damage Inspection

If the surface of a control cable is corroded, a more detailed inspection must be
Cables are constantly exposed to negative influences such as:
carried out. It is often necessary to release the cable tension to achieve a more
• Repeated bending stress loads accurate scene of damage. A further way to inspect the interior strand is to care-
• Internal friction fully force the cable to open by reverse twisting and then visually inspect the inte-
• Corrosion rior for corrosion. Helpful tools such as a magnifing glass and a britght light should
• etc. always be used.
This factors will lead sooner or later to cable wire and breakage of wires. Breakage Corrosion on the interior strand of the cable indicates a failure of the cable and re-
of wires occurs most frequently where cables pass over pulleys and through fair- quires replacement of the cable. If there is a minor corrosion and no signs of inter-
leads. Further cable damage occurs due to chafing over structural parts, or one nal damage, remove the external corrosion with a fibre brush or lint free cloth.
cable over an other. Corrosion is one of the most critical damage to control cable For inspecting the cable for broken wires, it is a helpful and known method to run
because of its effect on the cable strength is hard to determined. Therefore corro- a cloth along the cable in both directions. The cloth will snag if there are broken
sion should be prevented by proper application of protective coating. wires present.
To inspect a cable properly, the following steps should be followed as they are de- The cable should be moved in the full length of travel as damaged spots could be
scribed later: hidden in a pulley groove as an example.
• Cleaning
• Cable Corrosion Inspection Figure 16: Stressed Areas and hidden Damages
• Inspection of Installation Area with the highest Area with the highest
• Surface Protection Bending Stress Bending Stress
Cleaning
Occasionally, surface protective coating has to be removed from the cable to per- Cable Pulley
form a thorough check. Cable Segment
Remember the following points:
• Do not saturate control cables with cleaning solvent. Solvent penetration to
cable core destroys cable lubrication permitting corrosion and rapid wear.
• Always use an approved cleaning agent as specified in the manual to remove
the protective surface coating. Still, do not saturate the cables core.
• Unfavourable results can occur with misuse of cleaning solvents, Glycol de- Visual inspection should also be preformed to check for wires that may be frac-
tergents and high water pressure during maintenance of aircraft. tured but remain in lay of the cable and are not snagged sponged by the cloth.
• Never use metallic wool or solvent to clean cables. Metallic wools embed dis- A side effect is that cloth are also used to prevent injury to hands while running
similar metal particles which cause further corrosion. along the cable.
Any cable damage shall be individually evaluated!

Figure 17: Damaged Control Cable Note:

Cross section wear half way through 12 wires per inch is equivalent to 6 broken
wires in 7 x 19 cable and half way through 6 wires is equivalent to three broken
wires in 7 x 7 cable.
Any 1 x 19 non flexible cable that has more than one broken wire within a length
of ten feet or having a broken wire in an area that goes through a fairlead should
be replaced. Single wire worn more than 60 percent of diameter is classes as a
broken wire.
Figure 18: Wear Indication
Wear Tolerances
The following cable wear tolerances can be used as a guide for allowable wear tol-
erance on aircraft in service and at overhaul. There are different limits at mainte-
nance line check and at over haul inspection to use. However limits are given by
the applicable specification and regard to aircraft types in the Maintenance Manual
Chapter 20.
E.g. 7 x 19 cable that has three broken wires or less per inch per strand provided
that not more than six broken wires exist in one inch running length shall be con-
sidered serviceable.
7 x 7 cable that has two broken wires or less per strand per inch provided that no
more that three broken wires exist in one inch running length shall be considered
serviceable. Maximum number of broken wires shall not occur in any consecutive
inch of cable. If maximum number of wires in one inch of cable as noted above are
broken none would be allowed in next consecutive inch.
Critical fatigue area is working length of cable, therefore when broken wire ap-
pears in this area tension should be released and cable checked for defects.
Replace cable which is worn to point that material reduction at any cross section
is in excess of Area of six wires for 7 x 19 cable per inch or three wires for 7 x 7
cable per inch.

Lockclad Cable Damage Protection shall be applied using a clean brush or with a spray as specified in the
applicable manual.
Locklad cables should be replaced when the covering is worn through exposing
wire strands, is broken, or show worn spots which cause the cable to pump when Avoid excessive build up of coating at fairleads grommets pressure seals etc. as
passing over fairlead rollers. this increases cable friction force.
For installed cables the portion of cable to be re coated shall be wiped clean.
Inspection of Installation Check the surface of control cable for lack of protective coating. Clean such areas
Several components are installed along a cable run. Cables should be inspected with a clean cloth moistened with specified cleaning agent.
for broken wires, cable wear and corrosion especially in those sections where they
For nylon coated cables protect compound shall be applied to the area where the
are in contact with pulleys, fairleads, pressure seals or where they are close to toi- nylon has been stripped.
lets, galleys and areas with water condensation build ups.
To thoroughly inspect the cable move it in full length of travel to expose damaged
areas. The following points should be considered:
• Check security and condition of all pulley brackets.
• Check that all pulley guard pins are in place.
• Check for broken or cracked pulleys and pulley flanges when ever tension is
relieved, check pulley for free rotation.
• Check that all cotter pins are securely installed.
• Examine fairlead grommets and rubstrips replace any that are damaged or
worn.
• Examine all firewall fairlead grommets and check for proper alignment and se-
curity to prevent cable ware.
• Grommet should be rigidly clamped in retainer after some cable tension has
been applied and should not be allowed to swivel or rotate.
• Check that all turnbuckles are properly safetied.
• Check that cable terminal threads meet the visual inspection requirement.
• Check the gap between guard pin/bushing and flange of any pulley,sector or
drum is within the applicable limits.
• Check that cable coated with corrosion preventive compound meet the char-
acteristic stated in the applicable specification.
• Check that cable clearance are in accordance to applicable specifications.
• Check cable for proper alignment (no pull offs).
• Check cable clearances in general. See Title "Cable Clearances" on page 5.
Surface Protection
After cleaning and inspection is completed, corrosion preventive surface coating
must be applied to the cable as specified.

Pulley Discrepancies
Due to different negative influences coming from cable or pulley misalignment,
bearing fault, excessive tension in the cable system, wrong sized pulley can lead
to abnormal cable or pulley wear.
Visually inspect the condition with regards to following discrepancies:
• Evidence of abnormal wear in bottom of grove
• Cracked hub
• Blisters
• Excessive play in bearing or loose bearings
Several pulley faults are shown in the following figure. For limitation and tolerances
consult the applicable manual.
Figure 19: Pulley Wear Indications

Bowden Controls Figure 20: Bowden Control
Bowden controls consist of a stainless steel wire housed in a flexible sleeve or

conduit. The control is intended for pull operation only, the cable being returned on
release of the control lever by a spring.
Do not confuse the bowden control with the push-pull cable. Push-pull cables
are able to transmit force in both directions.
The flexible cable is made up of several strands of stainless steel wire. On the
ends are brass nipples which are soldered or swaged on.
The conduit consists of a close coiled wire, covered with a black waterproof coat-
ing. Metal caps are fitted on each end. On long runs metal tubing may be used.
At the transmitting end a hand lever couldm be fitted which engages with the nipple
on the end of the cable. At the receiving end, the cable passes through an adjust-
able stop and the nipple engages the component operating lever.
Inspection and Servicing

• Inspect the cable ends for fraying and corrosion.
• Inspect the conduit for kinks and signs of wear (especially at the ends where
the cable tends to wear the casing bell mouth, unless the cable and the casing
exactly line up).
• Adjust the cable for slackness using adjuster. (Screw out i.e. increase length
of conduit to take up slackness in cable). Check for adequate locking.
• Lubricate, an assembly, with recommended grease.

Training Manual 7.14.1 Sheet Metal Work
7.14.1 Sheet Metal Work

Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only Cat: B1 7.14.1 - 1
Layout and Forming Bend Radius

Non-aviation construction does not require the high strength and light weight that
The fabrication of sheet metal parts for an aircraft requires the technician to have we demand of our structure, and because of economy of construction, many metal
at least a fundamental knowledge of the metal being used and a working knowl- parts have sharp bends. In thin sheet steel, this usually gives no problems, but
edge of applied geometry. We must be able to lay a part out as a flat pattern so when we work with hard aluminium alloy we must never make sharp bends. We
when we cut and fold it into the desired shape, its size will be correct. When an must carefully observe a minimum radius as measured on the inside of the bend.
aircraft is built, fabrication engineers compute all of the bends in the material and In Table 1 on page 2, we have the recommended minimum bend radii for some of
design the dies or write the specifications to be used on the forming machines. the more generally used alloys and for some of the more commonly used metal
Their objective is to allow the metal to be cut to size in one department and formed thickness. You will notice that in the -0, or annealed temper, the metal can be bent
in another, and when the parts are assembled in yet another department, they will over a very small radius, but as its hardness and thickness increases, so does the
fit. In aircraft maintenance, however, the technician must do all of the computation, minimum allowable bend radius. If the bent radius is to small, the outside of the
forming, and assembling himself, and the parts he builds must fit. bend which is stretched will likely crack.
Terminology Table 1: Minimum Bend Radius in Inch
Grain of the Metal Sheet Thickness in inch

The sheet metal we use for aircraft construction and repair was formed from an Alloy 0.020 0.025 0.032 0.040 0.050 0.063 0.071 0.080
ingot of aluminium alloy passed through a series of rollers until it was reduced to
2024-0 1/32 1/16 1/16 1/16 1/16 3/32 1/8 1/8
the thickness that we need. In the process of rolling, the metal assumes a grain
structure which is easy to see in a piece of sheet aluminium alloy. When laying out 2024-T4 1/16 1/16 3/32 3/32 1/8 5/32 7/32 1/4
a pattern, we should orient the metal so the bends will be made across the grain 5052-0 1/32 1/32 1/16 1/16 1/16 1/16 1/8 1/8
as much as practical. 5052-H43 1/32 1/16 1/16 1/16 3/32 3/32 1/8 1/8
Figure 1: Nomenclature of a Bend 6061-0 1/32 1/32 1/32 1/16 1/16 1/16 3/32 3/32
6061-T4 1/32 1/32 1/32 1/16 1/16 3/32 5/32 5/32
Material Thickness (MT) 6061-T6 1/16 1/16 1/16 3/32 3/32 1/8 3/16 3/16
7075-0 1/16 1/16 1/16 1/16 3/32 3/32 5/32 3/16
Neutral Axis 7075-T6 1/8 1/8 1/8 3/16 1/4 5/16 3/8 7/16
Neutral Axis
When we bend a piece of metal around a given radius, the metal on the outside of
Bend Radius (BR) the bend stretches, and that on the inside shrinks. Within the metal, there is a por-
Bend Tangent tion that neither shrinks nor stretches but retains its original dimensions. The line
Line
along which this occurs is called the neutral axis of the metal. It is not located ex-
Mold Line actly in the centre of the sheet, but is actually about 44.53% of the sheet thickness
Mold Point from the inside of the bend. We sometimes need to know the length of the neutral
axis in a bend, and for practical purposes, we can consider it to be in the centre.
Setback
The slight error from this approximation is too small for practical consideration.
BR + MT

Mold Line Note: The chart to read out the K-factor is not printed in this book.
When we extend the straight sides of a piece of formed sheet metal out beyond Figure 2: Setback
the radius of the bend, the extension lines are called the mold lines.
Thickness (MT)
Mold Point
44.5%T
The point of intersection of the mold lines of two sides of a bend is called the mold
point. When we lay out a piece of sheet metal, we make all of our measurements
from one mold point to the next. The metal does not reach the mold point because Neutral Axis
of the radius of the bend, but by measuring from the mold point we can find the
point at which our bend should start.
For the following examples are:
Bend Radius (BR)
Bend Tangent Line Bend Tangent
BR = 0.250"
The jaws of the brake should clamp the sheet metal so the bend will actually start Line MT = 0.064"
at the bend tangent line. The metal is straight to this line, and beyond it, it will be
K 90° =1
curved.
K 45° = 0.41421
Setback
We need to know where to clamp the jaws of the brake, or more specifically, where Setback
the bend tangent line is located. For a 90° bend, the point is back from the mold BR + MT
line to a distance equal to the bend radius plus the metal thickness. Figure 3: 90° and 135° Open Angle Bend
Setback = Bend Radius + Metal Thickness MT
For a bend of more or less than 90°, we must apply a correction known as a K-
factor to find the setback. In Practice, you will use a chart to find the K-factor. To MT
find the setback for any degree of bend, we multiply the sum of the bend radius
and metal thickness by the K-value for the angle through which the metal is bent. BR
BR
We have a piece of 0.064” sheet metal bent through 45° to form an open angle of
135°. For 45° the K-factor is 0.41421. The setback, or the distance from the mold 45˚
point to the bend tangent line, is: Setback
Setback = K  BR + MT  Setback Setback
= 0.41421  0.25 + 0.064 

Setback = (BR + MT)K Setback = (BR + MT)K
= 0.130 = (0.250 + 0.064) x 1 = (0.250 + 0.064) x 0.41421
If we form a closed angle of 45°, the metal must be bent through 135°. The K-factor = 0.314" = 0.130"
for 135° is 2.4142, so the setback, or distance from the mold point to the bend tan-
gent line, is 0.758 inch.

Flat It is also possible to use another formula where we calculate the neutral axis’s cir-
The distance between the bend tangent lines or from the end of a piece of metal cumference our self. Use the same figures as before:
to the bend tangent line is called a flat. This is the metal in a formed piece of ma-   2BR + MT   Bend angle
terial that is not bent. BA = --------------------------------------------------------------------
360
Bend Allowance   0.5 + 0.064 
This is the amount of material that is actually involved in the bend and is the length
= ------------------------------------
4
of the neutral axis in the bend. The total developed length of a flat pattern layout
is the sum of all of the flats and all of the bend allowances. We can compute the = 0.443inch
amount of material in a bend by finding the length of the neutral axis of the material
in the bend. We begin by finding the circumference of a circle whose diameter is
equal to twice the bend radius plus the complete metal thickness multiplied with Making the Layout of a Sheet-Metal Channel
(Pi). This considers the neutral axis to be in the centre of the material which is In order to best understand the technique of sheet-metal layout, consider a chan-
not absolutely true, but, as we will see, the error is too small to be significant. What nel such as that seen in Figure 4 on page 4. This channel is made of 0.040 inch
we have now is the length of the neutral axis for a complete 360° circle. But we are thick 2024T-4 aluminium alloy. The dimension across the bottom of the channel is
using only 90° of metal in the bend, so the bend allowance is one-fourth of this. 2 inches and each side of the channel is 1 inch high.
There has been an empirical formula devised for finding the bend allowance that Figure 4: Sheet Metal Channel
places the neutral axis in its correct location. This formula for one degree of bend
is:
BA = 0.0078MT + 0.01743BR
Flat 1 Flat 3
To find the bend allowance for our example by the use of this formula, we find:
ML 1 ML 3
BA = Bend Allowance MT = 0.064 BR = 0.25 Bend angle = 90°
BA =  0.0078 MT + 0.01743BR   Bend angle Flat 2

=  0.0078  0.064 + 0.01743  0.25   90 ML 2
= 0.0048567  90
To lay out this channel, follow these steps:
= 0.443inch 1. Choose the correct bend radius.
This empirical formula has been used to compile a table that is found in almost all 2. Find the setback.
of the aircraft technician handbooks. 3. Find the length of each of the flats.
4. Find the bend allowance.
5. Lay out the flat pattern.
6. Draw the sight lines on the flat pattern.

Choose the Bend Radius Figure 5: Flat Pattern Layout

In our example, we use a radius of 1/4 inch (0.250 inch) for easier calculation.
Use the chart in Table 1 on page 2 to verify that the choosen bend radius is not
below the minimum bend radius. For our example, the minimum allowable radius
is 3/32 inch (0.094 inch).
Find the Setback Flat 1 BA 1 Flat 2 BA 2 Flat 3

All of the angles in this channel are 90° angles. Therefore, the setback is simply
the bend radius of 0.250 plus the metal thickness of 0.040 inch. Move the radius
bar of the brake back so the bend tangent is 0.290 inch back from the brake leaf
hinge.
Find the Length of Each of the Flats

The flats, or flat portions of the channel, are equal to the mold line length minus 0.71 1.42 0.71
the setback for each of the sides, and the mold line length minus two setbacks for
the bottom. 0.42 0.42
3.68
Flat 1 = 1.00 - 0.29 = 0.71 inch
Flat 2 = 2.00 - (2 x 0.29) = 1.42 inch Making the Bends
Flat 3 = 1.00 - 0.29 = 0.71 inch Put a 1/4" radius block on the upper jaw of the brake and adjust it so it is back from
Find the Bend Allowance the edge of the bending leaf by a distance equal to the thickness of the metal.
Open the jaws of the brake and slip the metal in and line it up so that you can look
Use the formulas as discussed in the Title "Bend Allowance" on page 4. The bend straight down and see that the sight line is even with the edge of the radius block.
allowance is therefore 0.424 inch, which rounds to the practical dimension of 0.42 Clamp the jaws of the brake and raise the leaf. All of our sheet metal has some
inch. springback, so the formed angle, to be exactly 90° should be bent through about
93°. When the first bend is completed, open the jaws and remove the metal. You
Lay Out the Flat Pattern are ready to form the second bend and complete the channel. When more than
When you know the lengths of the flats and the bend allowances, you can lay out one bend is to be made, you should consider the possibility of the upper jaw of the
the flat pattern. Note that the metal needed to make the channel is less than the brake interfering with the bends that have been made. If the bend cannot be com-
dimensions of the outside of the channel. This is because the metal follows the ra- pleted because of this interference, bend it as much as is possible, and then re-
dius of the bend rather than going from mold line to mold line. The larger the bend move it from the brake and complete the forming over a hardwood block cut with
radius, the less the material used for the channel. the proper radius on one corner and provision for springback of the metal. Clamp
the channel in the jaws of a vice between the radius block and a pressure block
Draw the Sight Lines on the Flat Pattern and continue the forming by hammering it down against the radius block with a
We are ready to draw the sight lines on the metal sheet. Use always a felt marker block of hardwood struck with a heavy plastic head mallet. Use as few blows as
to draw the sight lines. This will not scratch the surface as it a scriber does. possible and spread the force out over as large a distance as possible with the
wood block.

Forming Compound Curves Figure 6: Forming a Streamline Part
Bumping
It may be necessary sometimes to form a streamline cover for some component
that must sick out into the airstream. These parts are usually non-structural and
are much more easily made of fiberglass reinforced resins, but you may need to
form one of aluminium alloy. Make a forming block of hardwood, hollowed out to
the form and shape of the cover you want. The inside of the depression should be
exactly the size and shape of the outside of the part. Make a hold-down plate of
metal or heavy plywood that will hold the edges of the metal and yet allow you to
get inside of it to form the metal. Cut a sheet of annealed material, usually 3003-
0 or 5052-0, large enough to form the part. Clamp it between the forming block and
the hold-down plate tight enough to prevent it from wrinkling, yet loose enough that
it can slip as the material is forced down into the depression. Begin forming by
striking around the edges of the depression with a wedge-shaped plastic mallet.
Stretch the material slowly and evenly as it goes into the depression. In the pro-
cess of forming deep parts, the material usually work-hardens and becomes diffi-
cult to form. When this happens, remove the material and anneal it. It should be
annealed in a furnace, but if one is not available and if the part is strictly non struc-
tural, a rather rough procedure can be followed that will soften the material enough
to finish bumping it to shape. Remove the material from the forming block, and use Joggling
a welding torch to coat it with a thin layer of carbon by using an extremely rich acet- When a sheet metal structure is built-up, we often have stack-ups. In order for both
ylene flame from a large tip. Then, using a large but very soft neutral flame, care- pieces to be flat against the skin and yet have one on top of the other at the inter-
fully heat the metal just enough to bum the carbon off. When the part cools, put it section, we must resort to a process known as joggling. The end of one of the piec-
back between the forming block and the hold-down plate and finish bumping it into es is bent up just enough to clear the other, and then it is bent back so it will be
shape. parallel to the original piece. Parts should be joggled to fit rather than attempting
to pull them into fitting with rivets. Form the joggles with a soft hammer or a block
of wood, and be sure to maintain an ample radius in the bends.
Figure 7: Stack-up

Shrinking Sheet Metal Shrinker and Stretcher

During the shrinking process, material is forced or compressed into a smaller area, These days, shrinking and stretching is often done by using a motor driven tool.
The shrinking process is used when the length of a piece of metal, especially on By installing different jaws, it can act as a shrinker or stretcher.
the inside of a bend, is to be reduced. In the shrinker, the jaws are opened and the edge of the material is put between
them and the lever moved back. The first part of the action clamps the jaws tightly
Stretching onto the metal, and then the two pairs of jaws move together just a bit, squeezing
By means of stretching, a strip of flat sheet metal or Hammer the metal. The jaws do not move enough to compress it somewhat. The material
flanged sheet metal can be treated to assume a blows is worked back and forth across the full width of the curve, shrinking it just a little
curved shape without removal of material. Stretching with each movement of the jaws.
can also be used to straighten sheet metal parts. Be- The stretcher works identically as the shrinker but it works exactly the other way
fore stretching, the edges must be deburred very round and stretches the metal.
carefully. Burrs, cuts and grooves across the edges
will cause cracks at some time in the stretching pro- To identify the action of the insets, colour codes are used:
cess. Therefore a file should always be used along the • red for stretching
Stret
edges and never across it. The hammer blows must • blue for shrinking
be evenly distributed to achieve an even curve and to
c he d
avoid cracking. The hammer peen must point to the Figure 8: Shrinking and Stretching Jaws
(imagined) centre of the curve. The hammer shall be
s id e
tilted slightly such that the peen hits 3/4 of the width of
the strip. The remaining 1/4 of the width will partially
stretch even through it is not hit by the hammer; it will
shrink partially, i.e. on the inner side of the curve. In
this way an additional elongation of the strip does not
occur. The stretching shall be accomplished with as
few hammer blows as possible. The strip shall be ad-
vanced evenly. Deep indentations by excessively
hard hammer blows shall be avoided. On the other
hand when the hammer blows are too light, the material will become hard and brit-
tle due to the cold working but it will not stretch sufficiently. According to the
amount of cold working and the type and condition of the material and the rate of
deformation it will be necessary to anneal the work. The rate of deforming depends
on the radius of the curve and the width to be stretched.

Inspection of Sheet Metal Work rivet may have possibly been stretched. Drill out the rivet and examine the hole for
any indication of elongation or tearing. If the structure has been stretched from the
Repairability of Sheet Metal Structure damage, the skin will shift when the rivet is taken out. All of the stresses caused
by the stretching will have to be removed by drilling out rivets in the seam until
Not too many years ago, major sheet metal repair was done in most aircraft main- there is no more shifting. If the holes are enough out of alignment to require the
tenance shops, but today, with the high cost of labour, most of our repair consists next size larger rivet, be sure that the edge distance and rivet spacing will allow
of removing the damaged component and replacing it with a new one from the fac- the use of the larger rivet. Otherwise the skin will have to be replaced.
tory. The complex shapes of many of the sheet metal parts require forming meth-
ods beyond the capability of most shops. Major repairs to stressed skin aircraft Inspection for Corrosion
should never be attempted unless you have the proper jigs to hold the structure
when the skins are removed. The manufacturer of the aircraft can normally furnish If there has been much time delay between the damage and the repair, there is the
drawings that locate the critical jig points so the jigs can be accurately made. One possibility of corrosion forming within the structure. Improper storage of the dam-
of the big advantages of sheet metal construction over the formerly used welded aged structure and sometimes dirt or water left inside will hasten this form of dam-
steel stress structure is the ease with which it can be repaired. If, for example, age. If corrosion is found, every trace must be removed and the metal treated to
there is major damage to the aft section of a fuselage, the rivets that hold the dam- prevent its recurrence. After the treatment, the part should be primed with either
aged area can be drilled out and the entire section removed. A new section can be epoxy primer or with zinc chromate.
mated to the undamaged portion in a jig, and the aircraft can be restored to its orig-
inal condition of structural integrity. Repair of Negligible Damage
Smooth dents in a structure that are free from cracks and
Assessment of Damage sharp corners and that do not interfere in any way with
The difference between making a profit and losing money on a repair job is largely any structure or mechanism, are considered negligible Drill a hole at the
in the assessment of the damage. Damage that is visible from the surface is usu- damage and may be left as they are. If the structure is end of the crack.
ally easy to evaluate, but it is the damage that is not readily apparent that can painted, they may be filled with a resin-type filler, filed
make the difference between profit and loss. When examining a damaged struc- smooth, and refinished to match the rest of the surface.
ture, use the illustrated parts catalogue so you can know exactly what is below the Small cracks in the edge of such low-stress components Crack
surface. Consider every piece of skin, every rib, former, stringer, and fitting. Some as engine cowlings may be stop-drilled at their end to re-
of these parts which have only superficial damage may be quickly repaired, but duce the possibility of the crack enlarging until a perma-
you must weigh the relative cost of repairing them against the cost of a new part. nent repair can be made. Scratches in aluminium alloy
It may be economical to exchange a damaged component with a repair station that skins encourage corrosion to form and concentrate the
specializes in rebuilding these components. Their specialized know-how and stresses enough that they may cause the part to crack. If
equipment will allow them to make the repair with a far smaller labour cost than a the scratch is not too deep, it can be burnished with a
shop that does the work only occasionally, and by exchanging for a component smooth, rounded piece of steel to force the metal back into the scratch. Work the
that has already been repaired, you can get the damaged aircraft back in the air in metal back-in smoothly and evenly, and do not allow it to lap or fold over and form
far less time than you could if you did all of the work yourself. an inclusion that will trap moisture and cause corrosion.
Inspection of Riveted Joints

Hidden damage may extend beyond the area of visible deformation, and any riv-
eted joint that shows an indication of damage should be inspected well beyond the
last deformed rivet. Inspect both the manufactured heads and the shop heads on
the rivets and try to slip a feeler gauge stock under the heads. If it goes under, the

Training Manual 7.14.2 Composite and Non-Metalic
7.14.2 Composite and Non-Metalic

Bonding General Figure 1: Stress Distribution
Why Bond?
Adhesive bonding is a reliable, proven and widely established technique for joining
metals, plastics, composites and many other substrates.
Metal bonding techniques were widely adopted and developed during and after
World War II by the aircraft industry, from where they have subsequently spread
to other sectors. Today, designers and engineers can choose between adhesive
bonding, bolting, riveting, welding or soldering. In many cases the more cost-effec-
tive method will be bonding.
Joints designed and bonded have several advantages over those made by tradi-
Mechanical Joint Bonded Joint
tional methods:
The riveted joint is highly stressed in the vicinity of the rivets (as shown by the ar-
rows in the above diagram) and failure tends to initiate in these areas of peak Adhesives form a continuous bond between the joint surfaces. Rivets and spot
stress. A similar distribution of stress occurs with spot welds and bolts. welds pin the surfaces together only at localised points.
The bonded joint, however, is uniformly stressed. A continuous welded joint is like- Bonded structures are consequently much stiffer and loading may be increased
wise uniformly stressed but the metal in the heated zone will have undergone a (by up to 30-100%) before buckling occurs.
change in performance. Figure 2 shows how a joint may be designed to take advantage of the stiffening
• Bonding eliminates the need for holes and avoids subjecting the joint to weld- effect of bonding.
ing temperatures that weaken metals. The cured adhesive, unlike rivets or
bolts, ensures even distribution of stresses which leads to improved fatigue
performances.
• Bonding saves weight.
• On large area joints, bonded assemblies are generally less costly than their
mechanical joint counterparts; simpler design, easier assembly and simpler
tooling.
• Bonded joints can allow for the assembly of dissimilar materials.
• Bonded joints are electrically insulating and prevent electrolytic corrosion of
conductor metals.
• Bonding joints enables the design of smooth external surfaces, and integrally
sealed joints with minimum sensitivity to crack propagation.
• Bonded joints impart a stiffening effect compared with riveting or spot welding.

Figure 2: Stiffening Effect Designing for Bonding

Adhesives perform best in shear, compression and tension. They behave relative-
ly poorly under peel and cleavage loading. A bonded joint therefore needs to be
designed so that the loading stresses will be directed along the lines of the adhe-
sive’s greatest strengths.
Figure 3: Bonding Stress Examples
Mechanical Joint
Unstiffened
Area
Tension Compression Shear
Bonded Joint
Adhesives in Film Form

Adhesives in the form of flexible films are ready-to-use and require only a short pe-
riod of heat and pressure to form very strong bonds.
The film form ensures an optimum and controlled weight of adhesive containing
exact proportions of resin and hardener. Film adhesives therefore require no mix- Cleavage Peel
ing of components; and are clean, safe and easy to work with. In addition, they are
supplied with protective release paper and/or polythene sheet on either side.
During the heating cycle the film liquefies and flows enough to wet the adherend
surfaces, displaces any entrapped air (hence the need for pressure), and then
cures to an infusible solid.
Film adhesives are particularly useful for bonding large areas and especially useful
in the fabrication of sandwich panels, particularly those incorporating honeycomb
core material.

Typical Joint Types Figure 5: Bonding Joining Designs 3

The basic types of bonded joints are shown diagrammatically. In practical struc-
tures two or more basic types may be used in combination - and the relative di-
mensions of the joints may vary from those shown in the diagrams. In most cases
the stress distribution throughout the joint can be improved by leaving intact the
small amount of resin squeeze-out (fillet) and tapering the overlap to remove the Simple Lap Joint Good
sharp, right-angle ends.
Figure 4: Bonding Joining Designs 2
Strap Joint Fair Tapered Lap Joint Very Good
Scarf Joint Excellent

Double Strap Joint Very Good
Butt Joint Poor in thin Sheet
Tapered Double Strap Joint Excellent Large sheets of thin gauge material (metal or plastics) may be stabilised by bond-
ed stiffeners made of the same material in similar gauge. Figure 6 shows a ‘top
hat’ stiffener.
Towards the edge of the sheet, the stiffener may be cut away (as shown) in order
to reduce stress concentrations. The effect is similar to that of the scarf joint shown
above.
Double Lap Joint Very Good Multi-layer structures may be built up by adhesive bonding and may also be bond-
ed to other parts. In Figure 7 a multi-layer fibre-reinforced plastics laminate is
joined to its neighbour by a multi-stepped lap joint. In Figure 8 an edge member is
bonded into a sandwich panel. On loading, the stresses will be transferred into the
Stepped Lap Joint Very Good panel. The honeycomb core is itself assembled and bonded to the facing sheets
with adhesives.

Figure 6: Stiffening of Large Plates Figure 8: Edge Finishing of Sandwich Panel
Surface Preparation
Introduction
Whenever structural components are to be produced using adhesive bonding, the
condition of the adherend surfaces must be considered. They are likely to be con-
Figure 7: Multi layer Lap Joint taminated with materials which could affect adversely the performance of the re-
sultant joint.
Surface pretreatment will, therefore, normally be necessary if optimum perfor-
mance is to be achieved. It will be vital if good environmental or thermal durability
is required.
Dependent on the substrate, surfaces are prepared by one of the following pre-
treatment procedures (for many substrates, this list is in increasing order of effec-
tiveness):
1. Degrease only.
2. Degrease, abrade and remove loose particles.
3. Degrease and chemically pretreat.
Care must be taken to avoid contaminating the surfaces during or after pretreat-
ment. Contamination may be caused by finger marking - or by cloths which are not
perfectly clean - or by contaminated abrasives - or by sub-standard degreasing or
chemical solutions.
Fig.2 Contamination may also be caused by other work processes taking place in the
bonding area. Particularly to be excluded are oil vapours from machinery, spraying

operations (paint, mould release agents, etc.) and procedures involving powdered native; this technique also ensures that the solvent used is clean. Allow
materials. to stand for about 5 minutes to permit complete evaporation from the joint
Whatever the pretreatment procedure used, it is good practice to bond the sub- surfaces. Good local extraction will have to be employed (at the same
strates as soon as possible after completion, i.e. when the surfaces are most ‘ac- time ensuring compliance with the requirements of any local or national
tive’ (surface properties are at their best). environmental regulations).
or
Degreasing Methods d) Scrub the adherends in a solution of liquid detergent. Wash with clean hot
For nearly all bonding applications, the removal of all traces of oil and grease from water and allow to dry thoroughly - preferably in a stream of warm (ca.
the adherend is essential. 40°C) air, e.g. in an air-circulating oven or from a domestic forced-air
Remove all traces of oil and grease as follows: heater.
(not recommended for some plastic adherends as they might well be attacked by Test for a clean bonding surface
the degreasing solvent.)
The water-break test is a simple method to determine whether the surface to be
a) Suspend the part in the vapour of a suitable alkaline degreasing agent in bonded is clean. It is best suited to metals. If a few drops of distilled water applied
a vapour degreasing unit. The unit may contain a compartment to enable to the adherend wet and spread - or if, on drawing the substrate from out of an
initial washing in the liquid solvent. aqueous medium, the water film does not break up into droplets - then the surface
For metallic substrates, and particularly aluminium, this vapour degreasing pro- may be assumed to be free of contamination. Uniform wetting of the surface by
cess can be augmented by immersion in a warm, aqueous solution of a suitable water indicates that it will probably be likewise wetted by the adhesive.
alkaline degreasing agent (for example, a 10-minute immersion of aluminium It must be borne in mind that certain plastics, even when clean, may not be wetted
sheet in an aqueous solution of Turco T 5215® at 70°C) followed by a spray-rinse by water but will be wetted by the adhesive. Furthermore, satisfactory wetting
in clean water. If further chemical pretreatment is to take place then, the substrate gives no information as to the potential bond strength. At best, it is a necessary -
will not, of necessity, have to be dried. If no further treatment is contemplated then but not sufficient - requirement for the achievement of high bond strengths.
the adherend should be dried thoroughly - preferably in a stream of warm air (ca.
40°C), e.g. in an air-circulating oven or from a domestic forced-air heater. Abrading Methods
or For many substrates (but not all - see the section on aluminium, for instance), light
Where a vapour degreasing unit is not available: abrasion of the surfaces to be bonded can allow the adhesive to key better than
b) Immerse successively in two tanks each containing the same solvent.The when a highly polished adherend is used. Highly active surfaces, such as those
produced immediately following abrasion, tend to have a better affinity for the ad-
first tank acts as a wash, the second as a rinse. (Currently acetone, in
spite of the associated flammability problems). When the solvent in the hesive.
wash tank becomes heavily contaminated, the tank should be emptied, As well as producing an active surface, abrasion pretreatments are generally in-
cleaned out and refilled with fresh solvent. This tank is then used for the tended to remove surface deposits, such as oxide tarnish, rust or mill scale, on me-
rinse and the former rinse tank for the wash. tallic substrates, particularly those which are ferrous-based, or to remove the
Environmentally more acceptable alternatives to these solvents are under devel- surface layer of ‘plastics’ to ensure elimination of all traces of release agent etc. In
opment and include materials based on alcohols, terpenes and water. this latter case, care must be taken to avoid compacting the release agent into the
surface which is being pretreated, instead of removing it.
or
In all cases, the use of air- or water-borne grit-blasting is, generally, the best meth-
c) If safety considerations permit, brush or wipe the adherend surfaces with od of achieving these ends; provided every effort is made to use dry, clean com-
a clean brush or cloth soaked in clean acetone. For fine work, washing
down with solvent applied by aerosol spray may be a more suitable alter-

pressed air and to prevent contaminated abrading media from coming into contact Aluminium Sheet
with the surface to be pretreated. Due to the relatively high ductility of aluminium, it is not recommended that such
Any abrasion pretreatment carried out must be followed by a further operation to adherends are pretreated by any of the abrasion methods. Far better is a vapour
ensure complete removal of loose and loosely-bound particles (from both the abra- and/or alkaline degrease followed by an acid etch (pickling) or by a suitable ano-
sion medium and substrate). For example: dizing process. A controlled film of active, aluminium oxide, highly suitable for
a) Lightly brush with a clean soft brush, or - preferably structural bonding, is grown on the surface of the aluminium; its thickness being
b) Blow clean with an uncontaminated, dry (filtered) compressed-air blast. dependent on the chemical process and the alloy used. Bonding should then take
place within 2 - 8 hours of pretreatment.
The substrate should finally be degreased.
Chromic/Sulphuric Acid Pickling [CSA]
Chemical Pretreatments A suitable pickling solution of sodium dichromate in sulphuric acid, can be made
The surface pretreatments described above, i.e. degreasing alone or degreasing up as follows:
followed by abrasion and removal of the loose particles is sufficient to ensure, for • Water 1.500 litres
several substrate types, that good, strong bonds will be formed with the adhesive • Concentrated Sulphuric Acid [Sg: 1.83] 0.750 litres
being used. However, for many adherends, to obtain maximum strength, repro- • Sodium Dichromate [Na2Cr2O7.2H2O] 0.375 kg (or Chromium Trioxide
ducibility and long-term durability, a chemical pretreatment will be required to mod- [CrO3] 0.250 kg)
ify the surface, or surface chemistry, in such a way as to make it suitable for
• Water make up to 5.0 litres
structural adhesive bonding.
Handle concentrated sulphuric acid with care using all the recommended
For metallic adherends most of these pretreatments either involve acid etching or
personal protection equipment; always add to water.
an acid etch followed by an acidic anodizing process.
Chromium trioxide is a powerful oxidising agent and is highly toxic; par-
Surface modification of plastic materials is, nowadays, frequently carried out by
ticular care is essential when handling this chemical. It, or the chromate,
exposing the surface to be bonded to a controlled flame, plasma or corona dis-
should be dissolved in diluted sulphuric acid.
charge.
Regulate the pickling bath at 60 - 65°C and then immerse the substrate to be pre-
Specific Pretreatments for Aluminium and Aluminium Alloys treated, for 30 minutes. At the end of this time remove and immerse in a tank of
Painted Surfaces water at ambient temperature. Follow this with a spray-rinse with cold water. The
pretreated components can then be air-dried, preferably in an air-circulating oven
Any paint, which has relatively low adhesion to metal, should first be stripped off whose air temperature is no greater than 45°C.
and the metal surface so exposed should then be subjected to a suitable pretreat-
ment. Bonding should take place within 8 hours.
Aluminium Honeycomb Chromic Acid Anodizing [CAA]
Unless there are obvious signs of contamination, aluminium honeycomb does not A thicker, more “robust” oxide film can be grown if chromic acid anodising is used.
require pretreatment prior to bonding. Here, the pickled aluminium substrates (under certain circumstances it may be
sufficient to use only an alkaline degrease before anodizing) are clamped to the
Should, however, any oil or grease contamination be evident, then the affected anode of a standard anodizing bath and are immersed in a solution of chromic ac-
slice should be immersed in the vapour of a suitable hydrocarbon solvent {2}in a id, at 40°C, of the following composition:
vapour degreasing unit. After immersion, always allow sufficient time for the hon-
• Chromium Trioxide [CrO3] 0.500 kg
eycomb core to drain dry. This is particularly important as liquid solvent held in the
corners of the honeycomb cell can be very difficult to detect and must be removed • Water 10.0 litres
before bonding.

The anodizing voltage is raised, over a 10-minute period, to 40 V, held for 20 min- treatment is not really to be recommended. The anodic oxide film is best removed
utes, raised over a 5-minute period, to 50 V and held for 5 minutes. At the end of by immersion in the chromic/sulphuric acid solution given above.
this cycle the components are removed and immersed in a tank of water at ambi- Once the sealed oxide layer has been removed, one of the conventional pretreat-
ent temperature. This is followed by a spray-rinse with cold water. The anodized ments for aluminium can be used.
components can then be air-dried, preferably in an air-circulating oven whose air
temperature is no greater than 45°C.
Bonding of the unsealed components should take place within 4 - 6 hours.
Phosphoric Acid Anodizing [PAA]
To obtain a more open oxide film but thinner than that produced by chromic acid
anodizing, aluminium adherends can be anodized in phosphoric acid; the anodic
oxide contains ‘bound’ phosphate which will impart some degree of durability to
the final adhesive joint.
Here, the pickled aluminium substrates (under certain circumstances it may be
sufficient to use only an alkaline degrease prior to anodizing) are clamped to the
anode of a standard anodizing bath and are immersed in a solution of phosphoric
acid, at 25°C, of the following composition
• “Syrupy” Orthophosphoric Acid [Sg: 1.65] 1.0 litres
• Water 16.6 litres
• (Concentration of phosphoric acid is 75 g/l)
The anodizing voltage is raised to 10 - 15V (preferably 15V) and is held for 20 - 25
minutes. At the end of this time the adherends are removed and immersed in a
bath of water at ambient temperature. This is followed by a spray-rinse with cold
water. The anodized adherends can then be air-dried, preferably in an air-circulat-
ing oven where the air temperature is no greater than 45°C.
Bonding of the unsealed components should take place within 2 - 4 hours.
Sulphuric acid anodizing techniques can be used to pretreat aluminium and its al-
loys but significantly lower adhesive strengths and durability will result when com-
pared with CSA, CAA or PAA pretreatments. This situation can be relieved by
dipping the anodised components in a solution of phosphoric acid to dissolve away
some of the anodic oxide layer to reveal a more open structure more amenable to
adhesive bonding.
Pre-Anodized Aluminium
Decorative (sealed), anodized aluminium or aluminium alloys are, as such, not
suitable for adhesive bonding; these types of substrate require stripping prior to
use. Stripping is sometimes accomplished by abrasive blasting but this sort of

Bonding Practices Each of the different steps is very important for the quality of the repair.
A small failure during one of the steps can cause serious bonding failures and it
Typical Repair Sequence might be necessary to redo a complete repair.
All steps are presented further detailed on the following pages.
Typical Sequence
In any case specific repair procedures given in the SRM have to be followed.
A typical repair sequence includes all necessary steps concerning surface prepa-
ration, repair material preparation and application and the curing.
Figure 9: Typical Sequence

Environmental Conditions A minimum temperature of 18°C is important for the handling/application of the re-
The environmental conditions are very important for the quality of a repair. Dust or pair materials (viscosity). For RT repairs a minimum of 18°C is important to ensure
humidity might cause a bonding failure. the curing.
For workshop conditions, the relative humidity must not exceed 75%. A maximum of 30°C is important for the resin gel time.
Be careful with outdoor repairs. A protection of the repair area might be required,
to prevent dust and condensation.
Figure 10: Environmental Conditions

Planning of a Repair This information can be used to calculate the repair size and to prepare auxiliary
materials (bagging materials).
General The material stock has to be checked. Some materials are stored in a refrigerator
Before starting a repair it is necessary to make a planning. and they have to reach room temperature before utilisation. Therefore the de-
With the specific SRM repair procedures kind and quantities of the necessary ma- stocking should be planned.
terials have to be determined (PrePreg, dry fabric, adhesive film, resin, size, num- The necessary tools and the working environment should be prepared.
ber, orientation). Depending on the availability of tools some different methods, for example, for dry-
ing might be chosen.
Figure 11: General

Calculation of Necessary Repair Materials The parameters to be taken into account, depending on the specific SRM repair
Every specific repair procedure gives information about the required repair mate- procedure are: Requested number of plies, stepping (steps of 12mm for each ply),
rials. scarfing (see table), adhesive film for prepreg repairs (+5mm), cover ply....
Depending on the damage size, size and orientation of each repair ply have to be For wet lay-up repairs, the required quantity of resin has to be calculated.
calculated.
Figure 12: Calculation of Necessary Repair Materials

Surface Preparation • Access the complete repair area plus a minimum of 50mm of the surrounding
area.
Removal of Surface Protection • Take care no to damage the fibers. Special attention is necessary when using,
Protection removal (paint and primer): for example, sanding machines. A scraper might be helpful.
• After removal of the surface protection clean carefully. First remove all parti-
cles with a vacuum cleaner.
Figure 13: Removal of Surface Protection

Cut out of Damage Stepping/Scarfing On sandwich structures, where the honeycomb core is damaged, use a trepanning
Cut out the damaged area to the correct shape and dimensions. All damaged ma- tool or pin cutter to remove the damage. Ensure that the opposite skin is not dam-
terial and loose layers must be removed. Take care not to increase the damage aged during this step if it is not included in the repair.
size. If required in the specific SRM repair procedure, taper or step the edge in prepa-
ration for a laminated repair.
Figure 14: Cut out of Damage Stepping/Scarfing

Preparation of Bonding Area For the next step cleaning/degreasing use only recommended cleaning agents.
First use abrasive cloth grade 280, then abrasive cloth grade 400. A corrrect surface preparation ensures the maximum bond strength and durability
Remove all particles with a vacuum cleaner before cleaning with a lint free cloth of the repair.
and demineralized water.
Figure 15: Preparation of Bonding Area

Water Break Test If the water seperates or form drops or beads within 30 seconds repeat the clean-
A water break test has to be performed to ensure that the bonding surface is cor- ing procedure and repeat the water break test afterwards.
rectly prepared. When the test is completed, dry the surface with a clean cloth.
Apply a thin layer of de-mineralized water with a lint free cloth (when spraying wa- NOTE: Wear white cotton, lint free gloves when handling the component following
ter on the surface water might trapped in open honeycomb). a satisfactory water break test. To prevent possible contamination of the repair ar-
Wait 30 seconds. The water must remain as a complete film over the surface. ea, the repair must be done immediately.
Figure 16: Water Break Test

Drying Therefore absorbed water/fluids must be reduced to a minimum before a repair is

started. Drying is requested for all bonding repairs.
Introduction Several drying methods are available for visible water and absorbed fluids.
Composites can absorb water or other fluids during service. For visible water:
On sandwich structure, a damage with cracks, perforation or a damage of the sur- Mopping up, vacuuming, dry compressed air.
face protection can cause water/fluid ingress. If there is visible water in the dam-
aged/repair area, the surrounding core has to be checked. It might be necessary For absorbed water:
to enlarge the repair area to be sure that there is no water in the surrounding core. Use heating blankets and a vacuum bag, radiant heat, a hot air dryer or a portable
Absorbed water and other liquids can cause serious bonding failures during cur- oven. Each of these methods can be applied depending on repair conditions and
ing. During curing, the increase of the temperature can generate steam pressure. size.
ATTENTION, if the fluid to be removed is flammable.
Figure 17: Introduction

Possible Damage without Drying • Debonding or a bad adhesion between repair plies and existing laminate. The
Absorbed water and water ingress can cause the following damage during curing: presence of absorbed water can reduce, especially for hot bond repairs, the
tensile break load up to 50%.
• Increased porosity in the repair plies.
• Also, the surrounding structure, which is affected by heat, can be damaged.
• Debonding or a bad adhesion between repair plies and honeycomb. The presence of water or absorbed humidity can lead to debondings between
existing plies or between skin and honeycomb.
Figure 18: Possible Damage without Drying

Drying for Absorbed Moisture - Method 1 This will prevent damage to the cut out and the bagging equipment. The metal
Heating Blanket/Vacuum Bag screen can be replaced by a piece of honeycomb (Option B). This option is to be
used for large repairs. Apply a vacuum of 0.4 bar (5.8 psi). Drying times depend
All bagging items are to be installed. on the requested curing temperature.
Option A (perforated metal screen) is recommended for use on small holes only.
The perforated metal screen is used to support the vacuum bag in the cut out area.
Figure 19: Drying for Absorbed Moisture - Method 1

Drying for Absorbed Moisture - Method 2 Depending on the repair size, several heaters can be used together.
RADIANT HEAT It is necessary to control the temperature.
For applying the heat, usually 250 watts, heat lamps are used. A radiator with 50 Therefore, thermocouples are to be installed at the center the heated area. They
to 1000 watt coil elements with a reflector can also be used. are used for controlling the heater or, at least, for temperature monitoring.
This method can be used in conjunction with a vacuum bag to improve the removal Avoid an overheating of the surrounding structure, therefore a second thermocou-
of moisture. ple might be helpful.
Figure 20: Drying for Absorbed Moisture - Method 2

RADIANT HEAT CALIBRATION Graph 1 gives an overview of the temperatures in function of the heat lamp height.
A calibration of the set is required to ensure the right temperature in the repair area Graph 2 gives the temperature in function of the distance to the center.
and to avoid an overheating of the surrounding structure. When using several heaters, take into account the combined heating effect.
Figure 21: Radiant Heat Calibration

Drying for Absorbed Moisture - Method 3 Figure 22: Drying for Absorbed Moisture - Method 3
HOT AIR DRYER
It is preferable to use a hot air dryer with a temperature control or otherwise a dryer
controlled by thermocouples.
To reduce the possibility of causing heat damage it is preferable to use a holding
fixture to maintain the distance between the dryer and the part.
To avoid causing damage to the structure by heat, the set up must be calibrated.
A hot air dryer can also be used to supply the heat for a portable oven (METHOD
4). The oven can be fabricated from sheet metal to the required dimension and po-
sitioned over the area to be dried.

