Land Surveying 2 1 of 2

Introduction, Setting Out surveys

DE6207 & ENGG6207 - LAND SURVEYING 2

INTRODUCTION TO SETTING OUT OF ENGINEERING WORKS

1 DEFINITIONS
Civil engineering – The design and construction for engineering projects, such as public
and private works, such as infrastructure (roads, railways, water supply & treatment etc),
pipelines, dams & reservoirs, bridges & tunnels, and buildings.
Engineering surveying - covers the detailed surveys required for design of engineering
projects (roads, bridges, dams, buildings, tunnels etc) as well as the setting out and
monitoring of the subsequent construction or structures.
Construction surveying setting out – involves staking out reference points & markers that
will guide the construction of new structures such as roads or buildings for subsequent
construction.
Building or construction projects - relates to specific structures e.g. low level; medium to
high rise buildings, stadiums; residential buildings; standard & odd shaped structures, etc.
Can include civil structures, (such as bridges, tunnels, dams, drainage facilities such as
treatment plants, pump stations) with significant structural elements involved.
Infrastructure is the basic physical and organisational structures needed for the operation
of a society or enterprise, or the services and facilities necessary for an economy to function.
(Wikipedia, 2012). The term typically refers to the technical structures that support a society,
such as roads, water supply, sewers, power grids, telecommunications, and so forth.
Infrastructure projects - civil engineering projects normally (i.e. motorways & roading
projects, bridges, tunnels, rail, drainage & pipeline projects; utility services projects (power,
telecoms, gas, water supply).
Land Development - The conversion of land from one use to another.
Subdivision - Most common form of land development. This is the splitting up of a large
block into multiple smaller blocks.

2 SURVEY TYPES
2.1 Engineering surveys
• Engineering surveys are conducted to obtain data essential for planning, estimating,
locating and layout for the various phases of projects. The objectives of engineering surveys
include obtaining preliminary data required for selecting suitable routes and sites and for
preparing structural designs, establishing a system of reference points, and marking lines,
grades and principal points.
• Building setout surveys - set-out both horizontal & vertical elements, during construction; &
can include post construction monitoring).

2.2 Principles of Surveying

• There are a few rules that apply to all categories and whenever field work is being carried
out & should be adhered to at all times.

2.2.1 Working from the whole to the part

One of the underlying principles of surveying (i.e. working within a framework of established
points to “fix” points that are unknown)

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2.2.2 Accuracy
Use of instruments to measure angles, distances and level (requires techniques &
procedures to be mastered). Important to realise that Absolute precision can never be
obtained, despite ideal conditions and the use of the best equipment & techniques

2.2.3 Errors
Much of what is done in surveying is prone to errors
Gross (mistakes), systematic & random (unavoidable)
Mistakes arise from inattention, inexperience and carelessness. Important to adopt
procedures or independent checks that eliminate or isolate such errors.
Systematic errors are those which may exist but whose pattern and effects are known, can
be monitored and compensated for by applic’n of appropriate corrections. (e.g. EDM
distance; - also measure temp & pressure)
Random errors are unavoidable & due to imperfections in instruments used, human
elements such as eyesight, & inconsistent conditions that cause such errors

2.2.4 Survey methods

Surveys can usually be executed in several ways by a combination of instruments and
methods. Main factors to consider when deciding upon technique to be used:
Purpose & extent of the survey
Degree of accuracy required
Control of errors
Nature of the country (i.e. topography, vegetation, visibility & access issues, etc)
Commercial issues (i.e. budget & programme considerations)

2.2.5 Good survey practice (As a general guide)

Use equipment which is well maintained, regularly checked and “calibrated”
Analyse acceptable error limits for each component of the survey (i.e. set the target
accuracy specification).
o Be aware of likely error sources; resolve existing & underlying errors (don’t
introduce new ones)
Conform to defendable marking, measuring, recording and processing methods.
ALWAYS take check (‘redundant’) measurements.
Be careful & objective when collecting, assessing and recording measurements &
data, & while documenting and analysing results. (Don’t cook the books!!)

3 SURVEY CONTROL NETWORKS

3.1 Definition
A control network is a set of reference points of known geo-spatial coordinates. The higher-
order control points are normally defined in both & time using global or space techniques, &
are used for lower order points to tie into.
The discipline that deals with the establishment of coordinates of points in a higher order,
control network is called geodetic surveying.
A control network is normally divided into horizontal (X & Y) and vertical (Z) controls, but with
the advent of GPS, this division is becoming obsolete.
Control networks provide a reference framework of points for:
o Topographical mapping & large-scale plan production.
o Dimensional control of construction work.
o Deformation surveys for all manner of structures, both new & old.
o The extension & densification of existing control networks

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3.2 Relationship to engineering projects

A survey control system (network) consists of physical control marks, often with beacons to
promote remote access to a network.
Traditional networks of control marks consist of a hierarchy of marks based on accuracy
(called orders).
The NZ geodetic system enables consistent spatial positioning (X,Y & Z) across the
country, playing an important role in the development of our country.
The geodetic system includes the control system, geodetic datums, vertical datums,
projections & other information used to define a nationally consistent reference frame.

