mRrjh {ks= eq[;ky;

Northern Region Headquarters

EFFICIENCY BOOKLET

NR CenPEEP, NTPC Limited, NRHQ,

LUCKNOW
dsUnzh; dk;kZy;
CORPORATE CENTRE

Message

NTPC has always given a thrust on operating its plants in the

most efficient manner to generate power at most competitive
price and has also given emphasis on sharing of knowledge
for effective and better utilization of resources.

I am glad to learn that NR CenPEEP team has compiled

various efficiency enhancement tips in the form of “Efficiency
Booklet”. I am sure that this booklet will be useful to all NTPC
stations.

My best wishes to the entire NR team and NR CenPEEP in

particular for future success.

(CHANDAN ROY)
DIRECTOR (OPERATIONS)
 mRrjh {ks= eq[;ky;
Northern Region Headquarters

Message

Message

The major challenge for a generating company in present

scenario is reduction in per unit cost of generation, efficient
operation and maintenance, meeting environmental norms
without sacrificing the quality standards. In the availability based
Tariff regime, the power stations are required to maintain high
availability and also to operate the station in the most efficient
manner to get the best competitive advantage.

During the last few years, EEMG (erstwhile O&E) departments of

all Northern Region stations and NR-CenPEEP have put
continual developmental efforts for implementation of the
Efficiency Management System and have achieved
improvements in various areas. However, a lot still needs to be
done in the area of efficiency improvement.

I am happy to know that NR-CenPEEP department has compiled

some notes and tips for efficiency enhancement in the form of a
small handy booklet. I hope that this compilation will be of some
use for all NTPC stations.

(INDU BHUSHAN PANDEY)

Executive Director (NR)
NTPC - NRHQ, Lucknow
dsUnzh; dk;kZy;
CORPORATE CENTRE

Message

In the present competitive environment NTPC is required to run

their plants with high efficiency and availability so as to produce
quality power at most competitive price.

I am delighted to observe that NR-CenPEEP has compiled some

notes in the booklet indicating causes for efficiency degradation.
Various tips for efficiency enhancement are also captured in the
booklet. I am sure that this compilation shall prove to be useful to
our power engineers in efficiently running our plants.

I convey my warm wishes to entire NR-CenPEEP team for their

commendable efforts and hope that this 'Efficiency Booklet' shall
go a long way in generating awareness on efficiency aspects of
Power Plants.

(D.K. AGRWAL)
GM (CenPEEP)
 mRrjh {ks= eq[;ky;
Northern Region Headquarters

Foreword

Continuous efficiency improvement is vital in view of stringent norms

by regulatory agencies as well as pressure and expectation of more
stringent norms in future. Efficiency improvement also has a direct
bearing on profitability of the corporation and our commitment to
provide quality power at competitive price nationwide.

In order to bring emphasis to the aspect of efficiency improvement

and to overcome challenges, NR-CenPEEP has compiled various
tips for efficiency improvement in the form of a booklet.

Efficiency improvement is normally achieved by running plant at

design / rated parameters, which in turn depends on operator's
awareness and equipment's health. Efficiency booklet will arouse
awareness to operate at design parameter and also to diagnose the
reason for downfall of equipment's health, which may be rectified in
suitable opportunity.

This booklet also deals with the cost of inefficient running of plant vis-
à-vis cost of health correction of plant. Finally, plant health is
important for efficiency, competition and survival.

Preparation of efficiency booklet is a step towards sharing of

knowledge for a learning organization like NTPC.

NR–CenPEEP team is grateful to all NR Stations Singrauli, Rihand,

Unchahar and Tanda for their regular inputs / suggestions which has
taken shape in the form of this small booklet. All the NTPC power
engineers are efficiency engineers and we welcome their
suggestions and comments which may be sent by any mode.

I hope that this booklet will act as a handy reference to every user.