Repair Materials - Preparation/Application Weigh the resin/adhesive and hardener within an accuracy of +/-2%
Exothermic reaction is possible if large quantities of product are mixed.
Resin Mixing
Mix the resin/adhesive and the hardener for a minimum of 5 minutes to obtain a
Two part systems are made up of resin and a hardener and require mixing before uniform homogenous mixture.
use.
Avoid entrapment of air bubbles during curing. Use vacuum techniques to de-gas
Resin and hardener have to be stored in a cool dry environment. The storage tem- if necessary.
perature depends on the specific type. Do not exceed the manufacturer’s shelf life.
For a maximum pot life, pour the mixed material into a shallow tray to a maximum
Preparation work must be completed before mixing resin/adhesives. depth of 6mm. This action decreases the possibility of exothermic reaction.
Calculate the quantity that is necessary to complete the repair. Different spatulas must be used for the mixing and application steps.
Figure 23: Resin Mixing

Resin/Adhesive Quantity Determination It is recommended to add 20% for waste (rest in mixing container) and surface im-
The mixed material ratio, dry fabric to resin/adhesive, is 1:1 (50% by weight). pregnation.
Figure 1 gives an example of the weight of some dry fabric. Mixing of small quantities carries the risk of errors unless accurate weighing devic-
es are used. The risk is minimized if at least 50g, but preferable 100g of resin/ad-
Table 1: Dry Fabric Weight hesive and the corresponding amount of hardener is used.
The table Figure 24 gives an example of the information given for laminating resin.
DRY FABRIC REINFORCEMENT RESIN/ADHESIVE HARDENER Information is given for the mixing ratio, the viscosity, the pot life and the curing
WEIGHT/AREA cycle.
TYPE STYLE WEIGHT g/m2 g/m2 oz/ft.2

(oz/ft.2
Glass 120 105 (0.4) 105 0.4

fabric
181 295 (1.0) 295 1.0
Carbon Plain weave 190 (0.7) 190 0.7

fabric
5H satin 285 (1.0) 285 1.0
8H satin 370 (1.2) 370 1.2
Figure 24: Resin/Adhesive Quantity Determination

Preparation of Honeycomb Core Plug Any dust from machining operations should be removed with a vacuum cleaner.
Measure the depth and diameter of the honeycomb repair cut out. Dry the honeycomb plug.
Cut a honeycomb core plug that is to the required dimension plus 1mm thicker in Store the prepared honeycomb in clean polythene bags on a flat surface, in a
diameter. warm and dry atmosphere until required for use.
Figure 25: Preparation of Honeycomb Core Plug

Installation of Honeycomb Core Plug Alternatively, the curing can be accelerated by heat.
FOR ROOM TEMPERATURE CURING The adhesive must gel, before heat application, to avoid undesired adhesive flow.
Prepare adhesive paste, or laminating resin together with thickening agent. FOR HOT BOND CURING
Apply the prepared material (adhesive/resin) to the sides and bottom of the cutout Prepare sufficient foaming adhesive film and adhesive film and let them reach am-
in the existing honeycomb. bient temperature.
Apply the prepared material to the faying surfaces of the core plug. Cut the adhesive film to size. Position one layer in the bottom of the cutout.
Position the core plug in the cut out and add the prepared material as necessary. Wrap one layer of the foaming adhesive film around the core plug. Place the core
plug in the cutout.
Allow the adhesive to cure at RT.
If required in the repair procedure, the core plug has to be cured seperately.
Figure 26: Installation of Honeycomb Core Plug

Preparation of Wet Lay-up Repair Plies Pour about 80% of the mixed resin onto the parting film.
Refer to the original component or the repair scheme to determine the number, Put the second piece of parting film onto the dry fabric.
style and orientation of the required plies. Using a squeegee or roller press the fabric into the resin to impregnate the fabric
Cut a piece of dry fabric large enough for all repair plies calculated before. and to remove trapped air.
Cut pieces of parting film, approximately 75mm larger in dimension than the cut If any dry areas can be seen in the fabric, add more resin.
fabric. Whilst still sandwiched between the parting films, cut the impregnated fabric to the
Tape one piece of parting film on a smooth, flat surface. required dimensions for each ply. Make sure the required ply orientation is ob-
Prepare sufficient laminating resin. The required resin content of the impregnated tained.
fabric is 50 +/-5% by weight.
Figure 27: Preparation of Wet Lay-up Repair Plies

Cutting of Repair Plies In order to respect the stack up sequence, it is helpful to mark each repair ply with
For cutting the repair plies respect the requested orientation. a sequence number and the orientation.
Figure 28: Cutting of Repair Plies

Application of Wet Lay-up Repair Plies Remove wrinkles and any air bubbles with a roller, work from the center of the ply
Apply a thin layer of resin to the repair area with a brush or a spatula. to the edges. On stepped repairs it might be better to do it, for example, by hand.
Remove the parting film from one side of the first ply. Remove the parting film from the upper surface of the repair ply.
Place the exposed surface of the ply onto the repair area. Respect the requested Repeat these steps until all repair plies are laid up.
orientation.
Figure 29: Application of Wet Lay-up Repair Plies

Application of Prepreg Repair Plies Remove wrinkles and any air bubbles by smoothing or rolling, work from the center
Remove the parting film from one side of the adhesive film. of the repair ply to the edges.
Place the exposed surface of the adhesive film onto the repair area. Lay up all individual plies by repeating the above mentioned steps.
Remove wrinkles and any air bubbles by smoothing or rolling. Work from the A debulking step is necessary after the installation of every three layers (adhesive
center of the adhesive film to the edges. Remove the remaining protective layer. film or prepreg repair plies).
Remove the protective layer from the first prepreg repair ply, position the prepreg For debulking cover the repair area with the following vacuum equipment: perfo-
ply on the adhesive film. Ensure that the prepreg ply is correctly orientated. rated parting film, glas fabric cloth, vacuum bag. Apply a vacuum of 0.8 bars (11.6
psi) for a period of 5 minutes. Remove the vacuum equipment and continue with
the lay-up.
Figure 30: Application of Prepreg Repair Plies

Curing Wet Lay Up

For a wet lay up, dry fabrics are to be impregnated with a prepared resin.
Prepregs/Wet Lay Up
Before impregnating the dry fabric, a resin is mixed with a hardener. The hardener
Prepregs initiates the curing process, which might take 5 to 7 days at room temperature.
Prepregs are semi finished products. Fabrics or tapes are preimpregnated with The curing process can be accelerated by the application of heat. This reduces the
resin. To avoid any curing, prepregs are to be stored at -18°C in a freezer. After curing time (for example 2 hours at 80°C for Hysol EA9396) and has obvious com-
performing the lay-up, heat has to be applied to initiate the curing process. mercial advantages and might also improve mechanical and chemical properties.
Prepregs are used for repairs and also for the manufacturing of complete compo-
nents.
Figure 31: Prepregs/Wet Lay Up

Curing Cycle When the increasing temperature approaches the required curing temperature the
All prepreg repairs must be cured under heat and vacuum. chemical activity increases rapidly and produces heat. Therefore a close control of
the applied heat is necessary to avoid a temperature ’overshoot’.
The example shown is for an 120°C cycle.
For quality purposes, record the temperature from at least three thermocouples.
A minimum vacuum of 0.80 bar is essential to achieve optimum repair quality.
After completion of the cure cycle, decrease the temperature to below 50°C
Initially apply a vacuum to the lay up to check the sealing quality of the vacuum (120°F) before releasing the pressure.
bag and to ensure that there are no leaks. This step must be satisfactory before
any heat is applied.
Figure 32: Curing Cycle

Bagging for Heating Blanket Therefore the breather cloth must extend beyond the parting film.
The PEEL PLY is used as a seperator. The resin can pass, but the bagging mate- A CAUL PLATE (optional) can be used to contour the repair. If the plate does not
rials can be removed after curing from the repair plies. conform with the contour of the repair, the pressure on the repair will not be uni-
Position thermocouples around the edge of the repair. form.
The PERFORATED PARTING FILM is used to control the resin flow. A breather cloth is to be placed over the heating blanket to insulate and to prevent
damage to the bagging film.
The BLEEDER CLOTH absorb the resin.
Two probes, one connected to the vacuum source the other to a vacuum gauge,
The NON PERFORATED PARTING FILM is a resin barrier. are to be placed near the edge of the upper breather cloth. Do not place the probes
The BREATHER CLOTH is necessary for the vacuum drain. on the repair area. This might cause some marks.
Figure 33: Bagging for Heating Blanket

Bagging for Radiant Heat An additional thermocouple is to be installed below the uppermost breather cloth.
The bagging procedure is similar as using a heating blanket, but breather layers A piece of black fabric is to be installed over the uppermost breather ply. This is to
which are installed over the heating blanket are not used. filter the infrared components and to allow only the heat to pass through.
Figure 34: Bagging for Radiant Heat

Bagging for Core Replacement A strip of high temperature resistance tape is to be placed over the area of the core
One thermocouple is to be placed in the core plug close to the adhesive film. This plug splice.
is to read the temperature in the coolest area relevant for the curing of the adhe- Several layers of breather cloth are placed around the edge of the core plug. This
sive film. is to insulate the original structure around the repair area, to avoid heat damage.
The other thermocouples are to be placed around the core plug, not more than
3mm from the edge of the core plug. This is to avoid an overheating of the sur-
rounding structure.
Figure 35: Bagging for Core Replacement

Heat Control Thermocouples Several types of thermocouples exist on the market depending on the temperature
Thermocouples are used for the control and the monitoring of the heat application. range to be measured.
For repairs Type K (Nickel-Chrome/Nickel-Aluminium) and Type J (Iron/Copper-
Nickel) thermocouples are used.
Figure 36: Heat Control Thermocouples

Heat Control Precautions Take care about the poling.

Thermocouples have to be visually checked and tested before installation. Handle the wire carefully. Any break of the insulation can cause a short circuit.
Thermocouples must be welded. It is recommended to periodically control the electrical resistance of the heating
Twisting the ends of the wires can lead to mismeasurements which can cause se- blanket. When a major deviation is measured, a thermal identification to check the
rious curing failures like overheating of the repair and surrounding structure or the heat distribution is required.
necessary curing temperature will not be reached. On a yearly basis it is recommended to calibrate the control and recording device
for both heating and vacuum unit. Refer to manufacturers instructions.
Figure 37: Heat Control Precautions

Surface Restoration After Repair As a general rule, composite surfaces are sealed with pore filler, Tedlar foil or ad-
hesive film, then are primed and top coated.
Original Protection
The protection system of the repair area is to be restored according to the initial
protection and paint build up.
Figure 38: Original Protection

Restoration Procedure restoration are detailed in the related section of the

Instructions regarding the surface protection Structural Repair Manual chapter 51.
Figure 39: Restoration Instructions
Before restoration of the protection system the concerned area has to be thor- • Do not damage fibers during surface preparation operations.
oughly cleaned and degreased.
WARNING:
• Cleaning agents are dangerous.

Figure 40: Restoration Procedure
Sufficient overlaps of layers have to be made.

Figure 41: Paint Build Up

Inspection Methods • Scheduled inspections in accordance with the Maintenance Planning Docu-
ment (MPD).
General • Unscheduled inspections following accidental damage.
There are two types of inspection requirements:
Figure 42: General

Inspection Philosophy Visual inspection is the principal method for damage detection.
Irrespective of the type of composite structure involved (sandwich or monolithic), Close visual inspections and non-destructive tests (NDT) are used to determine
the inspection philosophy is the same. the extent of damage.
Figure 43: Inspection Philosophy

NDT Applicable Methods • Tap test

Except for magnetic particles method, most of the conventional NDT methods, are • Ultrasonic
applicable to composite material inspections. • X-Rays
Practically, in maintenance applications, the following methods are used: • Infrared thermography
For detailed information about NDT, please see Module 7.18
Figure 44: NDT Applicable Methods

TAP Test • Debonding between skin and honeycomb.

INTRODUCTION LIMITATIONS OF THE METHOD
The tap test inspection is based on the fact that when a composite part is tapped Penetration limited in depth.
with a metallic tool, the sound emitted varies when a change in the structure is met. Less sensitive in noisy environments.
Inspection can be provided by manual or electronic tap tests.
Experience and hearing ability of inspector.
APPLICATIONS
Laminate thickness.
• Delamination.
Figure 45: TAP Test

Ultrasonic • Delaminations/Debondings in monolithic structures.

INTRODUCTION • Thickness measurement.
The ultrasonic method uses the property of high frequency sound waves to prop- LIMITATIONS OF THE METHOD
agate in materials and to be reflected by an interface with an air boundary (discon- The defect orientation must be parallel to the surface of inspection. Couplant is re-
tinuity). quired between the search unit and the test part.
APPLICATIONS
Figure 46: Ultrasonic Inspection

REQUIREMENTS
Irrespective of the type of structure, there is a basic requirement to inspect a min-
imum area surrounding the visible damage for evidence of delamination or
debonding.
As damage may extend well beyond the visible damage, the minimum area is de-
fined by a circle passing through two points measured at 100 millimeters from each
end of the large axis of the visible damage.
Figure 47: Min. Area of Ultrasonic Inspection

X-Rays Figure 48: X-Rays

INTRODUCTION
The short electromagnetic X-Ray radiation wavelengths has the ability to pene-
trate matter in varying degrees.
The radiations produced have similar properties to light in that they can produce
an image of the solid being examined.
APPLICATIONS
The typical applications in composite materials are:
• Detection of internal flaws and discontinuities (cracks, damaged and broken
structures)
• Foreign debris.
• Thickness variations.
• Water ingress.
LIMITATIONS OF THE METHOD
The plane of the defect must be parallel to the radiation beam.
X-Rays have a harmful biological effect on human tissues, so very strict safety pre-
cautions must be taken and non authorized personnel must be kept away from the
area.
The work must always be performed in "controlled" working conditions.

Infrared Thermography EXAMPLE

INTRODUCTION The inspection procedure consists of detecting water trapped in sandwich struc-
Infrared thermogrphy is an inspection method which uses the property of materials tures.
to emit electromagnetic radiations. The test part is heated with a set of heating blankets, then the cooling phase is ob-
The radiation wavelength is function of the temperature emitted by the material. served after the heating process.
A camera detects these radiations and converts them into video signals giving a As water and honeycomb have different thermal inertia, a difference in tempera-
"heat map" of the object. ture appears on the surface.
Different temperatures display different colours on a CRT screen. The IR camera detects temperature differences on the surface of the skin.
APPLICATIONS CAPABILITY OF THE METHOD
A typical application of this method is the detection of trapped water inside honey- An essential condition for the performance of the thermographic inspection is that
comb cells of composite sandwich structures. the object is out of thermal equilibrium.
Figure 49: Infrared Thermography


Training Manual 7.15 Welding, Brazing, Soldering and Bonding
7.15 Welding, Brazing, Soldering and Bonding

Welding is slightly lower than that of an oxyacetylene flame, and it is hot enough for welding
aluminum.
A major technical breakthrough in the early days of aviation history was the re-
placement of the wood-and-wire-truss fuselage structure with a welded steel tub- Gas Welding Equipment
ing structure. The steel tubular structure is stronger, easier to build and maintain, Gas welding equipment may be either portable or stationary. Stationary equipment
and much safer in the event of a crash. Most welding of early-day aircraft structure usually consists of an oxygen and an acetylene manifold that supplies several
was done with oxyacetylene torches because the available electric arc equipment welding stations. Portable welding equipment is normally mounted on a hand truck
did not allow sufficient control for the thin-wall tubing used in aircraft structure. so it can be moved to any location in the shop.
World War II saw the development of the shielded arc process of welding, which The typical equipment needed for gas welding consists of:
used electronically controlled equipment making arc-welding of aircraft structure • Oxygen and acetylene cylinders
practical. This equipment has been developed and perfected to the extent that it is
now an accepted method of constructing and repairing aircraft tubular steel struc- • Oxygen and acetylene regulators with pressure gages
ture. The high-strength alloys used in modern aircraft construction are more diffi- • Welding hoses
cult to weld than simple steel tubing, so much welding is done in specially • Welding torch with extra tips and connectors
equipped shops by technicians who specialize in welding. • Welding goggles, torch lighter, special wrench, and fire extinguisher
Types of Welding Figure 1: Gas Welding Equipment

Color Coding
Three basic types of welding areused in aircraft construction and maintenance, (European)
Pressure Regulators
and each has applications for which it is best suited. Gas welding is generally best Welding Torch
suited for welding thin sheets and tubes made of steel, aluminum, and magnesi- Tip
um. Electric arc welding is best suited for heavy sheets and castings. Electric re- Nut Needle Valves N N
sistance welding is mainly used for welding thin sheets of aluminum alloy and Safety Device
stainless steel.
Acetylene
Work Piece Cylinder
Gas Welding
Oxygene
Gas welding is a fusion process in which heat is supplied by burning a mixture of Cylinder
oxygen and a fuel gas such as acetylene or hydrogen. A welding torch is used to
mix the gases in the proper proportions and to direct the flame against the parts to
Hoses
be welded. The molten edges of the parts then flow together, and after cooling
form a single solid piece. Usually a welding rod is dipped into the molten pool to
add additional material to the joint to increase its strength.
Acetylene is the most widely used fuel gas because of its high flame temperature
when it is mixed with oxygen. The temperature of an oxyacetylene flame ranges
from about 3100°C to 3500°C, which is far above the melting temperature of all
commercially used metals.
Hydrogen is often used as a fuel gas for welding aluminum and magnesium be-
cause it produces a very clean flame. The temperature of an oxyhydrogen flame

Fuel Gases nipple on an oxygen cylinder has male threads to prevent the possibility of install-
ing an acetylene regulator. A steel cap must be screwed onto an oxygen cylinder
In this introduction, we will consider only the two gases oxygen and acetylene. to cover the valve any time the regulator is not attached. This prevents damage if
Oxygen O2 the cylinder is knocked over. If a valve is ever knocked off an oxygen cylinder, the
escaping high-pressure gas will convert the cylinder into a jet-propelled missile
Oxygen is a colorless, odorless gas that does not burn by itself. It supports com- that can do extensive damage to anyone or anything it hits.
bustion and combines with other fuel gases to cause them to release a great Acetylene gas is stored in a seamless steel cylinder that has a recessed ring on
amount of heat when they are burned. the bottom. The foot ring protects the cylinder from moisture and corrosion. The
Oxygen makes up about 21% of the volume of the earth’s atmosphere, and is one stem of the cylinder valve has a square shank on which a special wrench fits, and
of the major components of water. Commercial oxygen is produced by cooling air the regulator screws into female threads. In case of a fire, a low-melting-point alloy
to such a low temperature that it changes into a liquid. Then, at a carefully con- in a small passage in these plugs melts and alIows the gas to escape without build-
trolled temperature, the liquid air is allowed to boil and release its oxygen. Another ing up its pressure to a dangerous level. The holes in these plugs are too small for
way of producing commercial oxygen is to break water into its two components, the flame to burn back into the cylinder and cause an explosion.
hydrogen and oxygen, electrolytically. Both gases are collected and compressed
for use in welding. Welding oxygen is called "technical” oxygen, and differs from Pressure Regulators
breathing oxygen because stringent controls are used to remove all traces of water
from breathing oxygen. Aviators breathing oxygen can be used for welding, but Pressure regulators attach to the cylinder valves of both the oxygen and acetylene
cylinders. These are normally two-stage regulators. The first stage reduces the
technical oxygen must never be used to charge the breathing oxygen system in an
pressure to a constant intermediate value, and the second stage reduces this
aircraft.
pressure to a much lower level that is appropriate for the torch being used.
Acetylene C2H2 Figure 2: Single Stage Regulator
Acetylene is a colorless, flammable gas that has a distinctive unpleasant odor de-
tectable even when it is greatly diluted with air. Acetylene is not a natural gas, but
Overpressure Valve
High Pressure Gauge
is produced by the reaction of calcium carbide with water. Acetylene is stable when
stored under a pressure of less than 1,5 bar, but at pressures above this, it be- Cylinder Shut-off Valve
comes dangerously unstable. Because of this instability, it is stored in steel cylin- Low Pressure Gauge
ders filled with a porous material such as a mixture of asbestos and charcoal. The
mixture is then saturated with acetone. The acetone absorbs approximarely 25
times its own volume of acetylene, and allows the cylinder to be charged to a pres- Cut-off Valve
sure of 18 bar without the acetylene becoming unstable.
Gas Storage Cylinders

Oxygen is stored in seamless steel cylinders under a pressure of 200 bar. The cyl- Safety Valve
inders for technical oxygen are painted white with an "N"(New) written on the head
(European Standard). Oxygen cylinders are fitted with a cylinder valve that has a Diaphrame
safety disk that will burst and release the gas if the cylinder pressure builds up to
a dangerous level. The valve has a handwheel and a stem seal that seals when to Torch
the valve is fully open. For this reason, when a regulator is attached to the cylinder, Pressure Adjusting Handle
the valve must be fully open to prevent loss of oxygen around the stem. The outlet

Oxygen Regulator chamber, while those designed for welding lightweight metals have the valves at
Oxygen regulators have a sealing nipple and a nut to attach the regulator to the the tip end. There are two basic types of torches in use; balanced-pressure torches
cylinder valve. The hose connection on the oxygen regulator has right-hand and injector torches. The choice of torch type depends upon the source of the
threads, while the hose connection on the acetylene regulator has left-hand acetylene.
threads. The cylinder-pressure gage shows the pressure inside the oxygen cylin-
der when the cylinder valve is turned on. The adjusting handle in the center of the
Balanced-Pressure Torches
regulator controls the pressure of the oxygen delivered to the torch. When the han- Use balanced-pressure torches when the acetylene is supplied from a cylinder and
dle is screwed to the left until it turns freely with no opposition, the regulator is shut can be deIivered to the torch under the required pressure. The actual pressure de-
off and no oxygen can flow to the torch. If the regulator should leak, a safety disk pend upon the thickness of the metal being welded.
or valve in the low-pressure side will open and release the oxygen out the back of Oxygen and acetylene flow from the regulators into the torch handle, through ox-
the regulator before the pressure can build up enough to damage the regulator di- ygen and acetylene tubes to the needle valves. From the needle valves, the gases
aphragm. flow into the mixing head where they are mixed and then delivered to the tip.
Acetylene Regulator Figure 3: Balanced Pressure Welding Torch
The acetylene regulator has a sealing nipple and male threads that screw into the
nut on the acetylene cylinder valve. The hose connection has left-hand threads. Oxygen Needle Valve
The high-pressure gage reads the cylinder pressure when the cylinder valve is Tip Nut Oxygen Tube Torch Handle
open. The regulator has a safety disk or valve similar to that in the oxygen regula- Tip
tor that will rupture or open if the regulator should leak. The handle in the center of
the regulator adjusts the acetylene pressure delivered to the torch, and when it is Acetylene Tube
turned to the left until no opposition is felt, the valve is shut off and no acetylene
can flow to the torch. The architecture of an acetylen and oxygen regulator are the Acetylene Needle Valve
same but the pressure range is different.
Injector Torches
Hoses
When the acetylene is supplied from an acetylene generator, its pressure is usu-
The hoses used to connect the regulators to the torch are typicaIly made of a high- ally very low. To get the proper amount to the tip to produce the required heat, ox-
quality rubber surrounded with two layers of rubber-impregnated fabric. An outer ygen under a much higher pressure, usually 10 to 40 times as high as that of the
layer of tough rubber protects the hose from abrasion. The oxygen and acetylene acetylene, flows through a small orifice. The resulting high velocity produces a low
hoses, called twin hoses, are joined side-by-side so they are less prone to tangle pressure which draws the acetylene into the mixing chamber.
when in use. The acetylene hose is red, its fittings have left-hand threads, and the
coupling nuts have a groove around the center of the hexes. The oxygen hose is Torch Tips
blue, its fittings have right-hand threads, and the coupling nuts do not have a
Welding torch tips are generally made of hard copper, and the size of the orifice in
groove.
the tip determines the velocity of the gases leaving the torch. The temperature of
the welding flame is determined by the gases used, but the amount of heat deliv-
Torches ered to the work is determined by the amount of gas burned.
Welding torches mix the gases in correct proportion and control the amount of gas The size tip to use is determined by not only the thickness of the material being
delivered to the tip to regulate the size and type of flame. Almost all torches have welded, but also by the nature of the weld, the experience of the welder, and the
twovalves, one for the oxygen and one for the acetylene. Torches designed for position in which the weld is to be made.
welding heavy materials usually have the valves at the hose end of the mixing

Keep the orifice in the tip clean and undistorted. When the tip is used it often be- Compressed Gas Safety
comes clogged with carbon and the flame is distorted. Any time the flame splits or
becomes misshapen, shut the torch down and clean the tip with tip cleaners made The oxygen’s high pressure makes special precautions necessary when the cylin-
ders are replaced. As soon as you remove the regulator from the cylinder, screw
for that purpose. Never use a drill or any other hard metal to clean a tip, as it will
distort the hole. a steel cap in place to protect the valve. When you’ve installed the new cylinder on
the cart, secure it with the chain or clamp so it cannot accidentally fall over. Be sure
Torch Lighters that no greasy rags or tools are used around the oxygen cylinder. Oxygen does
not burn, but it supports combustion so violently that an oily or greasy rag can
Never light welding torches with a match or a cigarette lighter. They offer no pro- catch fire.
tection for your hand when the gasses ignite. Use a flint-type lighter that has a
flame cup for preventing the flame from reaching out. It is permissible to store oxygen cyIinders on their side, but acetylene cylinders
should always be stored upright. If one has been stored on its side, place it in an
Welding Goggles upright position for at least 2 hours before connecting it into the welding rig. This
allows the acetone to settle to the bottom of the cylinder so it will not be drawn out
Wear welding goggles that fit close to the face at all times when welding or cutting.
with the gas. Be sure the regulator reduces the pressure below 1 bar, because
The dark lenses protect your eyes from the ultraviolet and infrared rays that are
acetylene is unstable above this pressure.
produced, and clear glass Ienses that are inexpensive to replace protect the color-
ed glass from damage caused by molten metal splattering against them.
Connecting the Equipment
The color of the lens is determined by the type of welding: Green or brown lenses
are typically used for welding steel, but blue lenses are often used for welding alu- It is important that oxyacetylene equipment be properly set up and adjusted.
minum because it is easier to detect the condition of the surface of the metal. The This is the procedure to follow:
shade of the lens is identified by a number, with the lower numbers indicating the • Before attaching the regulators to the cylinders, momentarily open the cylin-
lighter shades. der valves and allow any dirt or contamination that may be in the valve to be
blown out.
Filler Rod • After installing the regulators, connect the hoses to the regulators and tighten
When two pieces of metal are welded, their edges melt and they flow together to the nuts with the correct-size open-end wrench.
form a single piece. To strengthen the weld, filler metal is added to the molten pool • Screw the adjusting handles of the regulators all of the way to the left until you
so it becomes part of the weld. This filler metal comes in the form of welding rods. meet no resistance. This shuts the gas off to the hose fitting.
Standard welding rods are copper plated to keep them from rusting, and available • Open the oxygen cylinder valve by turning the handwheel all the way to the
in different diameters. left. This valve seats in its fully open position and prevents the oxygen leaking
When selecting the rod for a particular job, follow the recommendations of the rod past the valve stem.
manufacturer to assure that the alloy of the rod is correct for the type of metal you • Open the acetylene valve a quarter of a turn and leave the wrench on the
are welding. valve stem. This allows the acetylene to be turned off in a hurry if a fire should
ever start.
Setting Up the Equipment • Before connecting the torch to the hoses, screw in the adjusting screw han-
The gas welding equipment for most maintenance shops is mounted on a cart and dles enough to cause gas to flow and purge the lines of air and any contami-
ready for operation as soon as it is wheeled into position. There are some precau- nants that may have collected in the hose. After purging the hoses, screw the
tions and procedures that should be observed for maximum safety. adjusting screw handles back out.

• After connecting the torch to the hoses, turn the torch valves off and screw in An oxidizing flame is one in which there is more oxygen than in a neutral flame.
the adjusting screw handles until about 1 bar is indicated on the oxygen gage The inner cone is pointed rather than rounded, and the outer flame is smaller than
and 0.3 bar is shown on the acetylene gage. that around a neutral flame. A hissing sound is often heard when the torch is ad-
• Screw the adjusting screw handles to the left to shut off all flow to the torch justed to produce an oxidizing flame. The temperature of an oxidizing flame is
and watch the torch gages for any indication of leakage. If the hoses and torch around 3500°C.
do not hold the pressure, there is probably a leak. Cover the suspected area Welding flames may be classified as soft or harsh. The temperature of the flame
with a soap and water solution and watch for bubbles. Do not check for a leak is a function of the welding gases, and the amount of heat put into a weld is a func-
with a flame or with any type of oil. If you find a leak, correct it before proceed- tion of the amount of gas being burned. The softness or harshness of a flame is a
ing. function of the velocity of the gases flowing from the tip. A soft flame is one in which
the velocity of the gases is low, and a harsh flame is one in which the velocity is
Lighting and Adjusting the Torch high.
With the torch connected and the correct size tip for the work being welded in- When a soft flame is required to put a lot of heat into the metal, use a tip with a
stalled, the torch can be lit and adjusted. larger orifice than usual.
Open the oxygen valve on the torch and turn the adjusting screw on the regulator
Figure 4: Adjusting the Torch
in until the torch gage indicates the correct pressure for the size orifice in the tip.
When the pressure is adjusted, turn off the oxygen valve on the torch.
Turn on the torch acetylene valve and adjust the acetylene pressure in the same
way as you did the oxygen. Then shut off the torch valve for the acetyIene until you
are ready to light the torch.
Neutral Flame
When the torch is to be lit, slightly open the torch acetylene valve for about a quar-
ter to half of a turn. Use the torch lighter to ignite the acetylene. Open the torch
oxygen valve until the flame returns to the face of the tip and changes to a bluish-
white color, and an inner cone forms.
The relationship between the acetylene and oxygen is indicated by the type of
flame in Figure 4.
Reducing Flame
Generally a neutral flame is used, because it does not alter the composi tion of the
base metal to any extent, and can be used for most metals. The temperature of a
neutral flame is approximately 3250°C. To get a neutral flame, control the torch ox-
ygen valve until there is a definite white feather around the inner cone, and then
increase the oxygen until the feather just disappears. The end of the inner cone
should be rounded, and the outer flame should be blue with a tinge of purple
around its outer edges and at the point. Oxidizing Flame
A reducing flame, sometimes called a carburizing flame, is cooler and its temper-
ature is about 3150°C. A reducing flame should be used only for very special pur-
poses, as the extra acetylene causes carbon to be deposited in the molten metal.
A reducing flame is identified by a very distinctive white feather around the inner
cone, and the outer flame will be whiter than it is around a neutral flame.

Holding the Torch Figure 6: Backhand Welding

>3mm
The tip should be in line with the joint being welded, and inclined between 30° and
60° from the perpendicular, with the actual angle depending upon the amount of
penetration needed. The thicker the material, the more nearly vertical the torch is
held.
If the inner cone of the flame is held about 3 mm from the surface of the metal, a
60˚
puddle of molten metal will form. This puddle should be composed of equal parts
of the two pieces of metal being joined. As soon as the puddle appears, begin
moving the tip in a circular pattern around the outer edge of the puddle, moving it
slightly in the direction you want the weld to progress, melting just a little bit of the
forward edge on each circle. This pattern assures an even distribution of heat be-
tween the two pieces of metal. Shutting Down the Equipment
For thin-gage tubing and sheet metal, point the torch in the direction the weld is After the welding is completed, the equipment must be properly shut down. Extin-
progressing. Add the filler rod to the puddle as the edges of the joint melt before guish the flame by turning off the torch acetylene valve and then the torch oxygen
the flame. This is called forehand welding (see “Figure 5” on page 7). valve. If the torch remains unlit for any period of time, both of the cylinder valves
should be turned off. Open the torch acetylene valve to allow the gas in the line to
Figure 5: Forehand Welding escape. Close the acetylene valve and open the torch oxygen valve until the oxy-
gen all bleeds out. Close the oxygen valve and then turn the adjustment screws in
<3mm both regulators to the left until no opposition is felt and the gases are shut off to the
torch. Coil the hoses up neatly to protect them from damage.
Welding Positions
The ideal position for welding is the flat position, in which the material is flat and
the welding is all done from the top with the torch pointed down on the work. But
this is not always possible in the real world of repair. When welding on tubular
structure, some of the weld is flat, some is horizontal, some is vertical, and some
is overhead.
The preferred method for welding heavy-gage metal is the backhand method, When welding in the overhead position point the torch upward toward the work and
shown in Figure 6. Point the torch away from the direction the weld is progressing. prevent the puddle from sagging by keeping it small and not allowing a drop to
Add the rod to the puddle between the flame and the finished weld. Backhand form. Use the rod to control the puddle and keep the volume of flame to the mini-
welding is not used on thin-gage metal because the greater amount of heat pro- mum needed to assure good fusion of the base metal and the filler rod.
duced in the metal is likely to overheat and burn it. Horizontal welding is done by holding the torch in such a way that the flame is in-
clined upward at an angle between 45° and 60°. Dip the rod in the top of the puddle
and do not allow the weld to get too hot.
Vertical welds are started at the bottom with the flame inclined upward between
45° and 60°. It is important that a vertical weld not be allowed to become overheat-
ed. To prevent overheating, you may have to periodically remove the flame from

the weld for an instant and then return it to the puddle. Add the rod at the top of the Figure 8: Expansion and Retraction
puddle in front of the flame.
Figure 7: Welding Positions and Weld Types
Overhead Weld Overlap
Horizontal Overhead Weld
Rising Weld
Falling Weld Transverse Weld
To prevent overlapping, separate the sheets by their thickness at one end, and by
approximately 3 to 6 mm per 300 mm of length at their other end. The actual sep-
aration depends upon the thickness and type of the metal. Begin the weld, and
watch the sheets draw together. If they have been separated by the correct dis-
tance, they will draw together without overlapping by the time the weld is complet-
ed.
Figure 9: Separation prior to Welding
Control of Expansion and Contraction

Metal heated for welding expands, and when it cools it contracts. These dimen-
sional changes may cause the metal to buckle. Another way and simultaneously the most often used method to prevent excessive
warping when making a straight butt weld is to use the process of skip welding as
An easy way to see the effect of expansion and contraction is to watch what hap-
seen in Figure 10. Place the sheets beside each other with about the thickness of
pens when two pieces of steel sheet are butt-welded together. If the two sheets
the metal separating them. Tack weld them together by forming small puddles at
are placed side by side and welded, one sheet will overlap the other before the
the ends and about every 30 to 40 mm along the length of the sheets. Begin the
weId is compIeted.
welding at point A and weld back to the edge of the sheet. Then start at point B
and weld back to point A, next weld from C to B, and finally from the edge to point
C.

Figure 10: Skip Welding
First Weld Second Weld Third Weld Fourth Weld
A B C
You can prevent large welded structures from warping by first clamping all the
parts in a heavy jig or fixture and then performing the welding. After the welding is
completed the entire structure is normalized to relieve the strains caused by the
concentrations of heat during the welding process. With the structure still clamped
in the jig,it is heated uniformly to a red heat and allowed to cool slowly in still air.
Characteristics of a Good Weld

In a good weld:
• The seam should be smooth with the bead ripples evenly spaced and of a uni-
form thickness.
• The weld should be built up, providing extra thickness at the joint.
• The weld should taper off smoothly into the base metal.
• No oxide should be formed on the base metal close to the weld.
• The weld should show no signs of blow holes, porosity, projecting globules, or
undercutting of the base metal.
• The base metal should show no signs of burns, pits, cracks, or distortion.
Never fiIe welds to improve their appearance, and never fill them with solder, braz-
ing material, or filler of any sort. If it is necessary to reweld a joint, remove all the
old weld before rewelding.

Electric Welding Figure 11: Electric Arc Welding with a flux covered Electrode
There are two basic types of electric welding: electric arc welding and electrical re-
sistance welding. Electric arc welding is typically used for rather heavy material.
The metal is melted in the extreme heat of an electric arc between the work and a
hand-held electrode. Electrical resistance welding is used for thin sheets of metal.
Thin sheets of metal are clamped between two electrodes or rollers and high-am-
perage, low-voltage current flows through the metal. The resistance of the metal
to the flow of current causes enough heat to melt the metal and fuse the pieces
together.
Electric Arc Welding

Electric arc welding has been used for many years as the primary method of join-
ing heavy steel. Developments in the last few decades allow electric arc welding
to be used in aircraft manufacture and maintenance for welding thinwall tubing. Figure 12: Shielded Arc Electrode
This section discusses several types of electric arc welding.
Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)

Electric arc welding that uses a flux-covered rod is called shielded metal arc weld-
ing. This type of welding has been used for many years for heavy steel construc-
tion, but it finds little use in aircraft maintenance except for building shop
equipment. The welding machine that produces the low-voltage and high-current
power for this welding may be either a motor-driven DC generator or an AC trans-
former-type machine. Each type of machine has advantages and disadvantages.

Gas Shielded Arc Welding Figure 13: MIG or GMAW Welding Setup
One of the problems encountered with welding is the contamination of the molten
metal with oxides caused by oxygen in the air. This problem is often handled by
using flux that dissolves the oxides that have formed and covers the molten metal
to exclude the oxygen and prevent further oxide formation.
Aluminum and magnesium are difficult to weld by conventional methods, and in
1942 when the Northrop company received a contract from the U.S.Army Air
Corps to build an all-magnesium, all-welded, tailless fighter, the XP-56, the weld-
ing process known as Heliarc welding was developed. The weIding arc is shielded
by a flow of helium gas that excludes oxygen from the molten metal. The results
are a neat, sound weld with a minimum of splatter and distortion.
Gas shielded arc welding has become extremely important in modern technology
and there are two versions of it in use; one that uses a consumable wire rod as the
electrode and the other that uses a nonconsumable tungsten electrode. The first
was originally called metal inert gas, or MIG, welding, and the second was called Figure 14: MIG Torchhead
tungsten inert gas, or TIG, welding. As the technologies developed, other gases,
some not inert, were used as shielding gases, and the names for these types of
welding were changed to gas metal arc welding (GMAW) and gas tungsten arc
welding (GTAW).

Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) Shielding Gases

In GTA welding. the electrode is a fine nonconsumable tungsten wire used to cre- The gases used to shield the arc in GTA welding are either argon or helium. An
ate the arc, and filler rod is used to reinforce the weld as in oxyacetylene welding. arc shielded with helium is hotter than one shielded with argon and it produces a
Figure 15 shows the typical setup for GTA welding. The gas supply with a regula- deeper penetration, but there is a greater tendency to splatter. Because of argon’s
tor and flowmeter provides a constant flow of shielding gas to the torch and the greater density, it produces a cleaner weld and is used almost exclusively for weld-
electrical current for welding is supplied by a power unit. A ground wire attached ing very thin material. Helium and argon are stored in steel cylinders similar to
to the work from the powerunit completes the setup. those used for oxygen. Both helium and argon cylinders are painted gray, but he-
lium cylinders have an orange band at the top and argon cylinders have a white
Figure 15: TIG or GTAW Welding Setup band.
Regulator and Flowmeter

A regulator, similar to a single-stage oxygen regulator, is used on the shielding gas
cylinder, and a flowmeter is installed between the regulator and the torch to give
the technician an indication of the amount of shielding gas flowing over the weld.
The amount of flow is controlled by the regulator, and should be kept at the value
recommended for the particular type of welding being done.
Power Unit
The power unit used for GTA welding can supply DC-straight polarity (the elec-
trode is negative), DC-reverse polarity, (the electrode is positive), and AC. DC-
straight polarity produces the most heat and deepest penetration, but DC-reverse
polarity has an advantage in welding aluminum and magnesium that, as the elec-
Figure 16: TIG Torchhead and Fillerrod trons flow from the work into the electrode, they blast off the surface oxides that
have formed on the metal.
AC welding is similar to a combination of straight polarity and reverse polarity DC,
but if the oxide coatin, e on the surface of the metal is strong enough, it acts as a
rectifier and no current flows during the half cycle when the electrode is positive,
and the welding is similar to DC-straight polarity. To overcome this problem of rec-
tification, a high-voltage, high-frequency, low-amperage AC signal is superim-
posed on the AC welding current. This high voltage penetrates the oxide film and
allows the weld to have the good characteristics of both rypes of DC welding. This
superimposed high-frequency AC gives these advantages:
• The arc can be started without touching the electrode to the work.
• The arc has better stability.
• A longer arc is possible.
• The tungsten electrodes have a longer life.
• A wider range of current can be used for a specific diameter of electrode.

