CHAPTER 5: Sensation and Perception
Positive after image – if the
I. Terms to remember
A. Sensation – an elementary
experience due to the stimulation of
the sense organs
B. Stimulus – anything which initiates,
organic activity
C. Sense organs – sensitive nerve
endings located in different body
parts
D. Receptors – cells or group of cells
found in the different senses
E. Sensory Adaptation – the decrease
of sensitivity of the senses as
stimulation persists through times
F. Threshold – level of stimulus
energy which must be exceeded
before a response will occur.
G. Perception – analyzing, interpreting,
understanding and giving meaning
to the stimulus
II. The sensory process
A. Eyes – sense of seeing – light
wave – vision/visual
1. Sun is the principal source of
light
2. Sunlight is the light coming
from the sun
3. Sunlight is seen as colorless,
but through the aid of prism it
will appear as colored rainbow
B. Visual Phenomena
1. Inverted Retinal Image
2. Visual acuity (accuracy or
correctness)
a. Size
b. Illumination
c. Proximity
3. Visual Accommodation
C. Color Vision:
1. Addictive & Subtractive
2. Contrast Effects
3. After image
a.
color & shape of the original
object does not change
b. Negative after image – if the
color & shape of the original
object changes.
Parts of the Eyes
1. Rods – for nighttime vision
2. Cones – for daytime vision
3. Aqueous Humor – water fluid in the
eye
4. Pupil – contract or dilate upon the
light intensity
5. Lens – change curvature to
accommodate the distance of object
6. Iris – comparable to picture camera
Coats of the eyeball
1. Sclerotic coat – the outer tough
corner
2. Choroid – heavily pigmented
3. Retina – photoreceptors
Visual Defects
1. Myopia - nearsightedness
2. Hyperopia – farsightedness
3. Astigmatism – due to uneven
curvature of the cornea and the
senses
4. Strabismus – cross eyedness
5. Presbyopia – old sightedness
Visual Abnormalities
1. Scotoma – there is a blind spot on
the visual field
2. Hemianopsia – blindness on the
other side of the visual field due to
lesions.
3. Visual Paresthesia – an optic
sensation without the presence of
the object
4. Night blindness – inability to see
well at night due to lack of Vitamin A
 5. Color Blindness – inability to
recognized colors
a. Monochromat – totally
colorblind, can recognize black &
white colors
b. Dicromat – partially colorblind
can recognize colors: red, green,
black, white blue, yellow
c. Trichromat – normal color vision
chapter 5-6
Theories of Color Vision
1. Young Helmholtz Theories
a. The three-fiber theory – states
the primary colors are red, green
blue
b. The theory of Phytochemicals
2. Von kries theory – states that
colors vision is due to the actions of
the rods & cones
3. Hering theory – states that colors
are: Anabolic (builder) & catabolic
(destroyer)
4. Wundt’s theory – states that colors
are chromatic (strong colors) &
achromatic (mild colors)
5. Ladd – Franklin theory – states
that primary colors are: red green
yellow blue
Ears>hearing>sound waves>
audition/auditory
A. Sound – is a product of any
vibrating object
B. Auditory Phenomena
1. Timbre– tonal quality of sound
2. Pitch – highness or lowness of
sound
3. Resonance – disturbance of one
sound to another
4. Masking – interference to the
uniformity of sound
5. Noise – merely noisy sound
without note/tune
C. Auditory defects
1. Nerve deafness – due to
infections & injuries
2. Conduction deafness –
eardrum maybe ruptured the
ossicles maybe damaged on the
ear – maybe stopped up
3. Perceptual deafness – due to
the interpretation of the sound
I. Theories of Hearing
1. The place theory – states that
hearing depends on the place of
the organism and the place of the
origin of sound.
