UNIT I

PART A
1. Define Computer Networks
 A network is the interconnection of a set of devices capable of communication. In
this definition, a device can be a host (or an end system as it is sometimes called) such
as a large computer, desktop, laptop, workstation, cellular phone, or security system.
 A device in this definition can also be a connecting device such as a router, which
connects the network to other networks, a switch, which connects devices together, a
modem (modulator-demodulator), which changes the form of data, and so on

2. How do layers of the internet model correlate to the layers of the OSI model?
 The TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) protocol suite was
developed in the early 1970s on the other hand OSI model was developed in 1978s.
 The internet model has 4 layers : 4.Application, 3.Transport, 2.Internet, and 1.Network
Interface Layer.
 On the other hand, The OSI model defines a networking framework to implement
protocols in seven layers: 7.Application 6. Presentation 5.Session 4.Transport
 Network 2.Data Link and 1.Physical layer.
 The OSI networking model correlates more accurately to the actual process of
communicating over a network,
3. What is a protocol? What are the key elements of a protocol?
Protocol is used for communications between entities in a system and must speak
the same language. Protocol is the set of rules governing the exchange of data between two
entities. It defines what is communicated, how it is communicated, when it is
communicated. The Key elements of a Protocol are as follows,
● Syntax – It refers to the structure or format of data meaning the order in which they
are presented.
● Semantics – It refers to the meaning of each section of bit. How to do interpretation.
● Timing – When data should be sent and how fast they can be sent.
4. What is the need for layers?

 Protocol layering is a common technique to simplify networking designs by dividing

them into functional layers, and assigning protocols to perform each layer's task.
 Protocol layering produces simple protocols, each with a few well-defined tasks. These
protocols can then be assembled into a useful whole. Individual protocols can also be
removed or replaced as needed for particular applications.

5. Distinguish between packet switched and circuit switched network.

Issue Packet switching Circuit Switching
Circuit setup Not Required Required
Transmission No Transmission path Dedicated path
path
Delay Packet transmission delay Call setup delay
Addressing Each packet contains the full Only data is sent
source and destination address
Bandwidth Dynamic Bandwidth Fixed Bandwidth
 Routing Each packet is routed Entire data is sent through
independently the same path
Congestion Difficult Easy if enough buffers can
control be located in advance for
each VC set up
Complexity In the transport layer In the network layer
Suited for Connection-oriented and Connection-oriented
connectionless service service
6. Identify the five components of a data communications system

1. Message. The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular forms of

information include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.
2. Sender. The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a com- puter,
workstation, telephone handset, video camera, and so on.
3. Receiver. The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a com- puter,
workstation, telephone handset, television, and so on.
4. Transmission medium. The transmission medium is the physical path by which a
message travels from sender to receiver. Some examples of transmission media include
twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, and radio waves.
5. Protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It repre- sents
an agreement between the communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices
may be connected but not communicating, just as a person speaking French cannot be
understood by a person who speaks only Japanese.

7. Categorize the four basic topologies in terms of line configuration.

 The topology of a network is the geometric representation of the relationship of all the
links and linking devices (usually called nodes) to one another. There are four basic
topologies possible: mesh, star, bus, and ring.

8. What are the propagation time and the transmission time for a 2.5-KB (kilobyte) message
(an e- mail) if the bandwidth of the network is 1 Gbps? Assume that the distance between
the sender and the receiver is 12,000 km and that light travels at 2.4 × 108 m/s.
Propagation time = (12,000 X 1000) / (2.4 X 10^8) = 50 ms
Transmission time = (2500 X 8) / 10^9 = 0.020 ms

9. Draw the structure of a OFC

10. What is the need for Switching
 In, Multipoint connections, distances between devices and the total number of devices
increase beyond the capacities of the media and equipment.
 A better solution is switching. A switched network consists of a series of interlinked
nodes, called switches. Switches are devices capable of creating temporary
connections between two or more devices linked to the switch. In a switched
network, some of these nodes are connected to the end systems (computers or
telephones, for example).

The end systems

(communicating devices) are
labeled A, B, C, D, and so on,
and the switches are labeled I,
II, III, IV, and V.

UNITII
PART A
11. What is meant by Bit Stuffing and Byte Stuffing? Give example
Bit Stuffing
Bit stuffing is the process of adding one extra 0 whenever five consecutive 1s follow a
0 in the data, so that the receiver does not mistake the pattern 0111110 for a
flag.