(MRITYUNJAI PANDEY)
Addl. General Manager (CenPEEP)
NTPC NRHQ, Lucknow
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Northern Region Headquarters

INDEX

S. Description Page
No. No.

1. Impact of Key Parameter Deviations on Heat Rate 1

2. Main Steam Pressure 2
3. Main Steam Temperature 3
4. FW Outlet Temperature 4
5. Flue Gas Exit Temperature At Air Heater Outlet 4
6. Excess O2 4
7. Boiler Losses 5
8. Dry Flue Gas Loss 6
9. Unburnt Carbon Loss 8
10. RH Spray Loss 9
11. ESP Performance 10
12. Condenser Efficiency 11
13. Cooling Tower Performance 14
14. HP Heater Performance 15
15. HP Turbine Efficiency 17
16. IP Turbine Efficiency 19
17. Unaccounted Loss 21
18. How much inefficiency costs 22
19. Efficiency Improvements – Key Points 22
 mRrjh {ks= eq[;ky;
Northern Region Headquarters

1. Impact of Key Parameter

Deviations on Heat Rate

No Parameter Unit Deviat- Average Typical Range

ion Loss/ kCal/kWh
percentage
point of
deviation
(kCal/kWh)
1 Main Steam (Throttle) Pressure Kg/cm2 1 0.085 0.0078-0.155
2 Main Steam (Throttle) Temperature ºC 1 0.64 0.32-0.77
3 Reheat Temperature ºC 1 0.59 0.41-0.86
4 Super heat Spray t/hr 1 0.028 0.015-0.035
5 Re heat Spray t/hr 1 0.246 0.11-0.419
6 Excess Air % O2 1 7.41 4.50-9.10
7 Exit gas Temperature ºC 1 1.20 0.95-1.91
8 Un burnt Carbon % 1 2.96 1.5 3.23
9 Coal Moisture % 1 2.0 1.50-2.50
10 Makeup % 1 6.10 1.0-22.0
11 Condenser Pressure mmHg 1 2.03 0.4-2.70
12 Top heater out of Service – – 23.7 –
13 Second Heater (From Top heater) out – – 17.7 –
of service
14 Third Heater (From Top heater) – – 17.7 –
out of service
15 Auxiliary Power % 1 21.7 16.0-24.0
16 HPT Efficiency % 1 4.74 4.51-5.42
17 IPT Efficiency % 1 3.66 2.77-4.82
18 Startup No. 1 1.85 0.13-4.8

The aforesaid data are based on EPRI document and for indicative purpose only. These data are based on
approximation. The unit specific data are generally provided by manufacturer or in unit catalogue, user may
use data cautiously after applying unit specific corrections.

(1)
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2. MAIN STEAM PRESSURE

! Unit to be run at rated MS pressure
! Heat rate guarantee is normally verified at rated pressure
! Decrease in MS pressure from rated pressure deteriorates
heat rate.

(a) Thermal Efficiency can be improved by increasing the Main

Steam pressure
increase pressure
T 3

1 4

s
Low quality, high moisture content

(b) A typical HR Correction Curve

1.004
HR Correction Factor

1.002
1 For Typical Design
Throttle Pr.: 150 ATA
0.998 Heat Consumption
obtained shall be
0.996 multiplied by the
0.994 correction factor

140 145 150 155 160

Throttle Steam Pr.(ATA)

Above Correction Curve is for demonstration only & varies with unit size / design
(make). Actual curve to be plotted after capturing actual data variation.

(2)
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3. MAIN STEAM TEMPERATURE

! Rated MS temperature to be maintained
! Temperature constraints are faced during mill change over
! Availability of burner tilt control is essential to achieve & maintain
temperature
! Temperature difference between boiler outlet and turbine inlet to be
monitored

a) Thermal Efficiency can be improved by superheating the steam to

higher temperature

Superheating

2
1

(b) A typical HR Correction Curve

1.006
HR Correction Factor

1.004
For Typical Design
1.002 Throttle Steam
1
Temp. : 537°C
Heat Consumption
0.998 obtained shall be
multiplied by the
0.996 correction factor
520 530 540 550 560
Throttle Steam Temp.(°C)

Above Correction Curve is for demonstration only & varies with unit size / design
(make). Actual curve to be plotted after capturing actual data variation.