Hand-Held Torches • Select the correct filler rod for the material being welded. Typically 1100 rod
can be used for 1100 or 3003 alloys and 4043, 5154, 6356, or 5456 should be
Torches for GTA welding are available in both air-cooled and water-cooled ver- used for the other alloys. Clean the rod and the metal to be welded to remove
sions with air cooling used for the lower current welding applications. Gas and
all traces of oil or grease.
cooling water are brought into the water-cooled torch through appropriate hoses,
and after coolin the torch, the water drains back through the tube which encases Almost all aluminum welding will be done using AC with superimposed high-fre-
the power cable. quency AC. With this type of current, the arc can be started without actually touch-
ing the metal with the electrode tip.
The electrode is held in the torch with a split collet that allows it to be extended as
it is consumed. The gas flows out around the electrode and is directed against the • Hold the torch horizontally about 50 mm above the work and swing the tip
work by a ceramic gas shielding cup that screws onto the torch. down until it is about 3 mm from the work with a smooth wrist movement. This
should start the arc.
Electrodes • The downward motion of the torch should be rapid so there will be a maximum
amount of gas protection in the weld zone.
The electrodes for GTA welding are made of tungsten wire and are available in di-
• When making the first start while AC welding, the electrode will have to be
ameters from 0.25 mm to 6 mm and in different lengths. Pure tungsten electrodes
moved closer to the work before the arc starts than it is when the electrode is
are used for most general welding of steel, but its current-carrying ability is limited.
hot.
Tungsten alloyed with thorium emits electrons more readily than pure tungsten, it
resists contamination better, and makes the arc easier to start and more stable. To stop the arc, snap the electrode back to the horizontal position.
But, thorium alloyed rods are much more expensive than pure tungsten elec- After starting the arc, preheat the work by moving the torch in a small circular mo-
trodes. Tungsten electrodes alloyed with zirconium fall between the characteristics tion until a molten puddle 3 to 5 times the thickness of the material is developed,
of pure tungsten and tungsten alloyed with thorium, but they are superior in some then hold the torch at an angle of approximately 75° to the surface of the work with
instances when used for some types of AC welding. the end of the electrode about 3 mm above the work.
Electrodes used for DC-straight polarity welding should have its end pointed and When the puddle becomes bright and fluid, move the torch slowly and steadily
may be smaller than that used for DC-reverse polarity and AC welding. For the lat- along the joint at a speed which will produce a bead of uniform penetration or
ter two types of welding, the end of the electrode is normally rounded. width. No oscillating or other movement of the torch except for a steady forward
motion is required.
Welding Techniques and Procedures
When filler rod is required, hold the rod at an angle of approximately 15° to the
GTA welding is specially suited for aluminum and most of the aluminum alloys, as
work, and just clear of the arc stream. Once the puddle has formed, move the torch
there is no need to use corrosive flux. Some alloys, specifically 2024 and 7075, to the rear of the puddle and add filler rod by quickly touching it in the leading edge
should not be fusion-welded because of hot cracking and impairment of their cor- of the puddle. Add only a small amount of rod, then remove the rod and bring the
rosion resistance, but most others can be welded. The corrosion resistance and
torch back up to the leading edge. When the puddle is again bright, repeat these
heat treatment of some alloys such as 2014 and 2017 are affected by welding, steps.
and when a heat-treatable alloy is welded, it should be re-heat-treated after the
welding is completed. The arc speed is governed by the amount of current and the thickness of the ma-
terial. The speed should be adjusted to obtain a bead that has uniform height and
The steps to follow in GTA welding are:
width. Good penetration is indicated by a very small, smooth bead, and the pene-
• Choose the correct electrode size and gas cup for the thickness of the mate- tration should be uniform on the underside of the work.
rial being welded and, after polishing the electrode with steel wool, install it in
the torch so that it protrudes about 3 to 6 mm from the end of the gas cup for
butt welding or 6 to 9 mm for fillet welding.

Some precautions to be observed when running a bead are: Electrical Resistance Welding
• Do not add filler rod until the puddle is well established.
• Do not insert the filer rod in the arc stream. This will cause considerable spat- Electrical resistance welding is a special type of welding used forjoining very thin
ter and will melt an excessive amount of the rod. sheets of metal, and it replaces riveting in many instances. There are two types of
resistance welding, spot welding and seam welding. One of the widely used avia-
• Do not attempt to hold the filler rod in the molten puddle. The amount of filler
tion applications for spot and seam welding is that of welding fuel tanks for aircraft.
rod determines the buildup of the bead, and little or no buildup is necessary.
Spot and Seam Welding
Inspection of the Weld
The heat required for spot welding is generated when current flows through the
After completing a weld, inspect it carefully to determine that it is completely ade- metal being welded, while considerable pressure is exerted on the electrodes that
quate for the purpose for which it was made. Some possible defects and their most carry the current into and out of the metal.
probable causes are:
• Bead too narrow. This usually indicates that the weld was made at an exces- Two copper electrodes are forced together with the metal being welded between
sive speed. them. A pulse of high-current electricity flows through the metal and heats it to near
its melting point. As it softens, the pressure on the electrodes forces the softened
• Bead too wide. This usually indicates that the weld was made with too slow a metal to form a spot between the sheets that joins them. The length of time the
speed.
current flows is called the dwell time, and it is controlled by an electronic controller
• Weld is contaminated. This is indicated by a black deposit on the weld and is to assure that all of the spots will be uniform.
caused by the electrode coming in contact with the weld metal.
Seam welding is similar to spot welding except that copper wheels replace the rod-
• Weld is oxidized. This is caused by an insufficient supply of shielding gas. type electrodes. The controller sends pulses of current between the wheels so that
spot welds are made close enough together to overlap and form a solid seam.
Figure 17: Spot and Seam Welding

Brazing and Soldering Figure 19: Capillary Rise related to the Gap
20
Brazing and soldering are methods of joining metals by heating them enough to
melt a relatively low-melting-point nonferrous alloy. When the alloy melts, it flows mm
out and wets the parent metal. When it cools it holds the metal parts together. The
18
difference between brazing and soldering is basically the temperature of the alloy.
Brazing materials melt at temperatures higher than 450°C, but lower than the melt-
ing temperature of the metals being joined. Solder melts at a temperature lower
16
than 450°C. The metal parts beeing joined must be free from grease and dirt!
Brazing 14
Brazing is the process of joining metal parts by melting a brazing alloy on the sur-
face. These alloys generally have a bronze base and they melt at about 850°C.
(Steel melts at around 1450°C.) 12
Thoroughly clean the surface to be brazed and heat it, in the case of steel, to a dull
Capillary rise
red. Heat the brazing rod and dip it in a flux made of borax and boric acid. The flux
10
adheres to the rod so none need be applied to the metal. Move the torch with a
neutral flame in a semicircular pattern over the seam to be brazed and hold the
brazing rod in the flame near the tip. When the rod melts and flows over the base
8
metal that is hotter than the melting point of the rod, the bronze alloy flows into the
joint by capillary attraction. Continue to add rod until the joint is built up to the
smooth seam you want. After the seam is completed, allow it to cool slowly. To get 6
a proper braze, the gap between the to metal parts is very important. The next two
figures shows the relation between the gap and the capillary attraction.
4
Figure 18: Capillary Attraction
Correct Incorrect
0.05 ... 0.2
2
> 0.5
melting solder melting solder
0 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 mm 0.5
to small correct correct to far

properly flowed solder melted solder
Root gap

A brazed joint is not strong enough for most aircraft structural applications, and it Metal to Metal Bonding
can be used as a repair procedure only in applications in which brazing was orig-
inally approved. A brazed joint should never be repaired by welding, as the brazing On modern aircraft, there are several parts, where bonding is used, and the use of
this technology is increasing more and more. Even the outer skin of a fuselage is
material gets into the structure of the metal and prevents a proper weld.
often bonded, but only in low stress zones. In high stress zones, the bonding joint
is reinforced by riveting.
Silver Soldering
Silver soldering is a form of brazing used for attaching the fittings to high-pressure Inspection of a Bonded Joint
oxygen lines. Its chief characteristics are its ability to withstand vibration and high An ultrasonic or bond test should be carried out after the part has been cured.
temperature.
A Tap test is insufficient for this type of repair!
Clean and assemble the end of the tube and the inside of the fitting. The fitting
must fit tightly over the end of the tube as the solder is drawn into the joint by cap-
illary attraction. Prepare borax and boric acid paste flux and wipe it on the tube to
cover the area where the fitting is installed. Use a soft, neutral flame to heat the
fitting and tube until the flux turns liquid. Shortly after the flux liquefies, touch the
joint with the silver solder. It will melt and be drawn into the fitting around the tub-
ing. Only an extremely small film of solder is needed to give the joint the integrity
it needs.
Soft Soldering
Soft soldering is done with an alloy of tin and lead, and its melting temperature is
determined by the ratio of these two components. An alloy of 50% tin and
50% lead is commonly used for general soldering. Its melting point is 210°C. Sol-
der used for electronic components is usually 63% tin and 37% lead, and it melts
at 180°C.
Metal parts that can be washed after soldering may be soldered using an acid flux
to clean the metal, but electrical components must never be soldered with an acid
flux. Most solder is available in the form of a hollow wire with the flux on the inside.
The solder used for electrical components has its hollow core filled with a synthetic
resin that melts and flows out ahead of the solder to exclude air from the hot metal
and prevent the formation of oxides.
Soft solder should never be depended upon for strength. The joint must be de-
signed to have all of the needed mechanical strength, and then solder is melted
and flowed over the joint to make it air- and liquid-tight and to give it good electrical
conductivity.

Training Manual 7.16 Aircraft Weight and Balance

Importance of Weight and Balance Figure 2: Forward Center of Gravity
An aircraft is a dynamic device that requires a careful balance between all of its • Critical on landing.
forces to maintain safe and efficient flight. The lift produced by the wing is concen-
trated at a point approximately one-third of the way back from the leading edge, • The aircraft will have a tenden-
and to provide stability, the center of gravity (CG), or that point at which all of the cy to dive.
aircraft weight can be considered to be concentrated, is located slightly ahead of • Stability is decreased.
this center of lift. This location results in a force that tries to pitch the nose of the • Adverse spin characteristics.
aircraft down. This nose-down force is balanced by a tail load which pulls the nose • More engine power is required.
up and makes the aircraft flight level (see “Figure 10” on page 7).
The amount of tail load is determined by the airspeed and it drops off when the
airplane slows down. The weight ahead of the center of lift pulls the nose down
and the airplane will automatically regain the speed it has lost.
Weight and Balance Problems

Problems concerning the weight and balance fall into three categories; either over
maximum weight, too much weight forward, or too much weight aft. Any of these
conditions will have an adverse effect on the aircraft’s flight characteristics.
Figure 1: Aircraft Overload Figure 3: Aft Center of Gravity
• More runway is needed. • Flying speed is decreased.

• A lower climb angle is required • Stall characteristics occur
• High speed is required more readily.
• Structural safety factors are re- • Stability is decreased.
duced. • Adverse spin characteristics.
• Stalling speeds are increasing • More engine power is required.
• More engine power is re-
quired
Any of these conditions can result in the loss of the aircraft and loss of life. For
these reasons, it is very important that the aircraft technician and the pilot have
thorough understanding of weight and balance.

Aircraft Weight Definitions weight carried in the fuselage. The most critical bending load would occur, there-
fore, with no fuel in the wings and maximum weight in the fuselage.
Every aeroplane has certain weight restrictions which are determined by the man-
ufacturer. The operator is legally bound by these limitations and he must not ex- Figure 4: Wing Loads With and Without Fuel
ceed the stipulated limitations when loading the aircraft.
Maximum Design Weights Lift Lift
Maximum Design Taxi Weight (MTW)

This is the maximum permitted weight of the aircraft at which it may be moved, ei-
ther using its engines or being pushed or towed by a tractor.
Maximum Design Take-Off Weight (MTOW)

Weight
This is the maximum permitted weight at begining of the take-off run. The perfor-
mance requirements laid down for take-off are intended to ensure that a loaded Wt. of Fuel Wt. of Fuel
aircraft will be able to follow a safe flight path out of an airfield. In designing the
aircraft to meet those requirements, the maximum weight at take-off is established
for a specific set of atmospheric conditions and a specific runway length, and the
aircraft structure made strong enough to withstand loads which will be imposed at
this weight.
Lift Lift
Maximum Design Landing Weight (MLW)
This is the maximum permitted weight at which the aircraft may land. The under-
carriage is required to cushion the impact sufficiently at touch-down so as to pre-
vent excessive loads being transmitted into the aircraft structure. The force of im-
pact can be kept within the capabilities of the landing gear if the downward velocity
is sufficiently reduced by the pilot, and if the weight of the aircraft is within the per-
missible limit.
Nil Fuel Nil Fuel
Maximum Design Zero-Fuel Weight (MZFW) Weight
This is the weight limit imposed to avoid undue stress on wing structure, beyond
which any increase in load must consist entirely of usable fuel and any other con-
sumable items (e.g. water used to increase thrust at take-off). The lift from the Operational Weights
wings acting upwards, together with the weight of the loaded fuselage acting The maximum design take-off and landing weights of an aircraft may be regulated
downwards in the centre, impose a bending moment on the wing. The designed or reduced by the operator subject to conditions prevailing at the airfield of depar-
strength of the wings limits the weight that may be loaded in the fuselage. That part ture or arrival. The maximum design weights may be regulated by runway length,
of the total aircraft weight which consists of fuel and demineralised water/water slope of runway, elevation of airfield, temperature, wind component, obstruction,
methanol carried in the wings will tend to counterbalance that part of the total and noise abatement rules. All these factors must be taken into account when de-

termining the take-off and landing weights of an aircraft, which in turn will affect the
calculations for performance and the available payload.
Basic Weight (BW) or Empty Weight

The weight of an aircraft and engine, with all of the items of operating equipment
which have a fixed location, installed. It includes all of the optional and special
equipment and full reservoirs of fluids including oil, hydraulic fluid, anti-icing fluid
and other fluids required for normal operation of airplane systems, except potable
water, lavatory precharge water, and water intended for injection in the engines.
It is determined by weighing.
Dry Operating Weight (DOW)

To the Basic Operating Weight crew, crew baggage and catering weights are add-
ed. The weight of any flight spares carried would also be added to this total.
Operating Weight
To the Dry Operating Weight is added the weight of usable take-off fuel plus any
engine additive such as demineralised water.
Traffic Load
This is the weight of passengers, baggage, cargo and mail. it may include the
weight of loading equipment as per company regulations. Total traffic load is fur-
ther subdivided into passengers and dead-load.
Allowed Traffic Load

This is a term which indicates the payload availability. It is calculated by subtract-
ing the Operating Weight from the Regulated Take-off Weight as determined by
considering local conditions, fuel quantity required, and estimated fuel used in
flight.
The following diagram illustrates the build-up of weight associated with the opera-
tion of an aircraft.

Figure 5: Weight and Loading
Taxi Fuel
Trip Fuel Burn-off
Actl. Taxi Block/Ramp
Wt. (Ramp Holding Fuel T/O fuel
Fuel
Weight) Diversion Fuel
Reserve Fuel
Route Reserve
Additional Fuel
Actl. T/O
Weight Passengers
Baggage Traffic Load
Actl. Cargo Dead Load
Landing Mail
Weight Catering Equipment
Actual Crew (incl. Crew Bag)

Dry Operating Weight
Zero Fuel
Weight Std. Loose Equipment
Basic Weight
A/C Weight
Operational and maximum design weights are listed in the certification data
sheet and in the flight crew operating manual.

Balance and Aeroplane Stability Figure 7: Balance With Similar Weights
This section deals with three important aspects of safe aircraft loading or handling
during maintenance actions. It explains in simple terms, why both the total load Anticlockwise Clockwise
and its distribution must be carefully planned and the plan rigidly adhered to during 2m 2m
loading.
Principles of Balance
The effect of weight on balance depends on its distance from a datum.
This is most easily explained in terms of simple weighing equipment.
When a weight and a distance or “lever arm” are multiplied together the result is a
moment. 10kg 10kg
Figure 6: Moment Explanation

Clockwise Moment 10kg x 2m = 20 kgm
Datum Anticlockwise Moment 10kg x 2m = 20 kgm
(Pivot)
Lever Arm Lever Arm Figure 8 on page 6 shows how balance can be achieved with two dissimilar
weights.
Figure 8: Balance With Dissimilar Weights
2m 4m
Weight Weight 5kg
Weight x Lever Arm = Moment

When the total value of the moments tending to rotate a beam in the clockwise di- 10kg
rection equals the value of the moments tending to rotate the beam in the anti-
clockwise direction then the beam is in balance.
In a beam weigher the beam and pans are in balance prior to use. For simplicity
in the related Figures, only the moments associated with the loads in the pans are
5kg x 4m = 20kgm
considered. 10kg x 2m = 20kgm

The loading of an aircraft is governed by the same principle of equal moments Figure 10: Compensation of Small Unbalance In-Flight
clockwise to anti-clockwise about the 25 % mark of MAC of the wing.
Mom Sign Convention Horizontal

By convention the arms measured forward (fwd) of the 25% MAC are called neg- Nose Up 25% MAC Stabilizer
ative (-) and arms aft of the 25% MAC are called positive (+). The negative and
positive moments must be equal to maintain balance.
If an aircraft is pictured with its nose to the left, then:
• Negative moments correspond to anti-clockwise.
• Positive moments correspond to clockwise.
Figure 9: Signs Convention
Nose Down Corrective
Force
25% MAC
15m 10m This could be represented, with the beam scales as shown in Figure 11 on page 7
where the application of the trader’s finger could restore an unsatisfactory bal-
ance.
Figure 11: Visualisation of Unbalance Compensation
2'000kg 3'000kg
FWD HOLD 2'000kg x (-15m) = -30'000kgm

AFT HOLD 3'000kg x (+10m)= +30'000kgm
In Figure 9 the aircraft is assumed to be in balance before the two holds are load-
ed.
The aircraft is satisfactorily balanced after loading.
Unbalance Compensation in Flight

In practice it will usually not be possible to achieve a perfect balance for each flight.
10kg 9kg
For each aircraft type therefore the designers specify a ’Safe Loading Range’ or
‘Safe Loading Limits’.
Provided the loading is controlled within these limits any resulting ‘nose up’ or
‘nose down’ tendency can be corrected in flight, by a force from the Horizontal Sta- The extent to which the horizontal stabiliser can maintain balance depends on its
biliser. size and its distance from the CG of the wing.

Principle of the Centre of Gravity (CG) The CG moves to the left and the beam tips. If the pivot was to be moved 1m to
the left, balance could be restored.
The center of gravity of a body is defined as the point at which its total weight may An aircraft can have a safe loading range, rather than a single point of balance.
be considered to act as a concentrated force. This principle may be illustrated as follows:
In a beam the total of the moments on one side of the centre of gravity will equal
the total of the moments on the other side. Figure 14: CG in Safe Range
If the beam is supported by a pivot directly under the CG the beam will be in bal-
ance. If the CG and pivot do not coincide the CG will be to one side of the pivot 100kg
and that side will sink.
CG
4m 6m
Illustrations of the Movement of the CG
For simplicity in the following diagrams the weight of the beam itself has been ig- 60kg 40kg
nored.
A B
Figure 12: CG on Pivot
The beam can be given a loading range by replacing
the single pivot by two pivots A and B.
100kg
CG
5m 5m In Figure 13 the weight and the CG are the same as in Figure 14 but as the CG is
between the pivots the beam is stable and does not tip.
50kg 50kg
Figure 15: CG not in Safe Range
Pivot
Beam in balance with CG exactly over the pivot. 100kg
CG
2m 8m
Figure 13: CG not on Pivot
20kg
80kg
100kg
CG A B
4m 6m
If, howewer, a much heavier load is placed on the left
40kg
of the beam the CG moves further left and beyond
60kg pivot A causing the beam to tip.
A larger weight has been placed to the left of the pivot.

Aircraft Center of Gravity Figure 17: CG Displacement

The same principle applies to aircraft loading and handling during maintenance
actions. FWD Movement AFT Movement
per 1'000kg per 1'000kg
Empty Aircraft
Figure 16 shows an aircraft with a safe range within which the CG must always lie.
The CG of the empty aircraft is within the limits prior to loading the two holds. Hold 1 Hold 4
Figure 16: CG Safe Range on Aircraft
Safe Limits Combined Effect of Using Forward and Aft Holds

Figure 18 shows the scales used to record 3’000 kg in Hold 1, taking the CG for-
FWD AFT ward of limits and from this point adding the effect of 4’000 kg in Hold 4; the result-
ing aft movement bringing the CG back into safe limits.
This combination of Hold loads gives a safe loading and is acceptable.
Hold 1 Hold 4
Figure 18: Safe Loading
Movement of CG when Load is Put in the Holds

Any load placed in Hold 1 will cause the CG to move forward and the distance Hold 1
moved per 1’000 kg can be calculated. Similarly, the movement aft per 1’000 kg in 3'000kg
Hold 4 can be determined. In this drawing scales have been added to the empty
aircraft shown in a) above to illustrate how the CG moves forward or aft when load Hold 4
is placed in either of the holds (see “Figure 16” ). 4'000kg
CG of
If the load was light, up to 1’000 kg could be placed in Hold 1 without exceeding
Laden A/C
the forward limit or 2’000 kg in Hold 4 without exceeding the aft limit.
With more load, say 7’000 kg, both holds would have to be used and the load dis-
tributed to keep the CG within limits. Wrong Distribution of Load - Unsafe Aircraft
Figure 19 shows what would happen if the load for Hold 1 was wrongly loaded into
Hold 4 and vice-versa.
The result would be an unsafe aircraft with the CG substantially forward of the safe
limits.

Figure 19: Unsafe Loading Figure 20: MAC Layout of Transport Aircraft
25% RC
TEMAC
LEMAC
Hold 1
4'000kg
H-arm 33.15m Reference
Hold 4
3'000kg 31.34m Chord 7.27m
CG of 6.34m
Laden A/C
Safe
The Safe Range - MAC % Range
0 / Datum
The Safe Range for a particular aircraft type is specified by the manufacturer and MAC
is usually expressed in terms of percentage of MAC (Mean Aerodynamic Chord).
The MAC is a reference line used in the design of the wing and its position relative
to the wing and the fuselage is accurately known. % 0 20 40 60 80 100
LEMAC : Leading Edge of MAC

TEMAC : Trailing Edge of MAC
Figure 20 shows an aircraft with a safe loading range of about 1.5m between 20%
and 40% MAC.

Aircraft Stability on Ground The empty weight and CG position data can be found in flight crew operating
manual of aircraft or in the information data bases of the owner (operator).
During maintenance actions like aeroplane overhaul or cabin furbishment, it could For more information about this data see Title "Operational Weights".
happen that CG moves out of its safety range. It turns dangerous if the CG moves
backward, this can cause a tail-tipping. The reference line used for such calculation is usually the "25%-MAC line". To de-
termine moment arms, the use of station plans can be of great help. The weight
Prior to remove heavy equipement (Galleys, more than one engine, etc.) and balance manual usually includes such plans specially designed for this pur-
from an aeroplane technicians have to consult its maintenance manual or pose.
weight and balance manual.
Figure 21: Unstable Aircraft
Index System
The JAA impels operators of large aircrafts to create an index unit system, which
includes the related formulas to make weight and balance calculations easier.
The following example belongs to Swiss´s Airbus A330-200:
Aircraft Weight  Index Arm

BI = ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- + 50
5'000'000
Item Weight  Index Arm

IU = ------------------------------------------------------------------
5'000'000
Table 1: Symbols Used
Symbol Units Descriptions
BI Basic Index
Balance Limit Calculation Aircraft Weight kg or lb Actual Weight
As it was explained before, moment calculations are used to determine CG posi- Index Arm mm or measured forward (-) and aft (+) of reference line
tion and shifting. Index units are used, rather than very large moment values. The in
necessary data for such calculations are listed bellow:
• Empty weight of aircraft and its CG position IU Index Units used for graphical determination of
CG-Position
• Reference line position (MAC)
• Station plan of aircraft Item Weight kg or lb Object to be loaded
• Formulas (units and %MAC)
• Balance graphs

%MAC Formula • Engines removed

There is also a formula to calculate position of CG in % of MAC, an universal sys- • Engine re-installation
tem used in many CG-position calculations: 1. Aircraft Maintenance Configuration
Make sure that the flaps, the slats, the spoilers, the speed brakes and the
thrust reverser are retracted.
H-arm – LEMAC
% MAC = ------------------------------------------  100 Make sure that the horizontal stabilizer is set to neutral.
MAC lenght
2. Check of the aircraft stability
(1) Check of aircraft stability:
without crew,
Table 2: Symbols Used without pantry(food, etc.),
without pallets and containers.
Symbol Units Descriptions For instance, plot point A on the chart from these coordinates:
weight: 160000 kg (352‘739.5lb) (actual weight)
% MAC CG position in % of MAC
CG: 23% of MAC
H-Arm mm or in Moment arm messured from fuselage station 0 NOTE: under these conditions, the aircraft will be safe in winds up to
(Datum). In this case CG-arm 100km/h (54 kts)
(2) Stability of the aircraft when both engines are removed.
LEMAC mm or in Leading Edge of MAC fuselge station position (a) From point A, make a horizontal line: it cuts across the weight
messured from Datum axis at point B
MAC length mm or in Lenght of MAC (b) From point B, substract the weight of two removed engines
14‘000 kg (30‘864.7lb) approx., to get point B’.
(c) From point A, make a vertical line: it cuts across one division of
Depending on the aircraft status, there are different balance graphs to be used.
the "removed engine scale at point C.
These can be found in the Weight and Balance Manuals (WBM). Some graphs be-
longing to specific tasks like engine removal can be found in maintenance manual (d) Make a line across two divisions on this scale (1 division per en-
(ATA 5). Other graphs which belongs to aircraft operation are found in the loading gine) to get point C’.
section of FCOM (Flight Crew Operating Manual). (e) From this point C’, make a vertical line and from point B’, make a
horizontal line: These two lines cut at point D. For this point, the dia-
Aircraft Stability - Maintenance Practices Example gram gives these values:
aircraft weight: 146‘000 kg (321‘874.8lb)
The method given below is used to do graphical checks of the aircraft stability, it
is a symplified description out of AMM of Airbus A330-200. CG: 29.5%
permissible wind: 70 km/h (38 kts)
NOTE: with the stability graph (aircraft on wheels and jacked) given in this proce-
dure, you can do a check of shifting or tipping stability limits. It is also used to cal- (3) Calculation of the amount of ballast necessary for engine installation
culate the ballast necessary for aircraft stability under unfavorable conditions in It is considered that engines are installed in the open air, with peak
the following configurations: windspeed of 90 km/h (49 kts).
• Aircraft with engines

The ballast, if necessary shall be installed in the forward cargo-com- Figure 22: Pallets Distribution in Fwd Cargo Compartment
partment at position 11P.
(a) continue line B’D until it cuts across the 90 km/h (49 kts) average
windspeed line at point G.
(b) continue line DC’ until it cuts across the "ballast on pallet 11P"
scale at point E.
(c) from point G, make a vertical line until it cross the "ballast on pal-
let 11P" scale at point E’.
(d) Count the number of divisions on the scale between point E and
E’ (in the example 2.3 division).
Thus, weight of ballast necessary: 2.3 x 1000kg (2204.6lb) = 2300
kg (5070.6lb)
NOTE: as the ballast causes only a small increase in the aircraft
weight, this weight has been ignored
11P 12P 21P 22P 23P 24P

Figure 23: Stability Graph (on wheels)

Figure 24: Stability Graph (jacked)

Aircraft Weighing • Basic operating weight

• CG %MAC
Aircraft have a tendency to gain weight because of modifications, installation of
equipment and the accumulation of dirt, grease, etc. in areas not readily accessi- • Cabin version
ble for washing and cleaning.
For this reason, periodic aircraft weighings are required by Joint Aviation Regula-
tions (JARs). For more information see JAR OPS 1 - Section 1 - Subpart J: Mass
and Balance
Weighing Procedures
Before any weighing can begin, it is necessary to become familiar with the perti-
nent data available concerning the weight and the balance of the particular aircraft.
This information will be found in the Aviation Authority documentation and the
manufacturer’s manuals and would include:
• Aircraft Specifications
• Type Certificate Data Sheet
• Manufacturer’s Maintenance Manual
• Manufacturer’s Weight and Balance Manual
• Information Databases of Maintenance Organisations
Most of these informations are furnished by the manufacturer on aircraft that have
a Type Certificate Data Sheet.
The Manufacturer’s Maintenance Manual gives the following informations:
• Leveling means
• Weighing procedures
The Weight and Balance Manual gives the following informations:
• CG range
• Maximum weights
• Empty weight CG range.
• Seats and location
• Fuel capacity
• Datum location
Nowadays most of operator‘s maintenance organisations have the information,
which is needed for weight and balance matters, stored in IT data bases. The data
stored is used for weight and balance follow up (weight changes due to modifica-
tions) and to build up digital load sheets. Such a data base includes at least:
• Aircraft Data (type, immatriculation, serial numbers)

Preparation Figure 25: Aircraft Weighing Configuration

Because of the large surface area of an aircraft, it is possible for it to accumulate
enough dirt to give it an inaccurate weight. When the aircraft is prepared for
weighing, it should be washed, and all of the accumulation of dirt and debris should
be cleaned out of the inside.
The equipment list should be checked to be sure that all of the required equipment
is actually installed, and that there is nothing installed that is not on the equipment
list. Loose equipement should be stowed in the right compartments or hatches (ox-
ygen masks, emergency equipment, etc.).
The hydraulic reservoir and oil tanks or sumps (engines, APU, IDG’s) should be
full, and if the aircraft is equipped with a fluid anti-icing system, the anti-icer fluid
tank should also be full.
the fuel tanks should be drained, only the unusable fuel-that is, the fuel that cannot Preparations
flow to the engines in the normal flight attitude-should be in the aircraft when it is
weighed. This unusable fuel is part of the aircraft empty weight. - Fuel Tanks........................... Drained
If it is impractical to drain the fuel tanks, they may be filled completely full. The - Fluid Reservoirs.................. Full
temperature of the fuel is taken when the aircraft is weighed, and a correction is - Potable Water Tank............. Empty
applied to compute the actual weight of the fuel on board. This total fuel weight, - Waste Water Tank............... Empty
less the weight of the usable as is specified in the Weight and Balance Manual, is - Sec. Flight Controls............. Retract
deducted from the as-weighed of the aircraft. - All Doors and Accesses...... Close
On many aircraft the position of flight controls and cabin layout (cabin configura- - Wheel pressure.................. Adjust
tions) are also essential prior to weighing. The positions, when necessary, will be - Shock Absorbers Pres........ Adjust
noted in the Aircraft Specifications or information data bases of maint organisation. - Cabin Equipment................ All in Place
- Pantry.................................. Offload
- Landing Gear...................... Extend
Empty Weight
Aircraft ready for weighing

Equipment Figure 27: Load Cells

There are two types of equipment that may be used to weigh an aircraft. Platform
scales and electronic load cells.
The smaller aircraft are lifted off the floor with jacks and are lowered onto platform
scales with a scale under each wheel. These mechanical scales are specially built
with low beams so they will fit under the wing of low-wing airplanes. Nowadays
load platform cells are used rather than mechanical.
Figure 26: Weighing Platforms
Typical Jack
Pad Adapter
Airplane
Structure
Typical
Electronic
Load Cell
Weighing
Chocks are used on the scale platform to prevent the aircraft rolling, as the brakes Cell-to-Jack Typical
must be released to prevent an uneven application of force to the platform. The Adapter Adapter
weight of the chocks is called the tare weight, and it must be subtracted from the
scale reading to get the net weight of the aircraft. Larger aircraft are rather towed
onto platforms. Typical
Jack Screw
Larger aircraft are sometimes weighed by placing load cells between the jack and
the jack-pad on the aircraft (see “Figure 27” ).
The aircraft is leveled according to the leveling instructions in the Maintenance
Manual. The level of some aircraft is determined by placing a spirit level on a given
place (cabin seat tracks), while others are leveled by an attitude indicator installed
in the aircraft. Longitudinal level is the most important condition, but the aircraft
should be laterally level as well (see “Figure 28” ).

Figure 28: Aircraft Leveling

If the aircraft is weighed from the jacks, it may be leveled by adjusting the exten- If the aircraft was not weighed empty, the weight and moments of the fuel must be
sion of the jacks, but if it is resting on its landing gear on the scales, fine adjustment computed out. The as-weighed weight, arm and moment of the fuel are recorded
of the level may be made by changing the amount of inflation of the tires or of the in the lower chart, and the weight, arm and moment of the fuel are recorded. Since
shock struts. Usually shimboards are used for this purpose. these weights are to be subtracted from the weight of the aircraft, they are negative
Note: it is extremely important when jacking or weighing an aircraft that the weights, and if their arm is negative, the moment will be positive; but if the arm is
recommendations of the aircraft manufacturer (AMM ATA-08) be followed positive, the moment will be negative.
in detail, as the procedures required for each aircraft differ. When the algebraic sum of the moments is divided by the net weight, less the
When the aircraft is on the scales and is level, plumb bobs may be dropped from weight of the fuel, the arm will be the EWCG of the aircraft.
the datum and from the weighing points so that lines may be chalked on the floor The weighing form is completed by noting the maximum allowable gross weight,
from which to make accurate measurements to determine the CG. Quite often the as is found in the Type Certificate Data Sheet. The difference between the maxi-
datum is located ahead of the aircraft. In the figure we see that the datum is 6.382 mum allowable gross weight and the empty weight is the useful load.
meter (251.28 in) ahead of the forward side of the front pressure bulkhead. A
plumb bob is dropped from the forward side of this bulkhead, and the hanger floor
is marked at this point as station 6382.
Recording The Data

A weighing form is useful to systematically record all of the information and to find
the empty weight CG (EWCG).
The aircraft make and model with its serial number are recorded, as well as the
location of the datum as found in the weight and balance manual. The weighing
conditions of the aircraft specify whether or not any fuel or oil were on board when
it was weighed, The amount of fuel and its temperature should be recorded as well
as the amount of oil. The location of the weighing points should be specified in
inches forward or aft of the datum.
The scale reading is taken and recorded for both the left and right main weighing
points and for the nose or tail point. The weight of any tare used to hold the aircraft
on the scales is subtracted from the scale reading to get the net weight at each of
the tree weighing points.
The distance as measured along the floor between the datum and the weighing
points is recorded in the arm column. If the weighing point is ahead of the datum,
the arm is negative, but if it is behind the datum, the arm is positive. The moment
is the product of the arm in meter (inches) times the net weight in kg (pounds), and
is expressed in kgm (pounds inches).
the algebraic sum of the moments is recorded in the bottom line of the moments
column, and the total net weight is the sum of the three scale readings, less the
tare weight. The total moment divided by the total weight gives us the arm of the
CG.

Figure 29: Weighing Form (example)

Locating The CG CG = ??
If the datum is ahead of the main wheels, use the formula:
4'800  12'690
CG = 20'290 – ----------------------------------
42'800
FL
CG = D – -----------
W
CG = 18'875mmaft of the datum
Table 3: Symbols Used %MAC = ??(see Title “%MAC Formula” on page 12)
Symbol Units Description

(18'875 – 17'801.5 
% MAC = ------------------------------------------------  100
CG mm or in Distance between datum and center of gravity (CG) 4193.5
D mm or in Distance between the datum and the main wheel % MAC = 25.5
weighing point
E kg or lb Mainwheels net weight

Figure 30: Data for Example
F kg or lb Nosewheel net weight
Datum
L mm or in Distance between main wheel and nosewheel weigh-
D
ing points
W kg or lb Total weight of the aircraft (main wheels + nose-

wheel)
Example
The data is taken from the example form (see “Figure 29” on page 21) L W
D = 20‘290mm F
E
L = 12‘690mm
E = 38‘000kg
F = 4‘800kg
W = 42‘800kg

Training Manual 7.17 Aircraft Handling and Storage
7.17 Aircraft Handling and Storage
Fuel Truck
Fuel Hose
Static Wire

Taxiing Figure 1: Signal Man Position
Airplanes and helicopters are designed to fly, and movement on the ground is of-
ten a rather awkward procedure. Be sure that only qualified persons authorized to
taxi the aircraft, are at the controls. Before starting the engine, be sure that the ar-
ea, both in front and behind, is clear of people and equipment that could be dam-
aged, or that could cause damage to the aircraft. 17.000
It is usually difficult to assure that there is sufficient clearance between the wings,
rotor, and any buildings or other aircraft. Before moving, it is a good policy to sta-
tion signalmen where they can watch the wings or rotor and any obstructions. In
Figure 2 on page 3, we have the standard signals that may be used between a
ground signalman and the pilot of a airplane.
Whatever signals are used, be sure that both persons understand exactly what the
signals mean so there can be no misunderstanding at a crucial time. The signal-
man has the responsibility of remaining in a position to be visible from the cockpit
as shown in Figure 1. To assure that you can be seen at all times, be certain that
you see the pilot’s eyes while directing him.
Busy airports usually require radio contact between the aircraft and the control
tower when an airplane is taxied onto any of the taxiway or runways. In the event
of lack of radio contact, or radio failure, the control towers are equipped highly di-
rectional light guns that can direct a high intensity beam of light to the aircraft. A
light code is used that should be familiar to anyone operating an aircraft on a con-
trolled airport.
• Flashing green light - OK to taxi
• Steady red light - Stop
• Flashing red light - Taxi clear of the runway
• Flashing white light - Return to the place you started from
• Alternating red and green flashes - Use extreme caution

Figure 2: Standard Hand Signals
17.005

Towing Figure 3: Towing using a Tow Bar
It is often necessary to move an aircraft without using its engines. Large aircraft
are towed with a tractor, or special towing vehicle, and are connected with a spe-
cial tow bar. Extreme care must be used to not move the aircraft too fast and to be
sure that there is always sufficient clearance between the wings and any obstruc-
tions.
A qualified person should be in the cockpit to operate the aircraft brakes when
needed, as the brakes on the towing vehicle are usually insufficient to stop the mo-
mentum of the large aircraft that is moving very fast. Where necessary, extra per-
sonnel should be assigned to watch the wing tips and tail for clearance between
other objects.
The nose gear on most aircraft have a very definite limit to the amount it can be
turned, and it is easy, when towing, to exceed these limits. Should the turning ra-
dius be exceeded, the nose gear strut and steering mechanism will be damaged.
Damage can be quite extensive, requiring replacement of the nose gear shock
strut.
If the steering wheels are hydraulically operated, a bypass device is provided to
bypass the hydraulic system. Some aircraft have a method of disconnection a
locking device so the nose wheel can be swiveled to facilitate maneuvering. The
bypass or locking device must be reset after the tow bar has been removed from
the aircraft. Persons stationed in the aircraft should never attempt to steer the nose
wheel when the tow bar is attached to the aircraft.
Small aircraft can be moved by hand, and damage can be inflicted on these aircraft
by improper procedures.
Do not move an airplane by pulling on the propeller. The propeller is designed to
move the aircraft through the air, but the thrust it is designed to produce is uniform.
Moving the airplane by pulling on one blade will put an asymmetrical load on both
the propeller and the engine.
Be sure to use a tow bar. These bars normally attach to the nose wheel and are
used to apply the force for both moving and steering the airplane. After an airplane
has been towed with a tow bar and parked in the desired position, remove the tow
bar from the nose strut and place it beside the nose wheel, or stow it away, even
if the airplane will be moved again shortly. When pushing an aircraft, be sure that
you push only at points that are specified by the aircraft manufacturer as satisfac-
tory for pushing. Do not push on the control surfaces, nor in the center of a strut.
NO STEP and NO PUSH decals means just that.

Figure 4: Tow Bar Figure 6: Close View of the Mechanism
Figure 5: Modern Towing Traktor

Jacking and Hoisting Figure 8: Pneumatically operated Wheel Jacking Equipment
Jacking for Wheel or Brake Service

It is often necessary to lift only one axel from the floor to change a tire or to service
a wheel or brake. For this type of jacking, some manufacturers have made provi-
sions on the strut for the placement of a short hydraulic jack. Be very sure when
lifting the aircraft by this method that you do not place the jack under the brake
housing or in any location that is not specifically approved by the manufacturer.
Some aircraft have a tendency, when jacked from the struts, for the wheels to
move sideways and tilt the jacks as the weight is removed from the tire. If this
should occur, lower the jack and straighten it, and then raise the wheel again. To
prevent the aircraft moving while it is on the jack, the wheels that are not jacked
should be securely chocked. Jacking can be found in Chapter 7 in the mainte-
nance manual.
Figure 7: Wheel Jacking
17.025

Jacking for Maintenance In any case, use only the equipment and jacking methods approved by the manu-
facturer. To do otherwise can cause serious personal injury, not to mention major
The most general way for an aircraft to be jacked is from jack pads located on the damage to the aircraft.
main wing spar. Many nose-wheel-type aircraft have a third jack pad located on
the fuselage to raise the nose. Other aircraft require the tail to be pulled down to Figure 9: Jacking a small Aircraft
raise the nose.
The most important consideration when jacking an aircraft is to follow the manu-
facturer’s instructions in detail. These can be found in the maintenance manual.
For more Information if the aircraft is in a unstable situation, see title "Aircraft Sta-
bility on Ground" in sub module 7.16 "Aircraft Weight and Balance". 17.030
Be sure to use the proper jacks and raise them evenly, do that the aircraft will be
level, and there will be no tendency for it to slip off of the jacks. Most of the higher
capacity jacks have screw-type safety collars to prevent the jack inadvertently re-
tracting. Be sure that these collars are screwed down as the airplane is raised.
Jacks that do not have the screw-type safety will usually have holes drilled in the
strut so lock pins can be inserted to guard against the jack retracting. Be sure to
use whatever method of safety is provided.
Many of the lighter aircraft can be jacked from only the main spar position by se-
curing a weighted stand to the tail tiedown ring. Be sure that there is the amount
of weight specified by the manufacturer in the stand, or else tie the tail to a tiedown
ring embedded in the hanger floor. Figure 10: Jacking a large Aircraft
Some aircraft can have their tail held down by weights placed on the main spar of
the horizontal stabilizer. Before using this procedure, be sure that it is approved by
the aircraft manufacturer, and that only the recommended type of weight be used.
Guard against any movement within the aircraft when it is on jacks, as shifting the
weight behind the jack could cause the aircraft to tilt enough to fall off of the jack.
Before lowering the aircraft, be sure to remove all of the work stands and equip-
ment that fit comfortably when the aircraft is raised, but which will cause damage
when the aircraft is lowered onto it. Be sure that the landing gear is down and
locked and then lower the jacks evenly.
It is possible for some landing gear to produce a side load on the jacks as the
weight is taken by the tires, and this must be watched to prevent this side load from
causing the jack to tip. Be sure that the oleo struts do not bind and hold the aircraft.
If they do bind enough to allow the jack to be lowered away from the wing and the
strut should suddenly collapse, it can drop the airplane back onto the jack and
cause serious damage.

Figure 11: Jack Figure 12: Jack in Position

Tiedown Procedures Airplanes with nose wheels should be tied down by using, in addition to the wing
ropes, one rope through the nose gear tiedown ring and two ropes through the tail
The lightweight construction of an aircraft, along with its airfoil-shaped wings and tiedown ring.
tail surfaces or rotors, makes it highly susceptible to damage from wind. Thunder- When tying an aircraft down, be sure that the wheels are blocked with proper fitting
storms can occur throughout the year and may appear in almost any part of a chocks in front of and behind the wheels.
country. Regardless of the type of storm, the damage can be severe for aircraft
that are not protected. Most of the damage can be minimized if proper protective Figure 13: Tiedown an Aircraft
measures are taken.
Naturally the best protection for an aircraft is to fly it out of the area where the storm Rope or Chain
is predicted to hit. If this is not possible, the aircraft should be protected by storing
it in a storm-proof hanger or by tying it down securely.
Tiedown Procedures
17.045
Most airports have a tiedown area with anchors permanently embedded into the
hard-surfaced ramp. these may be in the form of individual anchors, or tiedown ca-
bles. With either method the aircraft should be secured so that it is headed as
nearly into the wind as is practical and should have as much separation between
adjacent aircraft as possible. Figure 14: Tiedown Arrangement
The nose or tail wheel should be locked in the straight ahead position, so the air-
craft cannot slew around in the wind. The tiedowns should be secured to each
wing and to the tail.
Aircraft may be tied down with either ropes or chains, with rope normally providing
the strongest mans of securing the aircraft. Manila rope, however, has a double
disadvantage in that it has a tendency to shrink when it gets wet, and it will mildew
and rot from exposure too weather, and so must be periodically replaced. Nylon is
the strongest material for rope, with Dacron and yellow polypropylene also provid-
ing sufficient strength for the purpose. 17.050
The rope should be attached to the aircraft tiedown rings with a bowline knot. It
should not be pulled tight enough to put a strain on the wing, but must be left tight
enough to prevent the aircraft jerking against the rope. The proper tension allows
small movement. If manila rope is used, a little extra slack must be allowed in the
event the rope shrinks. Rope or Chain Anchorpoints on Ramp
Chains are used at many airports. They have a much longer life than rope and are
easier to use. If chains are used, they must be secured to the aircraft by passing
the chain through the tiedown ring, then sticking one link through a link in the
standing chain and fastening it in place with the snap to take any of the strain, as
it is not made for this purpose.