Byte Stuffing
Byte stuffing is the process of adding one extra byte whenever there is a flag or
escape character in the text.
12. Write the mechanism of stop and wait flow control
Sender:
Rule 1) Send one data packet at a time.
Rule 2) Send next packet only after receiving acknowledgement for previous.
Receiver:
Rule 1) Send acknowledgement after receiving and consuming of data packet.
Rule 2) After consuming packet acknowledgement need to be sent (Flow Control)

13. List the services provided by data link layer

The services that the data link layer provides are:
 Encapsulation of network layer data packets into frames
 Frame synchronization
 In the logical link control (LLC) sub layer:
 Error control
 Flow control
 In the medium access control (MAC) sub layer:
 Physical addressing (MAC addressing)
 LAN switching (packet switching), including MAC filtering, Spanning Tree
Protocol (STP) and Shortest Path Bridging (SPB)
 Data packet queuing or scheduling
  Store-and-forward switching or cut-through switching
 Quality of Service (QoS) control
 Virtual LANs (VLAN)

14. What is the need of ARP

 Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is needed in order for devices on a network to
discover their surroundings and neighbors.
 The protocol is used to enable computers to automatically map IP Network
Addresses to hardware addresses that are used by the data link protocol
 A host wishing to obtain a physical address broadcast ARP request onto the
network.
 The host on the network that has the IP address in the ARP request then replies
with its physical hardware address as ARP Response, ARP Resolution is then
updated in ARP cache

15. List main two disadvantage of Bridges

 Bridges are unable to read specific IP address; they are more concerned with the
MAC addresses.
 Bridges cannot help to build a communication network between the networks of
different architectures.
 Bridges transfer all types of broadcast messages, thus bridges are unable to limit
the scope of these messages.
 Extremely large networks cannot rely on bridges; therefore the large networks as
WAN which are IP address specific cannot make use of it.
 Bridges are expensive if we compare the prices of repeaters and hubs to it.
 Bridging is most suitable to be used for LAN network traffic data load. It is unable
to handle more complex and variable data load such as occurring from WAN.

16. Define Autonegotiation

 A new feature added to Fast Ethernet is called autonegotiation. It allows a station
or a hub a range of capabilities. Autonegotiation allows two devices to negotiate
the mode or data rate of operation. It was designed particularly to allow
incompatible devices to connect to one another.
 The goal of autonegotiation as follows
 To allow incompatible devices to connect to one another. For example, a device
with a maximum capacity of 10 Mbps can communicate with a device with a 100
Mbps capacity (but which can work at a lower rate).
 To allow one device to have multiple capabilities.
 To allow a station to check a hub’s capabilities.

17. What is Scatternet?

Scatternet
 Piconets can be combined to form what is called a scatternet.
  A secondary station in one piconet can be the primary in another piconet.
 This station can receive messages from the primary in the first piconet (as a
secondary) and, acting as a primary, deliver them to secondaries in the second
piconet.
 A station can be a member of two piconets

18. What are the physical properties of Ethernet?

An Ethernet segment is implemented on a coaxial cable of up to 500m. this cable is
similar to the type used for cable TV, except that it typically has an impedance of 50
ohms instead of cable TV‟s 75 ohms. Hosts connect to an Ethernet segment by tapping
into it; taps must be at least 2.5 m apart
19. Define hidden node problem.
In wireless networking, the hidden node problem or hidden terminal problem occurs
when a node can communicate with a wireless access point (AP), but cannot directly
communicate with other nodes that are communicating with that AP. This leads to
difficulties in medium access control sublayer since multiple nodes can send data
packets to the AP simultaneously, which creates interference at the AP resulting in
neither packet getting through.