(3)
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4. FW OUTLET TEMPERATURE
! Individual heaters testing to focus on performance degradation
! Variation of individual heaters, TTD, DCA to be monitored
Terminal Temperature Difference (TTD) = Saturation temperature of steam
corresponding to shell pressure – feed water outlet temperature
Drain Cooler Approach (DCA) = Heater drain outlet temperature - feed
water inlet temperature
* 1 ºC Deviation in Feed water temperature before economizer = 0.56
kCal/kWh loss in Heat Rate

5. FLUE GAS EXIT TEMPERATURE (FGET)

AT AIR HEATER OUTLET
! FGET at AH outlet is indicative of heat leaving the unit unutilized
! FGET is lowered on account of AH leakages

6. EXCESS O2
! Boiler to be run at optimum level of oxygen which results in
minimum level of losses
Optimization of Furnace Parameters
Increasing

co
2 %
c o 2%
Reducng

so2ppm
o 2%

–20 –10 0 10 20
Excess air %

(4)
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7. Boiler Losses

Heat gained by boiling water 40% • Loss due to moisture in air

• Loss due to moisture in fuel
• Loss due to combustion
Fuel Energy generated moisture
100% • Dry Exhaust Gas Losses
Hot gas

Flue gas

Heat gained by
economizer & air
• Heat loss from furnace surface Heat gained by preheater
superheater & 12%
• Unburned carbon losses
reheater
• Incomplete combustion losses
40%
• Loss due to hot ash
• Mill reject loss
• Piping insulation loss

Radiation and Unaccounted loss (%)

Radiation loss = log10 B = 0.8167 – 0.4238log10 C
Where, B = radiation & unaccounted loss, C = specific boiler capacity in kg/s
6

30 mw boiler
Percent boiler Loss on gross C.V.

4
100 mw (reheat)

3
200 mw

2 350 mw
500 mw
660 mw
1 1000 mw

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110

Boiler load percent of MCR

Radiation and unaccounted loss
(for outdoor bollers multiply value by 1.5)

(5)
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8. Dry Flue Gas Loss

Possible Causes of Dry Flue Gas Loss
! APH basket corroded / eroded / fouled
! Excess air ingress in Penthouse, furnace
! Poor performance of upstream ash evacuation system
! AH / Flue gas duct leakages
! Expansion bellow leakages
! Sector plate undulation / damage
! AH seal damage
! Improper burner tilt operation
! Reduced ID Fan margin / Boiler operation at reduced O2
! Number of mills in service
! Moisture in coal

Possible Corrections for DFG Loss

Operational Correction Maintenance Correction

! Optimize excess air ! Repair / replace APH basket

! Operate APH soot
blowers
! Put burner tilt operation
on auto
! Put SADC on auto
! Optimize number of mills
in service
on weight loss basis
! Repair APH leakage
! AH seal setting/replacement
! Cleaning of AH basket during
OH
! Extensive cleaning of furnace
! Wa t e r w a l l c o n v e c t i o n
surfaces cleaning
! Repair AH / Flue gas duct
leakages
! Repair / replace expansion
bellow
! Repair of Penthouse, ESP air
in leak points
! Imporovement in mill loading

(6)
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Boiler loss curve v/s Excess air

12

Total Loss
10
Boiler Loss (%)

8 Dry Gas Loss

4
Auxiliary Power Un-burnt Gas
2
C in A
0
13 15 17 19
CO2 (%)
Fig. Optimization of Total Air Supply

Variation of CO with excess air (O2 in flue gas)

800

700

600
CO at boiler outlet (ppm)

500
Optimum operating point

400

300

200

100

0
1 2 3 4 5
%C2 in flue gas

Fig. Optimum operating level

Above Optimization is for demonstration only & varies with unit size / design (make).
Actual optimum point to be developed for each unit.
(7)
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9. Unburnt Carbon Loss

Possible Causes for Un burnt Carbon Loss
! Incorrect fuel / air ratio
! Poor mill fineness
! Change in mill air flow
! Increased mill loading
! Reduced availability of oxygen in furnace
! Mill internal problem
! PA & SA distribution
! Mill internal problem
! Low mill outlet temperature
! Reduced ID margin
! Damaged SADC links
! High PA flow from more no of mills in service
! Coal flow imbalance from one corner to another corner

Possible Corrections for Un burnt Carbon Loss

Operational Correction Maintenance Correction

! Adjust fuel / air ratio ! Adjust mill air flow

! Calibrate fuel / air control damper settings
! Optimize O2 ! Mill internal checking for
poor mill fineness
! Optimization of tramp /
cold air ! Adjust classifier vane
setting
! Optimize hot air
temperature ! Replace grinding wheels,
balls or rings
! Restoration of eroded /
damaged coal pipe
orifices & coal nozzles