2. The traveling wave theory –
states that sound goes with the
wind
3. The frequency theory – states
that hearing is affected by the
frequency of sound
4. The valley theory – states that
hearing is aided by bundles of
fibers found inside the ears
II. Nose > smelling > odors >
olfactory/olfaction
A. Phenomena of olfaction
1. Anosmia – absence of smell
2. Sense of smell of lowest form
of animals – animal can still
smell from the distance of 1.6km
B. Six basic odors acdg. To
Hennings:
1. Fragrant
2. Fruity
3. Spicy
4. Resinous – leaves/plant
5. Putrid – foul odors
6. Burned
C. Other odors classifications
1. Flowers
2. Smoky
3. Caprylic, goating, sweaty
D. Theories of olfaction
 1. The traditional theory – states f.Contours – boundary between
that anything which gives off figures & grounds
gaseous particles have smell g. Follows definite & predictable
2. The radiation theory – states patterns
that nostrils are capable of h. Intensity, size and contrast
radiating to any smelling object 3. Perception is constant
III. Tongue > flavors > gustation > a. Location constancy
gustatory b. Color constancy
A. Gustatory phenomena c. Shape constancy
1. Numbers of tastes buds affect d. Size constancy
tastes
Errors of perception
2. The interconnections of
senses A. Illusions – an experience which does
B. Four basic flavors not correctly represent the objectives
1. Sweet outside the absences (normal
2. Sour experience)
3. Salty B. Hallucinations – false perceptions
4. Bitter (abnormal experience)
IV. Skin > touch >pressure, 1. Extra-Campine – patient claims
temperature, tickle, itch, touch that there is stream of water at the
> cutaneous or tactile top of his head pouring down his
V. Other senses body
1. Equilibratory senses 2. Leleologic – patient hears
a. Kinesthetic sense – strange sounds and voices
sense of direction/position 3. Lilliputian – patient views normal
b. Vertibular sense – sense size objects in their microscopic
of balance sizes
I. Perceptual processes 4. Psychomotor – patient claims
A. Characteristics of perception that some parts of his body are
1. External factors transferred to another locations
a.) Limited to sensory 5. Hypnagogic – patient claims that
discrimination what he is doing is just a dream
a.1 conditions of the C. Delusions – false beliefs (abnormal
organisms experience)
a.2 properties of the 1. Delusions of Grandeur – patient
stimulus believes he possesses super,
2. Internal Factors extra powerful personality
a. Motives 2. Delusions of persecution –
b. Movements patient believes that there are
c. Apparent movements people who are after his life.
d. Closure
e. Grouping or organizing Exalted paranoia
tendency  Amorous
 Jealousy
 Hoarding the learner does not know
 Pyro before.
D. Extra-sensory perception (ESP) - Ex. Zoophilia / bestiality
extra awareness without the 2. Programmed learning –
mediation of senses school learning is an
1. Telepathy – transference of thoughts example of this learning
from one person to another (mind to 3. Sign learning – learning
mind communication) through signs
2. Precognition – foreknowledge of a. Natural sign
future events b. Artificial sign
3. Haptic Hallucination – patient
STEPS IN LEARNING
claims that there are group of insects
crawling all over his body and are 1. Motivation – gives inspiration to
unpleasant. learners
4. Clairvoyance – extra awareness of 2. Goals – purpose of learning
objects of telekinesis or 3. Readiness – preparedness to learn
psychokinesis – mind over matter a. Experiential factors
b. Psychological factors
Chapter 6: Learning and human
c. Physiological factors –
activities
headache, illness,
I. What is learning stomachache
A. Learning is a permanent 4. Responses – ways/techniques that
change of behavior as a the learners learning
result of practice, special 5. Reinforcements – enhance learning
training, and experience. either positive or negative
B. Learning is a permanent 6. Generalization – the application of
change of behavior for what have been learned
better or for worse. 7. Obstacles – hindrance to learning
II. Kinds of Learning
Theories of Learning
A. Associative Learning –
learning by means of 1. connectionism - S-R bond theory
associations 2. behaviorism - states that the
1. Classical conditioning behaviors of learners affect learning
by Ivan Pavlov 3. functionalism - means that learners
2. Operant Conditioning are capable of adjusting to whatever
by B.F skinner kind of learning environment
1) Dog > Lab (bell) > food 4. gestalt - learning or response to the
2) A) approach > avoidance whole meaningful configuration
learning. (SKINNER
Laws of learning
BOX)
B. Cognitive Learning – A. Law of Effect - responses which are
perception and knowledge followed by satisfying effect, is to be
1. Perceptual learning – learned and repeated
learning knowledge which
 1. Law of primacy - this means that
the first learning will be better
remembered than the previous
learning
2. Law of Belongingness -
association are easily formed if
they belong according
meaning, relatedness, etc.