Preparation of the Aircraft If a tail wheel aircraft is tied down facing into the wind, the elevators should be
locked in a fully up position so the wind will force the tail down; but if it is tied down
When a windstorm is anticipated, the aircraft should have all of the controls se- facing away from the wind, the elevators should be locked fully down, so the wind
curely locked to prevent the surfaces banging against the stops and causing struc-
blowing over them from behind will force the tail down.
tural damage. Some aircraft are equipped with internal control locks that hold the
surfaces in a streamlined position, but since these locks secure the cockpit control, If a severe wind is expected, spoiler boards may be lashed to the top surface of
there is a possibility that severe forces exerted on the surface battens can be used the wing to destroy the lift. These spoilers can be made of 2" X 2" boards on which
that hold the surface in a streamline position by clamping it against the fixed sur- a one-inch strip of foam rubber is attached. Holes are drilled through the boards
face. These battens should be lined with one-inch foam rubber, be painted red and through which nylon rope is treaded. The nylon rope is tied around the wing so it
have a long red streamer attached, so that they will be easily seen and not be in- will hold the spoiler parallel with the wing span, about one-fourth of the way back
advertently left on the controls when the aircraft is ready to fly. from the leading edge. Special care must be taken when securing the spoilers so
that the ropes are not pulled too tight and damage the leading or the trailing edge
Figure 15: Clamping a Control Surface of the wing. The places where the rope contacts the wing may be protected with
foam rubber, or with scraps of carpet.
Figure 16: Installing Spoiler Boards
The doors and windows should be secured so they cannot be blown open, and all
of the engine openings should be covered, so no blowing dirt can be forced into
either the engine compartment or into the engine itself. The pitot head should also
be covered so water or dirt cannot be blown into it.

Aircraft Parking and Storage Figure 18: Other Aircraft Storage Devices
If an aircraft has to be parked overnight or for longer periods in the open, then ad-
ditional precautions should be taken to guard against the effects of adverse weath-
er. The parkingbrakes must be set and the undercarriage ground locks fitted. All
openings such as static ports, pitot heads, engine intakes and cooling air intakes
should be blanked to prevent the ingress of dirt, birds, insects and precipitation.
When severe weather is expected it is recommended that cockpit/cabin covers
and wheel covers are also fitted. Blanks and covers for all these components are
specially designed for the particular aircraft and, if not visually obvious, are fitted
with streamers to guard against their being left in position when the aircraft is pre-
pared for service; servicing instructions should, however, include a per-flight check
to ensure that all covers and locks have been removed before flight. Always use
the procedure given by the operator.
Figure 17: Engine Covers
17.070

Aircraft Fueling Color Coding of Aviation Fuels

Unlike the various grades of aviation gasoline that are dyed different colors to aid
Aircraft fueling is an operational procedure that is conducted more frequently than
in recognition, all turbine fuels are colorless or have a light straw color. Be aware
any other. It must be done under a wide variety of conditions, often under the pres-
that off-color fuel may not meet specifications and, therefore, should not be used
sure of time. The knowledge and use of correct procedures are of extreme impor-
in aircraft.
tance for safety as well as efficiency.
Use of the wrong type, wrong grade, intermixed, or contaminated fuels can lead to Figure 19: Fuel Types
engine failure and catastrophe. Steps must be taken at all levels to assure a clean
supply of the proper fuel be delivered to the aircraft. The importance of a clean fuel Fuel Equipment
supply has become much more important with the increase in turbine powered air- Type and Color of Controls Pipe Banding Refueler
craft. Grade Fuel Color and Marking Decal
The combustion process in the turbine engine is one that must be carefully con-
trolled. Changes in altitude, airspeed, or even temperature, can upset the fuel bal- AVGAS 80 AVGAS 80
80
ance, causing many difficulties. Red AVGAS

80 AVGAS
The turbine engine fuel control is much more sensitive to fuel quality, in particular,
cleanliness, than those for piston engines. Besides this, the quantity of fuel which 100
passes through the turbine engine each hour is considerably greater than with pis- AVGAS 100
Green AVGAS
AVGAS 100
ton engines; hence, any slight contamination in the fuel accumulates at a much 100 AVGAS
faster rate.
Operational differences between piston and turbine powered aircraft also intro- AVGAS 100LL
100LL
duce new reasons for increased cleanliness of fuel. In turbine powered aircraft, it Blue AVGAS
AVGAS 100LL
100LL
is not uncommon to record in-flight fuel temperatures far below 0° degrees centi- AVGAS
grade. These temperatures can cause precipitation of dissolved water and the for- 17.090
mation of ice, which can interrupt fuel flow. Colorless
JET A JET JET A
To better understand what is required to maintain fuel quality, and the importance or Straw A
JET A
of proper fueling procedures, it is first necessary to have a basic knowledge of avi-
ation fuels, the common forms of fuel contaminants, how they get into the fuel, and
how they can be detected and removed. JET A-1
Colorless JET JET A-1
or Straw A-1
JET A-1
Turbine Fuels
Aviation turbine fuels are used for pouring turbo-jet, turbo-prop and turbo-shaft en-
gines. The types of turbine fuel in use are JET A and JET A-1, which are kerosene JET B Colorless JET JET B
types, and JET B, which is a blend of gasoline and kerosene. or Straw B
JET B
The difference between JET A and JET A-1 is that JET A-1 has a freeze point of
– 47°C whereas JET A has a freeze point of - 40°C. JET B, which is similar to JP-4
is normally used by the military, particularly the Air Force. This fuel has an allow-
able freeze point of - 50°C.

Static Electricity When Handling all Aviation Fuels

All aviation fuels will burn under conditions where they have sufficient oxygen and 1. Connect a ground cable (static wire) from the fueler or hydrant cart to ground.
a source of ignition. Sufficient air and fuel vapors to support combustion are nor- 2. Connect the static wire from the fueler or hydrant cart to the aircraft.
mally present during any fuel-handling operation. Therefore, it is most important
that all sources of ignition be eliminated in the vicinity of any fuel-handling opera- 3. In the case of overwing fueling, connect the fuel nozzle static wire to the air-
tion. craft before the tank cover is opened. Underwing nozzles need not be bonded
to the aircraft.
Matches, cigarette lighters, smoking, open flames, even backfires from malfunc-
When disconnecting, reverse the order to 3, 2, 1. In general, the dispensing unit
tioning vehicles, are obvious sources of ignition that need no further mention. One
source of ignition, however, is not so visible or obvious. It is the sparks created by should be grounded first, and should finally be bonded to the receiving unit. Dome
static electricity. or tank covers should never be opened during transfer of fuel unless all grounds
and bonds are in place. Figure 21 on page 14.
Static electrical charges are generated in various degrees whenever one body
passes through or against another. An aircraft in flight through the air, a fueler driv- Figure 20: Fueling a small Plane
ing on a roadway, the rapid flow of fuel through a pipe or a filter, and even the
splashing of fuel into a fueler or aircraft during loading and fueling operations, gen-
erated static electricity.
A greater generation of static electricity may be expected when handling turbine
fuels than when handling aviation gasoline. A basic reason for this is released to
the higher viscosity of this class fuel. Large turbine-powered aircraft demand large
quantities of super clean and dry fuel. The high-speed fueling rates and the flow
through ultrafine filters/separators require to meet this cleanliness demand can
create extremely high static electrical charges. 17.100
To minimize this hazard, it is necessary to “bleed off” static electrical charges be-
fore they can build up to a high enough potential to create a static spark. This can
be accomplished by bonding and grounding all components of the fueling system
together with static wires and allowing sufficient time for the charge to dissipate be-
fore performing any act which may draw a spark. The bleeding off of an electric
charge from a body of fuel is not always an instantaneous act, as it is commonly
believed. It may take several seconds to bleed off all the static charge from some
fuels.
It is absolutely essential that the following procedures be applied to bleed off
he static charge generated during fueling operations, as well as the original
static charge carried on the fueling equipment or aircraft.

Figure 21: Fueling a large Transport Aircraft
17.110
Fuel Truck
Fuel Hose
Static Wire

Fueling Procedures planes. While it is possible for a jet or turbine engine to run on gasoline, a piston
engine will NOT RUN on JET A.
The fueling process begins with the delivery of fuel to the airport fueling facility. De-
livery is usually accomplished by a tank truck or the underground storage system. From an Underground Storage System
Quality control will begin by checking the bill of loading for the proper amount and
grade of fuel. Most of the large airports that service transport category aircraft with large
amounts of fuel, have underground storage tanks and buried fuel lines that allow
Fuel testing should begin with the tank truck. The personnel receiving the fuel de- the aircraft to be fueled without having to carry the fuel to the aircraft.
livery must determine that the proper type of fuel is in the truck, and samples taken
and checked for visible contamination. If all of the above checks are in order, the A service truck having filters, water separators, and a pump is driven to the aircraft
truck may be connected to the correct unloading point, and unloading may pro- and its inlet hose is connected to the underground hydrant valve. The discharge
ceed. hose or hoses from the servicer are attached to the fueling ports on the aircraft,
and with a properly qualified maintenance person monitoring the fuel controls can
From a Fuel Truck determine the sequence in which the tank are filled, and can shut off the fuel when
a sufficient load has been taken on board. On modern aircrafts, the refueling pro-
Aircraft may have the fuel pumped directly into the tank from over the wing, or from cess is controlled and monitored by a computer.
a single point source under the wing. For simplicity of this explanation, we will con-
sider the fueling procedures from a fuel truck to be done over the wing, and when Some large corporate aircraft also have single point refueling systems. Control of
we discuss the fueling from a pit, we will discuss the under-wing, or single-point, the fueling sequence is from an outside control panel located under an access cov-
method. er. A service technician must be checked out on these systems before operating
them.
Before driving the fuel truck to the aircraft, be sure that the sumps have been
drained and that the sight gauges show that the fuel is bright in place and fully
charged.
Pressure Fueling
Approach the aircraft with a fuel truck near the fuel connection point. Set the park- Most large aircraft are fueled by the single-point, or pressure, fueling method. A
ing brake on the truck and connect the static bonding wire between the truck and large hose carried on the fueling truck is connected to an underground fuel hydrant
and to the fueling port under the aircraft wing, using a bayonet-type fueling nozzle.
the aircraft. The bonding or grounding lugs are normally located on the landing
gear. Make sure, that the truck is parked in such a way, that driving the truck away Figure 22: Pressure Fueling Adapter
from the aircraft in case of an emergency is always possible.
Put a mat over the wing so the fuel hose will not scratch the finish, connect the stat-
ic bonding wire between the nozzle and the aircraft and remove the fuel tank cap.
Remove the dust cap from the nozzle, and when inserting the nozzle into the tank
be sure that the end of the nozzle does not contact the bottom of the tank, as it will
dent the thin metal. 17.130
Should the fuel tank be a fuel cell, contact with the nozzle could cut the fabric of
the cell and cause a serious leak. Immediately check to see that the proper type
of fuel is being delivered by the fuel truck.
Misfueling is a constant danger that can frequently result in a complete power fail-
ure, causing loss of the aircraft and it’s crew.
At the fueling port there is a fueling control panel which contains fuel quantity gag-
There is an industry-wide program to replace all general aviation fuel tank open-
es for each tank, fueling valve switches that activate the fueling valves, lights to
ings with restrictors that will not allow Jet A to be introduced into piston engine air-
show the position of the fueling valves, a fueling power switch, and a fuel gage test

switch. The maximum permissible fueling supply pressure and the maximum per- Defueling
missible defueling pressure are marked on a placard.
It is sometimes necessary to remove fuel from an aircraft, either for maintenance
If the selected tank is to be completely filled, the fueling valve will automatically reasons, or because of a change in flight plans after the aircraft was serviced. De-
close when the tank is full, but if the tank is to be partially filled, the valve can be fueling is carried on in much the same manner as fueling, with the same safety pre-
closed by the fueling operator when the fuel quantity gage shows the appropriate cautions being taken.
amount of fuel is in the tank.
Never defuel an aircraft inside a hanger, or in any area where there is not ade-
Figure 23: Simple Fuel Control Panel quate ventilation. Be sure that all of the proper safeguards are taken with regard
to neutralizing any static electricity that builds up when the fuel flows through the
lines.
If only a small quantity is off-loaded, such as due to load changes, and there is no
reason to suspect contamination, the fuel may be taken back to stock. If there is
any reason to suspect the quality of the off-loaded fuel, such as a large amount
defueled after an engine failure, it should be segregated, preferably held in a fue-
ler, and quarantined until its quality is assured.
In no event should suspect fuel be returned to storage, or placed aboard another
aircraft. If acceptable fuel is returned to storage, make sure it is taken back into the
tank containing the same grade fuel, and that complete quality control procedures
are followed – exactly as if it were a transport delivery truck.
If the aircraft is defueled into drums, be sure that the drums are clean and that the
bungs are tightened immediately after the drums are filled.
Some companies, and some aircraft operations manuals, will not allow fuel that
has been stored in drums to be re used on Aircraft. Frequently this fuel is relegated
to ramp vehicles, space heaters and GPU’s, rather than take a chance with con-
taminated fuel.
Figure 24: Modern Fuel Control Panel
HIGH LEVEL OVER FLOW
L OUTER TK L INNER TK CTR TK TRIM TK R INNER TK R OUTER TK TT R
PWR
OUTR FUEL QTY OUTR TEST TRANSF. VALVE
PRESELECTED SUPPLY
LVL
KG x 1000 NORM CLOSED
ACTUAL
FUEL QTY INR CTR/TT INR
OPEN
CTR
CTR & TT
Kg x 1000
MODE SELECTOR TT BAT OPEN
MODE SELECTOR REFUEL - DEFUEL VALVES
L OUTER TK L INNER TK CTR TK TRIM TK R INNER TK R OUTER TK APU EMERGENCY
REFUEL OPEN OPEN OPEN OPEN OPEN OPEN
OFF NORM NORM NORM NORM NORM NORM
DEFUEL SHUT SHUT SHUT 17.150
SHUT SHUT SHUT SHUT
DOWN

Cold Weather Operations De-icing /Anti-icing

Particular care is essential in the operation of aircraft when temperatures are likely There are many conditions influencing a decision concerning the method of ice
to fall below freezing point at ground level. When snow or ice is present, towing and snow removal. Thus, the best method must be determined by the individual
and taxiing should be carried out with extreme caution and aircraft movements operator based on his experience and the current local conditions. A summary of
should be kept to a minimum. Parking areas should, if possible be cleared of snow the guidelines to aid in determining an appropriate ice, snow, or frost removal
and ice, to prevent the aircraft tyres from freezing to the ground. If sand or grit is method based on the detailed guidelines is given in this procedure.
used to increase the tractive effort of tractors or assist the braking of aircraft, care A coat of undiluted anti-icing fluid applied to dry surfaces will offer a degree of pro-
should be taken to prevent these materials being drawn into operating engine. tection from ice, snow and frost if the material is applied before such conditions
Taxiways and hard standings should be swept to remove any sand or grit after the begin. Similarly, when de-icing fluid is applied to remove ice or snow, some pro-
snow and ice have melted. tection may be afforded by the residual fluid on the airplane surfaces. Repeated
applications of anti-icing fluid to maintain protection may be required with the fre-
After Flight quency of applications determined by local conditions. Consideration should also
When parking an aircraft, all covers, plugs and ground locks should be fitted as be given to anti-icing on airplane landing precipitation conditions where the air
soon as possible. If the airframe is wet or affected by snow or ice, the surface un- temperature is slightly above freezing. Since the airplane external surface may be
der the covers should be given a light coating of anti-freeze liquid; anti-freeze liquid below the freezing point, ice may form and adhere to the surface.
should not, however, be applied to the windows, since it has an adverse effect on If ice, snow or frost has accumulated on the aircraft, de-icing must be accom-
plastics materials. Engine covers should be fitted as soon as the engine has plished prior to anti-icing. Ice and snow removal requires sufficient fluid tempera-
cooled sufficiently, but in the case of turbine engines an inspection should be tures and flow rate to flush the accumulation from airplane surfaces. If the
made for the presence of ice in the air intake, since this could melt while the engine temperature is -2°C and stable or rising, deicing with hot water followed by anti-
is hot, drain to the lowest part of the compressor, and subsequently re-freeze when icing fluid is recommended. If the temperature is below -2°C, apply deicing fluid. If
the engine cools, locking the lower compressor blades in ice. If ice is present it only snow is present on the airplane and the temperature is 1°C or higher and sta-
should be allowed to melt, then removed before finally fitting the covers. Drain ble or rising, unheated water can be used to remove snow.
valves in the fuel and pitot/static systems should be opened to remove any accu-
mulation of water. The domestic water and toilet systems and water injection tanks De-icing fluid and hot water should be heated to 82 - 93°C at the tank for best re-
should be drained or treated with anti-freeze liquid as appropriate. sults in ice or snow removal. A fine to medium spray is recommended for best dis-
persion of the fluid across a large area of ice or snow for maximum melting effect.
Before Flight A solid stream is recommended for flushing ice or snow from airplane surfaces.
However, the maximum force on the surface, to prevent damage, must not exceed
All external surfaces must be free of snow, frost or ice before an aircraft takes off, 10 psi on an area of 25 square inches.
and de-icing operations should be carried out as necessary. Particular care is nec-
The impact of precipitation on anti-icing/deicing fluid is not presently predictable.
essary when an aircraft has been removed from a heated hangar into falling snow
Maintenance personnel must recognize that requirement for an ice, snow and
since the snow will melt on the warm aircraft then re-freeze as it cools down, form-
frost-free wing at takeoff can only be met by close inspection of the aircraft at the
ing a thin layer of ice which may not be easily visible. Water systems should be
time of departure.
filled with warm water, and all covers should be kept in place until as near to de-
parture time as possible. Snow should be removed from parked airplanes at various intervals to prevent a
large build up and possible freezing to the airplane surface.
Removal of snow may be facilitated by brushing snow from wings and horizontal
stabilizers with long handled brooms. Fuselage can be cleared by use of ropes or
fabric fire hose laid over fuselage and see-sawed aft over fuselage.

Prior to moving an airplane from heated hanger to an outside location during icing Hot Water De-icing
conditions, the airplane should be anti-iced. This reduces the possibility of ice or
snow melting upon contact with the warm airplane and then refreezing. Hot water at 82-93°C maximum tank temperature can be used effectively to re-
move ice and snow from airplane surfaces when the ambient temperature is -2°C,
Unheated water deicing should be accomplished in a heated hanger, if possible, stable or rising. To prevent water from refreezing, anti-icing fluid should be applied
and the airplane should remain in the hanger until the surfaces are dry. It will be to the surface immediately following hot water deicing. Freezing of residual water
necessary to check those areas where water could be trapped and freeze. Appli- in devices used for hot water deicing may be minimized by adding glycol to the hot
cation of anti-icing fluid will minimize the drying requirements. water tank.
General Precautions Hot Fluid De-icing
• Do not spray anti-icing/deicing fluid directly at or into pitot inlets, TAT
probes or static ports. Deicing fluid heated to 82-93°C tank temperature is effective for ice and snowre-
moval from airplanes when the temperature is below -2°C. A mixture of water and
• Do not spray heated deicing fluid or hot water directly on cold windows. anti-icing fluid (mixed per Table) will melt ice and snow, and the cleared surface
• Do not spray anti-icing/deicing fluid directly into engine, APU, scoops, vents, may retain some anti-ice protection. If the removed material/deicing fluid refreezes
drains, etc. before running off the airplane, it indicates that an incorrect anti-icing fluid dilution
• Be careful if the APU is running. Anti-icing/deicing fluid could be sucked in the was used. Application of additional anti-icing fluid will be required to obtain greater
air inlet. protection.
• Check that ice and/or snow is not forced into areas around flight controls dur-
ing ice and snow removal.
• Remove all ice or snow from the door and girt bar areas before closing any
door.
Figure 25: Aircraft De-icing
17.200

Table 1: ADF Type II/Mixtures and Holdover Times
Ambient ADF Type II Frost Freezing Snow Freezing Freezing Rain on

Temperature Mixture Fog drizzle Rain supercooled
°C ADF/Water Wings
0°C 100/0 12:00 1:15 - 3:00 0:20 - 1:00 0:30 - 1:00 0:15 - 0:30 0:10 - 0:40
and 75/25 6:00 0:50 - 2:00 0:15 - 0:40 0:20 - 0:45 0:10 - 0:25 0:05 - 0:25
above 50/50 4:00 0:35 - 1:30 0:05 - 0:15 0:15 - 0:25 0:05 - 0.15
below 100/0 8:00 0:35 - 1:30 0:20 - 0:45 0:30 - 1:00 0:15 - 0:30
0°C 75/25 5:00 0:25 - 1:00 0:15 - 0:30 0:20 - 0:45 0:10 - 0:25
to 50/50 3:00 0:15 - 0:45 0:05 - 0:15 0:10 - 0:20 0:05 - 0:15
-3°C
below 100/0 8:00 0:35 - 1:30 0:15 - 0:40 0:30 - 1:00 0.10 - 0:30
-3°C 75/25 5:00 0:25 - 1:00 0:15 - 0:30 0:20 - 0:45 0:10 - 0:25
to
-14°C
below 100/0 8:00 0:20 - 1:30 0:15 - 0:30

-14°C
to
-25°C
below At temperatures lower than -25°C, ISO/SAE Type II fluid may not generally be used.
-25°C Manufacturer descriptions are to be followed.

Ground Servicing Equipment Figure 27: Electrical Ground Power Panel on an Commercial Aircraft
Electrical Ground Power Units

For ground service purposes, almost all large aircraft are equiped with external
electrical connectors to supply the electrical network. For this reason, ground pow-
er units (GPU’s) are available for supplying power for operating electrical equip-
ment when the APU is not running. The larger GPU’s have a supply of 115-volt
400-hertz AC, as well as DC power.
Figure 26: Electrical Ground Power Unit
Hydraulic Ground Power Units

17.250
Many aircraft have hydraulically retracted landing rear that must be periodically
tested for operation. To do this, the aircraft is lifted off the hanger floor with jacks,
and the landing gear is cycled through its reaction and extension cycle until you
can be assured that it operates properly, without any indication of binding exces-
sive play or looseness.
These hydraulic power supplies connect into the aircraft hydraulic system at the
engine-driven pumps by the use of line-disconnect fittings.
Be sure that all of the lines are clean so no dirt or contamination can get into the
aircraft system. Normally, these power supplies do not furnish fluid for the aircraft;
rather, they use the fluid in the aircraft. Some of the fluid, however, remains in the
pump and lines of the unit.
Because of the incompatibility of different types of hydraulic fluid (MIL-H-5606/
Skydrol®) a different HGPU must be available for each type. DO NOT use the
wrong HGPU with the wrong fluid. To do so would require, at least, that the entire
aircraft hydraulic system be purged and refilled with fresh, uncontaminated fluid.

Should any of the aircraft’s systems have been operated, all components of that Oxygen Servicing Equipment
system may have to be cleaned, flushed, or at worst, disassembled for seal re-
placement. This could be extremely expensive and may require the services of a Modern aircraft fly at altitudes
where life support systems are
certified repair station.
needed. Even though most of these
Figure 28: Hydraulic Ground Power Unit aircraft are pressurized, emergency
oxygen must be carried in the event
of failure of the pressurization
equipment.
17.300
Most civilian aircraft carry high-
pressure gaseous oxygen in cylin-
ders. Modern aircrafts provide fur-
ther a ground service port to refill
the oxygen system. Therefore, the
replacement of the cylinder is no
17.260 longer necessary except for inspec-
tion.


Training Manual 7.18 Inspection, Repair and Assembling
7.18 Inspection, Repair and Assembling Standards

Maintenance Inspections Inspection Techniques

With all the new technology introduced into aircraft in the last 30 years or so, there Aircraft Inspection is about the task of "looking and finding" on aircraft structures,
has been a general reduction in manpower requirement due to extended life or "on and in their systems, for defects of all kinds.
condition" status of modern units, self tests, bite tests, redundancy of systems and Inspection is the first kind of work in the overall maintenance process. Defects
others. found during the inspection phase must be assessed for further action. This may
However there is one area in the aviation industry where maintenance has not re- include adjustment, repair/refurbishment, modification or replacement. Some de-
duced. It requires more attention due to high speed, large passenger pay loads, fects/damage may be assessed as "within limits" and remain in service.
and extended range operations of today's modern aircraft. The job card tasks are usually specific, and tell the maintanance engineer what to
The area in question is inspections, a very skilled and labor intensive part of air- check for. 
craft maintenance. Examples are:
What is gained by having inspections? • Security
By carrying out good and thorough inspections: • Corrosion
• Potential dangerous incidences can be prevented. • Wear
• Costly maintenance and replacements can be avoided. • Damage
• Manufacturer, owners and operators can be alerted to design, or aging prob- • Leaks
lems. • Overheating
• The number of ramp/pre-departure snags can be reduced. • Cracks
• Safety and passenger comfort/confidence can be increased. • Distortion
• Maintenance programs can be adjusted to take into account areas of weak- Don't assume that the components you are inspecting have been assembled
ness highlighted by inspections. correctly in the first place. Examples are use of wrong bolts, or bolts wrongly
installed.

Task Codes Definition of the ATA Inspection Tasks Codes

To simplify the job cards, task codes has been developed. Task codes and its defi- The following definitions are an extract out of a maintenance program.
nitions explain exactly, how an inspection has to be carried out by the technician.
Some companies use their own code system. The comparison chart below
Discard (DIS)
shows possible differences. Changes are highlighted. Part or component will be removed and discarded.
Table 1: ATA and Company Task Codes compared Detailed Visual Inspection (DVI)
DVI for Structures
ATA Description Company Description A detailed visual inspection of structural items using concentrated lighting and,
where necessary, inspection aids such as mirrors and magnifying glasses. The
DIS Discard = REM Removal item to be inspected must not be removed if not otherwise specified in the descrip-
tion. The inspection shall disclose discrepancies such as: Cracks, wrinkles, dents,
DVI Detailed Visual Insp. = TVC Thorough Visual Insp. scratches, bulges, corrosion, loose or missing fasteners, signs of looseness of
structural elements (rust and/or abraded material at interfaces), missing or dam-
FNC Functional Check = FUC Functional Check
aged surface protection (primer, paint).
GVI General Visual Insp. = GVC General Visual Check Proximity to the specified item shall permit physical contact if required to de-
termine item condition. Removal of detachable parts to gain visual access if
LUB Lubrication = LUB Lubrication required. Wiping or cleaning may be required in areas susceptible to prob-
lems. The cleaning process must have no detrimental effect on equipment
OPC Operational Check = OPC Operational Check (no wash away of grease or protective coating, no ingestion of dirt). Dam-
SDI Special Detail Insp. = SPC Special Check aged protective coating has to be reapplied.
DVI for Systems and Components
RST Restoration = REM Removal
A detailed visual examination for condition of systems and components using work
SDI Special Detail Insp. = NDT Non Destructiv Testing stands as required and concentrated lighting in area being inspected. This type of
check applies to specified parts, systems and their components, but also to their
SPC Special Check = SPC Special Check mounting brackets, consoles, attach fittings, mechanical controls, electrical wiring
and bonding etc. where applicable. The inspection shall disclose discrepancies as
SVC Servicing = SVC Servicing related to:
TPS Temporary Protection = ACT Anti Corrosion Treatment 1. Proper attachment, safety wiring, cotter pins, loose or missing fasteners,
System loose plumbing or electrical connections or linkage, proper alignment and
clearance.
ZON Zonal Check = ZON Zonal Check 2. Damage, cracks, wrinkles, dents, scratches, bulges, chafing, rubbing, pres-
ence of fluid and air leakage, wear, corrosion, rust, evidence of overheating
VCK Visual Check = WAC Walk Around Check (strange colour, strange odour etc.), preservative coating or finish, cleanliness
and general appearance.
A few of the above ATA Codes are explained in the next section.

Proximity to the specified item shall permit physical contact if required to de- Restoration (RST)
termine item condition. Removal of detachable parts to gain visual access if This term is used for scheduled component changes and overhaul of it.
required. Wiping or cleaning may be required in areas susceptible to prob-
lems. The cleaning process must have no detrimental effect on equipment Special Detailed Inspection (SDI)
(no wash away of grease or protective coating, no ingestion of dirt). Dam-
aged protective coating has to be reapplied. Use of aids like magnifying glass Inspection using Eddy Current / Liquid Penetrant / Magnetic Particle / Ultrasonic /
X-Ray / Thermographic Insp. It refers to the Non Destructive Testing Manual.
and mirror as required.
Functional Check (FNC) Special Check (SPC)

A special check covers all those tasks which cannot be allocated to any one of the
A detail test of an item to determine if it operates within prescribed limits of move-
other check definitions. The content of the task is described and defined under the
ment, flow, temperature, pressure etc.
column "MRITITLE / TASK-DESCRIPTION". It may refer to the Aircraft Mainte-
For a functional check the item has to remain installed in the aircraft. A func- nance Manual.
tional check may also be applied on a system or subsystem. It will require
check of the specified limits according to the applicable manuals. Temporary Protection System (TPS)
A work that treats the aircraft structure and systems against corrosion with a soft
General Visual Inspection (GVI) film compound.
A visual check for obvious discrepancies such as signs of leaks, cracks, corrosion,
discolouring, loose or missing parts etc. on aeroplane structure, systems, compo- Visual Check (VCK)
nents and their attachments using work stands as required and adequate illumina- A visual check from ground level for obvious discrepancies.
tion in area being checked.
Doors should be opened or removed as required to gain visual access but Zonal Check (ZON-GVI)
without detaching any parts or components. No physical contact is required. It is thought that people who do the zonal tasks have an adequate knowledge of
Cleaning only if necessary. Usually, normal aid should be a flash light. the aircraft construction and systems installations; thus a list of all the items con-
tained in the zones to be inspected is not given.
Lubrication (LUB)
If you find damage, corrosion, leaks, it is recommended to refer to the related
This term is used for all lubrication work and has to be referred to the Aircraft Main- structure/system inspection ATA-chapter for detailed inspection and corrective ac-
tenance Manual. tion. During the zonal inspection, you must also examine any fairing, access panel,
access door, etc. which you remove or open to gain access to zones. This require-
Operational Check (OPC) ment is not given in each individual procedure because it is a standard mainte-
A check to determine that a system or component is operating in a normal and in- nance practice.
tended manner.
Some examples of the use of an operational check are: to determine freedom
of movement in a control system, abnormal noise or vibration in engines, ac-
cessories, pumps, turbines, actuators or motors. Appropriate prescriptions in
the Aircraft Maintenance Manual shall be followed. It does not require spec-
ified tolerances.

How to do an Inspection Figure 1: Judgement Criterion

To carry out an effective and reliable inspection, certain points must be consid-
ered.
Cleanliness
These are: Color (Discoloration), Protective Coating,
Evidence of Overheating, Corrosion Protection
• Requirements must be known. APPEARANCE
• Check-cards must be available (Inspection sheets).
Leakage: Water, Oil, Fuel (smell!)
• The technician must have a appropriate education to perform the task. Air (Evidence of Dirt or Nicotine)
• System knowledge, tolerances etc. must be known.
Fractures, Cracks, Breaks
• Provision of auxiliary devices, as stairs, mirrors and sufficient light.
Surface Irregularities
• According to the demanded depth of inspection (DVI, GVI ect.), the area has
(Wrinkles, Dents, Bulges, Scratches)
to be cleaned first or access panels has to be opened.
DAMAGES Chaffing
Personal Attitude to the Inspection
Flushness (Asymmetry, Displacement)
Inspections should be carried out without pre-judgement. Never assume that there
are no discrepancies in an area where never any damages have been found be- Clearness
fore. WEAR
Worn Parts
Do not let you disturb during an inspection. Work always concentrated. At tired-
ness make a short break! Breaks / Cracks
Do an Inspection careful and conscientious. Only a reliable inspection is a good Loose Attachements
inspection and provides an adequate safety standard. (Screws, Nuts, Clamps, Bolts, Rivets)
FATIGUE Loose Piping / Ducting
Doing the Inspection (Tubes, Hoses, Ducts)
First of all get a general overview about the zone or component which has to be Loose Control Rods / Cables
inspected. Check for obvious discrepancies like damages, leaks, loose and miss-
ing parts. Loose Electrical Connections
Secondly do a more detailed inspection. Check all installations for damages, chaf- Surface Roughness, Cavities
ing marks and condition of control cables and piping as shown in Figure 1 on
page 5. CORROSION Rust
In order to cover the entire zone to be inspected, it is recommended to perform the Delamination
inspection track by track. This means to virtually split of large zones by a grid line
system and then check one section after the other. (see “Figure 2” on page 6) Missing Fasteners
If damage is found, the damage must be examined. (see Title “Examination of (Screws, Nuts, Bolts, Clamps, Rivets)
Damage” on page 7) COMPLETENESS Missing Safety Items
(Safety Wires, Cotter-Pins
Missing or illegible Placards

Figure 2: Inspection Technique

Examination of Damage Damage Categories

To determine the category any existing damage, the type and extent of the dam-
After cleaning and investigating the damage and surrounding area, the damage
age must be carefully examined.
must be classified into one of the following categories, also taking into account the
This has to be done as follows: location of the damage.
• remove all unwanted material from the surface of the damaged component,
• cut out all broken, bent, heated or badly damaged areas of the component, Repairable Damage
• remove all loose rivets. The damage must be classified either as 'Allowable Damage' or as damage which
requires a repair.
In all forms of damage, particularly where shock has been sustained, secondary
damage is likely to exist. Therefore, a close examination of the structure surround- 1. Allowable Damage
ing the initial damage must be made. Damage caused by transmission of force Allowable damage is defined as damage which is slight or of little significance,
may be located some distance from the impact, resulting in structure deformation, and is unlikely to be of sufficient severity to propagate further damage in the
drawn rivets or bolt holes. immediate vicinity.
'Allowable' does not mean that repair is unnecessary. For example, scratch-
es and burring are included in this category, and it is necessary to remove
rough and sharp edges and smooth out the damage. In addition, any damage to
surface coatings and/or protective treatment must be repaired using an approved
procedure dealt with under Chapter 51 in the Structure Repair Manual (SRM).
2. Non allowable Damage
Damage which exceeds the 'Allowable Damage' limits can be repaired by cut-
ting out the damaged area of a structural component and inserting or attach-
ing a reinforcing piece.
Non Repairable Damage

Non repairable damage is defined as damage to structural components which can-
not be repaired and where replacement of the complete component is recom-
mended as a repair is not practical or economical.

Damage Classification Table 2: Damage Definition(Continued)

The term 'damage' includes any and every type of permanent deformation or al- Distortion Any twisting, bending or permanent strain which results
X X
teration to any cross-section of a structural component. in misalignment or change of shape. May be caused by
Deformation or alteration to the cross-section of a structural component results impact from a foreign object, but usually results from
from many causes, which can be generally categorized into four main groups(see vibration or movement of adjacent attached compo-
“Table 2: Damage Definition” on page 8) : nents. This group includes bending, buckling, deforma-
• Mechanical action (Group A) tion, imbalance, misalignment, pinching, and twisting.
• Chemical or electro-chemical reaction (Group B) Corrosion X X The destruction of metal by chemical or electrochemical
• Thermal action or cycling (Group C) effect.
• Inherent metallurgical characteristics (Group D) Crease X A damaged area which is pushed in or folded back on
itself. The edges are sharp or well specified lines or
Table 2: Damage Definition ridges.
Abrasion X X An abrasion is a damage area of all sizes which causes
Term Group Definition
change in a cross-sectional area because of scuffing,
A B C D rubbing, scraping or other surface erosion. It is usually
rough and irregular.
Scratch X A scratch is a line of damage of any depth and length in
Debond- X X X Debonding is when a separation of materials occurs
the material which causes a cross-sectional area
ing due to an adhesive failure.
change. A sharp object usually causes it.
Delami- X X X Delamination is when the separation of plies occurs in a
Gouge X A gouge is a damage area of any size which results in a
nation multi-laminate material. This can be caused by the
cross-sectional area change. It is usually caused by
material being hit - Impact Delamination, or when there
contact with a relatively sharp object which produces a
is a resin failure for any other reason.
continuous, sharp or smooth channel-like groove in the
material. Fretting X Surface damage at the interface between elements of
the joints resulting from very small angular or linear
Mark X A mark is a damaged area of all sizes where a concen-
movements. Evidence of fretting is usually the produc-
tration of scratches, nicks, chips, burrs or gouges etc. is
tion of fine black powder staining.
shown. You must prepare the damage as an area and
not as a series of individual scratches, gouges etc.
Crack X A crack is a partial fracture or complete break in the
material.
Dent X A dent is a damaged area which is pushed in, with
respect to its usual contour. There is no cross-sectional
area change in the material, area edges are smooth.
Nick X A small decrease of material due to a knock etc. at the
edge of a member or skin.

Corrosion Removal Moderate Corrosion

Appears similar to light corrosion except there may be some blisters or evidence
General of scaling and flaking. Pitting depths may be as deep as 0.010 inch. This type of
Damage due to corrosion requires a rework operation to determine its penetration damage is normally removed by extensive mechanical sanding.
dept into a structural member prior to establishing its classification as allowable
damage or damage requiring repair. Severe Corrosion
The work sequence is as follows: General appearance may be similar to moderate corrosion with severe blistering
exfoliation and scaling or flaking. Pitting depths will be deeper than 0.010 inch.
1. Inspect the area per the NDT(Non Destructiv Testing) Manual to determine This type of damage is normally removed by extensive sanding or grinding. Severe
the dept of corrosion (only if applicable). corrosion damage beyond the limits of the aircraft structural repair manual will re-
2. Remove corrosion per the following procedure or the procedures given in the quire engineering authorization and may include the following typical repairs; trim-
SRM, SB's etc. ming out of cracked and corroded areas or spot facing of fastener locations.
3. Repeat the NDT inspection to check that all corrosion has been removed.
Determining Degree of Corrosion Damage
When active corrosion is visually apparent, a positive inspection and rework pro-
gram is required to prevent any further deterioration of the structure. The following Determine degree of corrosion damage, as classified with a depth dial gage if ac-
methods of assessing corrosion damage and procedures for rework of corroded cessibility permits. Before measurements are made, visually determine if corro-
areas should be used during cleanup programs. In general, any rework involves sion is in an area which has previously been reworked. If corrosion is in the recess
the cleaning and stripping of all finish from corroded area, the removal of corrosion of a faired or blended area, measure the damage to include the material which has
products, and the restoration of surface protective films. All clean-up should be re- previously been removed. The following method outlines the process for taking
stricted to the allowable damage rework, the affected part should be repaired or measurements with the depth gage.
replaced. In cases of doubt, the engineering department should be contacted for 1. Remove loose corrosion products present.
rework limits of specific structural components when damage exceeds the allowa- 2. Position depth gage and determine the measurement reading.
ble limits.
3. Take several additional depth readings.
Corrosion Damage 4. Select deepest reading as being depth of the corrosion damage.
Corrosion evaluation will be required after general inspection and cleaning to de- The base of the depth gage must be flat against the undamaged surface on
termine the nature and extent of repair or rework. Local blending of corroded areas each side of the corrosion. When taking measurements on concave or con-
may be required to determine the total extent of the corrosion problem. Corrosion vex surfaces, place the base perpendicular to the radius of the surface.
damage is defined as follows:
Determining Rework Limits
Light Corrosion
The maximum allowable amount of material removed from any damaged surface
Characterized by discoloration or pitting to a dept of approximately 0.001 inch shall be determined from the criteria contained in the applicable allowable chap-
maximum. This type of damage is normally removed by light hand sanding, or a ters. If no criteria is given, contact the engineering department for clean-up limits.
minimum of chemical treatment.
Determining Material Thickness Reducing
The amount of material which may be removed from a part or panel during corro-
sion clean-up is given in Allowable Damage Limits charts in various sections of
the manual. To ensure that the allowable limits are not exceeded, an accurate

measurement must be made of the material removed or material thickness re-

maining in the reworked area after fairing measurement of the depth of blended
pits (material removed) can be made using a depth dial gage. If the area is inac-
cessible, clay impressions, or any other means which will give accurate results,
may be used to determine material removal. In the avent that material removal lim-
its have been exceeded, the area of affected must be repaired or replaced. If re-
placement or repair criteria is not contained in the SRM (Structural Repair
Manual), contact the engineering department.

Corrosion Removal Techniques Avoid overheating of the surface to be reworked if you use handheld power
tools. Wear protection equipment like goggles, face shields, etc. Do not in-
Several standard methods are available for corrosion removal. The methods nor- crease the recommended speeds otherwise your sanding tool can burst. Use only
mally used to remove corrosion are chemical treatments, and sanding with abra- the recommended abrasives as given in the SRM.
sive paper or metal wool, and mechanical sanding or buffing with abrasive mats,
grinding wheels, or rubber mats. However, the method used depends upon the Abrasive Blasting
metal and the degree of corrosion. The removal method to use on each metal for
Abrasive blasting is a process for cleaning or finishing metals, plastics and other
each particular degree of corrosion is outlined in the SRM. In special instances, a
materials by directing a stream of abrasive particles against the surface of the
particular or specific method may be required to remove corrosion. Depending
parts. Abrasive blasting is used for the removal of rust and corrosion and for clean-
upon rework criteria, corrosion in a hole may be reworked by enlarging a hole may
ing prior to further processing such as painting or plating. Standard blast cleaning
be removed by enlarging the hole. Abrasive and Dry-Ice Blasting may be required
practices should be adopted with the following requirements being met:
for removing corrosion from steel fasteners, side skins, or irregularly shaped parts
or surfaces. When ever such special cases occur, the method for corrosion remov- 1. Any form of blast cleaning equipment may be used; but in cabinet blasting is
al will be specified with the rework criteria in the applicable manuals. preferred.
Corrosion removal with chemical treatments must be agreed by the engineer- 2. External gun blasting may be used if adequate confinement and recovery are
ing department. provided for the abrasives.
3. Use only glass bead abrasive.
Abrasing/Sanding Tools Magnesium creates a fire hazard when abrasive blasted. Adequate precautions
Coated abrasives in several forms are used extensively in assembly areas. The must be taken when abrasive blasting this metal.
most common forms include abrasive drums, bands, cartridge rolls (both cylindri- Dry abrasive blasting of titanium alloys and high tensile strength steel creates
cal an conical), disks, sheets and strip (Figure 4 on page 13).
sparking. Care must be taken to assure that there is no hazardous concentration
In all forms, abrasives are used for the same general purpose: to remove tool of inflammable vapours present.
marks, to improve surface finish, to deburr holes or edges, to break or round cor- Avoid excessive inhalation of abrasive dust. Provide ventilation as required.
ners, to improve fit up of mating parts, to remove minor surface imperfections, and
to remove corrosion. Selection of an abrasive tool (or abrasive sheet) for a given
job is a matter of part configuration, size, material, and accessibility. Selection of
grit size depends on the amount of metal to be removed and the surface finish re- Dry-Ice Blasting
quired. Blasting technologies like abrasive or sandblasting for removing paint, dirt, grease
The grit sizes most often used in assembly areas range from very coarse to very or similar coatings are known for years. For a few years, dry ice has been used as
fine in all forms except sheet and strip. an effective blast media for industry. The main advantage of the system is that the
The coarser the grit size, the more rapid the metal removed rate and the tougher dry ice pellets verge into gaseous condition right after the impact. Only the de-
the finish; the finer the grit size, the slower the metal removal rate, and the finer tached dirt will have to be disposed of. This means drastically reduced disposal
costs and time saving as well.
the finish.
What is dry-ice? Dry-ice is CO2 (carbon dioxide) in solid state.
The most efficient operating speed for abrasive tools is from 6,500 to 8,500 sur-
face feet per minute. This means that abrasive tools up to 2 inches in diameter CO2 is an environmental friendly non toxic gas. In the beverage industry for exam-
would be run at spindle speeds up to 16,000 RPM, and those up to 4 inches in di- ple it is added to mineral water or beer for keeping it fresh, tasty and extending the
ameter should be run at spindle speeds up to 8,000 RPM. Use an abrasive tool in durability (bubbles). CO2 is also used in the food industry or in airplanes for cooling
a chucking motor that most closely approaches the required spindle speed. food.

How does the cleaning with dry-ice work?

The pellets are fed into the blasting machine and over a dosage unit transported
into the blasting gun. The pellets are then shot onto the object to be cleaned, by
means of compressed air.
Figure 3: Dry-Ice Blasting
Corrosion or Dirt
CO2 Pellets
Flaking-off
The accelerated dry ice pellets produce a punctual thermal shock within fraction of
a second. Consequently, the coating to be removed, will shrink, develop cracks
and come off the object. So, only the detached dirt remains, while the dry-ice
changes immediately into gas. Thus, the surface quality remains unaltered thanks
to the treatment without abrasion.