3.3 PositioNZ Network

There are 33 CORS stations in total (PositioNZ network). Several of the PositioNZ stations
are also International GNSS Service (IGS) sites.
Enhancements to the PositioNZ network, such as the provision of real-time data in being
considered.
Connects NZ to Global Reference systems, ensuring that NZ geodetic system is comparable
with international systems.
This control network is being continually upgraded and extended to meet increased accuracy
requirements and to meet the needs of an increasing range of users.
Measuring and mapping continues today, with the management of our natural and economic
resources becoming increasingly dependent on the availability of accurate and consistent
spatial geographic information.
Require an accurate spatial reference system, being the NZ geodetic system.

3.4 NZ Geodetic Datum 2000 (NZGD2000)

Is the official geodetic datum of NZ & its offshore islands (implemented in 1998, replacing
NZGD1949).
It is a three-dimensional semi-dynamic datum (i.e. positions described by coordinates in
terms of latitude, longitude, and ellipsoidal heights).
Uses a “deformation model” to correct coordinates and survey observations for the effect of
regional-scale tectonic movements.
NZGD2000 is essentially coincident with World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS84), being the
reference system used by GNSS receivers.
Accuracy defined by a series of ‘ORDERS’ classifications.
Relevance
The network forms the basis for geodetic networks within all the meridional circuits (e.g. Mt
Eden 2000)
NZTM2000 uses a Transverse Mercator projection and is based on the NZGD2000 datum
using the GRS80 reference ellipsoid.
Many engineering projects require survey networks to be established in terms of such
localised reference datums (e.g. NZTA projects, Watercare projects, etc).
Vertical elements usually in terms of a Local Vertical Datum (LVD) or NZVD2009
Final as-built certification values usually required in terms of local projection.

3.5 Control Networks for engineering sites

General Principles
A control survey provides a framework of survey points, whose relative positions (2D or 3D)
are known to specified degrees of accuracy (Schofield & Breach, 2007)
Areas covered:
o Whole country as basis for national maps
o Smaller areas, encompassing a construction site
o Must work from the “whole to the part”
o Preservation of precision important.
Important to understand the project specifications (what do they actually mean?)

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oHow precise & reliable does the survey control need to be?
oWhat specific elements within the project scope require higher accuracy setout?
oSpecification limits will also determine instrumentation requirements & appropriate
survey methodologies.
Horizontal and vertical elements should be considered separately. They will utilise different
origin datums.
Control networks will usually be specific to the engineering project concerned. Common for
them to be in terms of local external systems.
Remember, a survey is designed for a specific purpose, so that a technical and commercial
objective can be achieved at minimum cost.
Questions to be answered:
o What is the survey for?
o How extensive does it need to be?
o What are the budgetary & programme constraints exist? (i.e. commercial factors)
o With logistical constraints in mind, where is it?
o How precise & reliable does it need to be?
Faulty set-out results in loss of time & money for corrective work.

4 SETTING OUT
4.1 Definition
Setting out is the establishment of marks & lines to define the position & level of elements of
the construction work so that works may proceed with reference to them. This process may
be contrasted with the purpose of Surveying which is to determine by measurement the
positions of existing features.- source: (ISO_7078: 1985 Building Construction – Procedures
for Setting out, Measurement & Surveying – Vocabulary & Guidance Notes.)
Alternate definition is that setting out is the reverse of Surveying. (i.e. surveying is a process
of producing a plan or a map of a particular area, setting out begins with the plan and ends
with the various elements of an engineering project correctly positioned in the area. (Uren, J.
et al 2006)
Attitudes to setting out vary from site to site, with generally insufficient importance attached
to the process.
It tends to be rushed (time constraints & pressure from contractors), often leading to errors &
in some cases resultant costly corrections.
Good work practices & techniques in setting out essential to minimise errors & to ensure the
construction process proceeds smoothly.
Good knowledge is vital, as the setting out phase is one of the most important stages in any
civil engineering construction project.

4.2 Setting out aims

The aims of setting out are to position the works in their correct relative spatial and absolute
positions, & to ensure that they proceed smoothly and that their costs are minimised. (Uren,
J. et al 2006)
Chances of this aim being achieved will be greatly enhanced by the use of suitable control
methods, availability & reference to correct plans, and where good working practices are
adopted.
Two main aims:
Various elements of the scheme must be correct in all three-dimensions both relative and
absolute (i.e. correct size, plan position & reduced level).
Once set-out begins, it must proceed quickly & with little or no delay so the works can
proceed smoothly and costs can be minimised.