(8)
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10. Reheater Spray Loss

Possible Causes for RH Spray Loss
! Fouled water walls
! High levels of excess air
! Fouled Super Heater sections
! Improperly adjusted temperature set points
! Broken spray nozzle
! Spray valve passing
Possible Corrections for RH Spray Loss

Operational Correction Maintenance Correction

! Soot blowing of water walls ! Repair spray control

! Adjust excess air to proper levels valve
! Soot blowing at Super heater sections ! Replace spray nozzle
! LRSB Operation ! Cleaning of SH section
! Burner tilt on auto ! Water wall cleaning
! Throttle operation of turbine
! Combustion optimization
! Metal temperature monitoring of RH
panel.
! Calibrate temperature control set
points

A typical HR Correction Curve

HR Correction Factor

1.002 For Design

1 RH Spray: 0
0.998 Heat
0.996 Consumption
0.994 obtained
0.992 shall be
0.99 multiplied by
0.988
the correction
0 1 2 3 4 5
factor
Reheat Spray (% of Steam flow)

Above Correction Curve is for demonstration only & varies with unit size / design
(make). Actual curve to be plotted after capturing actual data variation.
(9)
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11. Electro Static Precipitator

Performance
Possible causes of ESP Performance Deterioration
! Shorting of field
! Ash resistance
! Ash particle size
! Distribution of flue gas in ESP passes
! Flue gas velocity
! High flue gas temperature
! Healthiness of rapping mechanism
! Arcing/Corona in field
! Air ingress through ESP hopper

Possible Corrections for ESP Performance Improvement

Operational Correction Maintenance Correction

! Measurement of ESP ! Equalize flow in each

transformer current pass
! Water fogging ! Maintenance of rapping
! Sodium dosing mechanism
! Ammonia dosing ! Gas distribution flow test
! Maintaining required ! Repair of honeycomb at
fineness of coal ESP inlet duct
! Maintaining adequate
sealing water in collecting
hopper
! No field charging during
oil firing
! Proper adjustment of
rapping frequency

(10)
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12. Condenser Efficiency

Possible Causes affecting Condenser Efficiency
! Air Ingress in condenser
! Poor CT performance causing high CW inlet Temperature
! High ambient temperature
! Low Turbine Efficiency
! Reduced CW pump performance
! High Energy drain valve passing
! CW duct silting
! Reduced Ejector/CVP performance
! Reduced Condenser tube thickness
! Fouling of condenser tubes
! CW water quality
! Bio-fouling effect
! Higher water box Differential Pressure
! Excessive tube plugged
! High heat load to condenser

ηthermal can be improved by lowering the

condensing pressure (i.e improving vacuum)

increase TH
T 3

2
T
1 4

s
lower pressure (temp)

(11)
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Possible Corrections for Condenser Efficiency Loss

Operational Correction Maintenance Correction

! Water box venting ! Repair cycle isolation valves

! Put in service stand by ! Clean condenser water box
vacuum pump / ejector & tubes
! Increase CW flow ! Repair CW discharge
! Check cycle isolation control valve & CT
! Put in service stand by CW ! Repair condenser air leaks
pump ! Eddy current test to identify,
! Place stand by CT cells in Repair/replacement of
service leaking condenser tubes
! Restoration of performance
of Ejector / AEP

Example of Condenser Performance Improvement

by Tube Cleaning 30 mm HG
(~ 60 Kcal/KWh )
(no cleaning
15 mm HG
between OH )
( ~ 30
kcal/kWh )
Effective Condenser tube cleaning 18 mm HG
during opportunity S/D – 12 mm HG (~ 36
improvement kcal/kWh)
(cleaning
12 mm HG
between OH)

3 mm HG
6 month 6 month
Say O/H
Middle O/H

Typical HR Correction Curve

HR Correction Factor

1.02
1.01 For Typical
210MW Design
1
Condenser Back
0.99 168MW Pr. : 0.1033 ATA
0.98 Heat Consumption
obtained shall be
0.97 multiplied by the
0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 correction factor
Condenser Back Pr. (ATA)

(12)
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0.975
HR Correction Factor

0.98

0.985
For Typical CW
0.99 Inlet Temp. : 28°C
0.995 Heat Consumption
obtained shall be
1 multiplied by the
1.005
correction factor

1.01
0 10 20 30 40

CW Inlet Temp.(°C)

Above Correction Curves are for demonstration only & varies with unit
size / design (make). Actual curve to be plotted after capturing actual data variation.