Figure 4: Abrasing / Sanding Tools
18.005

Procedure for Aluminium and Aluminium Alloys 9. Perform alodine process and/or protect surface per operator standard proce-
dure.
Aluminium and its alloys are the most widely used materials in the construction of
commercial aircraft’s. Aluminum is characterized by an excellent strength to Do not use carbon steel brush or steel wool on aluminum surfaces. Tiny dis-
weight ratio, thermal and electrical conductivity, and high reflectance. In addition, similar metal particles will become imbedded in he aluminum causing further
this metal is nonmagnetic, nontoxic, and will not spank when struck against other corrosion and subsequent damage to part. Be careful if you remove corrosion next
metals. The formation of a tightly adhering oxide film on pure aluminum, or clad to steel fasteners. Do not grind into fasteners heads and adjacent structure other-
surfaces which carry a plating of pure aluminum, offer increased resistance in wise steel particles will be imbedded in the aluminum structure and cause further
most corrosive conditions. Corrosive attack on aluminum surfaces is usually obvi- corrosion. All corrosion products must be removed completely otherwise the cor-
ous, the corrosion products are generally white and more voluminous than the roding process will continue even though the affected surface is refinished.
original base metal. Even in the early stages of corrosion, damage is evident as
Figure 5: Corrosion Removal (Single Pit)
general etching, pitting and roughness of the surface.
Preparation Corrosion damage before rework

Protect the surface adjacent to rework areas by masking from corrosion removal
agents. Pit has been cleaned up to the
extent that all loose corrosion
1. Positively identify the metal as aluminum. products have been removed.
2. Clean area to be reworked.
3. Strip paint as required.
4. Determine extent of corrosion damage.
5. Remove light corrosion by light hand-sanding operations or remove moderate Extent of rework
or severe corrosion by the appropriate methods as follows:
Wear goggles or face shield to protect against any corrosion particles that
break loose and fly off. Protect adjacent areas to prevent additional damage
from corrosion products removed during mechanical removal.
a) Remove loose corrosion products by hand scraping with a carbide-tipped
scraper or fine fluted rotary file.
b) Remove residual corrosion by hand sanding or with approved and-oper- Rough edges have been smoothed Dish-out after blending
ated power tool. Select appropriate abrasive from table given in the SRM.
and all corrosion has been removed.
c) Check that the corrosion has been completely removed using magnifying However, depression has not
glass or NDT inspection. been shaped.
6. Blend into surrounding surface any depressions resulting from rework and
surface finish with 400-grit abrasive paper (see details in he SRM / sketches
next pages).
7. Clean reworked area. Do not use Kerosene.
8. Determine depth of faired depressions as detailed (see SRM, allowable dam-
age) to ensure that rework limits have not been exceeded.

Figure 6: Corrosion Removal (Multiple Pits) Procedure for Magnesium Alloys

Magnesium is the most chemically active metal used in aircraft construction and
is, therefore, the most difficult to protect. By the same token, when a failure in the
protective coating does occur, the prompt and complete correction of the coating
18.015 failure is imperative if serious structural damage is to be avoided. Magnesium cor-
rosion is possibly the easiest type of corrosion products occupy several times the
volume of the original magnesium metal. The beginning attack shows as a lifting
of the paint film and as white spots on the surface, which rapidly develop into snow
like mounds or whiskers. Correction of damage involves the complete removal of
Bottom of depression
after corrosion removal corrosion, the restoration of surface coatings by chemical treatment, and a reap-
plication of protective coatings. Corroded magnesium parts should be removed
Corrosion damage before removal Damage removed and surface from the aircraft, if possible, for treatment. When impossible to remove part, make
smoothed with shallow elliptical preparations by masking the surface adjacent to rework areas to protect from cor-
dish-out rosion removal agents.
Personnel using this procedure must observe safety precautions and proce-
dures. Goggles or face shield must be used to preclude injury from corrosion
Figure 7: Corrosion Removal near Stiffeners particles breaking loose and flying off.
1. Positively identify the metal as magnesium.
2. Clean the area to be reworked.
3. Strip paint if required.
4. Determine extent of corrosion damage.
5. Remove light corrosion by light hand sanding.
DO not use the following procedure for adhesive bonded parts or assemblies,
areas where the brush-on solution might become lodged, or local areas
bared specifically for grounding or electrical bonding purposes.
18.020
6. Mechanically remove moderate or severe corrosion by the following method:
Remove heavy corrosion products by hand wire brushing with a stainless steel
brush.
Do not use carbon steel wire brushes or silicone carbide abrasives on mag-
nesium. Protect adjacent areas to prevent additional damage from corrosion
products removed when using this program.
b) Remove residual corrosion by hand sanding or with approved hand operated
power tool. Select the appropriate abrasive as given in the SRM.
c) Check that the corrosion has been completely removed using a magnifying
glass or do a NDT inspection.

7. Fair depressions resulting from rework as detailed in the SRM and surface fin-
ish with 400-grit abrasive paper.
8. Clean the reworked area.
Determine depth of faired depressions as detailed in the allowable damages given
in the SRM to ensure that rework limits have not exceeded.
Perform the alodine process and/or protect surface per operator standard proce-
dure.
Be careful if you remove corrosion next to steel fasteners. Do not grind into
fastener heads and adjacent structure otherwise steel particles will be imbed-
ded in the magnesium structure and cause further corrosion. All corrosion
products must be removed completely otherwise the corroding process will
continue even through the affected surface is refinished.

Protective Treatment Category C1: Areas in contact with water, humidity and occasionally with other liq-
uids and/or areas with high risk for accidental damage.
This section is about the surface protection which is given to the aircraft structure. Category C2-1: Areas in contact with water, humidity and frequently with other flu-
The protective treatments prevent corrosion and a damage by agressive fluids and ids.
provide erosion protection to metallic structures. Composite structures have a sur-
face treatment to protect them against the effects of lightning strike, ultra violet Category C2-2: Areas where water, humidity and other fluids will collect and where
rays and erosion. access is difficult.
The type of the surface protection of the components is related to: Figure 8: Surface Protection Categories
• the material
• the function
• the location
When a repair requires the removal of the original surface protection, the correct
surface protection must be applied after the repair is completed (Refer to the
SRM Chapter 51).
Protective Treatment Areas

• All external areas have a surface protection. The following areas are excep-
tions: Leading edges of slats, wing tips and fences (bonding primer on ano-
dized surfaces only)
• Leading edges of engine intake cowles
• external surfaces of the pylon made of corrosion resistant materials (stainless
steel/titanium): pyramid, side panels of primary structure, aft attachment
beam
• scuff plates on passenger and cargo doors
• equipment components, for example angles of an attached sensor, static port
areas.
The internal area of an aircraft is divided into three main categories. Each category
has a different surface protection: Figure 8 on page 17
Category A: Contact with air, in general dry and with easy access.
Category B: Areas in contact with fuel (including pipes).
Category C: Areas where corrosion can be expected because of:
• Contact with hydraulic fluids, lubricants and/or waste water
• high condensation
• difficult access, and/or with high risk of accidental damage.
The category C in the fuselage section is divided into:

Types and Functions of Corrosion Protection Table 3: Pretreatments

Procedures Material Pretreatment Remarks
The maximum possible resistance to corrosion is given to the aircraft, before it is
delivered. The good corrosion resistance of the aircraft structure is the result of the Aluminumalloys Chromic or Sul- electrolytical treatment, the surface
interaction of different types of corrosion protections. Some components are man- phuric anodizing gets an oxide coating
ufactured from corrosion-resistant material and require no surface protection.
Chemical Con- chemical treatment, same function as
The following paragraphs gives you information about the different types of protec- version coating anodizing (e.g. Alodine™, see Title
tion and are divided into: "Aluminium Alloy Alodine Process" on
• Pretreatments, page 20)
• Paint Coatings,
Washprimer usually used in field repairs
• Special Coatings,
• Sealants. Steelalloys Cadmium Plating electrolytic application of cadmiumsac-
rificial protection
Types of Corrosion Protection
Phosphatization chemical treatment, application of zinc
Pretreatments or manganese phosphatessacrificial
The pretreatment is the initial treatment of the metal and has the subsequent func- protection
tions:
Hard Chromium electrolytical treatment, prevent acon-
1. To increase the corrosion resistant properties of the metal by chemical or or Nickel Plating tact of moisture and oxygen with the
electrolytical procedures. steel alloy, highly resistant to wear, low
2. To give a good surface for the adhesion of the subsequent paint coatings. coefficient of friction
One procedure that is used to prevent corrosion is to apply a thin layer of different Silver Plating electrolytical treatment, good resistance
metal. This layer has a lower electrolytical or electrochemical potential than the against fretting corrosion under hot con-
main metal. If corrosion occurs it will remove the thin layer first. This is referred to ditions
as sacrificial corrosion prevention.
Table 3 on page 18 gives you the pretreatments which are usually used to give the Corrosionresis- Cadmium Plating used when in contact with aluminumal-
maximum resistance to corrosion. tant Steel loys, decreases galvanic effects,sacrifi-
cial protection
Zinc Spraying thin layer of pure zinc; used when in

contact with aluminum alloy, decreases
galvanic effects, sacrificial protection
Titanium Anodizing electrolytical treatment, decreases gal-

vanic effects

Paint Coatings Figure 9: Example of a Stringer Protection

Paint coatings can be divided as follows and have the subsequent functions:
Primer: The primer increases the corrosion resistant properties because it con-
tains corrosion inhibitors. The primer also protects the surface against corrosive
agents and gives a good surface for the adhesion of the subseqent paint coatings.
Top Coat: The top coat or finish paint has the function to protect the layers of the
primer and gives the aircraft the necessary appearance.
Special Coatings
Special coatings are applied to those areas which require a special corrosion pro-
tection. Two types of special coatings are used as follows:
Type 1: Water Repellent Coating: Generally made from silicone free materials or-
ganically bound with a mineral oil base to repel moisture.
Type 2: Heavy Duty Corrosion Preventive Compound: Grease-like coatings con-
taining corrosion inhibitors which protect against corrosive agents.
Each type is available in various grades. These can be either soft film forming
or hard film forming.
Sealants Airframe Drainage

Sealants have many functions on the aircraft. Those which are used for corrosion During normal flights, liquids can collect in the lower part of the fuselage shell.
prevention have the subsquent functions: These liquids can be present as a result of condensation or leakage from the air-
1. Sealing the external joints of the aircraft structure to make sure that water craft systems. It is very important that these liquids do not remain in the fuselage
does not go into the structure. shell because they can cause corrosion.
2. Sealing the riveted, bolted or bonded joints to make sure that liquids do not To make sure that the liquids which collect in the fuselage are drained from the
get into the joints. fuselage, the subseqent procedures are used:
• Drain holes are constructed in those parts of the fuselage which are not pres-
3. To prevent corrosion (galvanic action) between different metals.
surized in flight.
4. To prevent fatigue, stress or vibration between parts of the structure which • Special drain valves are installed in those parts of the fuselage which are
can cause fretting corrosion. pressurized in flight.
5. To level the drain paths to the drain holes. The drain holes and the drain valves are usually at the lowest part of the fuselage.
In specified areas of the aircraft, for example the lower shell, a protective layer is It is important that any unwanted liquids get to the drain holes or valves. The struc-
put on the sealant. This layer makes sure that other materials (for example, fuel, ture of the lower fuselage is constructed so that a path is given for these liquids.
hydraulic oil, engine oil and waste fluids from the toilets and galleys) do not cause When you do a repair make sure that you keep this path, and that unwanted ma-
a deterioration of the sealant. terials do not block this path. Use the correct sealant where it is necessary to pre-
Figure 9 shows a typical fuselage-stringer protection in the lower shell, where you vent liquids remaining in the structure.
can see the complete protection of mating surfaces.

Alodine 871 "Touch-N-Prep" Procedure If solution contacts eyes, wash with water followed by an eye wash or boric acid.
Obtain medical aid immediately. Do not allow swabs, paper etc. used for applying
Touch-N-Prep® pens are designed for easy and safe repair of clean, bare, or pre- or removing the alodine solution, to dry out. The constitute a fire hazard when
viously painted aluminum surfaces. It is a non-rinse, dry-in-place application that
dried. Immediately after use, soak thoroughly in water before discarding.
can be applied using the following steps:
1. Before applying the coating, the treated surface must be cleaned using the fol- Aloide 1200 Brush Procedure
lowing process: 1. Prepare Alodine 1200 Brush solution
a) Use a moistened abrasive pad to remove oxides from the surface of the a) Roll the contents of each container of Alodine 1200 powder thoroughly on
metal. clean paper prior to withdrawal of fraction to be used.
b) Wipe substrate with a damp lint-free cloth to ensure complete removal of b) Add 3 ounces (85 g) for each gallon (3.7851) of water used.
soils and dislodged oxides generated from the previous step.
c) Mix in stainless steel or acid resistant container (Do not use lead or
c) Allow surface to dry before touch-N-Prep® application glass).
2. To activate, hold the Touch-N-Prep® pen upright, pop off the cap and hold the d) Stir well until powder is dissolved.
pen tip down onto a clean surface to begin the flow of solution to the tip. Do e) Allow the solution to stand at least for one hour before use.
not twist or turn to remove the cap, since this may result in the pen leaking.
A dirty solution is unsatisfactory. Prepare in small quantities and discard
3. Press the pen tip down on the surface until solution fills the pen tip. Apply the when old or dirty.
Alodine® 871™ solution to the metal surface with firm, smooth, even strokes,
covering all edges. Overlap each stroke and allow to dry. 2. Prepare the surface for headlining.
a) Mark all surface likely to be affected by running, dripping, or splashing of
4. Within 5 minutes of the first coat, apply a second coat at a 90° angle to the
the solution. Painted, anodized, or previously alodined surfaces need not
first coat with the same smooth, firm stroke.
be masked.
5. Allow the Alodine Touch-N-Prep® coating to air dry thoroughly. b) Seal or plug all holes and entry ports to prevent entry of solution into as-
6. Frequent short jabs to rewet the application tip are preferred to maintain con- semblies.
stant coating weights and avoid over-wetting the felt tip. c) Clean area to be alodined with a liquid solvent degreaser. Dry with warm
7. Always immediately replace the cap when not in use to avoid evaporation and air or wipe dry.
contamination. d) Mechanically remove all finish and protective coating from the affected
area to produce an uniformly bright aluminum surface. Use Tycro,
Aluminium Alloy Alodine Process Scotchbrite pad, very fine aluminum oxide pad, or 400 grit aluminum ox-
ide paper.
Alodine™ is the registered trade name of a treatment process marketed by the
American Chemical Paint Company. It is approved for the production of a chemical e) Wipe with dry clean Cheese-cloth to remove loose particles and residue
film on aluminum alloy. Treat repair parts and original structure that has been cut from the abraded area.
or filed with Alodine 1200, 1200S or Alodine 871 "Touch-N-Prep". f) Wipe with Cheese-cloth dampened with MEK. Repeat using clean
Cheese-cloth until no visible residue transfers to the Cheesecloth.
Safety Information g) Allow to dry for a minimum of 15 minutes.
Handle brush Alodine 1200 and Alodine 871 with the usual precautions for corro- 3. Apply Alodine 1200 solution.
sive chemicals. Use respirators, goggles, rubber or neoprene gloves, boots, and a) Apply Alodine 1200 evenly and liberally with a fibre or nylon brush or
aprons when handling the powder and applying the solution. Do not allow the pow- clean Cheese-cloth.
der or solution to contact the skin. Wash off immediately.

b) Allow the solution to remain for 3 to 4 minutes to form a coating. Keep the
area from drying during this period by gently blotting with Cheese-cloth
moistened with the solution.
c) Rinse with clean water by gently contacting the surface with wet (not sat-
urated) clean Cheese-cloth. Contact for 1 to 2 minutes and repeat with
clean Cheese-cloth.
Exercise care when rinsing and drying to avoid scratching or remove the
coating, which is tender when freshly formed.
Gently contact the surface with clean dry Cheese-cloth to absorb excess liquid.
d) Dry thoroughly using hot air 71°C (160°F) maximum for a period of 15
minutes.
e) Apply final finish as soon as possible after drying. Handle parts with clean
gloves and keep parts clean and dry to avoid surface contamination.
Magnesium Alloy Alodine Process

The brush solution process for magnesium is the same as for aluminum.


General Repair Methods Repair of Small Dents

When a dent has been inspected and is within the allowable damage limits, it can
Repair of Minor Skin Damage be filled as described below.
This section is about the repair of minor skin damage such as: Dent filler is generally not required for dents up to 15 mm (0.591 in.) depth (if stru-
• small dents, turally approved). Special instructions apply:
• removal of scratches by burnishing, • in the area around static ports and angle of attack sensors,
• stop-drilling of cracks, • at the slats and leading edges of the horizontal and vertical stabilizer. This is
a precaution to avoid a possible negative impact on handling and to a lesser
• lightning strike damage
degree on performance.
When composite structure or skin is damaged refer to the related chapter in
Filling Procedure
the Structure Repair Manual (SRM).
1. Mix resin base and hardener according to manufacturers instructions. Then
When minor damage repairs are made on the external skin of the aircraft,
add mix aluminium powder (e.g. alupudre 811) 20 to 40 percent by weight of
they must conform to the aerodynamic smoothness as required.
resin mix to obtain a non runny paste.
In all cases, it is required to compare the extent of the damage with the al-
2. Abrade the surface paint in the dented area with emery cloth (grade 280), ex-
lowable damage limits given in the Structure Repair Manual (SRM) before
tend the abraded area up to 10 mm (0.394 in.) around the dent. Ensure that
starting a repair.
any damaged paint is abraded out.
3. Clean the abraded area with cleaning agent.
4. Mask off the adjacent area, which is not to be treated, with masking tape and
paper.
5. Fill the dent with the mixed filler paste. Use a spatula to blend the filler into the
aircrafts skin contours.
6. Allow the filler to cure.
7. Abrade down the cured filler to a smooth finish with emery cloth.
8. Restore the paint finish.

Cold Expansion of Fastener Holes Flap Peening

The cold expansion process increases the fatigue life of metal structures by pre This procedure is usually used when it is necessary to pre stress the surface of a
stressing the metal around critical fastener holes. The processes, described in this component or part of the structure. This procedure will improve the fatigue perfor-
topic, create a zone of residual compressive stresses around the fastener hole. mance of the component.
These compressive stresses extend outward to a distance equal to at least half the This procedure is suitable for in?situ repair work, the repair of small areas up to
hole diameter. This improves the fatigue life of the structure significantly. 10000 sq.mm (15.5 sq.in.) and holes down to 25 mm (0.984in.)
The hole diameter increases by three to five percent as a result of the expansion All coatings must be stripped prior to peening.
process.
General Cold Expansion Steps
To do the peening, a flexible flap is secured in a mandrel. The flaps have shot par-
The steps to be performed when carrying out cold expansion of holes in aluminum ticles of tungsten carbide bonded to them. The mandrel is fitted to a suitable power
alloy structure are: tool, and then rotated at a specific speed.
• "Drilling a start hole (new holes) in the correct size
• "Reaming the start hole
• "Check the hole size with a gauge
• "Choose the correct Mandrel and check it with a mandrel gauge
• "Slide the split sleeve onto the mandrel (flanged end first if flanged).
• "Insert the mandrel and split sleeve into the hole until the nose cap is firmly
against the work piece.
• "Hold the gun at right angles to the surface and activate the puller unit to draw
the mandrel through the sleeve.
• "Remove the split sleeve and discard.
• "Verify that the hole has been expanded by using a verification gauge.
• "Ream the hole to the required final diameter using a specified final reamer.

Shot Peening Scratches that have not penetrated the Cladding

Shot peening is a cold working process used to produce a compressive residual 1. These scratches can be carefully burnished out or sealed over. Use a blood-
stress layer and modify mechanical properties of metals. It entails impacting a sur- stone, a meshed steel pad or steel roller together with bone oil or common
face with shot (round metallic, glass or ceramic particles) with force sufficient to grease as Vaseline as lubricant.
create plastic deformation. It is similar to sandblasting, except that it operates by 2. Restore the paint finish
the mechanism of plasticity rather than abrasion: each particle functions as a ball-
peen hammer. In practice, this means that less material is removed by the pro- Removal of Scratches that have penetrated the Cladding
cess, and less dust created. 1. Clean the scratches and the adjacent area with cleaning agent.
Peening a surface spreads it plastically, causing changes in the mechanical prop- 2. Use emery cloth to remove the paint from the scratched area to fully expose
erties of the surface. Shot peening is often called for in aircraft repairs to relieve the scratches. Make sure that the exposed area adjacent to the scratches is
tensile stresses built up in the grinding process and replace them with beneficial large enough to ensure that all scratches are exposed.
compressive stresses. Depending on the part geometry, part material, shot mate- 3. Use a rounded scotch-stone and water and rub with the stone along the length
rial, shot quality, shot intensity, shot coverage, shot peening can increase fatigue of the scratch until a smooth and rounded contour is obtained.
life from 0-1000%.
4. Use 400 grade abrasive paper to blend out any marks left by the scotch-stone.
Popular method for propelling shot media is the air blast system. In the air blast
Rub along the length of the scratch to remove the marks.
systems, media is introduced by various methods into the path of high pressure air
and accelerated through a nozzle directed at the part to be peened. 5. Clean and dry the repair area with tissues.
Shot peening is used on gear parts, cams and camshafts, clutch springs, coil 6. Polish the bare metal by hand or with a buffing wheel using special abrasive
springs, connecting rods, crankshafts, gearwheels, leaf and suspension springs, polish material as follows:
rock drills, and turbine blades. It is also used in foundries for sand removal, decor- a) Hand Polishing
ing, descaling, and surface finishing of castings such as engine blocks and heads. Apply the special abrasive polish material to a cloth and rub the cloth
Its descaling action can be used in the manufacturing of steel products such as along the length of the scratch. Do not polish with a circular motion. Limit
strip, plates, sheets, wire, and bar stock. the polished area to a minimum.
b) Wheel Polishing
Removal of Scratches by Burnishing
Apply the special abrasive polish material to the edge of a multiple-ply,
Since scratches are starting points for corrosion, scratches should be removed unbleached muslin buffing wheel. The buffing wheel should have a diam-
from the aircraft skin surfaces as soon as possible. eter that is suitable for the area of the scratch. The buffing wheel is driven
Before starting with the removal procedure, compare the extent of the damage by using equipment that is capable of producing between 2500 and 4000
with the allowable damage limits and do a structural repair if necessary. rpm. Buff only in the direction of the scratch and also limit the polished
When the scratch has been inspected and is not within the allowable damage lim- area to a minimum.
its it must be removed. 7. Apply pretreatment for painting chemical conversion coating as Alodine to the
If scratches in clad aluminum sheets are to be removed, it is necessary to examine repaired area.
whether the scratches have gone through the cladding. 8. Restore the paint finish.

Stop-Drilling of Cracks Lightning Strike Damage Repair

For the definition of a crack, refer to Title "Damage Classi- When the aircraft is hit by lightning strikes, the extreme heat can burn-in spots/
fication" on page 8. holes on the external skin.
The stop drilling procedure must only be used when called Drill a hole at the Spots caused by a lightning strike which are less than 10 % of the skin thickness
for in the allowable damage or repair data sections of the end of the crack. can be polished out.
SRM, or any other manufacturer approved repair data. If a lightning strike damages existing fasteners refer to oversize and alternative.
Procedure Crack In the event of a lightning strike do the inspections given in the Aircraft Mainte-
1. Use a nondestructive test method to determine the nance Manual (AMM) Chapter 05.
ends of the crack. Repair Procedure 1
2. Mark the end/ends of the crack. 1. Drill a hole in the center of the lightning
3. To the marked end/ends of the crack add the material thickness 'T', beyond strike damage in accordance with the re-
the crack, make a mark at this point. Drill a hole of ca. 6.4 mm at the final quirements given:
point. 2. Countersink the hole on the outer surface
of the skin.
3. Drill a hole, with the same diameter as
used in step 1, in the center of the repair
washer.
4. Deburr the holes.
5. Degrease the repair area and repair
washer with cleaning agent
6. Apply pretreatment for painting.
7. Apply sealant to the mating surfaces of
4. Carefully deburr the drilled holes the skin and repair washer.
5. Use a nondestructive test method to make sure that the crack does not extend 8. Put the repair washer at the internal side
beyond the stop drill holes. of the skin so that both holes are in line.
The repair should be periodicaly inspected until the final repair is done. 9. Install the correct fastener.
10. Restore the paint finish.

Repair Procedure 2 (Temporary Repair)

1. Drill a hole in the center of the lightning
strike damage in accordance require-
ments given:
2. Deburr the hole.
3. Clean the repair area with cleaning agent.
4. Apply pretreatment for painting to the re-
pair area.
5. Install a suitable blind rivet in accordance
with the SRM.
6. Restore the paint finish

Structural Repair Manual (SRM) or fatigue life of the structure, which must still be capable of fulfilling its design func-
tion. Allowable damage may require minimal rework such as cleanup or drilling
Manual Overview stop holes, and details of this minimal rework, to enable the airplane to be returned
to service, are given. To define allowable damage, graphs will be used.
Structural Repair Manuals include descriptive information as well as specific in-
structions and data relative to the field repair of structures and structural compo- Repairs
nents of an aircraft. The section 'Repairs' contains sufficient information to enable the operator to carry
It will serve as a medium through which the operators will be advised of actual re- out permissible repairs. Each of the repair examples is described with the aid of a
pairs of a general-interest nature developed by the aircraft manufaturer. diagram, which in turn is supplemented by materials lists and procedural instruc-
The material presented in SRMs are divided into chapters. According to the tions given in the subsequent pages.
ATA 100 numbering system, the chapters are numbered from 51 to 57 This could
look like the following:
Consumable Materials
• Structures - General This section entitled - Consumable Materials - contains lists of materials extracted
from the Consumable Materials List, and detail all those consumable products cur-
• Doors
rently specified in SRM topics.
• Fuselage
• Nacelles/Pylons Substitute Materials
• Stabilizers The Section ’Substitute Materials’ contains lists of substitutable materials allowed
• Windows by the manufaturer.
• Wings
Fastener Information
The contents are:
The Section ’Fastener Information’ contains detailed informations about fasteners.
• allowable damage,
• material identification for structures subject to field repair, Procedure for Manual Usage
• typical repairs generally applicable to structural components of the airplane
Example: Airbus SRM
that are most likely to be damaged,
• substitute materials, For the efficient use of this manual the following procedure is recommended.
• fastener information, 1. Determine the damage classification.
• a brief description of some procedures carried out in conjunction with structur- a) Using the manual chapter index, locate the chapter which refers to the
al repairs, such as protective treatment of repair parts and sealing of integral damaged part.
fuel tanks. b) Locate the section, which refers to the damaged part in the Table of Con-
Nacelles are usually covered by the engine manufacturers Nacelle Structural tents.
Repair Manual. c) In the relevant chapter refer to the topic 'Allowable Damage'.
2. Identify the damaged part in the manual.
Allowable Damage a) Locate the section and subsection which refers to the damaged part in
The data, to be found on the Allowable Damage Pages is intended to permit an the Table of Contents.
operator to ascertain whether a damaged airplane may be returned to service with- b) Refer to the figure reference at section, subsection level.
out repair. Damage permitted by this data has no significant effect on the strength

c) Locate the relevant figure, identify the damaged component and refer to
the relevant identification page.
3. Determine the repair procedure.
a) On the identification page for the part concerned refer to the 'ACTION OR
REPAIR' column and determine whether the part has a reference to a re-
pair within the manual, either in the chapter concerned or in another
chapter.
b) In the event of major structural damage, the necessary replacement parts
can be ordered by means of the Structural Spare Parts Identification. This
identification includes illustrations of all structural parts. Structural spare
parts may be ordered at the manufacturer.
Where the space is left blank, it is not recommended to replace the part
but no repair exist. Adequate repair procedure can only be designated
after complete damage evaluation.

Corrosion Prevention Control Program - CPCP Rules of CPCP

The structure program includes requirements to control corrosion to a minimum Level 1 Corrosion Findings
level. For definition purposes, corrosion damages are subdivided into three levels. Should inspections consistently reveal corrosion Level 1 findings for a given area
These are Level 1, 2 and 3. The main function of the CPCP is to maintain the target during repeat inspections on particular aircraft operated in similar conditions, then
to keep corrosion on Level 1 or better on all structural details, elements or assem- the existing program is considered effective for the concerned area, and no
blies which contribute significantly to carrying flight, ground, pressure or control change to the program is necessary.
loads, and whose failure could affect the structural integrity necessary for the safe-
ty of the aircraft. Level 2 Corrosion Findings
Should inspections reveal that corrosion is Level 2 for a given area during repeat
Definitions for the Various Levels of Corrosion inspections, then the existing program is not effective for the concerned area of the
Level 1 Corrosion particular fleet. In order to control corrosion to Level 1 or better, consideration
should be given to one or more of the following corrective actions:
Corrosion occurring between successive inspections that can be reworked /blend- • Decreasing the inspection thresholds/interval.
ed-out within allowable limits as defined by the manufacturer (see SRM, SB etc.).
• Considering a higher inspection level.
or,
• Re-considering the Program Concept.
Corrosion damage exceeds allowable limits but can be attributed to an event not • Application/More frequent application of Temporary Protection System.
typical of operator’s usage of other aircraft in the same fleet (e.g. mercury spillage) • Embodiment of preventive modifications, where applicable.
or, • Installations of parts with improved protection standard, where applicable.
Operator experience has demonstrated only light corrosion between each succes- In this way, the program is self-regulating and will adjust itself to the optimum pro-
sive inspection but the latest inspection and cumulative blend-out now exceeds gram.
the allowable limits.
Level 3 Corrosion Findings
Level 2 Corrosion
Should inspection reveal that corrosion is Level 3 in a given area, the existing pro-
Corrosion occurring between successive inspections that requires a single rework/ gram is not effective for the concerned area.
blend-out which exceeds allowable limits as defined by the manufacturer
(see SRM, SB etc.), requiring a repair/reinforcement or complete or partial re- In addition to the considerations given for Level 2 corrosion, an action plan calling
placement of the applicable structure. for one-time inspection of the concerned area should be expeditiously agreed with
the NATIONAL AUTHORITY and carried out on all aircraft of a similar age or older.
Level 3 Corrosion
Corrosion found during first or subsequent inspection(s), which is determined (nor-
Periodical Review
mally by the operator) to be an urgent airworthiness concern requiring expeditious A periodical review of the structural Program, with particular attention to reported
action. fleet data is scheduled to maintain the target of this program to control corrosion
to Level 1 or better on all structural details, elements or assemblies which contrib-
ute significantly to carrying flight, ground, pressure or control loads, and whose
failure could affect the structural integrity necessary for the safety of the aircraft.

Aging Aircraft A well-established inspection and maintenance plan for each airplane and the ex-
change of performance and maintenance information among aircraft manufactur-
Aging Aircraft Structure ers, operators, and regulatory agencies. Data from inspections allows new
airplane design to incorporate features for cost-effective upkeep of the structures
Many thousands out-of-production commercial airplanes will be flying by the year and systems, which in turn allows extended safe operation in less-than-ideal envi-
2000, according to recent estimates, with many airplanes operating beyond their ronments.
model design service objectives (DSO) for a second or third operator. Out-of-pro-
duction airplanes are those models that are no longer being manufactured, but are Structural Modification and Inspection
still operating. Continuing airworthiness has traditionally been dependent on repetitive inspec-
Aircraft manufacturer work consistently to assist airlines in safely operating these tions. However, concerns about aging airplanes as well as a better understanding
airplanes according to globally accepted airworthiness standards. of the human factors associated with numerous repetitive actions, prompted a re-
In addition to offering maintenance recommendations and ongoing structural stud- assessment of the viability of indefinite repetitive inspections. The authorities,
ies, the aircraft manufacturers work with component manufacturers, operators, manufacturers, and operators agreed that continued operational safety of air-
and regulatory agencies to ensure proper maintenance of these airplanes and to planes could be better served by placing less emphasis on repetitive inspections
gather data about them for future safety improvements. and more emphasis on design improvements and material replacement.
These airplanes are supported by an extensive network of inspection and mainte- The Structures Task Group (STG), which consists of manufacturers, operators,
nance programs. The focus of these programs is monitoring maintenance practic- and certifying agencies, was given the task of selecting service bulletins for each
es, adjusting maintenance schedules for airplane safety, and accumulating airplane model for incorporation of mandatory structural modification at a given
information to improve design of the next generation of airplanes. threshold to maintain safety. In the event of known fatigue cracking, corrosion
problems, or both, the STG normally introduces a service bulletin to define inspec-
A number of these airplanes are now also entering the "aging" category. Aging air- tions. If damage is found during the defined inspections, the STG introduces an-
planes are defined as those that are flying beyond their DSO, which traditionally other service bulletin containing instructions for repairs and modifications at a
has been 20 years. For newer models that figure has grown to as long as 30 years. specific threshold.
Approximately 20 percent of all commercial jet airplanes flying today are consid-
ered to be aging airplanes. As that number increases, so does the need for height- Corrosion Prevention and Control
ened fleet monitoring by airlines and manufacturers and continued intense focus
A program was developed that, in some cases, may require more frequent main-
and surveillance of these activities by regulatory agencies.
tenance visits to accomplish corrosion inspections. These inspections were de-
In order to handle increased maintenance needs, the aircraft manufacturers con- signed to control corrosion damage to acceptable minimum levels that will not
tinue to establish partnerships, train its customers, and extend its facilities. adversely affect safety. Changes were required to operators maintenance pro-
Support for out-of-production airplanes and for aging airplanes built by all manu- grams if they could not demonstrate that corrosion was being kept within the ac-
facturers is provided through two major sources: ceptable minimums. Design improvements based on data collected from these
inspections and from service experience have been incorporated into current-pro-
1. Industry standards for aging-fleet structure programs. duction airplanes.
2. Additional manufacturer-specific programs.
These standards were developed by an international working group whose mem-
Maintenance Program Guideline
bers represent manufacturers, regulatory agencies, and operators. Though not all Although manufacturers have published maintenance programs for each model,
activities aimed at safe operation of out-of-production and aging airplanes are no comprehensive guidelines existed to properly address aging-fleet concerns. A
mandated, the highest level of safety possible depends on two factors: structural maintenance program guidelines document was created to identify and
summarize all of the relevant structural maintenance and modification tasks for a

particular area of structure. In addition, model-specific documents were created to • Enhance airplane maintenance to better address aging airplane systems.
collect all data for a particular model airplane such as maintenance planning data, • Add aging systems tasks to the aging airplane research program.
service bulletins and service letters. • Improve reporting of accident, incident, and maintenance actions involving
wiring system components.
Supplemental Structural Inspections (SSI)
• Evaluate the need for additional maintenance of transport airplane fuel sys-
Supplemental structural inspection (SSI) documents are currently in use for aging tem wiring and address any potentially unsafe conditions.
airplanes. These documents help ensure the continued safe operation of the aging
• Improve wiring installation drawings and instructions for continuing airworthi-
fleet through timely detection of potential fatigue damage at locations previously
ness.
not reported as damaged. The documents are updated regularly to reflect service
experience and operator inputs. Evaluate Fleet Condition
Repair Assessment The first task will be to conduct a sampling inspection of the fleet, to include estab-
lishing the airplane models to be evaluated, determining the evaluation criteria, de-
Traditionally, repairs to airplane structures have primarily focused on static
veloping a plan, and evaluating the fleet.
strength and fail safety to the structure after the repair. Recent aging-airplane con-
cerns and regulatory changes have increased the emphasis on the effect repairs Airplanes to be surveyed include those undergoing heavy maintenance, those sit-
may have on the damage tolerance of the airplane structure. As a result, a repair ting out of service, and those representing newer airplanes of each affected model.
assessment document has been developed to ensure the continued airworthiness Airplanes undergoing heavy maintenance. The applicable OEM and airline repre-
of repaired structures. sentatives for each airplane model have identified significant electrical systems
that are susceptible to the effects of aging. They plan to survey those systems on
Aging Aircraft Systems older airplanes for which previous inspection data does not exist or is incomplete.
Surveys of wiring and related electrical systems on DC-8, DC-9, DC-10, 727, 737,
In the last section, we have discussed about aging of aircraft structures. This sec-
747, and L-1011 airplanes were scheduled to be completed in May 1999, when the
tion is about aging systems as components and electrical installations. RAC was slated to review the results. Surveys of the Airbus A300, which was re-
As the average age of commercial airplanes currently in service increases, con- cently added to the roster of aging airplanes, are expected to be complete in De-
cerns continue to be raised about existing maintenance programs and how effec- cember 1999.
tively they can help ensure the continued airworthiness of older airplanes. The
purpose of the program is to determine what action must be taken to mitigate the Airplanes sitting out of service.
effects of age on systems in older airplanes. The condition of systems on recently retired airplanes that are no longer econom-
A plan that responds to concerns about the condition of aging nonstructural sys- ically feasible for commercial service operation will also be evaluated. Intrusive,
tems on these airplanes was released. The plan resulted from a program similar detailed examination of these airplanes should identify conditions that could po-
to one established in 1988 to evaluate aging airplane structures. tentially affect the proper operation of similar systems on airplanes still in service.
The international authorities recommended that operators and original equipment Newer airplanes representing affected models. Information from surveys of both
manufacturers (OEM) expand the aging aircraft program to include nonstructural in-service airplanes and recently retired airplanes will be used to survey newer air-
planes that represent the affected models. This aspect determines at which point
components. The plan released outlines seven initiatives to address aging air-
plane systems: general conditions related to aging begin to appear. The results will be reflected in
recommendations for proper maintenance intervals.
• Establish an aging transport systems oversight committee to coordinate the
various aging systems initiatives within the international authorities. Because of the complexity and difficulty of reporting incidents on electrical sys-
tems and because of the difficulty in obtaining historical data specific to airplane
• Conduct an in-depth review of the aging transport fleet and make model-spe-
cific safety recommendations related to airplane systems.

wiring, the short-term focus will be on electrical systems. A decision whether sur- facility. Removing unnecessary information and tailoring the procedures to specific
veys of other airplane systems are required will be made at the end of 1999. repair facilities are expected to streamline the repair of electrical components.
In addition, the FAA recommended that a process that trains maintenance person-
Review Fleet Service History nel to recognize aging effects on electrical systems and alerts them to proper re-
As airplanes age, changes in operational, maintenance, and design practices pair procedures be defined.
prompt production changes to the airplane that cause the design to continuously
evolve. Many changes benefit operators and are offered for retrofit on earlier air- Review Inspection and Repair Training Programs
planes. Operator and regulatory consideration of these postdelivery changes for As with maintenance programs, operators also customize their inspection and re-
airplane fleet installation is based on economic and safety factors. If a change is pair training programs based on their own requirements. The FAA has recom-
not immediately mandated by regulatory agencies, economic factors determine mended collecting the best practices from each training program and establishing
whether any postdelivery changes are installed on commercial airplanes. a model inspection and repair training program that reflects industry best practic-
The service history of each airplane model will also be evaluated to determine es. The Air Transport Association has already compiled some best practices from
whether to recommend that the FAA mandate certain production modifications on its member airlines, including operator-amended recommendations from Boeing
in-service airplanes. Depending on the outcome of this evaluation, a similar pro- on proven maintenance, training, and procedural practices. This information will
gram may be instituted on airplanes with type designs less than 20 years old. serve as the basis for a maintenance best-practices videotape and any future in-
spection and repair training programs.
Improve Maintenance Criteria
Boeing recommends a general plan for maintenance of each airplane model, but Summary
many operators customize these plans based on their unique requirements and After continuously monitoring its in-service airplanes and conducting an historical
experiences. These maintenance plans are reviewed and approved by the appli- analysis of airplane accidents, Boeing has not identified aging aircraft systems as
cable regulatory agencies but may not completely address the effects of aging. a major problem. These results are based on data from thousands of airplanes that
The FAA has recommended that general maintenance procedures be evaluated have accumulated millions of flight hours over the last 25 years. As the result of
and that a model-specific maintenance program be developed. Specific areas unscheduled and unscheduled line and base maintenance, many nonstructural sys-
der review are developing an improved electrical system inspection criteria; defin- tem components and the wires, tubes, and hoses that link these components are
ing practices to eliminate wire bundle contamination or damage; determining an inspected, repaired, or replaced. However, Boeing is working with the aviation in-
acceptable criteria for corrosion of components; establishing a process to link line, dustry on a program established by the FAA to assess the effects of age on sys-
base, and shop maintenance actions; and reviewing the maintenance steering tems in older airplanes. When completed, the program will provide all members of
group-3 (MSG-3) process. The effects of aging noted during the surveys of both the industry with the necessary information to ensure the continued safety of non-
in-service and out-of-service airplanes will be considered when updating the crite- structural systems on these airplanes.
ria. The MSG-3 process establishes the initial minimum maintenance and inspec-
tion requirements for operators to use when developing an approved continuous
airworthiness maintenance program for airframe, engines, systems, and compo-
nents.
Review and Update Standard Practices for Wiring

The FAA has recommended that operators and the OEM develop a customized
standard wiring practices manual to clarify and simplify electrical system installa-
tion and repair practices. This manual provides procedures for all types of electri-
cal parts, some of which may not be used by a particular maintenance or repair


Non Destructive Testing Inspection (NDT) Ultrasonic Inspection

Very small cracks, too small to see by x-ray and delamination are detected by ul-
Inspection are examinations to determine the condition of an aircraft or an aircraft trasonic inspection. An ultrasonic test instrument requires access to only one sur-
component. An aircraft inspection can range from a casual walk around to a de- face of the material to be inspected and can be used either straight line or angle
tailed inspection including complete disassembly and the use of complex inspec- beam testing techniques.
tion aids.
Before starting any inspection, make sure that the inspection area is clean and well X-ray Inspection
illuminated. This method of inspection utilizes the penetrating power of radiation shows the in-
terior of objects as recorded on film. Various metals, both ferrous and nonferrous,
Inspection Methods as well as nonmetal, such as ceramics and plastics can be inspected. X-Ray is
The main inspection methods are as follows: used to detect defects such as cracks, corrosion, debris, loose fittings and fasten-
ers, and damaged or broken structural assies. But it can't detect all types of de-
Visual Inspection fects. Small defects such as small surface corrosion or fine cracks are difficult to
detect.
The most fundamental method. Inspection aids: mirror, magnifying glass, bores-
cope. Resonance Inspection
Tap Test These type of inspection (Fokker Bond Test) can detect debonding in bonded
structural parts, and crushed core or debonding in honeycomb assies.
Used in bonded sandwich components
Liquid Penetrate Inspection

This type of inspection is suitable for locating cracks, porosity or any type of defect
that extends to the surface. It is usable on ferrous and nonferrous metals as well
as non porous plastic material.
Magnetic Particle Inspection

Most generally used for ferrous metal parts. In this method, the part is magnetized
and a material which contains magnetic particles is poured or sprayed over the
surface. If there are any defects in the material, either on the surface or subsur-
face, north and south magnetic poles will form across the fault and the magnetic
particles will collect between the poles.
Eddy Current Inspection

This method detects the following defects in electrically conductive materials:
1. Cracks in fastener holes or faying surfaces
2. Overaging of aluminum alloys
3. Mixed materials

Inspection Methods Explained Figure 1: Rigid Borescope
Visual Inspection
The most fundamental method of inspection and one that will never be replaced
but only augmented, is the visual inspection. It is limited, of course, in that nothing
can be inspected by this method unless it is discovered, cleaned and made visible.
The basic tools required for visual inspections are sufficient light, the old fashioned
eyeball and in some cases a magnifying glass or a mirror.
Flashlights are normally used to give spot type illumination to the area being in-
spected, and to make flashlights more useful for inspecting in difficult locations,
special inspection lights are available with long flexible extensions that place the
bulb inside areas that would otherwise be dark.
Borescope/Endoscope
Borescopes are used to inspect the inside of engine cylinders through the spark
plug hole or special designated borescope holes at the engine core case. A bore-
scope is actually an optical devise similar in principle to a telescope but with a built-
in light source that illuminates the area being inspected.
One of the more useful types of borescope for inspecting extremely difficult loca-
tions is the flexible fibre optic borescope. This uses a bundle of optical glass fibres
to transmit light from a special cold light source to the end of the scope which may
be worked well up inside the engine or the structure being inspected. A special at-
tachment for this instrument allows a single-lens reflex camera to be used to pho-
tographically record what is seen through the scope. Fibre optic borescope are
available in lengths up to almost four feet.
Many borescopes have an adaptor on the eye-piece which allows the image of the
inspection area to be recorded on photographic film, on video, or to be viewed with
a Closed Circuit TV system (CCTV).

Figure 2: Flexible Fibre Optic Borescope Tap Test

This inspection method is the simplest way to detect delamination or separation
on bonded sandwich components.
When a tap testing rod with a spherical tip is gently tapped against a bonded, solid
structure, a clear ringing sound should be heard. If delamination is present, a
change of the tone into a dull thud will be heard.
Figure 3: Inspecting a Panel by tapping

Liquid Penetrate Inspection Figure 4: Penetrate Procedure

Penetrate testing is a quick and reliable non-destructive test method for detecting
defects which may be too small to be detected during ordinary visual checks and
which are open to the surface made from any non-porous materials.
The fundamental purpose of penetrate testing is to increase the visible contrast
between a defect and its background. This inspection method is based on the prin-
ciple of capillary attraction. The area to be inspected is covered with a penetrating
liquid; that is, one that has a very low viscosity and low surface tension. After the
penetrate has been allowed to remain on the surface long enough to completely
penetrate any fault that extends to the surface all of the excess is washed off, and
the surface is covered with a developer. The developer is a material that will, by
the process of reverse capillary action, blot the penetrate out of cracks or other de-
fects where it will form a visible line in the developer.
Penetrate Types
There are two types of indications used by the liquid penetrate method:
1. Fluorescent indication (Zyglo Check)
An ultraviolet, or black light is used with the fluorescent penetrate, and any de-
fect will show up as a green line.
2. Coloured Dye indication (Dye check)
With the coloured dye method, defects show up as red lines on the white sur-
face of the developer.