Stations A and C cannot communicate with

each other as they are out of range of each other.
20. What do you mean by CSMA protocol?
Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA) is a network protocol that listens to or senses
network signals on the carrier/medium before transmitting any data. CSMA is
implemented in Ethernet networks with more than one computer or network device
attached to it. CSMA is part of the Media Access Control (MAC) protocol
21. When is ICMP redirect message used?
ICMP redirect messages are used by routers to notify the hosts on the data link that a
better route is available for a particular destination.
22. Identify the class of the following IP Address:
a) 110.34.56.45 b) 212.208.63.23
23. How do routers differentiate the incoming unicast, multicast and broadcast IP
packets. By reading the IP address and performs service based on the address

UNIT III
PART A
24. Why is IPv4 to IPv6 transition required?
To send a request from an IPv4 address to an IPv6 address isn’t possible because
IPv4 and IPv6 transition is not compatible.
For solution to this problem, some technologies are used. These technologies are:
Dual Stack Routers, Tunnelling, and NAT Protocol Translation.

25. List the advantages of Connection Oriented Service over Connectionless service

BASIS OF CONNECTION-ORIENTED CONNECTION-

COMPARISON SERVICE LESS SERVICE

Prior Connection Necessary Not required

Requirement

Reliability Ensures reliable transfer of data. Not guaranteed.

Congestion Unlikely Occur likely.

 Transferring mode It can be implemented using It is
circuit switching and virtual implemented
circuit. using packet
switching.

Lost data Feasible Practically, not

retransmission possible.

Suitability Suitable for long and steady Suitable for

communication. bursty
Transmission.

Signalling Used for connection There is no

establishment. concept of
signalling.

Packet forwarding Packets sequentially travel to Packets reach

their destination node and the destination
follows the same route. randomly
without
following the
same route.

Delay There is a delay in transfer of Because to the

information, but once the absence of
connection is established faster connection
delivery can be achieved. establishment
phase, the
transmission is
faster.

Resource Allocation Need to be allocated. No prior

allocation of the
resource is
required.

26.
Differentiate between forwarding table and routing table
A routing table uses a packet's destination IP address to determine which IP address
should next receive the packet, that is, the "next hop" IP address.

A forwarding table uses the "next hop" IP address to determine which interface
should deliver the packet to that next hop, and which layer 2 address (e.g., MAC
 address) should receive the packet on multipoint interfaces like Ethernet or Wi-Fi.
27. What does a router do when it receives a packet with a destination address that
it does not have an entry for, in its routing table?
Routers will look at the destination address on a packet, and try to find a match in its
routing table. If it cannot find a match it will drop the packet and send an ICMP
message to the source to tell it that is has no route to the destination network.

The default IPv4 network, 0.0.0.0/0, or default IPv6 network, ::/0, encompasses every
IP address for the protocol, and every address for the protocol will match a route to
the default network. Having a default route in the routing table prevents the router
from dropping packets with unknown destinations.
28. Expand PIM. Write its functions.
Protocol-Independent Multicast (PIM) is a family of multicast routing protocols for
Internet Protocol (IP) networks that provide one-to-many and many-to-many
distribution of data over a LAN, WAN or the Internet. It is termed protocol-
independent because PIM does not include its own topology discovery mechanism,
but instead uses routing information supplied by other routing protocols.
There are four variants of PIM:
● PIM Source-Specific Multicast, Bidirectional PIM
● PIM Dense Mode, PIM Sparse Mode
29. Mention any four applications of Multicasting.
 Multimedia: A number of users ""tune in"" to a video or audio transmission
from a multimedia source station.
 Teleconferencing: A group of workstations form a multicast group such that a
transmission from any member is received by all other group members.
 Database: All copies of a replicated file or database are updated at the same
time. Distributed computation: Intermediate results are sent to all
participants.
 Real-time workgroup: Files, graphics, and messages are exchanged among
active group members in real time.

UNIT IV
PART A
30. Diagrammatically represent the 3-way handshake for TCP connection
establishment.
31. How do fast retransmit mechanism of TCP works?
In TCP/IP, fast retransmit and recovery (FRR) is a congestion control algorithm
that makes it possible to quickly recover lost data packets. Without FRR, the TCP
uses a timer that requires a retransmission timeout if a packet is lost. No new or
duplicate packets can be sent during the timeout period. With FRR, if a receiver
receives a data segment that is out of order, it immediately sends a duplicate
acknowledgement to the sender. If the sender receives three duplicate
acknowledgements, it assumes that the data segment indicated by the
acknowledgements is lost and immediately retransmits the lost segment. With FRR,
time is not lost waiting for a timeout in order for retransmission to begin.
32. What do you mean by slow start in TCP congestion?
Slow start prevents a network from becoming congested by regulating the amount
of data that's sent over it. It negotiates the connection between a sender and
receiver by defining the amount of data that can be transmitted with each packet,
and slowly increases the amount of data until the network's capacity is reached