B. Law of Readiness - responses with
readiness are more satisfying than
otherwise
1. law of mindset - the mental set
of the learner at the time that the
response is to be made
2. law of apperception
recognition to what is presented
things to be learned
C. Law of exercise - practice makes
perfect
1. law of association - learning
occurs through the connection or
functional relationship between
two phenomena, experiences
and learning
2. law of use and disuse - used,
strengthened learning.
Disused, weakens learning
3. law of frequency and recency -
learners are affected by the
frequency of association in
practice there is more retention
than learning.
4. law of intensity - states that the
strength of behavior
experience have relation to
learning
5. law of forgetting - systematic
distortion of memory traces.
/inability to recall
6. meaningfulness of materials -
refers to the emotional
significance of materials learned
7. Whole vs distributed practice -
whole learning means learning to
the whole material at the same
time. distributed means learning
the material by breaking it or part
by part
8. Some degree of overlearning -
it is learning beyond the point
to 9. Use mnemonic devices -
memory aids
10. Active participation in the
learning tasks - doing part in the
learning task
11. The number of senses involved
in learning – the more senses
used, the better the learning
-
Techniques to study
a. motivation
b. organized study
c. study method
remembering - ability to recall
Kinds of remembering
a.) Redintegration - remembering
the past due to the present
experiences
b.) recall - simple revival of past
experiences
c.) recognition - recognizing
someone or something familiar
d.) Relearning - involved rapid
or
learning due to previous learning,
more senses involved
Learning Curve – is a graphic represent-
station of the progress of learning occurring
per unit time of practice.
Thinking – is a behavior which uses
symbolic representation of things or events
A. Kinds of learning
 1. Associative thinking – is a
thinking by associating one thing
with that of another things
a. Autistic thinking – in a form
of reveries and dreams
b. Daydreaming – is a thinking
during daytime guided by
one’s goals
c. Imagination – is a process of
creating objects or events
without sensory data
d. Eidetic imagery – also
known as photographic minds
e. Night dreaming – occurs
during sleep
Latent dreams – false
dreams
Manifest dreams – true
dreams. (Ex. Sleep talking,
sleep crying, bed wetting)
2. Directed thinking – a thinking
directed towards the goals
a. Critical thinking – is a
process of crucial judgment of
something
b. Reasoning – it is a process of
logical thinking
c. Creative thinking – thinking
of creating things or events
d. Brainstorming – a technique
of group of people solving
problems under free
environment
e. Problem solving – is a
process of solving things
based from one’s past
experiences with the use of
alternatives towards the goal
(solving the problem)
Degrees of awareness
A. Delirium – this is due to high fever or
overdosage of drugs
B. Intoxication – a product over
consumption of alcohol
C. Ecstasy - as a religious mysticism
D. Hypnosis - it is described as an
ordinary sleep but placing the person
into half sleep condition
Somnambulism – sleep walking
Somnambulist – sleep walker
Chapter 7: Individual Differences and
Intelligence
I. Individual Differences – is the deviation
of the individuals from the average or from
one another
A. Characteristics of individual
Differences:
1. Variability and Normality –
varies
2. Differential rates of growth and
development
a. Early bloomer
b. Normal bloomer
c. Late bloomer
3. Interrelations of traits – we are
interrelated
4. Heredity and Environmental
Factors
B. Factors affecting individual
differences:
1. Physiological Factor
2. Cultural Factor
3. Interaction between biological
and social factors
C. Measurements & Evaluation of
individual differences.