Magnetic Particle Inspection Figure 5: Sensitivity in relation to different Discontinuity Angles

Magnetic particle inspection procedures can only be done on ferromagnetic mate-
rials as cobalt, iron, nickel and some steel alloys.
This method of inspection is not applicable to nonmagnetic materials.
While, in aircraft maintenance, these procedures are used mainly to detect surface
discontinuities, they may also be used to detect discontinuities which exist below
the surface of a component. The sensitivity does, however, decrease quickly with
the increasing depth of discontinuities below the surface.
Magnetic particle inspection procedures can involve portable and mobile equip-
ment, which permit procedures to be done without removing components from
their locations on the aircraft, or stationary.
When a ferromagnetic component is magnetized, lines of flux are established in
that component. If a discontinuity exists in the component and that discontinuity
cuts across the path of the lines of flux, the flux is diverted and new, local poles
can be set up on the surface of the component. This is known as flux leakage (Re-
fer to Figure 701).
If fine particles of magnetic material are applied to the surface of the magnetized
component, these particles will be attracted to any flux leakages and will gather at
the site of the new poles.
Maximum sensitivity is achieved when discontinuities lie at right angles to the di-
rection of magnetic flux but sensitivity is not seriously reduced with discontinuities
orientated at angles up to 45° from the optimum direction. Beyond 45° sensitivity
diminishes quickly and discontinuities which lie parallel to the direction of flux will
not, cause flux leakages of sufficient strength to be detected (see Figure 6).
Because flux leakages can be caused by discontinuities (cracks, laps, non-
metallic inclusions, pipe porosity, seams etc.), and also by changes of geom-
etry (edges, holes, recesses, thread roots etc.), indications can be relevant or
nonrelevant to the condition of the component. Relevant indications must be re-
corded before the component is demagnetized and cleaned upon completion of
the inspection.

Eddy Current Inspection Eddy Current Equipment

The eddy current nondestructive testing method is capable of detecting or meas- All eddy current systems have common features which are derived from physics.
uring the following in electrically conductive materials: It is therefore possible to divide an eddy current system into basic units of equip-
• cracks, ment:
• corrosion, A generator drives a coil system (probe). The coil system measures the disconti-
• thickness of non-conductive layers on conductive materials, nuity and gives a signal. An evaluation unit makes an analysis of the signal. The
result is shown on a display unit (Figure 6).
• conductivity.
The coil system (probe), together with the generator forms a vibration system, the
Generation of Eddy Currents properties of which are influenced by the environment of the coil system. The in-
If conductive materials are placed in an alternating magnetic field, circular currents fluences consist of changes of conductivity and permeability at locations adjacent
are generated in the material, flowing around the field lines. Generally, the currents to the probe system. Cracks and reduced or increased component thicknesses, for
flow vertically to the field lines in a circular direction. example, are local conductivity changes. This will determine the impedance be-
haviour of the coil system and affect the phase relationships between voltage and
If the magnetic field is now excited by a coil, the exciting currents and the currents current and their amplitude ratios.
generated in the conductive material are anti-parallel. They flow in the same plane
(vertical to the magnetic field lines), but with the opposite direction of rotation. For most inspections, it is sufficient for the evaluation unit to display only the am-
plitude of the measuring system. For these inspections equipment can be used
The induced currents produce a further magnetic field. As the induced currents are which has a meter display for measuring the amplitude of the eddy current signals.
flowing in an opposite direction to the exciting currents, the magnetic field pro-
duced by the induced currents is also opposite to the existing magnetic field. This In some cases it is not sufficient to measure only the amplitude. For some inspec-
will weaken the exciting magnetic field, causing the coil’s reactance to decrease. tions the evaluation unit must also assess the phase changes of the eddy current
signals. For these inspections equipment with a visual display (cathode ray tube)
If permanent eddy currents are to be excited in an electrically conductive material, is used for the representation of phase and amplitude (impedance plane rep-
an alternating current must be passed through a coil. resentation).
Depth of Penetration of Eddy Current Figure 6: Simplified Block Diagram
The depth of penetration of eddy currents decreases with increasing exciter fre-
quency (f). Changes in permeability () and conductivity (o) also affects the depth
of penetration. Ferromagnetic materials have a large range of permeability (100 to
1000). The permeability of non-ferromagnetic materials is a constant (1).
For practical purposes, there are two types of eddy current equipment.
The type used depends on the depth of penetration required.
Type 1: High Frequency (HF). It has frequencies higher than 10 kHz, and is used
to inspect for surface discontinuities.
Type 2: Low Frequency (LF). It has frequencies lower than 10 kHz, and is used to
inspect sub-surface discontinuities.

Figure 7: Instrument Display

Ultrasonic Inspection Figure 8: Ultrasonic Block Diagram

Audible sounds and ultrasonic waves are of the same physical nature; both are
acoustic vibrations. Ultrasonic waves have frequencies greater than
20 Kilohertz (KHZ). In most of the tests, the frequency range is from 1 to
25 Megahertz (MHZ).
There are some applications in the low-frequency range (below 1 MHz) for in-
stance control of debonding.
Ultrasonic inspection can be carried out on almost every type of material used in
the construction of aircraft. It is an extremely sensitive method of detecting surface
and subsurface flaws and has few limitations.
From the different basic methods of ultrasonic testing, pulse-echo is the most fre-
quently used and described below.
The pulse-echo ultrasonic inspection method operates using the principle of re-
flected waves. Sound has a constant velocity in a given substance, therefore a
change in the acoustical impedance of the material causes a change in the sound
velocity at that point, producing an echo. The distance of the acoustical impedance
change(flaw) can be determined if the velocity of the sound in the test material and
the time taken for the sound to reach and return from the flaw is known.

X-Ray Inspection
Radiography is utilized to facilitate inspection of complex structures and to provide
an overview of the status of a complete assembly. It has also been to detect pitting
corrosion in tubular steel cylinders such as torsion bars. Generally, X-ray radiog-
raphy lacks sensitivity or produces low-contrast radiographs unless beryllium-win-
dow X-ray tubes, which produce soft (low-energy) radiation, are used. To be
detectable, the changes in thickness must be on the order of two percent of the
total thickness. Radiography may be used to detect stress corrosion cracks when
the radiation beam is parallel to the plant of the crack.
Metallic and nonmetallic parts can be examined using X-ray procedures.
Principle of X-Ray
X-rays are electromagnetic radiations with a wavelength range between 0.001 and
100 nanometers (nm).
X-rays have the following properties:
1. They are not affected by magnetic fields.
2. They travel in straight lines.
3. They pass through solid materials.
4. Some of their energy is absorbed by solid materials.
5. They can not be deflected.
6. They can cause damage to the health.
The intensity of the X-rays, that reach the film, is decreased in proportion to the
thickness and density of material they have passed through. This decrease in
intensity is caused by absorption and scattering of the rays.


Disassembly and Reassembly Techniques All static mating surfaces, seams and joints must be sealed with a sealant which
is applied to each surface before the installation.
There many different standards in assembly
techniques, and therefore, it is not possible to Protective Treatment of Fasteners during Installation
cover all of them in this section. Refer to If different metals touch each other, galvanic corrosion occurs. The fasteners used
chapter 20 in the AMM for general aircraft are not always made of the same metal as the structural parts because of the nec-
standards and chapter 51 in the SRM for essary strength. This fact makes a protection against galvanic corrosion neces-
structural standards. sary. Fasteners are usually pretreated by the manufacturer.
Where galvanic corrosion has to be prevented, the fasteners are installed wet with
General sealant.
Tagging Parts Removal of Damage
As a general rule, all removed parts must be placarded with a ’servicable/unservi-
In some instances it will be necessary to cut away the damaged material and dress
cable’ tag. This is to identify each removed part, if it is servicable or not.
back the surrounding structure. Although it should be ensured that no more mate-
Discarding O-Rings and Gaskets rial than necessary is removed, it is necessary to make sure that the adjacent
structure to which the repair is to be applied is in a sound condition.
It is not allowed to reuse any used O-Ring or Gasket. Discard any parts like this.
When removing riveted structure, care must be taken not to damage those rivet
Securing the Working Area holes which are to be used again (e.g. by burring, enlargement or undercutting)
since circular, smooth-edged holes are essential if the risk of failure by fatigue is
Before disassambling or assembling any component or part, the systems or area to be kept to a minimum.
where you are working must be properly secured.
Bolt holes should be treated with equal care, it being particularly important that the
Rule of Thumb for Bolts Installation holes in stressed parts should be free from scores or burrs. Where necessary,
When bolts are installed in aircraft structur, unless some reason dictates other- bolts should be eased with penetrating oil before extraction but it is also necessary
wise, the heads should be upward, in a forward direction, or outboard. The reason to ensure that the oil does not damage adjacent sealing media. Bolts on which the
for installing bolts in this way is that they are less likely to fall out if the nut should nuts were locked by a peening over process must have the burrs removed to re-
ever be lost. move the nuts and these bolts must not be used again.
Removing by Cutting
Structure and Components
When damaged panels are to be removed by cutting (i.e. not by dismantling at a
Components production joint) all edges must be free from burrs and notches and trimmed to a
smooth finish. It is important that the corner radii of stressed panels are correct and
When removed, always plug any open tube or connection on both the component
that the dimensions and locations of cuts are within the limits specified in the repair
and the aircrafts system. This prevents from entering of any foreign object or dirt.
drawing.
Good visible plugs or caps must be used!
Special care is necessary when damaged parts are removed by cutting, to ensure
Mating Surfaces that the remaining structure or material is not damaged by drills, rotary cutting
Mating surfaces are very sensitive to corrosion because moisture and contamina- tools, hack-saw blades, etc.
tion can go between the surfaces and cause corrosion. If the attached parts are Repairs in pressure cabin and integral fuel tank areas may involve separation of
made of different metals, galvanic corrosion occurs. members riveted and sealed together.

Some sealants have considerable adhesion and members riveted and sealed to-
gether. may cause difficulty in separating the members after the rivets have been
removed. Where such separation is necessary, the solvents specified and meth-
ods of separation detailed in the Repair or Maintenance Manual must be strictly
followed.
After repairs in a pressurised area or a fuel tank, either a leak test or a pres-
sure test may be specified in the appropriate manual.
Wear
Where holes are found to be elongated by stress the part must be renewed. How-
ever, if elongation is due to wear and is beyond the limits permitted by the Repair
Manual, rectification schemes are usually given.
The corresponding pin or bolt assemblies should be inspected for wear, distortion,
'picking-up' and shear, and where necessary renewed. Lubricating ducts should
be checked for obstruction.
Where bushed holes are fitted it is usual to renew the worn bush, but where the
hole in the fitting has become enlarged so that the new bush is loose, a repair
scheme is usually available for reaming out the hole and fitting an oversize bush.
When excessive wear has taken place in unbushed holes the fitting should be re-
newed unless there is an approved scheme available whereby the hole can be
reamed oversize and a bush fitted; in some cases an oversize bolt or pin may be
specified.
According to the nature of the repair, stage inspections will be necessary during
the progress of the repair work (e.g. inspection of rivet or bolt holes, inspection of
structures before covering for workmanship, protection, security, locking of screw
threaded parts and duplicate inspection of controls. These inspections should be
listed on an Inspection Record Sheet in a sequence related to the repair report,
and should give details of the inspection required.

Trouble Shooting and Analysis Principle of Systematic Troubleshooting

Trouble shooting is the systematic process of identifying the faulty element in an
One of an aviation maintenance technician’s most important jobs is the analysis of
otherwise functional system and determining the actions necessary to restore the
faults, or as it is more commonly called, troubleshooting. By definition, trouble-
system to an operational condition.
shooting is the process of locating the cause or causes of a malfunction. System-
atic troubleshooting allows you to find the cause of a problem and intelligently Trouble shooting begins with recognition and documentation of the problem. Pre-
choose the correct solution. cise documentation is essential to isolation of the fault with a minimum expenditure
of time and effort.
There was a time, it was easy to see what was wrong with an ailing airplane, but
much skill and knowledge were needed to get it back in the air. Today, the situation Trouble shooting consists of listings of common trouble symptoms and associated
has drastically changed. With the complex systems used in modern aircraft, a high trouble shooting procedures. Trouble shooting procedures are in the form of charts
degree of knowledge and skill is needed to identify problems, but specialization containing trouble shooting steps and corrective actions in a recommended se-
has made it possible to get an aircraft back into the air quickly. Faulty components quence based on probability of component failure and ease of performing checks
are sent to a shop where specialists with sophisticated test equipment can find and required.
fix the trouble. Efficient troubleshooting begins with a few very simple rules:
Remove and replace, or R and R, maintenance is the only way flight schedules 1. Know the way the system should operate. This sounds absurdly simple, but it
can be maintained today. When an aircraft is down, it is the responsibility of the is the secret of successful troubleshooting. You must know the way a compo-
technician to find out as quickly as possible which component is causing the trou- nent works. This includes knowledge of correct voltage and current at speci-
ble, remove it, and replace it with a component known to be good, in order to get fied test points and the correct frequency and wave form of alternating current
the aircraft back into the air quickly. at these test points.
Maintenance of this type requires a good knowledge of systematic troubleshooting 2. Observe the way the system is operating. Any difference between the way a
so that only the offending component is changed. One major air carrier has recent- system is operating and the way it should operate is an indication of trouble.
ly stated that more than 60% of the “black boxes” removed from aircraft throughout Current or voltage that is too low or too high, or components that show signs
their system have been sent to the shop only to find that there was nothing wrong of overheating, are indications that a system is not operating correctly.
with them. Needless to say, this is inefficient use of the technician’s time, and it
cannot be tolerated if the airline is to operate cost-effectively. To help reduce un- 3. Divide the system to find the trouble. Time is valuable in aviation mainte-
necessary R and R of good components, this next section will describe how to de- nance; it is important that lost motion be kept to a minimum. When we know
velop a system of logical, or systematic, troubleshooting that will allow you to a system is not operating as it should, we must first find whether the trouble
locate a problem and fix it in the shortest period of time. is in the beginning of the system or near its end. To do this, open the system
near its middle and check the conditions there. If everything is OK at this point,
Maintenance organisations often have their own troubleshooting department. the trouble is between there and the end. If things at that point are not as they
They know the background of each aircraft and make statistical studies about should be, the trouble is between the power source and that point.
faulty systems. In case of troubles, the maintenance technician and the trouble
shooter work close together to locate the problem and bring the aircraft back to 4. Look for the obvious problem first, and make all measurements at the points
service quickly. where they are easiest to make. Popped circuit breakers, blown fuses, etc.
are usually easy to check, and are the cause of many system malfunctions.
Before contact the trouble shooters, make sure, that you have all important infor-
mations ready. 5. Computer hang-ups are also well known problems these days. Reseting the
system often resolves the problem and brings the aircraft back to its normal
If there is no trouble shooter available, use the manufacturers Trouble Shooting conditon. Reseting procedures are described in the trouble shooting manual.
Manual (TSM) and/or the Aircraft Maintenance Manual (AMM).
On Page 48, you will find an example of a typical trouble shooting procedure.

Example of Systematic Troubleshooting 3. Fault Confirmation

The crew of an incoming aircraft reports, that the F/O Windshield Wiper of its A330 Caution: Only operate the wipers when the windshield is wet. Put water on the
is inoperative. Let’s have a look at what the maintenance technician has to do ac- windshield when the wipers operate.
cording to the trouble shooting manual. Figure 1 on page 49 shows a flowchart If not you will scratch on the windshield and cause damage to the wiper
which describes exactly the same troubleshooting procedure as the one in the fol- blades.
lowing textblock. As a reference you will need the schematic shown in Figure 2 on a) Job Set-up
page 50. Get Access to the Avionics Compartment
b) Test 
One or Both Wipers Inoperative TASK 30-45-00-810-801 Do a functional test of the windshield rain protection AMM TASK 30-45-
00-720-801.
1. Possible Causes:
• CTL SW-WIPER, CAPT(3DB1) 4. Fault Isolation
• CTL SW-WIPER, F/O(3DB2) If the wiper(s) does(do) not operate, do a check for 28VDC at pin A of the wiper
• MOTOR CONV-WIPER, CAPT(1DB1) motor converter 1DB1(1DB2) ASM 30-45/01.
• MOTOR CONV-WIPER, F/O(1DB2) a) If there is no 28VDC, do a check and repair the wiring from pin 2 of the
circuit breaker 2DB1(2DB2) to pin A of the wiper motorconverter
• wiring from pin 2 of the circuit breaker 2DB1(2DB2) to pin A of the wiper motor
1DB1(1DB2).
converter 1DB1(1DB2)
b) If there is 28VDC, set the WIPER control switch on the panel 211VU
• wiring from pin C of the wiper motor converter 1DB1(1DB2) to pin 3 of the
(212VU) to SLOW. 
WIPER control switch 3DB1(3DB2)
Do a check for ground at pin C of the wiper motor converter 1DB1(1DB2).
2. Job Set-up Information 1) If there is no ground, do a check of the wiring from pin C of the wiper
a) Referenced Information motor converter 1DB1(1DB2) to pin 3 of the WIPER control switch
3DB1(3DB2).
Reference Designation a. If there is no continuity, repair the above wiring.
b. If there is continuity, replace the CTL SW-WIPER, CAPT(3DB1)
AMM 30-45-00-720-801 Functional Test of the Windshield Rain Pro- (CTL SW-WIPER, F/O(3DB2)).
tection
2) If there is ground, replace the MOTOR CONV-WIPER,
AMM 30-45-51-000-801 Removal of the Wiper Motor Converter (CAPT(1DB1) MOTOR CONV-WIPER, F/O (1DB2)) acc. AMM
(1DB1, 1DB2) TASK 30-45-51-000-801 and AMM TASK 30-45-51-400-801.
5. Close-up
AMM 30-45-51-400-801 Installation of the Wiper Motor Converter
(1DB1, 1DB2) Close Access
ASM 30-45/01 Schematic Drawing

Figure 1: Troubleshooting Flowchart (Wiper inoperative)
Do a functional test of the windshield

rain protection(Wiper System)
acc. AMM Task 30-45-00-720-801
YES Was the functional test NO

successful?
No further action Do a check for 28VDC at pin A of the

necessary. wiper motor converter 1DB1(1DB2)
ASM 30-45/01.
Set the WIPER control switch on the YES

panel 211VU(212VU) to SLOW Is there 28VDC?
NO
Do a check and repair the wiring

Do a check for ground at pin C
from pin 2 of the circuit breaker
of the wiper motor control
2DB1(2DB2) to pin A of the
converter 1DB1(1DB2)
wiper motor converter 1DB1(1DB2).
Is there ground at NO
pin C?
YES
Replace the MOTOR CONV-WIPER Do a check of the wiring from pin C
1DB1(1DB2) of the wiper motor converter
acc. AMM TASK30-45-51-000-801 1DB1(1DB2) to pin 3 of the WIPER
and 30-45-51-400-801 control switch 3DB1(3DB2)
Repair the wiring between pin C

of the wiper motor converter NO
1DB1(1DB2) and pin 3 of the Is there continuity?
WIPER control switch 3DB1(3DB2)
YES
Replace the WIPER control switch

3DB1(3DB2)

Figure 2: ASM 30-45/01

Training Manual 7.19 Abnormal Events
7.19 Abnormal Events

Among the scheduled inspections, there are several unscheduled inspections di- these inspections have been written for the worst possible case. In order to gain
fined by the manufacturer. They come in to action, if an abnormal event occurs. an indication of the severity of the incident and to facilitate rapid location of primary
Several checks and inspections are listed below that you must do after the aircraft damage it is essential that full information be obtained from the flight crew. There-
has gone through special or abnormal conditions. You can find all these inspec- fore before you start an inspection, consult the crew and get data on the following:
tions in the Manufacturers Maintenance Manual, Chapter 5. • Weather conditions
This section does not cover nor explain each unscheduled inspection. In the fol- • Aircraft speed and flight attitude
lowing, we use the "Lightning Strike" and the "Hard/Overweight landing" as our ex- • Aircraft weight and fuel distribution
amples. • Landing: was touchdown straight, drifting, wing low, nose up or down?
• Was any noise of impact or indicative of structure or component failure heard?
Unscheduled Inspections
• Applicable instrument indications
• hard/overweight landing • Was the aircraft in clean configuration(landing gear and secondary flight con-
• landing-gear down limit speed exceeded trols retracted)
• flap/slat limit speed exceeded
If installed, a printout of the maintenance data recorder-tape will give valuable ad-
• bird or hail strike ditional data and indication of system malfunction and loads.
• tire burst or tread throw
• brake emergency application or overheat
• flight in excessive turbulence or in excess of VMO
• lightning strike or static discharge
• engine bird strike or slush ingestion
• tail runway impact
• NLG towing overload or overrun
• NLG steering angle exceeded
• leaving runway or taxiway
• flight through dust storm/volcanic ash or severe condition on ground
• engine failure
• engine side loads
• mercury spillage
• abnormal pax/crew door movement.
For training purposes, we will first go through the inspection system used by
Airbus Industrie. After that we will have a look at one of the most frequently
used inspections, the "Lightning Strike Condition".
Inspection Coverage
It is not possible to give precise details of the inspection procedure to be adopted
after every incident because of the wide variations of weight, speed, nature and
direction of loads, weather conditions and component failure patterns. Therefore

Inspection Sequence Example of an Inspection Task after Lightning Strike

To permit simultaneous inspection of several areas of the aircraft the inspection NOTE: All the necessary inspections are visual unless the text gives other instruc-
has been divided into a number of "Packages". For example: "Inspection after Hail tions.
Impact" requires on Phase 1 a complete airframe external check. Therefore this is If there is damage to the aircraft structure, refer to the Structural Repair Manual
divided into four major zones: fuselage, wings, nacelles/pylons and stabilizers. (SRM). The SRM has the approved damage limits and repair procedures.
These major zones are further divided into smaller zones or major components.
Inspection of the total Surface of the Aircraft
The small zones are then broken down into items, which can be individually signed
off when inspection is completed. The inspections are divided into three phases: Item Inspection Task Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 Sign
Phase 1: is a general inspection for primary damage and indication of remote dam- 6.B Examine all the probes, sensors X
age and is mainly external. and drain masts and the adjacent
Phase 2: is a more detailed inspection and is mainly internal. It can be necessary area for burn marks and change of
to remove some components. color.
Phase 3: is a very detailed inspection with component removal and strip down. If damage is found in Item 6.B, carry out the next phase.
If the Phase 1 inspection shows no damage, no further examination is necessary. Check after damage on the ADIRS Probes and Sensors
If Phase 1 shows damage then Phase 2 must be done. Item Inspection Task Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 Sign
If Phase 2 shows damage then Phase 3 must be done.
A AOA Sensors X
The following example is an extract out of the AMM, "Inspection after Lightning
1. If you find damage during the in-
Strike", and demonstrates the Phase 1-3 system:
spection:
a) Do the AOA SENSOR
TEST
(Task 34-13-00-710-803)
b) Manually rotate the AOA
sensors to the full up posi-
tions, then to the full down
position and make sure
that there is no hard point.
If you find a hard point, re-
place the related AOA sen-
sor.
(Task 34-11-19-000-801)
(Task 34-11-19-400-801)
c) If you find damage on the
adjacent area, refer to the
allowable damage and re-
pair (Ref. SRM)

Lightning Strike Evidence of lightning strikes usually appear more prevalent at the airplane extrem-
ities such as wing and ail tips and nose radome. Damage due to the sweeping ac-
Airplanes in flight are susceptible to various environmental hazards including light- tion of the lightning channel will usually be most severe at the trailing edge
ning and high-intensity radiated fields (HIRF) Page 7. Both these conditions can surfaces.
impose sudden, serious damage to critical and essential airplane systems such as In metallic structures, lightning damage usually results in localized pitting or burn-
electronic engine controls, high lift devices, and primary flight controls, and can af- ing of small circular holes which may be clustered in one locality or scattered over
fect safety of flight. Protection from these conditions is built into airplanes through a large area. Damage may also be indicated by burnt or discolored skin or rivets.
shielded enclosures and shielded wiring, which are grounded to airplane structure.
Airplanes also operate under the constant extremes of pressure and temperature In Composite (non-metallic) structures, either solid laminated or honeycomb, dam-
while exposed to moisture, shock, and vibration. These degrade the integrity of age may be indicated by discolored paint; burned, punctured, or delaminated skin
shielding systems, requiring operators to periodically test the shields and their con- piles. Non-visible (hidden) damage may also exist, extending beyond the visible
nections. damage area. Arcing and burning may also occur around attachments into sup-
porting structure.
A lightning strike can cause direct physical damage to an airplane and, through cir-
culating current coupling, can indirectly affect the function of critical and essential This section contains the inspections that are necessary after an incident or flight
systems. It occurs only about once every 3,000 hr (about once a year) on a com- in abnormal conditions; and will in most cases, be called for as a result of flight
mercial airplane. This rate is frequent enough for a lightning strike to be considered crew report.
almost inevitable. Lightning produces a current in the airplane skin, generating Figure 1: Attachment Points
voltages across joints in the skin and structure. These currents couple, or connect,
to internal airplane wiring by way of the electrical and magnetic fields that are gen-
erated by current flow.
These electromagnetic fields are created at the airplane surface, inducing voltag-
es inside the airplane that can cause damage to electrical equipment or cause it
to malfunction indirectly. The resulting effects, known as lightning indirect effects,
range from tripped circuitbreakers to computer malfunction to physical damage of
input or output circuits in electronic equipment.
Airplane design incorporates all necessary and known lightning strike protection
measures. Basic protection is the nearly all metal exterior structure. The metal sur-
face acts a shield protecting the interior from direct strikes and preventing coupling
of electromagnetic energy into airplane wiring. If the airplane has sustained a light-
ning strike, a general inspection is made of the airplane to determine areas of the
strike discharge; then a through check is made to those specific areas to deter-
mine the extent of damage that has occurred.
Lightning strikes usually result in too or more damaged areas. There will always
be at least two major areas of lightning attachment as the lightning channel passes
through the airplane as shown in figure 1. It is also possible for the airplane to fly
through the lightning channel which will result in a sweeping action of the arc along
the airplanes skin.

Zoning Figure 2: Lightning Strike Areas

The aircraft is divided into three zones related to the probability of lightning strike:
Zone 1: surfaces where there is a high probability of initial lightning attachment
(entry or exit).
Zone 2: surfaces where there is a high probability of a "swept stroke zone". The
lightning strike has its initial point of attachment in Zone 1 and moves into Zone 2.
Zone 3: this zone includes all of the aircraft surfaces that are not in Zone 1 and 2.
In Zone 3 there is a low probability of attachment of a lightning strike. However,
high lightning currents can go through Zone 3 by direct conduction between 2 at-
tachment points. Zone 3 currents will also go into Zones 1 and 2.
The zones 1 and 2 are divided into A and B areas related to the probability of con-
tinued attachment of the arc (hang on). The probability of arc hang on is low in A
areas and high in B areas.
Zone 1A: area where there is a high probability of initial attachment and low prob-
ability of arc hang on, such as the forward-mounted pitot probes, the radome di-
verter strips and the nacelle leading edges.
Zone 1B: area where there is a high probability of initial attachment and high prob-
ability of arc hang on, such as the wing, stabilizers and fin tips and some trailing
edge areas.
Zone 2A: a swept stroke zone with low probability of arc hang on, such as mid-
chord regions of the wing surface, aft of an engine and the total fuselage surface.
Zone 2B: a swept stroke zone with high probability of arc hang on, such as the
wing trailing edge aft of Zone 2A.

Effects on the Aircraft Structure and Systems Resistive Heating

There are two types of possible risks to the aircraft: When lightning currents flow through an aircraft structure, energy is changed to
• indirect effects heat along its path. Resistive heating usually causes marks of the weld type, spe-
cially where the lightning current flows for some time.
• direct effects
Acoustic Shock Wave
Indirect Effects
When a lightning strike occurs, there is an acoustic shock wave. If the intensity of
Electromagnetic fields: this shock wave is high, it can cause deformation of thin metal skins or rupture of
The electromagnetic fields related to the lightning attachment can cause unwanted thin composite skins.
transient voltages and currents in the aircraft wiring and systems.In some condi-
tions (low intensity strike, high protection), the effect on the systems can be tem- Inspection Requirements
porary and the systems can operate correctly again after the strike.In other Aircrafts are designed to keep the effects of lightning to a minimum and make sure
conditions (low protection, no circuit protection devices), the damage can be per- it can continue its flight and land safely after a lightning attachment.
manent and it will be necessary to replace parts.
It is not possible to accurately know where the attachment will occur but Zone 1
Direct Effects and Zone 2 show the most probable areas of lightning attachment.
Lightning strikes do not always give the same quantity of damage. The quantity of
The direct effects are the physical damage related to signs such as:
damage comes from the intensity of the lightning strike.
• Pitting / Meltthrough
Therefore, it is necessary to do a full inspection after a lightning strike to make an
• Magnetic force
estimate of the damage and make sure that the aircraft can, as a minimum, con-
• Resistive heating tinue service in a Master Minimum Equipment List (MMEL) condition.
• Acoustic shock wave
The inspection after a lightning strike refers to:
Pitting / Meltthrough The type of the system (critical/essential) to specify the tests that are necessary
This is the action of the electrical arc formed when a lightning stroke attaches to the requirements of the MMEL.
the aircraft (arc root damage at the attachment points or damage caused by cur-
rent flow which can appear also far from the attachment points).signs of a lightning
attachment are pitting and scorch marks and paint discoloration.On composite
components, in addition to paint discoloration and skin puncturing, some delami-
nation of the fibers can occur. If there is skin puncturing, there can be damage to
the grounded equipment below composite material fairings.you must always com-
pare the damage you find with the limits given in the Structural Repair Manual
(SRM).
Magnetic Force
The damage usually occurs where a small area causes the density of the current
to be high (e.g. a bonding lead installed at a control surface hinge).

High Intensity Radiated Fields - HIRF

HIRF is generated by various radio frequency (RF) emissions such as high-power
radio and television signals and radar. It is similar to the electromagnetic fields in-
duced by lightning and can also affect the proper functioning of critical and essen-
tial systems. Low-intensity RF can originate from personal electronic devices
(PED) such as laptop computers and cell phones used by passengers in flight. See
Title "Low Intensity Radiated Fields" on page 8. These low-intensity devices can
also affect critical and essential systems. Electromagnetic interference from PEDs
is suspected as the cause of many unexplained flight control upsets.
Electrical signals are susceptible to voltage transients caused by lightning and
high-intensity radiated fields (HIRF). The airplane critical flight control system, as
well as all lightning/HIRF critical and essential systems, must be protected from
these voltages for the life of the airplane. Boeing provides the initial protection in
the airplane structure; shielding all cabling is additional protection. Operators are
responsible for maintaining the protection by adhering to grounding practices for
all components and inspecting the integrity of the shielding and shielding connec-
tions.
Mitigation of Damage to Airplane Systems

If electronic equipment needs to be operated in a region subject to changing elec-
tromagnetic fields, and if the currents generated by these fields are considered
harmful, the recommended approach to mitigating the harmful effects is to shield
and ground the electronic equipment and the interconnecting wiring. As a result,
electrical currents generated by lightning or HIRF then circulate through the equip-
ment enclosure to ground without affecting internal circuitry. This enclosure prac-
tice extends to interconnecting wiring through the use of cable shielding; that is,
the shield is the enclosure that is grounded. Other damage mitigation considera-
tions include the location of the equipment and wiring, use of effective wiring, use
of good grounding practices, and building equipment to withstand transients. All
these tactics are incorporated into the design of modern airplanes and the installed
equipment.
A new shielded cable properly installed will exhibit a certain amount of resistance
in the shield circuit. By monitoring this resistance, maintenance personnel can de-
termine the ability of the shield to protect internal wiring. Any increase in resistance
indicates that a problem is occurring in the circuit, such as corrosion at a junction
or loose hardware. When the resistance reaches a certain level, maintenance per-
sonnel must take corrective action, usually by cleaning the affected junctions, se-
curing loose connections, or replacing the cable.

Low Intensity Radiated Fields Categories of Portable Electronic Devices - PEDs

PEDs are classified as either intentional or non-intentional transmitters of electro-
Electromagnetic Interference from Portable Electronic Devices magnetic signals. Those that intentionally transmit signals outside the device must
do so to accomplish their functions. Examples of these PEDs are:
Operators of commercial airplanes have reported numerous cases of portable
electronic devices affecting airplane system during flight. These devices , includ- • Cell phones.
ing laptop and palmpilot computers, audio players/recorders, electronic games, • Remote-control toys.
cell phones, compact-disc players, electronic toys, and laser pointers, have been • Two-way pagers.
suspected of causing such anomalous events as autopilot disconnects, erratic • Two-way radios.
flight deck indications, airplanes turning of course, and uncommanded turns.
Non-intentionally transmitting PEDs do not need to transmit electromagnetic sig-
Aircraft manufacturer recommend that devices suspected of causing these anom- nals outside the device to accomplish their functions. But like any electrical or elec-
alies be turned off during critical stages of flight (takeoff and landing). The compa- tronic device, they will emit some level of radiation. Depending on the
ny also recommends prohibiting the use of devices that intentionally transmit characteristics of this radiation, interference with the operation of other electronic
electromagnetic signals, such as cell phones, during all phases of flight. The U.S. devices can occur. For example, operating an AM radio close to a fluorescent light
Federal Communications Commission already prohibits the use of cell phones will cause static in the reception of the radio signal. Examples of non-intentional
during flight. transmitters are:
Electromagnetic interference (EMI) from passenger-carried portable electronic de- • Audio players and recorders.
vices (PED) on commercial airplanes has been reported as being responsible for • Compact-disc players.
anomalous events during flight. The operation of PEDs produces uncontrolled • Electronic games and toys.
electromagnetic emissions that could interfere with airplane systems. Airplane
systems are tested to rigorous electromagnetic standards to establish and provide • Laptop computers.
control of the electromagnetic characteristics and compatibility of these systems. • Laser pointers.
However, PEDs are not subject to these same equipment qualification and certifi- • Palmtop computers.
cation processes. Though many cases of EMI have been reported over the years,
with PEDs suspected as the cause, it has proven almost impossible to duplicate
these events.

Hard and Overweight Landing Inspection of the Pylon
Used example: Airbus A330. Limits are different to other Aircrafts! Item Inspection Task Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 Sign
A hard landing is defined as a landing with a vertical acceleration of more than 6.B Inspection of the Engine Pylons:
1.75g at the center of gravity or vertical speed (V/S) of more than 600 ft/min for an Examine the primary structure and X
A/C weight less than 155 tons or, a vertical speed (V/S) of more than 540 ft/min pylon lower area for distortion and
for an A/C weight more than or equal to 155 tons. cracks, the condition of the paint,
An overweight landing is defined as a landing at more than the maximum landing loosen rivets, signs of shearing.
weight with a vertical acceleration more than 1.4g at the center of gravity or a land- If you find damage:
ing at more than the maximum landing weight with a vertical speed (V/S) of more 1. Remove or open the access X
than 360 ft/min. doors and panels.
2. Examine the panels and the ad- X
Example of an Inspection Task after Hard/Overweight Landing jacent structure for distortion
NOTE: All the necessary inspections are visual unless the text gives other instruc- buchles, wrinhles or tears. - the
tions. plates have no buckles, wrin-
If there is damage to the aircraft structure, refer to the Structural Repair Manual kles or tears where they are riv-
(SRM). The SRM has the approved damage limits and repair procedures. eted to the panels.
3. Do an internal inspection of the X
pylon box (primary structure) for
distortion.
ect.
If you find damage:

Remove the engine 
(Ref. TASK 71-00-00-000-805)
1. Examine the engine-to-pylon at- X
tach fitting at the head of Rib 1
(pyramid) and under Rib 10 for:
– Cracks distorsion rupture
and signs of oxydation or
burning. 
Figure 3 and Figure 4
ect.
Close Access
1. Remove the warning notice(s).
2. Make sure that the work area is clean and clear of tools and other items.
3. Remove the access platform(s).

Figure 3: Fwd Engine Mount Figure 4: Aft Engine Mount

Mercury Spillage
The following inspection has to be carried out by using the 3-Phase system seen
in Title "Inspection Sequence" on page 3.
It is assumed that any significant quantity of mercury on board an airplane is prop-
erly contained, packaged and labeled for loading in a cargo compartment.
The spillage of every mercury or mercury compound, within an airplane, requires
immediate action for its isolation and recovery to prevent possible corrosion dam-
age to and possible embrittlement of aluminum alloy structural components.
All metallic aircraft structure which is wetted by elemental mercury suffers degra-
dation in strength. The rate of diffusion of mercury into a metal is dependant on the
specific metal contacted and the protective finish applied; however, once diffusion
has started it cannot be stopped. Structural degradation may not be visually ap-
parent until the structure is subject to load.
When using X-ray equipment to detect mercury, droplets of mercury will show on
a negative as small white spots. Corrosion and embrittlement will show as tree-like
forms completely penetrating a structural component.
Bird Strike
The following inspection has to be carried out by using the 3-Phase system seen
in Title "Inspection Sequence" on page 3.
Examine the entire aircraft exterior especially wing leading edges, flaps and slats,
engine inlets, and nacelles for impact damage when a bird strike is reported or
suspected due to extreme possibility of multiple bird strikes. Aircraft configuration
should be the same as when bird strike occurred, i.e., position of flaps, landing
gear, etc. If flap position is unknown, examine trailing edge flaps and leading edge
flaps and slats in fully extended position. Examine the engine carefully to deter-
mine if the bird is gone thru the core engine or not. If the core engine is affected,
a borescope check of the engine must be performed.
Damage areas should be marked for through examination and/or action when the
exterior examination of the total aircraft is complete. Refer to the Structural Repair
Manual(SRM) for repair of any impact damage.


Training Manual 7.20 Maintenance Procedures
7.20 Maintenance Procedures

Aircraft Maintenance Review

Aircraft maintenance philosophies have progressed consistently since the intro-
Preface duction of jet-powered aircraft. Maintenance programmes for early airliners were
A major concern of airlines in today’s competitive business environment is lower- based on the theory of preventative replacement or restoration, commonly known
ing their airplane-related operating costs (AROC). These costs directly affect an as “hard time” within the airline industry, where aircraft structures and components
airline’s cash flow and ultimately its financial health. An airline’s total AROC falls were overhauled at set frequencies. The ultimate airframe-related overhaul was a
into six categories: flight and cabin crews, fuel, maintenance, navigation and land- D check, which was intended to “zero-life” the airframe until the next D check.
ing fees, ownership and spares, and depreciation. To a large extent, manufacturer’s recommended programmes dictated when the
A sizable part of AROC is relat- Depreciation Landing fees
hardtimes were scheduled and there was no common philosophy applied by the
ed to airplane maintenance. Al- airframe manufacturers in this regard. Whilst airlines could extend hard times by
though maintenance costs, as submitting selected high life samples of components for strip and examination by
a percentage of AROC, will Maintenance 17% the relevant airworthiness authority, the system was extremely conservative and it
vary depending on such factors could take many years for escalations to arrive at a realistic life for any particular
Fuel
as airplane type, average flight component. Meantime, the provisioning of spare parts was based upon early ex-
Ownership
segment length, and airplane and Spares perience rather than that which reflected a mature maintenance requirement, so
age typical maintenance costs Flight/Cabin Crew that inventory costs became prohibitive.
range from approximately 10 to Worse still, it was eventually demonstrated that there was no correlation between
20 percent of AROC. These the reliability of certain aircraft components and aircraft systems and the frequency
percentages may seem some- of preventative maintenance. Indeed, in some cases, the accomplishment of such
what small at first glance, but maintenance on aircraft systems during a major check was more likely to lead to
they represent significant sums in-service defects immediately afterwards. Also, the planning burden for airlines
of money. was significant with some components having to be removed at certain checks and
Maintenance is commonly defined as direct
airframe, direct engine, and maintenance others at different frequencies. If these components failed between checks, further
overhead. It includes labor and material but wastage was involved in the replacement of part-life components at the next
not spares or ground-support equipment. scheduled maintenance interval.
In the meantime, manufacturing techniques were getting better and new technol-
There are different ways to reduce maintenance costs. This are: ogy was being introduced, resulting in significant improvements in component re-
• Airplane design improvements. liability. Self-test features (BITE) were being used more extensively and other
• Scheduled maintenance program improvements. developments in avionics, such as solid-state electronics, resulted in a random-
ness of failures which defied the logic of preventative maintenance.
• Improved maintenance documents and training.
We only discuss about the maintenance program and its background.
To reduce scheduled maintenance activities and simplify the development of
maintenance programs, an analysis logic called MSG-1 was developed in the early
1960s.
Before we can go further, we should know the background of the MSG philosophy.

The emergence of MSG made these philosophies radically different were the “on-condition” and “condition
monitoring” concepts which were introduced and these permitted a drastic reduc-
Reprinted from Aircraft Technology Engineering & Maintenance - Feb/March 2001 tion in the number of scheduled component overhauls. Therefore, where as many
In the early 1960s, the FAA as 400 components may have required scheduled overhaul prior to MSG1/MSG2/
formed an industry body to EMSG-2, this number was reduced to something in the order of 10. Other compo-
establish whether there nents could remain “on condition”, if suitable inspections could be accomplished
were alternative methods of on the aircraft to determine the continued serviceability of the component, until the
ensuring aircraft reliability. next scheduled inspection.
Airlines were seeking a Condition monitoring, on the other hand, required the setting up of a system to
more consistent set of rules track a large family of components within an airline which tracks pilot reports as
through which maintenance
well as the mean time between failure (MTBF) and mean time between removal
programmes could be de- (MTBR) of individual components. When MTBFs and MTBRs exceeded specified
termined and this led to the “alert” levels, engineering action was initiated to investigate and rectify the associ-
maintenance steering
ated technical problems.
group (MSG) for civil opera-
tors. The military was equal- But, MSG-1, MSG-2 and EMSG-2, still involved a “looking-up” approach to aircraft
ly interested in the subject maintenance whereby the integrity of components was considered first, before
and they too requested manufacturers to come up with more rational criteria to de- those of complete systems. Furthermore, there was room for interpretation of the
velop maintenance programmes. conventions when using these MSG philosophies, and many in the industry be-
lieved that a tightening of the rules was required. This, together with the escalating
Many airline operators applied pressure to the aircraft manufacturers through the cost of fuel and the advent of deregulation in the US in 1978, placed new emphasis
ATA for changes to the old “hard-time” policies. Indeed, all MSG concepts origi-
on commercial competition and in turn placed new emphasis on the efficiency of
nated from industry inputs to the ATA and the final MSG documents, accepted by aircraft maintenance. So, another major rethink of maintenance philosophies was
the FAA and other airworthiness authorities, are ATA documents. MSG-3, for ex-
initiated which built on the framework of MSG-2, which had been validated by ten
ample, the latest and most current version of the decision logic, involved the active years of reliable aircraft operation. This resulted in the issuance of MSG-3 in 1980.
participation of the FAA, the UK’s CAA, the Association of European Airlines, US
and European aircraft and engine manufacturers, US and non-US airlines and the When the MSG-3 task force was formed to review MSG-2 experience, it became
US Navy. obvious that subtle changes to aircraft technology and the rules appertaining to de-
sign of aircraft had also impacted upon maintenance methodologies. For example,
In 1968, the first path leader to MSG logic was the B747-100 and the maintenance
new types of aircraft were using more electronics in control and display systems
philosophy developed at that time was called MSG-1. Apart from any economic or
and new fatigue design rules requiring damage tolerance certification for struc-
safety drivers, the fact that the B747 was such a large and more complex aircraft
tures had been introduced. This together with the introduction of reliability centred
was considered reason enough to apply some engineering discipline to mainte-
maintenance (RCM) concepts led to a revolution in thinking whereby a “top-down”
nance programme developments. MSG-1 was therefore developed with the B747-
approach was used in developing the new logic. Basically, if it could be demon-
100 specifically in mind, but the merits of the systematic approach applied to the
strated that the functional failure of a particular system had no effect on operational
aircraft were considered to justify a generic solution which could be applied to oth-
safety or that the economic repercussions were not significant, there was no need
er new aircraft types. This resulted in the publication of MSG-2 in 1970 which was
for a routine maintenance activity. Instead, for failures evident to flight crews, the
applied to the L-1011 and the DC-10. The philosophies behind MSG-1 and MSG-
pilot reports could be used as the point of initiation of system rectification.
2 are therefore very similar.
Where a failure was not obvious to flight crews, other maintenance activity would
Indeed, a European version of the same concepts, called EMSG-2 was developed
have to be defined (servicing/lubrication, operational/functional check, general
along the same lines in 1972 and it was used for Concorde and the A300. What

visual inspection, detailed inspection, special detailed inspection, restoration or re- McCormick goes on to explain that about 80 per cent of smaller corporate jets
placement). have switched to MSG-3 maintenance philosophies, starting with new aircraft
However, in certain areas, what may be economic for one airline may not be for types in the early 1990s and moving on to re-analysis of existing aircraft types from
another and so these areas need to be considered on an airline-by-airline basis. about 1997 onwards. He believes that corporate operators had even more to gain
For example, an airline which flies 30 minute sectors would not consider the failure through this process than the airline operators. Nevertheless, the potential effi-
of an inflight entertainment system to be of significant economic importance. But ciency gains to the airlines can be very significant indeed. Savings of between 10
a longhaul airline flying transpacific routes would arrive at a very different answer, per cent and 30 per cent of the total scheduled airframe maintenance man-hours
if it wished to retain customer loyalty. Therefore, in certain areas maintenance pro- are achievable, with the least efficient operators having the most to gain. Pro-rata
grammes are customised by the individual airline concerned. But, this is nothing savings are anticipated in aircraft downtime and even unscheduled maintenance
new to airlines, since they have always incorporated maintenance review board man-hours should decrease.
(MRB) requirements, as well as their own specific requirements into aircraft main-
tenance programmes.
After 1980 It might be tempting to believe that this was the end of the story. For
new aircraft such as the A320, A330, A340, B747-400, B757, B767, MD-11 and
MD-90, MSG-3 logic was applied and significantly more efficient maintenance pro-
grammes were introduced by the airlines.
However, the success of the new maintenance programmes prompted the airlines
to ask aircraft manufacturers to retrospectively apply MSG-3 logic to aircraft which
had originally been subject to MSG-2, MSG-1 or the old overhaul concepts. This
was not a simple matter.
The first manufacturer to action these air-
MD-80 MSG-3 line requests was McDonnell Douglas on
programme economic savings the MD-80. Al McCormick, Boeing’s Long
Beach based senior principal specialist,
Over a 90 month time frame the maintenance engineering technical servic-
savings in labour hours are es, says “It was started in the late part of
approximately 12'000 hours per 1994 and finished in 1996. It takes about
15 - 16 months to do one of these.” Reanal-
aircraft.
ysis of the DC-8, DC-9 and DC-10 have all
been completed subsequently.
MSG-2 - 42'598 hrs When asked whether the process or re-
MSG-3 - 30'242 hrs analysis takes longer on certain aircraft
than others, McCormick replied, “No, it re-
Labour hours savings per year ally doesn’t make much difference. I have
per aircraft: been involved in corporate aircraft all the
way up to B747s and they all take about the
12'000 / 7.5 = 1600 hrs same time.”