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Dimensional Control
In engineering, first step in the planning and design of a construction project is the
production of an accurate scaled plan.
Thereafter, the project, designed in terms of this plan, must be set-out on the ground in
correct absolute and relative position, & to its correct dimensions.
3D survey control planned with the setting out (& monitoring & compliance elements) in mind
& control stations conveniently sited accordingly (i.e. to facilitate easy, economical set-out).
Control marks placed must survive the construction processes (i.e. stability, permanence,
reliability).
A complete & thorough understanding of the plans, setting out data, tolerances, & the time
scale of operations is imperative.
Make sure you are working off the current set of design plans & calculations data !!!!
Have a sound working knowledge of the survey instrumentation available, including the
effects of instrumental errors on setting-out observations.
Select the right instrument(s) for the project.
Understand the importance of completing independent checks on computations, set-out data
extrapolation & actual setting out procedures.

General Principles
Points of known plan position must be established within or near the site from which the
design points can be set out in their correct plan positions (i.e. involves horizontal control
techniques)
Points of known elevation relative to an agreed datum are required within or near the site
from which the design points can be set out at their correct reduced levels. (i.e. involves
vertical control techniques).
Accurate methods must be adopted to establish design points from this horizontal and
vertical control. This involves positioning techniques.

Most important aspects

Making sure that the data provided to you is suitable for set-out, so check this in the office
prior to going to site.
Understand the importance of completing independent checks on computations, set-out data
extrapolation & actual setting out procedures.
You will sleep better at night when you complete your checks.
Remember: if it doesn’t look right, then review & recheck it. Don’t just proceed

4.3 Building Setout

4.3.1 Small scale buildings
Building dimensions usually obtained from architects plans.
o Always CHECK them – they are often incorrect.
Individual building corners set-out from known control (i.e. bearing & distance to each
corner). Usually in X & Y only.
o GPS or total station techniques
o GPS suitable for X & Y only
Perpendicular offset methods can be used
Height value obtained when set-out peg has been placed, and then used as a height
reference (or use separate BM)
o Height control normally achieved via standard levelling techniques, to achieve
required accuracy
Importance of checking right angles & cross-dimensional angle and distances
o (i.e. nothing is ever square when set out from a single point).
Corner markers can be offset if required.

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o Initial foundation excavation will likely destroy the set-out mark as placed
o Always discuss with the building contractor (what do they need?)
Alternative: – set-out marks on builder’s profiles.
Check offsets to boundaries
o Verify location of building on the site
o Check any HIRTB requirements

4.3.2 Large scale buildings

Important for the surveyor to liaise with architects, structural & civil engineers involved
(where appropriate), & the site foreman.
Set out data must be consistent from all sources; must be the latest version & suitable for
setting out purposes. Everyone must be working from the same set of plans or data.
Accuracy is essential. It can be achieved in a variety of ways, using different instruments.
Accuracy specs sometimes dependent on construction method. (e.g. precast- prefabricated
panels, therefore requires tight tolerance).
Survey control can (& often is) site specific, not connected to a wider control network
Can be achieved using building coordinates, specifically setting-out individual corners or
columns
Via the building (structural) grid system. These are coincident with the structural (column)
elements & form the basis for multiple level construction.
Extended baselines can be utilised where building profiles or stages extend over distance.
(e.g. retirement village complex).
Legal boundary issues must be considered & addressed where necessary.
On medium and high rise structures, verticality & height transfer from level to level is an
issue, and as such must be checked at every floor.
Various techniques to achieve this.
o Conventional levelling using precise methods & equipment
o Trigonometric heighting (requires room to make the observations).
o Direct optical (vertical) transfer at building corners (i.e. optical or laser plummets)
o Precise GPS (RTK) techniques to plumb building columns. Larger high rise buildings
are now incorporating inclination sensors to monitor building deviation (corrects for
displacements due to tilt, contraction & expansion, as well as wind).

4.3.3 Infrastructure
Roading highways or motorway projects
Numerous elements to consider.
o Earthworks; roading alignments (H & V); drainage elements; retaining structures;
bridges & tunnels; services locations; as-builts; monitoring; legal boundary elements;
o Often high risk environments for the surveyors (due to construction machinery;
proximity to existing live road environment).
o Huge OSH requirements (Site Induction, Site Safe passports)
o Survey control needs to account for all facets of the project (i.e. relative accuracy
spec set appropriately; - usually defined at contract tender stage with reference to
NZTA survey stds document).
o Set-out methods need to be adaptive to the conditions.
o Alignment corridors long and narrow; survey controls designed to fit the specific
environment
o Communication!! (working with the contractor, site & design engineers (both civil &
structural), and the site foreman).
o Main survey control marks located outside construction zone, along full length of the
project; utilises existing LINZ control marks where available as the basis for the
control network. (Requires search of LINZ geodetic database form control
framework).

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David Allen