! 1 OC deviation in CW inlet temperature to condenser » 6 kCal/kWh loss in

Heat Rate

(13)
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13. Cooling Tower Performance

Factors Affecting Cooling Tower Performance
! Condition of fills
! Mangrove and algae growth
! Condition of Nozzle
! Wind Velocity
! Wet Bulb temperature
! Condition and fan angle of blade
! Gear box condition
! Condition of Drift eliminator
! Circulating Water Chemistry
! Bio-fouling effect
! CW water distribution

Typical Cooling Tower Performance Curve

Possible Corrections for cooling Tower Performance

Operational Correction
! Water chemistry
Correction (Dosing of
chemicals -
organophosphate,
chlorine etc.)
! Switching of
individual cell as per
CW inlet temperature
Maintenance Correction
! Regular Chemical cleaning of fills
material
! PM of gear Box and changing of oil
(Only for Induced draft cooling tower)
! Removal of mangrove and algae
! Maintaining of drift eliminator
! Removal of vegetation growth near
CT area

(14)
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14. HP Heater Performance

Factors affecting HP Heater Performance
! Tube fouling / Deposits on tube
! Inadequate heater venting
! Internal leaks like tube leaks
! Water box partition plate passing
! High TTD
! Improper heater level
! Deviation in final FW temperature
! Heater bypass valve passing
! Abnormal extraction steam conditions
Possible Corrections for HPH Efficiency Loss
Operational Correction Maintenance Correction
! Minimize TTD deviation ! Repair Partition Plate passing
! Maintain optimum operating ! Repair Tube Leaks
level ! Repair of orifice in vapour line
! Monitoring of FW outlet of heaters
temperature after top heater ! Repair of bypass valve
and after by pass valve
! Monitoring of Heater venting
system

Terminal Temperature Difference (TTD) = Saturation temp. of

steam corresponding to shell press - feed water outlet temp.
Drain Cooler Approach (DCA) = Heater drain outlet temp. - feed
water inlet temp.
EFFECTS OF TTD & DCA ON HEATER PERFORMANCE
! TTD is an indicator of amount of heat transfer
! The top heater TTD has the most significant impact
! DCA is an indicator of heater level & is used primarily as diagnostic
tool for tube pluggage, leaking tubes, or a cracked sub cooling baffle
plates
! 1 ºC deviation in HPH/TTD = +1.8 kCal/kWh loss of Heat rate
! 1 ºC deviation in HPH/DCA = +0.25 kCal/kWh loss of Heat rate
(15)
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Deterioration of FW Heater performance occurs normally because of one

or more of the following reasons:--
I. Air accumulation
II. Steam side fouling
III. Water side fouling
IV. Drainage defects

I. Air Accumulation
1) Reduced heater drainwater temperature
2) Increased TTD
3) Possible elevation of steam-to-heater temperature
4) Reduced temperature rise of FW or condensate

II. Steam Side Fouling

Exfoliation → most common cause (tube surface material flakes
off like dead skin)
1) “Progressive and gradual” increase of TTD
2) Drain temperature unaffected
3) Reduced Feed Water temperature rise
4) Eventual tube failure due to mechanical weakening
5) Accumulation of debris in the heater shell
(Only solution: retubing of the heater nest)

III. Water Side Fouling

Oil → most common cause (through imperfectly sealed LP glands)
Thermal manifestation of this trouble is similar to those for
exfoliation, except that the onset of increasing TTD is usually
sudden.

Solution :-
1) Chemical cleaning → for slight fouling
2) High pressure water jetting → for severe fouling

IV. Drainage Defects

Apart from the obvious problems such as passing valves, the usual
troubles are due to:--
1) Damaged flash box internals
2) Reduced orifice opening
3) Enlarged orifice openings
4) Heater drain pump defects
(16)
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15. HPT Efficiency

Possible Causes for HPT Efficiency Loss
LOSSES IN SEALS OF TURBINE
! Erosion of nozzle blocks SHAFT
OTHERS
! Erosion of turbine blades INTER
STAGE
6%
SEALS
15%
27%
! Deposits on nozzles or blades
! Broken turbine blades
! Excess gland seal leakage
! Interstage seal leakage
! Malfunctioning control valve TIP SEALS 52%