Development of Scheduled Maintenance Programme The Maintenance Program Proposal (MPP) is reviewed by the MRB and the re-
sulting requirements are given by the Maintenance Review Board Report (MRBR).
As seen before, an operator shall not operate an aeroplane unless it is maintained
and released to service by an organisation appropriately approved/accepted in ac- Figure 1: Maintenance Review Board Structure
cordance with Part-145.
An operator must ensure that the aeroplane is maintained in accordance with the ISC
MWG 6
operator’s aeroplane maintenance programme. The programme contains details, Industry Steering
MWG 5 Committee
including frequency, of all maintenance required to be carried out. The programme MWG 4 MPP
will be required to include a reliability programme when the Authority determines MWG 3 Maint. Program
that such a reliability programme is necessary. An operator’s aeroplane mainte-

Proposal
MWG 2 MRB
nance programme and any subsequent amendment must be approved by the Au- MWG 1 Maintenance
thority. MSG-3 System
Analysis
Review Board
(Authorities)
The initial maintenance program is given by the Maintenance Review Board Doc-
ument. In addition, based on the above approved Maintenance Review Board
Document, Manufacturers produce a Maintenance Planning Document. This con-
stitutes a fully workable maintenance program, which will be revised periodically
according to service experience. MRBR
Maintenance Review
Before developement of a scheduled maintenance programme, it is necessary to Board Report
develop the initial minimum maintenance requirements for each new type of air-
craft prior to its introduction into airline service.
Maintenance Review Board Procedure

The initial minimum maintenance/inspection requirements which are used for the
basis for the operator’s initial maintenance program are developed through the
Maintenance Review Board (MRB) procedures. The guidelines are incorporated
into a Policy and Procedure Handbook (PPH). Each PPH is adapted to each indi-
vidual aircraft program and reflects the latest in-service experience and Airworthi-
ness Authority requirements.
The Maintenance Review Board procedure requires:
• a joint Industry Steering Committee (ISC) to direct the policy, procedures and
work.
Members: Operators, Manufacturer, Authorities
• a joint manufacturer/airline Maintenance Working Groups (MWG’s) to devel-
op the requirements.
Members: Operators, Manufacturer, Authorities
• a Maintenance Review Board (MRB) to approve the work.
Members: Authorities

MSG-3 Document Divisions of MSG-3

The Airline/Manufacturer Maintenance Program Development Document ”MSG-3” The working portions of MSG-3 Revision 2002 are contained in four (4) sections:
is written by the Maintenance Steering Group 3 Task Force organized under the 1. Systems/Powerplant, including components and APU's.
leadership of the ATA (Air Transport Association of America).
2. Aircraft Structures
The primary purpose of this document is to develop a proposal to assist the Reg-
ulatory Authority in establishing initial scheduled maintenance tasks and intervals 3. Zonal Inspections
for new types of aircraft and/or powerplant. The intent is to maintain the inherent 4. L/HIRF (not explained)
safety and reliability levels of the aircraft. These tasks and intervals become the
basis for the first issue of each airline's maintenance requirements to govern its Maintenance Task Development
initial maintenance policy. Initial adjustments may be necessary to address oper- The method for determining the scheduled maintenance tasks and intervals for
ational and/or environmental conditions unique to the operator. As operating ex- systems/powerplant, including components and APU's, uses a progressive logic
perience is accumulated, additional adjustments may be made by the operator to diagram. This logic is the basis of an evaluation technique applied to each main-
maintain efficient scheduled maintenance. tenance significant item (system, sub-system, module, component, accessory,
The objectives of efficient aircraft scheduled maintenance are: unit, part, etc.), using the technical data available. Principally, the evaluations are
1. To ensure realization of the inherent safety and reliability levels of the aircraft. based on the item's functional failures and failure causes.
2. To restore safety and reliability to their inherent levels when deterioration has Maintenance Significant Item - MSI
occurred.
Maintenance significant items are Items identified by the manufacturer whose 
3. To obtain the information necessary for design improvement of those items failure
whose inherent reliability proves inadequate.
1. could affect safety (on ground or in flight), and/or
4. To accomplish these goals at a minimum total cost, including maintenance
2. is undetectable during operations, and/or
costs and the costs of resulting failures.
3. could have significant operational impact, and/or
Scheduled maintenance will be developed via use of a guided logic approach and
will result in a task-oriented program. The logic's flow of analysis is failure-effect 4. could have significant economic impact
oriented. Before the actual MSG-3 logic can be applied to an item, the aircraft's significant
The logic’s flow of analyses is failure-effect oriented; It does not start with an eval- systems and components must be identified. This process of identifying Mainte-
uation of proposed task (as MSG-2 and EMSG “European Maintenance System nance Significant Items (MSI's) is a conservative process (using engineering judg-
Guide”) but with the most important factor determining the task, namely the con- ment) based on the anticipated consequences of failure. The top-down approach
sequences of a functional failure. is a process of identifying the significant items on the aircraft at the highest man-
ageable level. See Point 1,2,3,4 and 5 in Figure 2 on page 7.
Items that, after analysis, have no scheduled task specified, may be moni-
tored by an operator's reliability program. According to MSG-3, the following maintenance tasks can be selected:
Lubrication/Servicing LUB (LUB), (SVC)
Operational/Visual Check OPC, GVC, WAC (OPC), (GVI), (VCK)
Inspection/Functional Check TVC, NDT, FUC (DVI), (SDI), (FNC)
Restoration REM (RST)
Discard REM (DIS)

Structure Significant Item - SSI Figure 2: Simplyfied Overview of the MSG-3 Procedure
Aircraft structure consists of all load carrying members including wings, fuselage,
empennage, engine mountings, landing gear, flight control surfaces and related AIRCRAFTS STRUCTURE
points of attachment. The actuating portions of items such as landing gear, flight AND COMPONENTS
controls, doors, etc. will be treated as systems components. Attachments of the 1
actuators to the airframe will be treated as structure.
A Structural Significant Item (SSI) is any detail, element or assembly, which con-
tributes significantly to carrying flight, ground, pressure or control loads, and
whose failure could affect the structural integrity necessary for the safety of the air- DECISION 2
craft. LOGIC
As part of the scheduled structural maintenance development, it is necessary to
rate each Structural Significant Item in terms of susceptibility (likelihood of dam-
age) and detectability (timely detection of damage). The scheduled structural
maintenance tasks and intervals are developed on the basis of requirements to as- MSI SSI ZIP
sure timely detection of Accidental Damage, Environmental Deterioration, and Fa- MAINTENANCE STRUCTURE ZONE INSPECTION
tigue Damage. SIGNIFICANT ITEM 3 SIGNIFICANT ITEM 4 PROGRAM 5
The scheduled structural maintenance tasks and intervals are based on an as-
sessment of structural design information, fatigue and damage tolerance evalua-
6
tions, service experience with similar structure and pertinent test results. MAINTENANCE TASK
SELECTION LOGIC
The resulting maintenance requirements for all structure are submitted to the ISC
If possible, transfer
for approval and inclusion in the MRB report proposal. See Point 1,2,3,4 and 5 in GVI, TVI, OPC, FUC, REM, LUB GVI, TVI, NDT
GVI's into ZIP 9
7 8
Figure 2 on page 7.
Zone Inspection Program - ZIP

Zonal inspections may be developed from application of the Zonal Analysis Pro-
cedure. This requires a summary review of each zone on the aircraft and normally
occurs as the MSG-3 analyses of structures, systems, and powerplants are being Reliability Program
concluded. These inspections may subsequently be included in the Zonal Inspec-
tions. See Point 9 in Figure 2 on page 7. The goal of a reliability program is to monitor the effectiveness of an established
maintenance program and to ensure an acceptable level of airworthiness and op-
In top down analyses conducted under MSG-3, many support items such as erating capability of the aircraft structure, components and it’s systems.
plumbing, ducting, other structure, wiring, etc., may be evaluated for possible con-
tribution to functional failure. In cases where a general visual inspection is re- During performance of a maintenance task, it is imperative to collect all finding
quired to assess degradation, the zonal inspection is an appropriate method. data (maintenance complains), in relation to the corresponding task reference.
The collected reliability data are analyzed on a continuos basis and if justified im-
mediate adjustments to the maintenance program are implemented or design
changes initiated with SB’s or EO’s.

Figure 3: Maint. Program Development with integrated Reliability Program Check Intervals
The check intervals below are those to be expected at entry into service and will
MRBR CERTIFICATION be reviced according to service experience.
Maint. Review REQUIREMENTS This is an example of an Airbus A320.
Board Report CMR, ALI, LLP, CMP
Table 1: Intervals shown on Airbus A320
MRB Process
Scheduled Inspection Intervals (can change) Remarks
Type Certification Process
MPD Daily 48 calendar hours Comprises cockpit and
Maint. Planning elapsed walkaround check. To
Update with each MPD revision
Document be capable of being
accomplished by flight
- Local Authority Req. crew without technical
- Customer Req. assistance or special
- Reliability Task's tools.
Carried out by a certified Part-145 Maint. - etc.
Organisation. Weekly 8 calendar days Servicing and general
But still the Operators responsibility!
condition from ground.
- Service Bulletin (SB)
Operators MP - Service Information Letter (SIL) A 750 FH or 750 FC Walkaround, some sys-
Operators Maintenance Manufacturer or Vendor
or 4 month tem checks and servic-
Program (Improvements, Design Changes) ing.
C 6000 FH or 4500 FC System checks and

- Airworthiness Directive (AD) or 20 month checks of general con-
JAA / FAA Authorities (Force of Law) ditions and security of
MRI's installations and struc-
Maintenance Required Item's ture.
D 6, 10, 15 years Fatigue and corrosion

critical items. System
Reliability Program and Structure checks
Job Card's and overhaul.
Balancing of Safety versus Economy
Dispatch Maint. & Flt. Crew
Reliability Complaints
Maint. Activity's Operation

Stores Procedures Housing and Facilities

Appropriate facilities shall be maintained so as to insure that storage does not
The Basic Rules damage inventory.
These can be stated fairly simply as follows: If the supplier of surplus parts engages in aircraft/component maintenance as well
• All parts and materials used in the construction, servicing maintenance, repair as the parts sales, the storage area must be secured to prevent cannibalizing by
and modification of civil aircraft must originate from an approved source. maintenance personnel.
• When parts are released they should be accompanied by one of the following: The supplier of surplus parts shall have a system to segregate and identify service-
An Airworthiness Release Certificate (EASA Form One, FAA 8130-3) or/and able from unserviceable units in a manner that will preclude issuing an unservice-
a Stockist Certificate (Certificate Of Conformity) depending on the circum- able part.
stances. In all cases the verifying document must bear the signature of an ap-
propriately authorised person. Stores Documentation
• All organisations concerned with the manufacture, maintenance, repair and
overhaul of civil aircraft must maintain a bonded store. This store will contain Incoming Documentation
only those parts intended for aeronautical use and which have been found to All incoming material shall be accompanied by approved incoming documentation.
conform to all requirements.
• As well as a Bonded Store, organisations must maintain a Quarantine store. Certificate of Conformity
On receipt, all parts must be placed in this store until it can be confirmed that Once a part has been received and checked to ensure that it conforms to all re-
they meet all the standards required for transfer to the Bonded Store. The quirements, it is placed in the Bonded Store. Subsequently, that part might be sold
confirmation process will involve a scrutiny of the verifying document(s) and a to another organisation which is not part of the recipient Company's group. In order
physical inspection of the item to ensure its serviceability. to effect the transfer of that Part, a Certificate of Conformity should be raised by
• When parts are issued from the Bonded Store the relevant incoming Author- the supplier. If more than one identical item is listed on one EASA Form One a true
ised Release Certificate/Airworthiness Approval Tag Serial Number must be copy of the original EASA Form One will accompany requested parts. If only one
quoted on all relevant documentation, including, in particular, the entry made item is applicable to the EASA Form One, then the original tag is despatched with
in the Aircraft or Engine Log Book, when the parts are eventually fitted to an the requested parts and an identical copy retained by the Bonded Store.
aircraft.
• The supplier shall ensure that no part number ambiguity exists. Parts shall not Stockist's Certificate
be labeled with multiple part numbers if such labeling may cause confusion as This is a release document issued by a distributor company which is not an ap-
to the part's manufacture or applicable specification. A supplier's alteration to, proved source.
or replacement of, the data plate or manufacture's part number is unaccept- It must be emphasised at this point that it is the responsibility of the user to ensure
able. that all aeronautical parts used on aircraft are genuine, in a serviceable condition
• Flammable, toxic, or volatile materials shall be stored in a safe manner per and conform to the correct modification and inspection standards, regardless of
manufacture's recommendations or as specified by local fire regulations. their source.
• Material subject to damage from electrostatic discharge shall be packaged, It follows, therefore, that whenever aeronautical parts are obtained from an unap-
handled, and protected with necessary precaution and in accordance with re- proved source, the user must obtain evidence as to the origin of such parts. One
quirements for handling electrostatic sensitive devices. acceptable form of evidence is the stockist's certificate. This is a release cerificate
which certifies that the parts were obtained initially from an approved source and
it must bear the serial number and date of the incoming verifying document(s) re-

ceived by the distributor. The stockist's certificate must bear the signature of a per- When an item is released from the Bonded Store and fitted to an aircraft, a Certif-
son authorised by the Distributor Company. icate of Release to Service must be raised in respect of the work done.
Where a degree of confidence exists between the user and the distributor the Figure 4: EASA Form One
Stockist's Certificate is all that is required in the way of documentary evidence,
where no such confidence exists, the user should also obtain a certified photocopy
of the incoming Approved Certificate and any other technical documents which
were received by the distributor when the parts were originally obtained.
Airworthiness Approval Tags

EASA Form One
An EASA Form One is required to be issued for aircraft parts, other than standard
parts which are intended for use in civil aircraft. It constitutes a Certificate of Con-
formity in that it states that items detailed on the Certificate conform in all respects
to the approved drawings and specifications.
As stated previously, a EASA Form One is required to be issued for newly manu-
factured or assembled parts. They are also required to be issued for parts which
have been Overhauled, Repaired, Modified or Inspected. The certificate must in-
clude a statement of the flying hours expended, where the part is subject to a flying
hour T.B.O. life, or a statement of calendar time expended where the T.B.O. life is
calculated on, a time basis. The certificate must also state whether the parts are
Manufactured, Overhauled, Inspected, Modified or Repaired.
The form and wording of the EASA Form One may not be altered. It will bear the
issuing organisation's name and address and the number of the certificate. Once
it has been issued, no alterations or additions are permitted. If an organisation
transfers parts to another organisation, any additional information must go on the
back of the accompanying EASA Form One or on a separate document.
Every EASA Form One must be signed by an Authorised Signature. The form must
always be raised in duplicate, at least, the top copy or certified true copy to be sent
FAA Form 8130-3
out with the parts, the raising organisation will keep a copy on file.
There are various ways by means of which the user can be satisfied that the Parts
When an EASA Form One is received in an Organisation, it must be filed, together are acceptable for use on aircraft when they are obtained from a Foreign Source.
with any other relevant documents, and retained for a minimum period of 5 years. one such item of acceptable documentary evidence is the FAA TAG. This is a label
The certificate should not be destroyed while the items are held in stock. On com- which can be attached to the Parts. It is identified as FORM 8130 -3 Airworthiness
pletion of the 5 year period, if the items have been issued from stores and used on Approval Tag and will be signed by a representative of the Federal Aviation Ad-
aircraft, the filing information may be destroyed, except in the cases of major as- ministration.
semblies or components where documentation should not be destroyed without
prior consultation with the N.A.A.

Re-Certification of Parts
From time to time, it is necessary to carry out inspections and tests on items held
in the Bonded Store to ensure that they remain serviceable. On occasions, these
tests may be carried out on items which have a finite shelf life, such as flexible
pipelines.
It should be understood that re-certification of such parts, during a long period
when they are held in the Bonded Store, does not mean that the shelf life reverts
to zero after re-certification. All such periods of shelf life are cumulative and the
part must be scrapped when its finite life is reached, irrespective of how servicea-
ble that part may seem.
Bogus Parts
This term is used to describe parts which purport to be genuine approved items
from acceptable sources, when they are not. The Flight Safety Foundation of
America have defined Bogus Parts as follows:
• Parts which are not airworthy
• Parts the source and identity of which have long been lost
• Parts of unknown material, fabricated by processes at variance with industry
and government specifications
Any positive evidence of Bogus Parts must be immediately reported to the NAA.
Parts Classification
Parts are classified according to their degree of importance.
Class 1
Complete type certified aircraft, aircraft engines and propellers.
Class 2
A major component of a class 1 product e.g. aircraft or turbine engine, the failure
of which would jeopardise the safety of a class 1 product; or any part, material or
appliance, approved and manufactured under the Technical Standard Order
(TSO) system.
Class 3
Any aircraft part or component which is not a class 1 nor class 2 product, and in-
cludes standard parts, e.g. those designated AN, MS, NAS, etc.

Certification of Airline and Aircraft Operating or Airline Certificates

Aviation regulations (Parts/FARs) require certification of all airline companies, as
For more than 20 years after the Wright Brothers first flight, aviation was virtually
well as the equipment they use. Every airline therefore is issued an operating cer-
an unregulated industry. Anyone who wanted could design, build, and fly an air-
tificate by the authorities.
craft without obtaining approval from the goverment. Predictably, the safety record
of the early air transport was not very good, and the government responded by Among other things, a commercial operator must have EASA/FAA-approved train-
passing the Air Commerce Act of 1926. The 1926 Act required registration of air- ing and maintenance programs, as well as comply with airworthiness certificates
craft and mechanics. In 1938, the Air Commerce Act was repealed and replaced for each aircraft. The maintenance program must specify the intervals at which
by the Civil Aeronautics Board which established and enforced all regulations per- certain aircraft and engine parts will be inspected and, in some cases, replaced. In
taining to civil aviation. addition, the maintenance shops the airline intends to use (both its own shops and
those of subcontractors) must be certified by EASA/FAA and open to inspection,
Airworthiness Certificate on demand. Records of all maintenance work must be kept and also must be open
to inspection.
Certification process begins with the design of an aircraft. EASA/FAA aeronautical
engineers participate in the design process. They also oversee the construction Other requirements address such things as:
and flight testing of the prototype. If all tests are successfully completed, EASA/ • the equipment a carrier must have aboard each aircraft;
FAA issues a type certificate for the new aircraft, followed by a production certifi- • flammability standards for cabin materials;
cate, once EASA/FAA is satisfied that the manufacturer has everything in place to • floor lighting for emergency evacuation;
properly duplicate the prototype.
• onboard smoking rules;
The final step in aircraft certification is the issuance of an airworthiness certificate, • the number of flight attendants that must be aboard;
which essentially has the EASA/FAA’s stamp of approval for each aircraft coming
• the content of pre-flight announcements;
off the assembly line. It attests to the fact that the plane has been properly built,
according to an approved design, and that it is safe for commercial service. • rules for carry-on baggage;
• security procedures;
The EASA/FAA requires that all commercial transport aircraft be designed with
built-in redundancies, so they can fly even when a structural element fails. For ex- • aircraft de-icing procedures.
ample, there is more than one way to lower the landing gear, more than one way • ect.
to communicate with the ground and more than one way to control the aircraft.

Post Type Certification Activities/Modifications Additional Maintenance Procedures

Changes in Type Design are classified as minor and major. A “minor change” is Additional Maintenance Procedures must be carried out if aircraft operation devi-
one that has no appreciable effect on the weight, balance, structural strength, re- ates from standard rules; or to get the benefits from certain improvements. Two
liability, operational characteristics, or other characteristics affecting the airworthi- examples are discussed below. These are:
ness of the product. All other changes are “major changes”. • ETOPS Operation - Extended Twin Engine Operation
All changes (major and minor) must be approved in accordance with Part/FAR as • RVSM - Reduced Vertical Seperation Minimum
appropriate, and must be adequately identified.
ETOPS Maintenance
Airworthiness Directives - AD In 1953, the United States developed regulations that prohibited two-engine air-
Design problems, discovered after a plane is in service, that result in a possible planes from routes more than 60 min (single-engine flying time) from an adequate
unsafe condition, are addressed through airworthiness directives, or AD’s. airport. These regulations were later formalized in U.S. Federal Aviation Adminis-
Through these directives the EASA/FAA informs all operators of the aircraft or en- tration (FAA) Federal Aviation Regulation 121.161. The ETOPS program allows
gine type of the repairs or modifications needed to correct the problem. Usually, operators to deviate from this rule under certain conditions. By incorporating spe-
AD’s are written in consultation with the manufacturer, but unlike manufacturer- cific hardware improvements and establishing specific maintenance and opera-
generated service bulletins, AD’s carry the force of law and airlines must comply tional procedures, operators can fly extended distances up to 180 min from the
with them. If the problem poses an immediate safety hazard, the EASA/FAA will alternate airport.
direct the airlines to complete the work quickly, sometimes even before further The ETOPS maintenance approach that can be applied to all commercial air-
flight. In most situations, however, there is no immediate safety hazard and the airplanes includes:
lines are given a specified amount of time to complete the AD’s.
• Engine health monitoring.
It is the operators responsibility to see, if AD’s are carried out. • Predeparture service check.
• Basic and multiple-system maintenance practices.
• Event-oriented reliability program.
Service Bulletins - SB
Normally, the decision to embody Service Bulletins (SB's) or modification belongs Engine Health Monitoring
to the Operator. However, the Operator may delegate that decision provided that ETOPS maintenance procedures were created to ensure the safety and reliability
the conditions of delegation are clearly established (e.g.: the modification does not of flights operating at extended distances from alternate airports and to prevent or
affect the interchangeability and the reliability [which should be demonstrated], the reduce the probability of a diversion or turnback with one engine out.
modification does not affect the maintenance or operational procedures, etc.).
Most traditional maintenance programs are based on regularly scheduled preven-
Such a delegation may be useful in the case of a Part-145 approved /accepted Or- tive maintenance and on the ability to predict or anticipate maintenance problems
ganisation that maintains to a common standard a fleet of aircraft that belong to by studying failure rates, removal rates, and other reliability data. However, the
different Operators. ETOPS philosophy is a real-time approach to maintenance and includes continual
monitoring of conditions to identify problems before they threaten airplane opera-
tion or safety.

Two items in the ETOPS maintenance program that best illustrate this real-time Engine Condition Monitoring (ECM)
approach are oil consumption monitoring and engine condition monitoring. For many years, ECM computer programs have been available for all engines. The
Oil Consumption Monitoring engine manufacturer supplies ECMs to help operators assess the general health
A typical maintenance program requires checking engine oil before every flight or of their engines. The programs allow for monitoring of such parameters as N1, N2,
only once each day and the auxiliary power unit (APU) oil less frequently (such as exhaust gas temperature, fuel and oil pressures, and vibration. Most operators use
every 100 hr). The quantity of oil added and flight hours for each leg should be not- an ECM program regardless of whether they fly ETOPS routes. ETOPS operators
ed in the maintenance logbook. are required to use ECMs to monitor adverse trends in engine performance and
execute maintenance to avoid serious failures. These failures could cause in-flight
The oil consumption rate, the amount of oil used per hour of operation on the pre- shutdowns, diversions, or turnbacks. In some cases, oil consumption data and
vious flight leg, should be calculated for both engines and the APU during ETOPS ECM data can be correlated to define certain problems.
before dispatch. The resulting number provides a better indication of oil usage or
loss than the quantity of oil added. If the rate is acceptable, the flight can be re- Predeparture Service Check
leased; if not, the cause of the increased usage must be addressed before dis-
Regulations require certain ETOPS systems to be checked before each flight.
patching the airplane on an ETOPS flight. This increase can frequently be caused
This is because certain systems relating to ETOPS were redesigned for greater
by an oil leak, which is easy to detect and repair.
reliability and dispatch requirements were altered for ETOPS (e.g., standby gen-
The consumption rate data is also logged to track long-term variations in consump- erators, minimum equipment list requirements).
tion rates. This allows the operator to determine if problems are developing so they
can identify and implement solutions before serious engine or APU degradation Basic and Multiple-System Maintenance Practices
occurs. Resolution of Discrepancies
Figure 5: Oil Consumption Rate This program requires items that are repaired or replaced to be checked for proper
installation and operation before the work is signed off on the maintenance log.
Oil consumption, Increasing consumption rate; This ensures that the item is actually fixed and that no new problems were intro-
quarts per hour investigation recommended
duced during maintenance. This maintenance practice is applicable to all air-
0.8
planes.
0.6
Typical consumption rate Avoidance of Multiple Similar Systems Maintenance
Maintenance practices for the multiple similar systems requirement were designed
0.4 to eliminate the possibility of introducing problems into both systems of a dual in-
stallation (e.g., engines and fuel systems) that could ultimately result in failure of
0.2 both systems. The basic philosophy is that two similar systems should not be
maintained or repaired during the same maintenance visit. Some operators may
0.0
find this difficult to implement because all maintenance must be done at their home
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 base.
Number of consecutive flight readings However, methods exist for avoiding the problems that may be introduced by
working on two similar systems simultaneously. For example, different personnel
can perform the required work on the similar systems, or they can ask each other
to review the work done on each system. If the systems are checked after perform-
ing maintenance according to the resolution of discrepancies program, any prob-

lems introduced during maintenance should be identified and corrected before

releasing the airplane for flight.
Event-Oriented Reliability Program

An event-oriented reliability program associated with ETOPS differs from conven-
tional reliability programs, which rely on historical data or alert levels to determine
when an item should be investigated for possible corrective action.
In an event-oriented reliability program, each event on an ETOPS-significant sys-
tem is investigated to determine if a problem could be reduced or eliminated by
changing the maintenance program. Examples of events include a failure, remov-
al, or pilot report. Events can also be monitored to detect long-term trends or re-
peat items. Not all events warrant such detailed investigations; continual
monitoring and awareness of problem areas reflects the ETOPS real-time mainte-
nance philosophy.
Three and Four-Engine Airplanes

Although three- and four-engine airplanes are not specifically designed or im-
proved for ETOPS, the ETOPS maintenance approach can be applied to those air-
planes and offer operators significant improvements in reliability, performance,
and dispatch rates. The approach can be applied at minimal cost, which can later
be offset by reduced maintenance costs and other costs associated with diver-
sions or turnbacks.

Reduced Vertical Seperation Minimum - RVSM Throughout the 1980s, various studies were conducted, under the auspices of
ICAO, in Canada, Europe, Japan, and the USA. The underlying approach of the
In the late 1950s vertical separation for aircraft flying in the upper airspace was programmes was to :
1000ft.
• determine the height keeping accuracy of the altimetry systems of the then
However, it was realised that as altitude increased, the accuracy of pressure sens- current aircraft population;
ing barometric altimeters decreased. Therefore, in 1960, the decision was taken • establish the causes of observed height keeping errors;
to increase separation at and above Flight Level (FL) 290 from 1000ft to 2000ft.
ICAO adopted a standard, global, FL290 changeover level in 1966. • determine the required safety levels for the implementation and use of a Re-
duced Vertical Separation Minimum (RVSM) of 1000 ft at/above FL 290;
Despite this increase in Vertical Separation Minimum (VSM) it was recognised
• define a Minimum Aircraft System Performance Specification (MASPS) – for
that, as technology advanced, more accurate height measuring equipment would aircraft altimetry and associated height keeping equipment;
become available in the future which would allow a reduction in the standards set.
It was also recognised that because of differing airspace capacity requirements • determine whether the global implementation and use of RVSM was:
throughout the world, reduction in VSM would occur initially on a regional basis – technically feasible, subject to the over-riding need to satisfy the agreed
with Global introduction following in due course. Areas with high populations of air- safety standards; and
craft flying at or above FL290 would be the first to benefit from reduced minima. – cost-beneficial.
More Airspace Needed - Fuel Becoming an Issue
Minimum Aircraft Systems Performance Specification (MASPS)
In the late 1970s, faced with rising fuel costs and growing demands for a more ef-
The main provision for any reduction in vertical separation would be that the air-
ficient use of the available airspace, the International Civil Aviation Organisation
craft flying in the area(s) would be equipped with height keeping equipment com-
(ICAO) initiated a comprehensive programme of studies to examine the feasibility
plying with Minimum Aircraft Systems Performance Specification (altimetry)
of reducing the 2000 ft VSM applied at FL 290 and above, to 1000 ft VSM.
(MASPS).
Figure 6: RVSM and the six additional Levels MASPS would ensure height-keeping accuracy to a standard compatible with the
FL410 agreed safety requirements for RVSM. This would include at least 2 independent
altimeters on board the aircraft that would always have to be within a certain toler-
FL400
ance of each other.
FL390
FL380 Continued Airworthiness (Maintenance Procedures)
FL370
The integrity of the design features necessary to ensure that altimetry systems
FL360 continue to meet RVSM approval criteria should be verified by scheduled tests and
FL350 inspections in conjunction with an approved maintenance programme. The oper-
FL340 ator should review its maintenance procedures and address all aspects of contin-
FL330 ued airworthiness that may be relevant.
FL320 Adequate maintenance facilities will need to be available to enable compliance
FL310 with the RVSM maintenance procedures.
FL300
FL290
FL280*
Additional Levels

Maintenance Programmes performed following repairs, or alterations having an effect on airframe sur-
Each operator requesting RVSM operational approval should establish RVSM face and airflow.
maintenance and inspection practices acceptable to, and as required by, the re- • The maintenance and inspection programme for the autopilot will need to en-
sponsible authority, that include any required maintenance specified in the data sure continued accuracy and integrity of the automatic altitude control system
package. Operators of aircraft subject to maintenance programme approval will to meet the height keeping standards for RVSM operations. This requirement
need to incorporate these practices in their maintenance programme. will typically be satisfied with equipment inspections and serviceability
checks.
Maintenance Practices
If the operator is subject to an approved maintenance programme, that pro-
gramme should include, for each aircraft type, the maintenance practices stated in
the applicable aircraft and component manufacturers’ maintenance manuals. In
addition, for all aircraft, including those not subject to an approved maintenance
programme, attention should be given to the following items:
• All RVSM equipment should be maintained in accordance with the component
manufacturers’ maintenance instructions and the performance criteria of the
RVSM approval data package.
• Any modification or design change which in any way affects the initial RVSM
approval, should be subject to a design review acceptable to the responsible
authority.
• Any repairs, not covered by approved maintenance documents, that may af-
fect the integrity of the continuing RVSM approval, e.g. those affecting the
alignment of pitot/static probes, repairs to dents or deformation around static
plates, should be subject to a design review acceptable to the responsible au-
thority.
• Built-in Test Equipment (BITE) testing should not be used for system calibra-
tion unless it is shown to be acceptable by the aircraft constructor or an ap-
proved design organisation, and with the agreement of the responsible
authority.
• An appropriate system leak check (or visual inspection where permitted)
should be accomplished following reconnection of a quick-disconnect static
line.
• Airframe and static systems should be maintained in accordance with the air-
craft constructor’s inspection standards and procedures.
• To ensure the proper maintenance of airframe geometry for proper surface
contours and the mitigation of altimetry system error, surface measurements
or skin waviness checks will need to be made, as specified by the aircraft con-
structor, to ensure adherence to RVSM tolerances. These checks should be

Certification of Airline Personnel Categories and Certification Privileges

Certifying staff qualified in accordance with this Part–66, and holding a valid air-
As with aircraft and airlines, the people who work on, fly or manage airplanes must craft maintenance licence with where applicable the appropriate type ratings, will
be personally licensed by the EASA/FAA and have minimum levels of training and be eligible to hold a Part-145 certification authorisation in one or more of the fol-
experience. These certification requirements apply to aircraft mechanics, pilots, lowing categories:
flight engineers, aircraft dispatchers and the air traffic controllers. The schools
where these aviation professionals get their training, as well as the teachers in A category A certifying staff authorisation permits the holder to issue certificates
those schools, also require a license. of release to service following minor scheduled line maintenance and simple de-
fect rectification, as specified in Part-145, within the limits of tasks specifically en-
Only the Maintenance Technicians Certification will be discussed in this sec- dorsed on the authorisation. The certification privileges are restricted to work that
tion. the authorisation holder has personally performed.
Maintenance Technicians A category B1 certifying staff authorisation permits the holder to issue certificates
of release to service following line maintenance, including aircraft structure, pow-
Part-145 requires appropriately authorised certifying staff to issue a certificate of erplants and mechanical and electrical systems. Replacement of avionic line re-
release to service on behalf of the Part-145 approved maintenance organisation placeable units, requiring simple tests to prove their serviceability, is also included
when satisfied that all required maintenance has been completed. in the privileges.
Aircraft Maintenance Licence A category B2 certifying staff authorisation permits the holder to issue certificates
of release to service following line maintenance on avionic and electrical systems.
Aircraft Maintenance Licence means a document issued as evidence of qualifica-
tion confirming that the person to whom it refers has met the Part-66 knowledge A category C certifying staff authorisation permits the holder to issue certificates
and experience requirements for any aircraft basic category and aircraft type rating of release to service following base maintenance. The authorisation is valid for the
specified in the document. aircraft in its entirety, including all systems.
The certifying staff responsible for issuing the certificate of release to service must
be qualified in accordance with the appropriate requirements of Part-66. This Part-
66 is limited to those certifying staff responsible for issuing the certificate of release
to service for aeroplanes with a maximum take off mass of 5700 kg and above.
The application of Part 66 to aeroplanes with a maximum take off mass below
5700 kg, airships and aircraft components will be considered in a future issue. Air-
craft components include engines, auxiliary power units and propellers.
Note: The aircraft maintenance licence alone does not permit the holder to issue
certificates of release to service in respect of aircraft used for commercial air trans-
port. To issue a certificate of release to service for such aircraft, the aircraft main-
tenance licence holder must in addition hold a Part-145 certification authorisation
issued by the Part-145 approved maintenance organisation.

Certification of Maintenance tion with a personal identity number (PIN) known only to the individual which is
keyed into the computer. A certification stamp is optional and used by some com-
Release to Service panies.
The following illustrations show two examples of issuing release to service;
A certificate of release to service is necessary before flight at the completion of any
Figure 7 on page 19 shows a release to service entry in an operators technical log
package of maintenance scheduled by the approved aircraft maintenance pro-
after line maintenance.
gramme on the aircraft, whether such maintenance took place as base or line
maintenance. Figure 7: Release to Service in the Aircraft Technical Log
Prior to the issue of the Certificate of Release to Service, the Approved Person
with Final Release responsibility shall establish from the Bill of Work that no job
cards remain open which could jeopardise the continuing airworthiness of the air-
craft.
The issue of a Certificate of Fitness for Flight shall only be made by an Approved
Person with Final Release responsibility (see Title “Categories and Certification
Privileges” on page 18) .
The certificate of release to service should contain the following statement:
• Certifies that the work specified except as otherwise specified was carried out
in accordance with Part-145 and in respect to that work the aircraft/aircraft-
component is considered ready for release to service.
• The certificate of release to service should relate to the task specified in the
aircraft maintenance programme which itself may cross-refer to a manufactur-
er’s/operator’s instruction in a maintenance manual, service bulletin etc.
The date such maintenance was carried out should include when the maintenance
took place relative to any life or overhaul limitation in terms of date/flying hours/
cycles/Iandings etc., as appropriate.
When extensive maintenance has been carried out, it is acceptable for the certifi-
cate of release to service to summarise the maintenance so long as there is a
unique cross-reference to the work-pack containing full details of maintenance
carried out. Dimensional information should be retained in the work-pack record.
The person who carried out the maintenance task specified in the approved main-
tenance instructions should sign that they have accomplished the task only when
satisfied by self inspection that the task has been properly carried out in accord- Figure 8 on page 20 shows a certificate of release to service after base mainte-
ance with the approved maintenance instructions. nance.
The person issuing the [certificate of] release to service should use his normal sig-
nature except in the case where a computer release to service system is used. In
this latter case the EASA [full member Authority] will need to be satisfied that only
the particular person can electronically issue the release to service. One such
method of compliance is the use of a magnetic or optical personal card in conjunc-

Figure 8: Certificate of Release to Service Certification of Components

The workshop component certifying staff should issue release to service for the
aircraft component when satisfied that the complete maintenance process has
been carried out in accordance with the approved procedures including additional
inspections, when required.
The authorised release certificate/airworthiness approval tag identified as EASA
Form One for the EASA [full member States] constitutes the aircraft component
20.015
certificate of release to service when an aircraft component is maintained by a
Part-145 organisation.
Figure 9: EASA Form One

Maintenance Management b) An operator's maintenance management exposition and any, subse-

quent amendment must be. approved by the Authority.
An operator must be appropriately approved in accordance with Part-145 to carry The Part-145 approved maintenance organisation must establish procedures ac-
out the requirements specified in Part-M, except when the Authority is satisfied ceptable to the Authority to ensure good maintenance practices and compliance
that the maintenance can be contracted to an appropriate Part-145 approved / ac- with all relevant requirements in this Part-145. This must include a clear work order
cepted organisation. or contract such that aircraft and aircraft components may be released to service
a) An operator must employ a person or, group of persons acceptable to the in accordance with Part-145.50.
Authority to ensure that all maintenance is, carried out on time to an ap-
In addition, the Part-145 approved maintenance organisation must establish a
proved standard such. that the maintenance responsibility requirements
quality system including independent audits to monitor product standards and
prescribed in Part-M are satisfied. and to ensure the functioning of the
compliance with and adequacy of the procedures to ensure good maintenance
quality system required by Part-M.
practices and airworthy aircraft/ aircraft components. Compliance monitoring must
b) When an operator is not appropriately approved in accordance with include a feedback system to the person or group of persons specified in Part-
Part-145 Arrangements must be made with such an organisation to carry 145.30(a) and ultimately to the accountable manager to ensure, as necessary,
out the requirements specified in Part-M. A written maintenance contract corrective action. Such systems must be acceptable to the Authority.
must be agreed between the operator and the Part-145 approved,/ac-
cepted maintenance organisation. Detailing the functions specified in
Part-M and defining the support of the quality functions of Part-M. This
contract together with all amendments must be acceptable to the Author-
ity. The Authority does not require the commercial elements of a mainte-
nance contract.
Quality System
For maintenance purposes, the operator's quality system as required by Part-M
must additionally include at least the following functions:
1. Monitoring that the activities of Part-M are being performed in accordance
with the accepted procedures:
2. Monitoring that all contracted maintenance is carried out in accordance with
the contract, and
3. Monitoring the continued compliance with the requirements of this Subpart.
a) An operator must provide an operators Maintenance Management expo-
sition containing details of the organisation structure including:
1) The nominated postholder responsible for the maintenance system
2) The procedures that must be followed to satisfy the maintenance re-
sponsibility of Part-M and the quality functions of Part-M except that
where the operator is appropriately approved as a maintenance or-
ganisation in accordance Part-145. such details may be included in
the Part-145 exposition.

Figure 10: Maintenance Management

Quality Assurance Independent Monitoring

To be effective in providing management with confidence in the reliability of an op-
The concept of Quality Assurance is not new to the aviation industry. eration, the monitoring organisation should be free to act independently of routine
The increasing complexity of both aircraft and the companies engaged in aviation management. The essential aspects of this independence are:
has been accompanied by corresponding changes in the number of the require- • Direct line reporting. The freedom of direct access and direct reporting to the
ments and the demands put upon the Authoritys. accountable Manager
The Authority continues to be responsible for drawing up the regulations, which • Independent authority. The freedom of inspectors or auditors to choose their
form the base on which a safe operation is built, and also for overall surveillance. own areas and lines of inquiry; and
The operator remains responsible for the safety of the operation and for compli- • Independent access. The freedom of inspectors or auditors to visit or inquire
ance with the requirements. into any part of the organisation.
The change, is that the Maintenance Organisation is called upon to set in place Quality Inspection
structured internal quality assurance procedures acceptable to the Authority.
The primary purpose of an inspection is to verify that established procedures are
It is the Assurance of regulatory compliance, which are then primary goal of the followed during an observed event and that the required standard is achieved.
quality program and a primary function of the operator's quality system.
Typical subject areas for quality inspections are:
The Authority's role will, with time, shift to the verification of operators' compliance
• The actual flight-operation
with their Quality System and with the requirements. The development of internal
audit and evaluation programs relies heavily upon AOC (Aircraft Oparator Certifi- • Flight Support Services
cate) holders to continuously monitor and audit their operations to ensure that they • Load Control
are safe and conform to the requirements and the operator's standards. • Maintenance
• Technical Standards
Quality System Concept • Training Standards
It should always be born in mind that the concept of a quality system in any organ-
isation embraces all aspects of that organisation to which the quality system ap- Quality Audit
plies. Internal Quality Audit's are held on planned basis and are performed annually.
This includes the organizational structure, responsibilities, procedures and re- Nevertheless an Audit may become necessary when circumstances change or
sources for implementing quality management. The essential elements of a quality company employees cannot be expected to comply with arrangements which
system are covered below. have become outdated. New aeroplanes, for example, or new routes may be in-
troduced or the company may grow. If standards are to be maintained, it is neces-
Quality Assurance Programs sary to include Quality Audit as an accepted part of the functioning and the
organisation of all departments.
Quality Assurance includes all those systematic measures needed to ensure that
a company is well planned, organized, operated, maintained, developed and sup- A Quality Audit is used to confirm that policies, structures, facilities, resources and
ported in accordance with Authority regulations and the operator's own additional procedures remain relevant to the company's operation and effective in maintain-
standards. ing standards. The primary purpose of a Quality Audit is to identify, in an objective
fashion, potentially unsatisfactory practices or procedures before they cause an
It is fundamental to flight safety and a primary concern of the Quality Assurance
accident or an incident.
Program, that each company employee is motivated to do his work in a profession-
al manner and in accordance with standards, which have been set.

An audit is a comparison of the way in which an operation is being conducted

against the way in which the published procedures say it should have been con-
ducted. The various techniques that make up an effective audit are:
Interviews or discussions with personnel:
• A review of published documents.
• The examination of an adequate sample of records:
• The witnessing of the activities which make up the operation; and
• The preservation of documents and the recording of observations.
An audit can be seen therefore as building on the inspection process. Auditors,
who have relevant operational and/or maintenance qualifications, should use the
records of inspections to guide them towards problem areas or to problems which
are caused by a weakness in the system itself. An audit can vary greatly in scope
and the range of its enquiry. But these things should be defined so that the com-
position of the team and the time needed for the audit are appropriately set.
Any noncompliance's will be recorded and rectified in accordance with the cause.

Control of Life/Safe Limited Parts

Life Limited Parts
Life Limited Parts are these parts, which have to be removed and discarded after
a certain time, cycles or flight hours in operation. This could be parst of a landing
gear which can’t be reworked. The control of Life Limited Parts is the operators re-
sponsibility.
When the Life Limited Parts control is performed by the operator, the Part-145 ap-
proved/accepted organisation will have to provide the operator with all the neces-
sary information about the LLP removal/installation so that the operator may
update its records.
It may also be agreed between the operator and the Part-145 approved /accepted
Organisation that the Life Limited Parts control is carried out by the Part-145 ap-
proved/accepted organisation. This will have to be specified in the contract. The
Part-145 approved/accepted organisation will need to be in receipt of current
hours/cycles of the aircraft, as well as any other information necessary to perform
the control. The operator should be in receipt of the Life Limited Parts status in or-
der to exercise his airworthiness responsibility.
Hours & Cycles Control

Hours and Cycles control is the responsibility of the operator, but there may be
cases where the Part-145 approved/accepted organisation performs that control,
especially when it carries out planning functions. In the latter case, the Part-145
approved/accepted organisation must be in receipt of the current flight hours and
cycles on a regular basis so that it may update the records.