33. What is the difference between service point address, logical address and
physical address?
Service Point Address Logical Address Physical Address
There are many An IP address of the Each system having a
application running on system is called logical NIC(Network Interface
the computer. Each address. This address is Card) through which two
application run with a the combination of Net ID systems physically
port no.(logically) on the and Host ID. This address connected with each
computer. This port no. is used by network layer other with cables. The
for application is decided to identify a particular address of the NIC is
by the Kernel of the OS. network (source to called Physical address or
This port no. is called destination) among the mac address. This is
port address. networks. This address specified by the
can be changed by manfucture company of
changing the host the card. This address is
position on the network. used by data link layer.
So it is called logical
address.
34. Suppose TCP operates over a 1-Gbps link, utilizing the full bandwidth continuously.
How long will it take for the sequence numbers to wrap around completely?
Suppose an added 32-bit timestamp field increments 1000 times during this wrap
around time, how long it will take timestamp filed to wrap around?

UNIT V
PART A
35. Which protocol support email and give details about that protocol? What
are the basic functions of e-mail?
IMAP Protocol:
IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol) – Is a standard protocol for accessing e-
mail from your local server. IMAP is a client/server protocol in which e-mail is
received and held for you by your Internet server. As this requires only a small
data transfer this works well even over a slow connection such as a modem.
POP3 Protocol:
 The POP (Post Office Protocol 3) protocol provides a simple, standardized way
for users to access mailboxes and download messages to their computers.
SMTP Protocol:
The SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) protocol is used by the Mail Transfer
Agent (MTA) to deliver your eMail to the recipient's mail server. The SMTP
protocol can only be used to send emails, not to receive them.
36. What are the four groups of HTTP Headers? What are the two methods of
HTTP?
HTTP header fields provide required information about the request or response,
or about the object sent in the message body. There are four types of HTTP
message headers:
 General-header: These header fields have general applicability for both
request and response messages.
 Client Request-header: These header fields have applicability only for
request messages.
 Server Response-header: These header fields have applicability only for
response messages.
 Entity-header: These header fields define meta information about the
entity-body or, if no body is present, about the resource identified by the
request.
37. What is the need for Urgent pointer?
TCP offers the ability to flag certain bytes of data as “urgent.” This feature allows
an application to process and forward any data that must be dealt with
immediately, without the data having to sit in the send queue for processing.
Instead, the data is packaged into a segment, the Urgent flag is set in the TCP
header, and a byte off-set marking the end of urgent data is specified in the
Urgent Pointer field.
38. State the difference between SMTP and MIME.
SMTP MIME
SMTP stands for Simple Mail Transfer Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions
Protocol. (MIME) is a supplementary protocol
SMTP is a set of communication that allows non-ASCII data to be sent
guidelines that allow software to through SMTP. MIME transforms non-
transmit an electronic mail over the ASCII data at the sender site to NVT
internet is called Simple Mail Transfer ASCII data and deliverers it to the
Protocol. client SMTP to be sent through the
It is a program used for sending Internet. MIME converts binary files,
messages to other computer users executed files into text files. Then only
based on e-mail addresses. it can be transmitted using SMTP
It provides a mail exchange between
users on the same or different
computers, and it also supports:
It can send a single message to one or
more recipients.
Sending message can include text,
voice, video or graphics.
It can also send the messages on
networks outside the internet.
39. Present the information contained in a DNS resource record.
 A resource record, commonly referred to as an RR, is the unit of information
entry in DNS zone files; RRs are the basic building blocks of host-name and IP
information and are used to resolve all DNS queries. Resource records come in a
fairly wide variety of types in order to provide extended name-resolution
services.

Different types of RRs have different formats, as they contain different data. Many
RRs share a common format. Each DNS Server contains RRs for the portion of the
name space for which it is authoritative.
40. What DNS cache issues are involved in changing the IP address of a web
server host name?

A DNS cache (sometimes called a DNS resolver cache) is a temporary database,

maintained by a computer's operating system, that contains records of all the
recent visits and attempted visits to websites and other internet domains.

In other words, a DNS cache is just a memory of recent DNS lookups that your
computer can quickly refer to when it's trying to figure out how to load a website.