1. Psychological Tests – measuring
device to measure a sample behavior
2. Characteristics of psychological
traits
 a. Validity - to measure what is
supposed to be measure
b. standardization – refers to the
uniformity and consistency in
administering the tests
c. Norms – is a frame of reference so
that the performance of an individual
can be compared with that of others
d. Reliability – refers to the
consistency of the test results
e. Objectivity – refers to the scoring
of the tests
D. Measure of Central Tendencies
1. Mean – is determined by adding all scores
and dividing them by the number of cases
Ex. 8+6+6+3+2 = 25
25/5 = mean is 5
2. Mode – is obtained by determining the
most represented/repetitive numbers
3. Median – is obtained by arranging all the
scores from the highest to lowest or vice
versa and pointing out the middle scores.
Kinds of Tests
A. Aptitude tests – to measure the
capacity to learn
B. Achievement tests – to measure
how far the leaners learned (school
test)
C. Intelligence test – to measure
intelligence aka IQ test
D. Interest tests – to measure the
interest from the difference activities,
also called inventories
E. Personality Tests – to measure
personality traits
Measures of variability and standard
deviation
A. Range – it is the spread of the
scores from lowest to highest
B. Mean deviation – it is the mean of
the amount by which each score
deviates or departs from the mean of
all scores
Formula: md = 𝜺𝒅/𝒏
Meaning of Intelligence
A. Engel – defines intelligence as the
ability of an organism to adapt to its
environment
B. Terman – says intelligence as a
general capacity of an individual to
adjust his thinking to new
requirement
C. Thurston – says intelligence is both
general ability and a number of
specific abilities
D. Stagner – refers to intelligence as
learning abilities and the ability to
see learning in new situations.
E. Gates – refers intelligence as a
composite or organization of abilities
to learn
Nature of Intelligence is an aggravation
of:
1. Word fluency
2. Skill in numerical computation
3. Associative memory
4. Perceptual speed
5. Spatial visualization
6. Mechanical reasoning
7. Verbal comprehension
Theories of intelligence
A. Spearman two factor theory –
states that intelligence is composed
of S-factor (significant) and g-factor
(general)
B. Thurston multifactor theory –
intelligence is composed of:
1. Verbal
 2. Number
3. Spatial
4. Perception
5. Memory
6. Reasoning
7. Word fluency
Measurement and evaluation of
intelligence formula to compute the IQ:
I.Q = MA (Mental age)/CA(chronological
The Primary of endogenous type
age) x 100
Example:
12/24 x 100 = 50 (I.Q)
Mental Disorder and Treatment
QUIZ 5
THE MENTALLY RETARDED – the terms
refers to children who have a combination of
medical, social maturational, physical and
educational problems.
Mentally-retarded used to designate:
Secondary Mental Deficiency
1. feebleminded: the moron, imbecile
and the idiot.
2. Amentia (lack of intelligence)
3. Oligophrenia (mentally deficient)
Mental Deficiency – a state of social
incompetence obtaining at maturity.
LEVELS accordance to IQ & soc.
Adjustments:
1. Moron (Educable) – IQ level is
between 50-70 and the MA is about
12. Cannot manage their lives without
supervision
2. Imbecile (trainable) – IQ level is 25-
50 their MA is 7 years, often have
physical disabilities.
3. Idiot (custodial/ severely-retarded)
– IQ level below 25 or 30, MA is a 3-
year-old child. No amount of training
is applicable.
Clinical types of Mental Retardation
A. The primary or endogenous –
cause is principally hereditary. About
40 per cent are of this type.
B. Secondary or acquired or
exogenous – resulting from brain
injury after conception. 60 percent of
this type.
C. Special type – the idiot-savant.
1. Familial Mental Deficiency – the
cause is not traceable to any organic
or environmental factor.
2. Amaurotic Family idiocy – rare type
of severe mental deficiency
accompanied by amaurosis (loss of
sight due to disease of the optic
nerve)
3. Phenylpyruvic Oligophrenia
(excessive tyrosine) – disease is
frequently called phenylketonuria or
PKU, is due to a change catalyst
called an enzyme; error is present at
birth.