Training Manual Study Questions
Study Questions
7.1 Safety Precautions Aircraft and Workshop 4. What is a common method of securing high pressure cylinders?
1. A warning tag is placed on a system-operating switch. Who is allowed to re-

move that tag?
5. When working on an aircraft, why is it not allowed to use electrical equipment

such as drilling machines?
2. What has to be taken care of when using an electrical devices?
6. What are the requirements for fire?
7. A fire involving paper as a fuel is a Class-_______ fire.
8. A fire involving a flammable liquid as a fuel is a Class-________ fire.

3. What has to be specially taken care of when handling or replacing high-pres-
9. Describe the correct behaviour in case of a fire:
sure oxygen cylinders?

Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only Cat: B1 7.Study Questions - 1
7.2 Workshop Practices 13. What can be said about production cost’s regarding tolerances?
10. How should damaged hand tools be handled?
14. Torque wrenches must be calibrated every ________________________ .

11. How should Serviceable and Unserviceable material be stored?
15. Describe the “Observation Error”:
12. Convert:
5/16 in = _____ mm 62°F = _____ °C
5/32 in = _____ mm 100°C = _____ °F
3/8 in = ______ mm 20°C = ______ °F

16. Torque values listed for aircraft bolts normally consider the threads to be
0.190 in = ______ mm 0°C = ______ °F
clean and _____________ (dry or lubricated).
1.15 in = _______ mm 428°F = _______ °C
0.25 in = _______ mm 200°F = _______ °C
1 1/16 in = _______ mm 350°C = _______ °F

7.3 Tools 20. What is understood under the expression “Dimpling”?
17. How much is the indicated torque value on a 10 inch wrench with a 2 inch ex-
tension? (required Torque 400 inch/lbs)
18. What is the drill stop used for? 21. The accuracy of a micrometer calliper may be checked and calibrated by us-
ing _______________________________________________________ .
22. What is the "Ratchet Stop" on a micrometer calliper used for?
23. You have to lubricate the landing gear on a commercial aeroplane. Where can
19. What is the mostly used cutting agent. Describe its characteristics? you find the types of lubricant and the position of the lubrication points?
24. A voltmeter must be installed in ___________(series or parallel) with the com-

ponent whose voltage is to be measured.
25. An ammeter must be installed in _________________(series or parallel) with

the component whose current is to be measured.

7.4 Avionic General Test Equipment 31. List the five main sections of the ATA 100 specifications.
a) ________________________________________________________
7.5 Engineering Drawings, Diagrams and Standards b) ________________________________________________________
26. A drawing that includes enough information to allow a part to be fabricated is
c) ________________________________________________________
called a/an ______________________drawing.
d) ________________________________________________________
27. A drawing that shows the way various detail parts are put together to form an
e) ________________________________________________________
assembly or sub assembly is called a/an ___________________drawing.
32. In which ATA chapter is the subject Oxygen covered?
28. An orthographic projection can show as many as six views of an object. List
the three views that are most commonly used in aircraft drawings.
a) ________________________________________________________
b) ________________________________________________________
33. What does the Maintenance Manual contain?
c) ________________________________________________________
29. The allowable deviation from the dimensions of a part is called _________ 
__________________________________________________________ .
30. What is the meaning of NAS? (ref. to standards)

7.6 Fits and Clearances 7.7 Electrical Cables and Connectors

34. List the different kind of fits. 39. Why is it necessary, that all electrical circuits are identified with a wire num-
ber?
35. Explain the meaning of the term "limit"

40. Is it allowed to clamp wire bundles to fluidlines?
36. On a clearance fit the shaft is always...
41. On wire-bundles installation, what rules has to be observed related to essen-

37. On a interferance fit the shaft is always... tial systems?
38. When a not-go-plug-gauge goes into the hole...

42. Is there something special to pay attention, when you clamp a wire-loom? 46. We know Sockets and Pins with a two colour code. What’s the meaning of
this?
47. Are all Pins and Sockets crimped on plugs?

43. In case of an installation through a wall, what makes it necessary to install a
grommet?
48. Name the two general contact types (Insertion/extraction)?
44. What does the colour code on a crimping tool mean?
7.8 Riveting
49. What is known as the rivet pitch?
45. Which types of Shielding-Sleeves has to be used in high temperature areas?
50. The edge distance is ________times the diameter of the rivet shanks.

51. The rivet length can be determined with the formula: 56. What must be considered when designing a riveted joint concerning shear
and bearing strength?
52. List the rules for a properly drilled rivet hole.
7.9 Pipes and Hoses

57. After the tubing is cut, what is the next step?
53. You have to install a flush rivet. What angle must the countersink most prob-
ably have?
54. What are Bucking Bars used for?
58. The maximum flattening allowed in a bend of a rigid fluid line reduces the out-
side diameter to ________percent of the original tube diameter.
59. The minimum bend radius for a piece of 3/8-inch aluminium alloy tubing is
55. What can you say about "Upset Head" or "Shop Head" sizes?
_________________inches.
60. A dent that is 10% of the diameter of an aluminium alloy tubing

__________________ (is or is not) permissible if it is in the heel of a bend.

61. What is the maximum clamping distance for a 3/8-inch steel tube? 66. Describe the term "Springback".
62. Flexible hose changes its dimensions when it is pressurized. A piece of flexi-
ble hose should be between _____ and ______ percent longer than the dis-
tance between the fittings to which it attaches.
67. Describe how to preset an MS Flareless Fitting.
63. The minimum recommended bend radius for a piece of 1/2-inch MIL-H-8788
hose is ________ inches.
64. B-nut tightening should always be made with the system________________

___________________________________(pressurized or unpressurized)
65. What should be done when disconnecting aircraft tubing from the system?
68. What should be considered when temporary removing a teflon hose?
69. Where are wire locked fuel connections not used, except otherwise stated?

7.10 Springs 73. Which bearing fault may be detected by discoloration?
70. What is the first step, before testing a spring for its condition?
74. Prior to mounting a bearing, the mechanic must make sure that
71. Describe the process of testing springs
75. New bearings are preserved in their original package with an anticorrisive oil.
What has to be done prior mounting the bearing?
7.11 Bearings
72. Bearings are inspected for?

76. If tight fits are specified for the inner rings on cylindrical shaft seats, the bear- 7.12 Transmissions
ings can be heated prior installation. Describe the thermal methods.
80. How can the proper tension of a V-belt be checked?
81. During a “composite check” gears are inspected for the following errors.
77. Provisionally, small bearings can be driven off their seat with a hammer and
a metal drift. What must be considered?
78. When lubricating a bearing, what should be considered? 82. Why is backlash essential for gears?
79. Why does a bearing fail? 83. What should be taken care of when installing connection links on chains?

84. A rule of thumb says that the chain slack should have about 4 percent of the 86. Lubrication of Screwjacks is very important. Describe why?
span. This rule is not valid under certain conditions. Describe.
85. There are certain points to be checked on a Start-up Test after assembling a 7.13 Control Cables
chain drive.
87. List the methods for swaging end-terminals.
88. How are end fittings load proofed?

89. What has to be taken in consideration when measuring cable tension? 92. What belongs to a complete control cable inspection?
90. What has to be aware of when measuring cable tension of nylon coated ca-
bles?
93. Describe a well known method to inspect a cable for broken wires.
94. Where can I find the limits for cable wear?
91. Which is one of the most critical damages of control cables?

95. What must be considered when cleaning cables? 100.Describe the term "Flat".
101.Calculate the Bend Allowance where: 

MT = 0.050 inch, BR = 0.25 inch, Bend angle = 45°
7.14 Sheet Metal Work

96. When laying out a pattern, we should orient the metal to the bends in a special
way as much as practical. Describe.
102.When laying out the flat pattern we need to know the following:
97. The minimum bend radius for 2024-T4 alloy with a material thickness of
0.050 inch is: ________________________________________________
98. When we bend a piece of metal around a given radius, the metal on the out-
side of the bend stretches, and that on the inside shrinks. Within the metal,
there is a portion that neither shrinks nor stretches but retains its original di-
mensions. What is this portion called?
103.Small cracks in low-stress sheet metal components as engine cowlings can
be: _______________________________________________________ .
7.15 Welding, Brazing, Soldering and Bonding

99. The Setback in a 90° bend is: ___________________________________
104.When does bronze based brazing rod alloy usually melt?

105.Before brazing the metal what has be concidered? 111.Describe the correct way to light-up, adjusting the flame and shuting-down a
welding torch:
106.What is the alloy used for soft soldering?
112.Why are there two pressure gauges installed on a pressure regulator?
107.The temperature of an oxyacetylene flame ranges from about:
113.List the different types of electric welding:
108.Name the colour coding and the chemical coding of the following pressure cyl-
inders:
a) Acetylene: _______________________________________________
b) Oxygen: _________________________________________________
109.Above what pressure becomes acetylene unstable?

114.Describe the differences between brazing and soldering:
110.On gas welding equipments, a precaution system used to prevent wrong con-
nection of hoses and regulators. Describe:

115.Describe the relation between the gap and the capillary rise in conjunction 119.Describe the term "MAC".
with brazing and soldering:
120.What does the term "LEMAC" and "TEMAC" describe?

116.What is the definition of MZFW?
121.On an airliner, where are the forward and aft certified limits for the CG(Centre
of Gravity) typically during flight?
117.Traffic load is also called ______________________________________

118.Where can the "datum" be found and what is it used for?
122.There are two types of equipment used to weigh an aircraft. Explain:

123.The aircraft is ready for weighing. What must be the configuration? 126.What has to be done with the nose wheel steering when towing an aircraft?
127.What has to be checked before lowering a jacked aircraft?
128.Precautions for parking an aircraft in a high wind area are?

7.17 Aircraft Handling and Storage
124.The accepted rule of thumb for installing bolts in an aircraft structure is to have
the bolt head ________________________________________________ 
___________________________________________________________ 
(up or down), (forward, or rearward), and (inboard or outboard) 129.JET A1 Fuel is coloured _______________________________________ .
125.Describe the hand signal for “insert chocks” 130.Static Electricity generated during refuelling is bled off by:
131.Removal of ice after it has formed on an aircraft structure is called?

132.Preventing the formation of ice on an aircraft structure is called? 7.18 Inspection, Repair and Assembly
136.Give a brief description of a DVI (TVC).
133.When parking an aircraft in freezing conditions make sure that __________
137.What are the criterions for judgement?
134.When Anti-Icing or De-Icing an aircraft, describe the general precautions.
138.To carry out an effective and reliable inspection, certain points must be con-
sidered. These are:
135.There is snow fall and the ambiant temperature is -5°C. The aircraft was anti-
iced with a ADF/Water mixture of 75/25 %. Determine the min. and max. hold-
over time.

139.Describe "light corrosion" damage. 142.Why are drain holes and valves installed on an aircraft?
140.Give a brief description of a brush alodine process. 143.You have to remove some corrosion on an aircraft structure. Where can you
find the procedures of how to do that?
144.Describe the general rules of "Stop-drilling" a crack.
141.When a repair requires the removal of the original surface protection, what
has to be done when the repair is done? 145.What is the purpose of the "Corrosion Prevention Control Program - CPCP"?

146.There is a term called "Aging Aircraft". Give a brief description of its function. 149.Complete the following sentence:
Trouble shooting is the systematic ...
147.What inpection is the simplest way to detect delamination or separation on

bonded sandwich components?
7.19 Abnormal Events

148.Do X-Ray Inspections damage the health? 150.Where can information be found regarding special inspection like hard landing
or severe turbulence.
151.Which are the most probable areas for lightning strike damage?

152.Explain the following terms: 155.An analysis logic called MSG-1 was developed in the early 60s. What was and
Indirect effects: still is the purpose of it?
Direct effects:
156.Who is responsible that mandatory alterations are complied with?
153.The following scenario: The crew of an incoming aircraft reports a hard land-
ing. What actions has the maintenance technician to carry out? Describe.
157.What is the goal of a reliability program?
158.When becomes a "Certificate of Release to Service" necessary?
7.20 Maintenance Procedures

154.What is the object of a maintenance program?

159.Describe the purpose of the Airworthiness Approval Tag (EASA Form One): 163.Name two examples of "Additional Maintenance Procedures":
a)
b)
164.Maintenance Technicians must be certified according to PART. Describe the

160.Why is re-certification of parts necessary from time to time?
categories and certification privileges in a short sentence:
Cat A:
Cat B1:
161.Describe the meaning of the term "Bogus Part".
Cat B2:
162.AD’s carry the ____________________ and airlines must

_______________ with them.
Cat C:

165.What is the purpose of a quality audit?
166.What are life limited parts?

Training Manual 7.Glossary
A D
abrasives deleterious
-Schleifmittel 11 -schädlich 2
ambiguity depreciation
-Zweideutigkeit 9 -Wertminderung 2
Anvil deprive
-Amboss 5 -entziehen 14
AOC, Aircraft Operator Certificate 23 Die
APU -Prägestempel 3
-Auxiliary Power Unit 17 DOW
arc -Dry Operating Weight 4
-Lichtbogen 2 drowsiness
-Schläfrigkeit 9
B
Belt dressing E
-Riemenharz 8 EWCG
Bonded Store -Empty Weight CG 20
-Zollfreilager 9 extrados
Bowing -äussere Bogenfläche 3
-Durchbiegung 7
BW F
-Basic Weight 4 fabric
-Gewebe 8
C fault current breaker
Carbon dioxide -Fehlerstromabschalter 12
-Kohlendioxyd, Kohlensäure 15 Feeler Gauge
CG -Fühlerlehren, Blattlehren 7
-Center of Gravity 2 flux
consciousness, loss of -Flussmittel 16
-Bewusstsein verlieren 9 frayed
-durchgescheuert 12

Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only Cat: B1 7.Glossary - I
G M
Gap Gauge MAC
-Rachenlehre 5 -Mean Aerodynamic Chord 10
mallet
H -Holzhammer 3
Hooke’s law MLW
-(nach R.Hooke), ein physikal. Gesetz, durch das der Zusammenhang zw. der -Maximum Design Landing Weight 3
elast. Verformung eines Körpers und der dazu erforderl. Kraft bzw. der dabei MSG
auftretenden rücktreibenden Kraft dargestellt wird. 5 -Maintenance Steering Group 2
hydrocarbon MTW
-Kohlenwasserstoff 15 -Maximum Design Taxi Weight 3
MZFW
I -Maximum Zero Fuel Weight 3
IDG
-Integrated Drive Generator 17 N
ingot necrosis
-Barren 2 -Absterben von Gewebe 9
-Metallblock 32 Negligible Damage
intrados -unbedeutender Schaden 8
-innere Bogenfläche 3
P
J pellet
jeopardise -Kügelchen, Schrotkorn 11
-in Gefahr bringen 19 penetrate
-eindringen 13
L Plug gauge
lead -Lehrdorn 6
-Blei 16 prone to rust
LEMAC -Rost anfällig 2
-Leading Edge of MAC 10
Limit Gauge R
-Grenzlehre 5 Reamer
liquefy -Reibhale 3
-flüssig werden 16

Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only Cat: B1 7.Glossary - II
reliability tin
-Zuverlässigkeit 3 -(chem) Zinn 16
repercussion torch
-Auswirkung 3 -Schweissbrenner 4
Runout tungsten
-Schlag, Unrundheit 7 -Wolfram 12
S U
saturate undue sag
-durchtränken 10 -übermässig durchhängen 7
scrutiny
-genaue Prüfung 9 V
seamless V-blocks
-nahtlos 3 -Prüfprisma 7
sheave
-Riemenscheibe 7 W
slack Wobble
-locker 7 -Planschlag 7
SRM
-Structure Repair Manual 23
Stout
-stabil, fest 4
Straightedge
-Haarlineal 7
subcutaneous
-unter der Haut erfolgend 9
swage
-gesenkschmieden 2
T
Tare weight
-Weight which is not part of aircraft (wheel chocks, shim boards, etc.) 18
taut
-straff 7

Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only Cat: B1 7.Glossary - III

Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only Cat: B1 7.Glossary - IV
Alphabetic Index Training Manual Alphabetic Index
Symbols Aircraft Drawings Dimensioning System 7.5- Belt Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.12-7 Certificate Of Conformity . . . . . . . . . . 7.20-9
3 Destructive Elements . . . . . . . . . . 7.12-8 Certification
%MAC Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.16-12
Airworthiness Proper Fit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.12-7 Aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.20-12
Certificate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.20-12 synchronous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.12-7 Aircraft Maintenance Licence . . . 7.20-18
A Directive - AD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.20-13 toothed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.12-7 Airline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.20-12
Abnormal Events Airworthiness Certificate . . . . . . . . .7.20-12 V-Belts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.12-7 Airline Personnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.20-18
Inspection Coverage . . . . . . . . . . . 7.19-2 Airworthiness Directives - AD . . . . . .7.20-13 Bend Allowance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.14.1-4 Category A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.20-18
Inspection Requirements . . . . . . . 7.19-6 Allowed Traffic Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.16-4 Bend Radius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.14.1-2 Category B1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.20-18
Inspection Sequence . . . . . . . . . . 7.19-3 Alodine 871 "Touch-N-Prep" Procedure . . . . Bend Tangent Line . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.14.1-3 Category B2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.20-18
Acetylene C2H2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.15-3 7.18-20 Bending Sheet Metal Category C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.20-18
Acetylene Regulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.15-4 Aloide 1200 Brush Procedure . . . . .7.18-20 Bend Allowance . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.14.1-4 Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.20-20
Acoustic Shock Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.19-6 AMP Certi-Seal Splice . . . . . . . . . . . .7.7-28 Bend Radius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.14.1-2 Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.20-19
AD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.20-13 Analog Test Equipment . . . . . . . . . . .7.3-44 Bend Tangent Line . . . . . . . . . . .7.14.1-3 Maintenance Technicians . . . . . . 7.20-18
Adjustable Thread Calliper Gauges . . 7.6-5 Angle Drill Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.3-19 Flat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.14.1-4 Operating Certificates . . . . . . . . . 7.20-12
Aft Center of Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.16-2 Antiicing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.17-17 Mold Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.14.1-3 Privileges and Categories . . . . . . 7.20-18
After Flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.17-17 Articulation in Chains . . . . . . . . . . . .7.12-11 Mold Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.14.1-3 Release to Service . . . . . . . . . . . 7.20-19
Aging Aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-31 Assembly Drawings . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.5-11 Bird Strike . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.19-11 Certification of Components . . . . . . . 7.20-20
Corrosion Prevention and Control 7.18-31 Assessment of Damage . . . . . . . . . 7.14.1-8 Block Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5-14 Chain Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.12-9
Maintenance Program Guideline 7.18-31 ATA Chapters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.5-57 Blueprints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5-2 Horizontal Precision . . . . . . . . . . . 7.12-12
Repair Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-32 ATA Specification 100 . . . . . . . . . . . .7.5-47 Bogus Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.20-11 Lubrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.12-13
Structural Modification and Inspection . . Auxiliary Drawings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.5-5 Bolt and Hole Sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6-4 Parallelism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.12-12
7.18-31 Bolthole Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6-4 Protection and Storage . . . . . . . . 7.12-13
Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-31 B Borescope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-36 Chains
Supplemental Structural Inspections (SSI) Bowden Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.13-14 Articulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.12-11
Back countersinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.3-25
7.18-32 Bowing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6-7 Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.12-9
Backlash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.12-4
Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-32 Bowing Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6-7 Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.12-9
Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.16-6
Aircraft Bracing Installation of Chain Assemblies . 7.12-11
Balance Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.16-12
After Flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.17-17 Filler Rod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.15-5 Slack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.12-11
Balanced-Pressure Torches . . . . . . . .7.15-4
Antiicing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.17-17 Brazing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.15-15 Characteristics of a Good Weld . . . . . 7.15-9
Basic Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.16-11
Before Flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.17-17 Brazing and Soldering . . . . . . . . . . . 7.15-15 Check Intervals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.20-8
Basic Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.20-9
Defueling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.17-16 Bumping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.14.1-6 Checking Articulation . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.12-11
Basic Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.16-4
Deicing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.17-17 Checking Extension Springs for Wear 7.10-2
Battery check . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.3-54
Fueling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.17-12
Bearing C Checking of torque wrenches . . . . . . . . 7.3-8
Hoisting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.17-6 Chisels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-9
Check Breakaway Torque . . . . . . . .7.6-8 Cable Clamps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.7-17
Jacking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.17-6 Choose the Bend Radius . . . . . . . . 7.14.1-5
Check for Wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.6-8 Cable Damage, Lockclad . . . . . . . . 7.13-12
Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.17-11 Clamps and Dogs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-13
Check Rotational Torque . . . . . . . . .7.6-8 Calibration
Taxiing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.17-2 Classification of Fires . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1-14
Behavior in case of Fire Micrometers and Verniers . . . . . . . 7.2-8
Tiedown Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . 7.17-9 Clearance Fit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6-2
Alarm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.1-16 Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2-7
Towing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.17-4 Clearances
Fight the Fire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.1-16 Weighing Scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2-8
Aircraft Drawings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5-5 Tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.9-13
Save Live . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.1-16 Center of Gravity . . . . . . . . . . 7.16-2, 7.16-8
Clearence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6-2

Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only Cat: B1 7.Index - I
Training Manual Alphabetic Index
Clove Hitch and Square Knot . . . . . . 7.7-16 Procedures for Aluminium and Aluminium Disassembly and Reassembly Techniques Empty Weight . . . . . . . . . . . .7.16-4, 7.16-11
Cold Expansion of Fastener Holes . 7.18-24 Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.18-14 7.18-45 Endoscope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-36
Cold Weather Operations . . . . . . . . 7.17-17 Safety Information . . . . . . . . . . . .7.18-20 Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-45 End-Play . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6-7
Color Coding of Turbine Fuels . . . . 7.17-12 Corrosion Removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.18-9 Discarding O-Rings and Gaskets 7.18-45 English System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2-3
Common Drill Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-19 Abrading/Sanding Tools . . . . . . .7.18-11 Wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-46 Exploded-View Drawing . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5-11
Compressed Gas Safety . . . . . . . . . . 7.15-5 Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.18-11 Dividers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-37 Extension cords of adequate capacity 7.1-12
Connecting the Equipment . . . . . . . . 7.15-5 Countersinking . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.3-23, 7.8-4 Doing an Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-5 Extension Drill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-11
Contact Coupling Double Flare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.9-5 Extinguisher
Insertion and Extraction . . . . . . . . 7.7-40 Fuel System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.9-16 Drawings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5-2 Carbon Dioxide(CO²) . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1-15
Contact Arrangement . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.7-32 Gamah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.9-17 Drill Gage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-16 Dry-Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1-15
Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-50 Janitrol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.9-20 Drill Grinding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-20 Foam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1-15
Control Cables V-Band . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.9-18 Drill Grinding Sequence . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-20 Halogenated Hydrocarbon(Halon) . 7.1-15
Clearances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.13-5 CPCP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.18-30 Drill Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-14 Types Of Fire Extinguishers . . . . . 7.1-14
Inspections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.13-10 Crimping Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.7-25 Drill Press . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-19 Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1-15
Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.13-5 Cutting Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.3-18 Drill Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.8-3
Measuring Tension . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.13-6 Drill Sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-16 F
Wear Tolerances . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.13-11 D Drill Stop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-14 Filler Rod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.15-5
Control of Expansion and Contraction 7.15-8 Damage Categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.18-7 Drilling hints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-12 Find the Bend Allowance . . . . . . . . 7.14.1-5
Corrosion Non Repairable Damage . . . . . . . .7.18-7 Drilling Speeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-17 Find the Length of Each of the Flats 7.14.1-5
Corrosion Removal . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-9 Repairable Damage . . . . . . . . . . . .7.18-7 Drilling the Hole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.8-3 Find the Setback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.14.1-5
Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-9 Damage Classification . . . . . . . . . . . .7.18-8 Drills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-10 Fire Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1-14
Determining Degree of Corrosion Damage Damage Limitations Dry Operating Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.16-4 Fit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6-2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-9 Tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.9-8 Duct Damages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.9-8 Clearence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6-2
Determining Material Thickness Reducing Damage, Lockclad Cable . . . . . . . . .7.13-12 DVI(TVC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-3 Fit System
7.18-9 Deburring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.3-15 Hole Basis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6-3
Determining Rework Limits . . . . . . 7.18-9 Deburring the Hole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.8-3 E Fitting and Removal
Level 1, 2, 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-30 Deicing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.17-17 Eddy Current Tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.9-18
Light Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-9 Hot Fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.17-18 Depth of Penetration . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-40 Flared Fittings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.9-4
Moderate Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-9 Hot Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.17-18 Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-40 Flared Tube End Fittings . . . . . . . . . . . 7.9-5
Removal Techniques . . . . . . . . . 7.18-11 Depth Measurement of small Blendouts 7.3- Eddy Currents Flat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.14.1-4
Severe Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-9 34 Generation of ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-40 Flat Offset Drilling Head . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-19
Corrosion Prevention Control Program Destructive Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.12-8 Edge Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.8-2 Flexible Couplings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.9-16
Level 1, 2, 3 Corrosion . . . . . . . . 7.18-30 Detail Drawings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.5-8 Electric Arc Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.15-10 Flexible Fluid Lines
Level 1, 2, 3 Corrosion Findings . 7.18-30 Dimpling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.3-26 Electric Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.15-10 Lay Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.9-12
Periodical Review . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-30 Coin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.8-5 Electrical General Test Equipment . . 7.3-56 Flexible Hose End Fittings . . . . . . . . . 7.9-14
Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-30 Cold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.8-5 Electrical Measuring Instruments . . . 7.3-44 Flexible Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.9-11
Corrosion Prevention Control Program - Hot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.8-5 Electrical Resistance Welding . . . . . 7.15-14 Flexible Snake Drill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-19
CPCP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-30 Radius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.8-5 Electrical Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1-12 FNC(FUC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-4
Corrosion Protection Dimpling Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.3-26 Electrodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.15-13 Form One . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.20-20
Aluminium Alloy - Brush Alodine Process DIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.18-3 Elongation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.12-10 Forming Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.14.1-6
7.18-20

Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only Cat: B1 7.Index - II
Bumping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.14.1-6 Master Gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.12-3 Incoming Documentation . . . . . . . . . 7.20-9 Joggling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.14.1-6
Joggling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.14.1-6 Reference Diameter . . . . . . . . . . . .7.12-6 Index System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.16-11 Joining Rigid Tubing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.9-4
Forward Center of Gravity . . . . . . . . . 7.16-2 Visual Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.12-3 Index Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.16-11
Frequency Meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-56 General Repair Methods . . . . . . . . .7.18-23 Injector Torches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.15-4 L
Fuel Lightning Strike Damage Repair .7.18-26 Inspection Lateral Leveling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.16-18
JET A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.17-12 Removal of Scratches by Burnishing . . . . Chains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.12-9 Lay out the Flat Pattern . . . . . . . . . 7.14.1-5
JET A-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.17-12 7.18-25 Resonance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-35 Layout and Forming . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.14.1-2
JET B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.17-12 Repair of Minor Skin Damage . . .7.18-23 Ultrasonic . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-35, 7.18-42 Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.14.1-2
Fuel Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.9-16 Repair of Small Dents . . . . . . . . .7.18-23 Visual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-35, 7.18-36 Layout of Rows and Rivets . . . . . . . . . 7.8-2
Fuel System Couplings . . . . . . . . . . . 7.9-16 Stop-Drilling of Cracks . . . . . . . . .7.18-26 X-Ray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-35, 7.18-43 Length System
Fuel Truck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.17-15 Grain of the metal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.14.1-2 Inspection and Testing of Springs . . . 7.10-2 English . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2-3
Fueling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.17-12 Grinding Drill Point Angles . . . . . . . . .7.3-20 Inspection for Corrosion . . . . . . . . .7.14.1-8 Leveling
Pressure Fueling . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.17-15 Ground Power Units Inspection Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-35 Lateral,Longitudinal . . . . . . . . . . . 7.16-18
Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.17-15 Electrical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.17-20 Explained . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-36 Leveling, Aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.16-18
Static Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.17-13 Hydraulic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.17-20 Inspection of a Bonded Joint . . . . . . 7.15-16 Lever Arm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.16-6
Turbine Fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.17-12 Ground Servicing Equipment . . . . . .7.17-20 Inspection of Gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.12-2 Life Limited Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.20-25
Underground Storage System . . 7.17-15 GVI(GVC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.18-4 Inspection of Riveted Joints . . . . . .7.14.1-8 Lighting and Adjusting the Torch . . . . 7.15-6
Inspection of the Weld . . . . . . . . . . . 7.15-14 Lightning Strike . . . . . . . . . . .7.19-3, 7.19-4
G H Inspection Task Example Direct Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.19-6
Gamah Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.9-17 Hand Drill Clamping . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.3-13 Hard/Overweight Landing . . . . . . . 7.19-9 Effects on the Aircraft Structure and Sys-
Gas Shielded Arc Welding . . . . . . . 7.15-11 Hand held drill motors . . . . . . . . . . . .7.3-19 Lightning Strike . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.19-3 tems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.19-6
Gas Storage Cylinders . . . . . . . . . . . 7.15-3 Hand tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.3-2 Inspections Indirect Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.19-6
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) 7.15-12 care and control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.2-2 Unscheduled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.19-2 Inspection Requirements . . . . . . . . 7.19-6
Gas Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.15-2, 7.15-3 Hand-Held Torches . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.15-13 Installation Zoning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.19-5
Fuel Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.15-3 Handling Aviation Fuels . . . . . . . . . .7.17-13 Chains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.12-9 Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6-2
Hoses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.15-4 Hard and Overweight Landing . . . . . .7.19-9 Pulleys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.12-9 Limit Gauge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6-5
Injector Torches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.15-4 Hard Landing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.19-9 Installation of Chain Assemblies . . . 7.12-11 Line Types and Weights . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5-10
Lighting and Adjusting the Torch . 7.15-6 High Intensity Radiated Fields - HIRF 7.19-7 Instruction to use the Microstop Countersink Liquid Penetrate Inspection . . . . . . . 7.18-38
Shutting Down the Equipment . . . 7.15-7 HIRF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.19-7 Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-24 Load Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.16-18
Torches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.15-4 HMS Fitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.9-7 Interference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6-2 Lockclad Cable Damage . . . . . . . . . 7.13-12
Gas Welding Equipment . . . . . . . . . . 7.15-2 Hoisting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.17-6 Interference Fit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6-2 Logic Flowcharts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5-16
Gases Holding the Torch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.15-7 Isolation Resistance Meter . . . . . . . . 7.3-54 Longitudinal Leveling . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.16-18
Shielding Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.15-12 Hole Finder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.3-15 Isometric Drawings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5-7 Low Intensity Radiated Fields . . . . . . 7.19-8
Gauge or Transverse Pitch . . . . . . . . . 7.8-2 Hole Preparation Electromagnetic Interference from Porta-
Gauging Hole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6-6 Flush Rivets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.8-4 J ble Electronic Devices . . . . . . . . . . 7.19-8
Gears Standard Rivets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.8-3 JAA Form One . . . . . . . . . 7.20-10, 7.20-20 Lower Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6-2
Alignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.12-6 Hoses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.15-4 Jacking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.17-6 LUB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-4
Backlash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.12-4 Hours & Cycles control . . . . . . . . . . .7.20-25 Janitrol T-Bolt Clamp . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.9-20 Lubricating Gun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-39
Base Tangent Line . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.12-5 JAR OPS 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.16-16 Lubrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-39
Destructive Elements . . . . . . . . . . 7.12-8 I Jobbers Drills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-11 Chain Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.12-13

Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only Cat: B1 7.Index - III
Lubrication (Application) . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-39 Measuring Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.2-3 Personal Protection Repair of Rigid Fluid Lines . . . . . . . . . . 7.9-9
Lubrication Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-39 Mechanical Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.16-18 Clothes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1-4 Repairability of Sheet Metal Structure . . . . .
Mercury Spillage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.19-11 Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1-4 7.14.1-8
M Metal to Metal Bonding . . . . . . . . . .7.15-16 Pins and Sockets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.7-37 Requirements For Fire . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1-14
MAC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.16-10 Methods Of Illustration . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.5-5 Pitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.8-2 Resonance Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-35
MAC,LEMAC,TEMAC . . . . . . . . . . . 7.16-10 Metric System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.2-4 Pitting/Meltthrough . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.19-6 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-56
Magnetic Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.19-6 Microfilm / Microfiche . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.5-2 Platform Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.16-18 Rigid Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.9-11
Magnetic Particle Inspection . . . . . . 7.18-39 Micrometer Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.3-33 Pneumatic and Air System Pipes . . . 7.9-18 Rigid Tubing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.9-2
Maintenance Inspection Micrometer Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.3-32 Point Thinning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-22 Rivet Guns
ATA Inspection Task Codes . . . . . 7.18-3 Mold Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.14.1-3 Portable Electronic Devices - PEDs . 7.19-8 Rivet Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.8-9
Doing the Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-5 Mold Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.14.1-3 Power Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-10 Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.8-9
Personal Attitude to the Inspection 7.18-5 Moment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.16-6 Power Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.15-12 Rivet Installation
Maintenance Inspections MS Flareless Fittings . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.9-5 Preparation of the Aircraft . . . . . . . . 7.17-10 Bucking Bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.8-10
Corrosion Removal . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-9 Presetting MS Flareless Fitting . . . . . . 7.9-6 Compression Riveting . . . . . . . . . . . 7.8-8
Damage Categories . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-7 N Pressure Fueling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.17-15 Direct and Indirect Riveting . . . . . . 7.8-10
Damage Classification . . . . . . . . . 7.18-8 NDT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.18-35 Pressure Regulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.15-3 Gun Riveting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.8-9
DIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-3 Neutral Axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.14.1-2 Principle of the Wheatstone Bridge . . 7.3-51 Hand Riveting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.8-8
DVI(TVC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-3 New Colour Coding . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.1-13 Process of dimpling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-26 Rivet Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.8-2
FNC(FUC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-4 Non Destructive Testing Inspection (NDT) . . Protractor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-35 Rivets
GVI(GVC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-4 7.18-35 Pulley Discrepancies . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.13-13 Bearing Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.8-6
Inspection Techniques . . . . . . . . . 7.18-2 Nut Plate Drill Jig . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.3-14 Push-Pull Linkage Evaluating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.8-11
LUB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-4 Alignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.12-14 Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.8-8
OPC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-4 O Inspection Hole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.12-15 Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.8-2
Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-2 Push-Pull Tube Linkage . . . . . . . . . 7.12-14 Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.8-7
Oblique Drawings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.5-7
SDI(NDT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-4 Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.12-14 Removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.8-12
OPC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.18-4
SPC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-4 Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.12-14 Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.8-6
Operating Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.16-4
VCK(WAC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-4 Shear Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.8-6
Operation of the Isolation Resistance Meter
ZON-GVI(ZON-GVC) . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-4 7.3-54
Q Rules for countersinking . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-25
Maintenance Management . . . . . . . 7.20-21 Quality Assurance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.20-23 Runout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6-7
Operational Weights . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.16-3
Maintenance Manual . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5-48 Orthographic Projection . . . . . . . . . . . .7.5-5 Quality System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.20-21
Making the Bends . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.14.1-5 Overload, Aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.16-2
S
Making the Layout of a Sheet-Metal Channel Overweight Landing . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.19-9 R Safe Loading Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.16-7
7.14.1-4 Oxygen Radiated Fields Safe Loading Range . . . . . . .7.16-7, 7.16-8
Marking out Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-37 Servicing Equipment . . . . . . . . . .7.17-21 High Intensity Radiated Fields . . . 7.19-7 Safety Around Compressed Gases . . 7.1-13
Master Gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.12-3 Oxygen O2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.15-3 Low Intensity Radiated Fields . . . . 7.19-8 Safety Precaution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1-2
Maximum Design Weights . . . . . . . . . 7.16-3 Oxygen Regulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.15-4 Radius Gage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-34 Safety With Oils And Chemicals . . . . . 7.1-7
Maximum Design Zero Fuel Weight . 7.16-3 Re-Certification Of Parts . . . . . . . . . 7.20-11 Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5-3
Measurement Dial Indicator . . . . . . . 7.3-34 P Reference Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.16-11 Cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.16-18
Measurements Micrometer . . . . . . . . 7.3-32 Regulator and Flowmeter . . . . . . . . 7.15-12 Mechanical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.16-18
Pencil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.3-38
Measuring Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-28 Release to Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.20-19 Scheduled Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5-47
Penetrate Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.18-38

Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only Cat: B1 7.Index - IV
Schematic Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5-17 Spotfacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.3-25 Torch Tips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.15-4 Useful Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.16-20
Screwjack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.12-15 Spring Tension Torque Wrenches Uses Of Cold Chisels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-9
Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.12-15 Measuring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.10-2 Checking and Calibrating . . . . . . . . 7.2-8 Using the Isolation Resistance Meter . 7.3-54
Lubrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.12-15 SRM Torquing Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.9-13 V-Band Clamps and Couplings . . . . . 7.9-18
Scriber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-38 Allowable Damage . . . . . . . . . . . .7.18-28 Towing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.17-4 V-Belts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.12-7
SDI(NDT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-4 Consumable Materials . . . . . . . . .7.18-28 Traffic Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.16-4 VCK(WAC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-4
Sectional Drawings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5-8 Manual Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.18-28 Transition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6-2 Vernier Calliper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-28
Securing the Working Area . . . . . . . 7.18-45 Procedure for Manual Usage . . . .7.18-28 Transition Fit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6-2 Vernier Calliper Readings . . . . . . . . . 7.3-31
Service Bulletin/Modifications . . . . . 7.20-13 Stability Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.16-14 Trouble Shooting Vise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-13
Setback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.14.1-3 Stability on Ground, Aircraft . . . . . . .7.16-11 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-48 Visual Inspection . . . . . . . .7.18-35, 7.18-36
Setting Up the Equipment . . . . . . . . . 7.15-5 Stacking of Sheets for Flush Riveting .7.8-6 Principle of Systematic Troubleshooting Voltmeters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-44
Shaft Standard Countersink / Plain Counter 7.3-23 7.18-47 Weighing Form . . . . . . . . . .7.16-20, 7.16-21
End-Play . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6-7 Standards Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.5-46 Trouble Shooting and Analysis . . . . 7.18-47 Weighing Platforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.16-18
Shaft Basis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6-3 Station Plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.16-11 Ttipping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.16-12 Weight Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.16-3
Sheet Metal Stockist's Certificate . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.20-9 Tube Weight Definitions, Aircraft . . . . . . . . . 7.16-3
Assessment of Damage . . . . . . .7.14.1-8 Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.17-11 Bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.9-2 Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.1-17, 7.15-2
Inspection for Corrosion . . . . . . .7.14.1-8 Store Cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.9-2 Electric Arc Welding . . . . . . . . . . 7.15-10
Inspection of Riveted Joints . . . .7.14.1-8 Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.20-9 Flaring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.9-4 Electric Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.15-10
Repairability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.14.1-8 Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.20-9 Tubes Electrical Resistance Welding . . . 7.15-14
Shrinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.14.1-7 Stretching of Sheet Metal . . . . . . . . 7.14.1-7 Installation Directives . . . . . . . . . . 7.9-17 Electrodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.15-13
Stretching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.14.1-7 Structural Repair Manual (SRM) . . .7.18-28 Installation of Fluid Lines . . . . . . . 7.9-10 Gas Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.15-2
Sheet Metal Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.14.1-1 Structure and Components . . . . . . .7.18-45 Tubing Inspections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.9-8 Power Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.15-12
Setback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.14.1-3 Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.3-44 Turbine Fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.17-12 Seam Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.15-14
Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) . 7.15- Synchronous Belt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.12-7 Twist drill nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-11 Setting Up the Equipment . . . . . . . 7.15-5
10 Systems of Fits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.6-3 Types of Drawings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5-8 Spot Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.15-14
Shielding Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.15-12 Types of Manuals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5-47 Welding Goggles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.15-5
Shifting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.16-12 T Types of Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.15-2 Welding Positions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.15-7
Shimboard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.16-20 Tail-Tipping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.16-11 Tyre Mounting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1-17 Welding Techniques and Procedures . 7.15-
Shrinking of Sheet Metal . . . . . . . . .7.14.1-7 Tangent Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.12-5 13
Shutting Down the Equipment . . . . . . 7.15-7 Tap Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.18-37 U-Z Wheatstone Bridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-51
Signs Convention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.16-7 Taper Shank Drills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.3-11 Ultrasonic Inspection . . . . . 7.18-35, 7.18-42 Wire Splices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.7-25
Silver Soldering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.15-16 Tare Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.16-20 Underground Storage System . . . . . 7.17-15 Wire Terminals . . . . . . . . . . . .7.7-22, 7.7-24
Single Flare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.9-4 Taxiing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.17-2 Unit Conversion wobble . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6-7
Slack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.12-11 Thickness (feeler) Gage . . . . . . . . . . .7.3-36 English-Metric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2-5 Work Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1-3
Soft Soldering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.15-16 Tiedown Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.17-9 Units Work clamping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-13
Soldering Ties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.7-15 Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2-5 Working Area
Silver Soldering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.15-16 Tipping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.16-11, 7.16-12 Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2-4 Securing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-45
Soft Soldering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.15-16 Tolerances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.2-7 Unscheduled Inspections . . . . . . . . . 7.19-2 Workshop Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2-2
SPC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-4 Toothed Belt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.12-7 Upper Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6-2 X-Ray
Special deburring Tool . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3-15 Torch Lighters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.15-5 Use of Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1-5 Principle of ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-43
Spilled Oil and Grease . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1-17 X-Ray Inspection . . . . . . . .7.18-35, 7.18-43

Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only Cat: B1 7.Index - V
Zero Setting of the Pointer . . . . . . . . 7.3-44

ZON-GVI(ZON-GVC) . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.18-4

Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only Cat: B1 7.Index - VI

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Basic Maintenance Module 7 Maintenance Practices

Training Manual Contents

7.1 Safety Precautions - Aircraft and Workshop Units and Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Nov12/Technical Training Corresponding with EASA Part-66

Point Thinning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Wheatstone Bridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

Nov12/Technical Training Corresponding with EASA Part-66

Sectional Drawings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Wiring Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Nov12/Technical Training Corresponding with EASA Part-66

General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 MS Flareless Fittings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Nov12/Technical Training Corresponding with EASA Part-66

Mechanical Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 7.13 Control Cables

Nov12/Technical Training Corresponding with EASA Part-66

Assessment of Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Compressed Gas Safety. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Nov12/Technical Training Corresponding with EASA Part-66

Aircraft Stability on Ground . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 7.18 Inspection, Repair and Assembling Standards

Nov12/Technical Training Corresponding with EASA Part-66

Periodical Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Low Intensity Radiated Fields. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Nov12/Technical Training Corresponding with EASA Part-66

Nov12/Technical Training Corresponding with EASA Part-66

Nov12/Technical Training Corresponding with EASA Part-66

7.1 Safety Precautions - Aircraft and Workshop

Nov12 / Technical Training Corresponding with EASA Part-66

Nov12 / Technical Training Corresponding with EASA Part-66

The Work Area Figure 3: Work Area Handling

Nov12 / Technical Training Corresponding with EASA Part-66

Personal Protective Clothing and Devices Figure 4: Protective Clothing

Nov12 / Technical Training Corresponding with EASA Part-66

Figure 5: Protecting Devices Care in the use of Tools

Nov12 / Technical Training Corresponding with EASA Part-66

Danger Tags Figure 6: Warning Tag

Nov12 / Technical Training Corresponding with EASA Part-66

Dangerous Fammable Oxidizer

Explosive Gas cylinder Hazardous to the environment

Corrosive Health hazard Poisonous

Nov12 / Technical Training Corresponding with EASA Part-66

Nov12 / Technical Training Corresponding with EASA Part-66

Nov12 / Technical Training Corresponding with EASA Part-66

Nov12 / Technical Training Corresponding with EASA Part-66

Clothes should be changed regularly (immediately if impregnated) and laundered

Nov12 / Technical Training Corresponding with EASA Part-66

Electrical Safety Figure 8: Electrical Hazard

Extension Cords of adequate Capacity

Understand how common hand tools can create an electrical hazard.

Nov12 / Technical Training Corresponding with EASA Part-66

Compressed Gases Colour Coding on Gas Cylinders

Nov12 / Technical Training Corresponding with EASA Part-66

Fire Protection Requirements for Fire

Nov12 / Technical Training Corresponding with EASA Part-66

Foam Extinguishers 6 (least toxic) Halon 1301 (Bromatrifluoromethane)

Nov12 / Technical Training Corresponding with EASA Part-66

Fight the Fire

Nov12 / Technical Training Corresponding with EASA Part-66

Figure 13: Fight the Fire Spilled Oil and Grease

Watch the scene of the fire.

Nov12 / Technical Training Corresponding with EASA Part-66

Nov12 / Technical Training Corresponding with EASA Part-66

7.2 Workshop Practices

Nov12 / Technical Training Corresponding with EASA Part-66

Care and Control in the use of Hand Tools Workshop Materials

Nov12 / Technical Training Corresponding with EASA Part-66

Measuring Systems Figure 2: Origin of the Nautical Mile

English or Imperial System

English Length System