DIAPHRAGM
TIP TENON
SPILL STRIPS
TIP
LEAKAGE

COVER OR
SHROUD
ROTATING STATIONARY
STAGE BLADE BLADE
PRESSURE STEAM FLOW
ROOT LEAKAGE

ROOT
SPILL STRIPS
DOVETAIL

BALANCE HOLE
FLOW
BALANCE HOLE

PACKING
WHEEL

INTERSTAGE PACKING LEAKAGE

SHAFT

Impulse Wheel and Diaphragm Construction

(17)
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BLADE
CARRIER

TIP SPILL
TIP STRIPS TENON
LEAKAGE
COVER

ROTATING
BLADE

STATIONARY
BLADE

TRAILING
EDGE

LEADING
EDGE

INTERSTAGE
PACKING

ROTOR

Reaction Drum Rotor Construction

Possible Corrections for HPT Efficiency Loss

Operational Correction Maintenance Correction
! Maintain design HPT ! Repair/replacement of nozzle block
inlet pressure & ! Repair/replacement of turbine blades
temperature ! Alumina blasting of turbine blades
! Replace gland packing
! Repair/Replace of turbine seal strips
! Repair/Replacement of diaphragm
! Repair/Replacement of gland/inter stage
seals
! Do Steam Path Audit

Blade damage caused

by moisture
(18)
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16. IPT Efficiency

Possible Causes for IPT Efficiency Loss
! Erosion of turbine blades
! Deposits on blades
! LP bypass valve leakage
! Excess gland seal leakage
! Strip seal leaks

Deposition on IP blading
Possible Corrections for IPT Efficiency Loss
Operational Correction Maintenance Correction
! Maintain design IPT ! Repair/replacement of nozzle block
inlet pressur & ! Repair/replacement of turbine blades
temperature
! Alumina blasting of turbine blades
! Replace gland packing
! Repair/Replace of turbine seal strips
! Repair/Replacement of diaphragm
! Repair/Replacement of gland/inter
stage seals
! Do Steam Path Audit

LP Turbine: -
1% loss of LP Turbine η » 12.5 kCal/kWh loss of Heat Rate
Impact of load on Heat rate:-
1MW Deviation of load » 0.7 kCal/kWh loss of heat rate
(For typical 210/200 MW unit)
(19)
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17. Unaccounted Loss

A) Boiler Area
! Heat loss from furnace & penthouse
! Sensible heat in fly / bottom ash
! Mill reject loss
! Hot air leakage loss
! Insulation loss

B) Turbine Area
! Piping radiation loss
! Mechanical loss
! LP cylinder efficiency
! LP heater performance
! Excess gland seal steam consumption
! Excess ejector steam consumption
! Insulation loss
! High energy drain valve passing

C) Other Action Area

! Upgradation of sensors used for primary measurements
related to efficiency
! On line monitoring of high energy drain valve passing
! Steam path audit of HP, IP, LP cylinders
! Measurement uncertainity
! Insulation survey.

(20)
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How Much Inefficiency Costs – for a typical 200MW unit

For Loss (in
Parameter Unit Design Deviation Rs lac/year)
Load MW 200 1 MW 2.75

Condenser Back Pr. mmHg 73.5 1 mmHg 8.86

FW temp. before Eco. ºC 242 1ºC 2.207

Main Steam Pressure Kgf/cm2 130 1 Kg/cm2 5.203

Main Steam Temp. ºC 530 1ºC 1.183

Re-Heat Steam temp. ºC 530 1ºC 1.971

SH Spray t/h 19 1% 2.365

RH Spray t/h 0 1% 19.71

Flue Gas temp. after APH ºC 146 1ºC 2.75

Excess O2 after Eco. % 3.8 1% 31.54

ηb loss=
Combustibles in Ash % 1% 15.768
3.7%
Moisture in Coal % 12 % 1% 11.826
Assumptions: PLF= 90%; Coal cost = Rs 1000 / ton; GCV = 4000 kcal/kg

Efficiency Improvements Key Points

! HR improvement is possible in any plant (1-2 percentage points)
! Start small → condenser, APH, HPH, etc.
! Plant management support required
! Concerted efforts required to maintain current status & even
more effort expended to make improvements
! HR improvement is a continual process
! Efficiency everyone's responsibility

(21)