1. Pre-natal influences
a. Mongolism (mongoloid
appearance) – a congenital
defect characterized by
deficiency in intelligence,
usually at imbecilic level.
MA is 5 years. Caused by:
glandular dysfunction.
b. Cretinism – thyroid
insufficiency in childhood
c. Microcephaly (small head) -
usually idiots or imbeciles,
cause is interrupted or
incomplete brain.
d. Macrocephaly (enlarged
head) – abnormal
enlargement of the head,
caused by an out-growth of
the glia cells.
 e. Hydrocephaly – obstruction
in the brain’s ventricular
system causing an excess
fluid.
Hydrocephalus – cranial vault is grossly
enlarged.
2. Perinatal Influence (birth trauma)
FACTORS:
a. Cerebral hemorrhage due
to difficult labor, accidents
or improper handling of the
infant
b. Anoxia (oxygen deficit)
delayed breathing of an
infant
c. Toxemias of pregnancy
d. Mechanical injury of the
brain in the process of birth
e. Premature separation of the
placenta or cord
complications.
3. Post-natal influences
Causes:
a. Severe infective diseases,
brain inflammation
b. Head injuries
SPECIAL TYPES
1. Idiot – savant – is a mentally
deficient with a highly specialized
talent
2. Pseudo-feebleminded – emotional
disorder.
TREATMENT OF SUBNORMAL
1. Medical Therapy – includes surgery
and diet therapy.
2. Psychotherapy – nonverbal media
of communication as drawing, finger
painting etc.
3. Training – conducted in institutions
or SPED.
Identification of the Gifted
a. Teachers’ judgment – based on a
classroom achievement
b. Classmates’ judgments – the
superior in the class.
c. Standardized tests – to locate
those of superior mental ability
d. Group and individual tests
e. School grades
Terman – from 1925 through 1947, made
studies of the gifted children.
EDUCATION OF GIFTED KIDS
A. Acceleration – grade skips
B. Special Classes – allowing
individual to study in area of special
interest, research projects, basta
yung pang matalino sis
C. Enrichment – special treatment
offered in studying
D. Guidance – needs to be directed and
guided, baka lumaking psychopath
eh.
PSYCHOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES
BETWEEN SEXES,
Girls excel in memorizing, boys are in
abstract thinking, Girls have a wider
vocabular, boys are good at math.
Personality
- Came from the Latin word “per” and
“sonare” which means ‘to sound
through.
- Refers to a pattern of behavior,
thoughts and characteristics of an
individual
Personologists – psychologists who are
into practice of personality psychology
Theories of Personality
Trait theories
A. Gordon Allport – he believed that
personality consists of limited number of
traits that may be arranged into a hierarchy.
Common trait – is a trait dimension that is
present in any individual
Forms of personal disposition – a unique
and pervasive aspect of one’s trait inherent
in only few persons:
1. Cardinal disposition – one
dominant disposition which
influences all aspects of one’s
behavior.
2. Central Disposition – trait of
being friendly, honest, sociable
ambitious etc.
3. Secondary disposition – refers
to more specific and narrow
interest or tendency to respond
B. Raymond Cattel – described personality
by means of a group factors called the
sixteen traits.
1. Source traits – the primary factors
underlying observable behavior
shared by most individuals.
2. Surface traits – observable
behavior such as kindness, honesty,
and friendliness visible to others.
C. Hans Eysenck – suggested that
personality is determined by three major
dimensions
1. Extraversion – refers to the
person’s outgoing nature and
gregariousness against introversion.
2. Neuroticism – is described as
having full anxiety nature while the
opposite is emotional stability
which is relaxed and peaceful
nature.
3. Psychoticism – an aggressive,
antisocial nature (not taken as a
disorder) versus self-control which
describes a considerate and
obedient nature of personality.
D. McCrae and Costa - proposed the “Big
Five-Factor Model which emphasizes the
five primary dimensions that compose
personality.
Big Five Factors and its traits:
1. Extraversion (sociability) –
warms, gregariousness,
assertiveness, activity,
excitement seeking, positive
emotions
2. Neuroticism (emotionality) –
anxiety, hostility, depression, self-
consciousness, impulsiveness,
vulnerability.
3. Agreeableness – trust, straight
forwardness, altruism,
compliance, modesty, tender-
mindedness
4. Conscientiousness
(dependability) – competence,
order, dutifulness, self-discipline.
5. Openness – fantasy, aesthetics,
feelings, actions, ideas, values.
Type Theories – Personality types of an
individual represents the different categories
into which can be assigned based on his
developmental experiences and physical
characteristics.
I. Humoral Theory – proposed by Galen,
Greek physician. According to him the four
humors or fluid explains the man’s behavior:
1. Sanguine – excess of red bile in
the blood: warm-hearted and
cheerful person.
2. Phlegmatic – excess of phlegm
or white bile: calm and less
energetic person.
3. Melancholic – excess of black
bile: depressed, gloomy person.
4. Choleric – excess of yellow bile:
temperamental and easily
irritated.
Psychodynamic Theories are those
profounded by Sigmund Freud, which
further describe the conflict among instincts,
reasons, and conscience.
I. Psychoanalytic theory (The
iceberg theory) – focuses on the role
of early experiences, the
unconscious and emotions that
shape one’s personality.
Levels of consciousness:
1. Unconscious – thoughts, motives
and desires that we are not aware.
2. Conscious – the information
which we are aware of
3. Preconscious – information that
we are not aware at the moment but
can easily be brought back to
consciousness.
Structures of Personality:
A. Id – completely unconscious,
contains the libido which is the
primary source of instinctual motive,
immature, impulsive, child-like. It
observes the pleasure principle.
B. Ego – the self, it is rational and
controls the impulse of the id, can
delay pleasure. Compromising the
demands of the id and superego.
C. Superego – the conscience and the
ego-ideal. Decision is based on
morals.
Neo-analytic theories
I. Carl Jung – his own version of
psychodynamic theory further emphasized
that libido (sexual instinct) was dynamic
force that propels the person toward his
personal growth.
CJ’s forces:
1. Collective unconscious – forms
the major part of personality and
contains memories and ideas
inherited from our ancestors
called “archetypes”.
2. Persona – the mask or the public
face or role that a person
presents to others; anima is the
feminine/masculine aspect of the
male/female psyche.
3. Shadow – contains basic
instincts (dark side of id in
Freud’s) that allows us to
recognize the aspects of the
world.
II. Alfred Alder – developed the theory of
individual psychology, argued that feelings
of inferiority play the key role in
personality. Overcome or compensate
inferiority is a form of striving superiority.
III. Karen Horney theory – sociocultural
factors play a role in personality
development. According to her individuals
suffer from basic anxiety caused by their
insecurities in relationships with others.
KH three main strategies to cope up with
basic anxiety:
1. Moving towards others – seeks
love and support by becoming
dependent on others. Desire for
approval or affection
2. Moving against others – become
aggressive, competitive and
domineering on others.
3. Moving away from others –
detaches and isolates from others,
need for self-reliance, privacy, or
independence.
IV. Erik Erikson – emphasized that people’s
personality traits are developed as a result of
crises that he encounters in his social
relations with other people, coping with the
major conflict or crises.
Humanistic Theories believes that
individuals are basically good and have the
internal drives to nurture them for personal
growth.
1. Carl Rogers – believed that people are
motivated to develop one’s capabilities within
his limits and to aspire to higher levels of
fulfillment towards self-actualization.
True self is what the person is, while the
ideal self is what she would like to become.
2. Abraham Maslow – viewed human
motivation based on hierarchy of needs
which is central in one’s personality.
Learning Theories
1. Albert Bandura – believes that
personality is the result of observing and
imitating the actions of others.
2. Julian Rotter (Locus of control) –
argued that the extent to which the person
believes that his behavior is controlled by
personal (internal) or environmental
(external).