DAMS

Introduction:
A dam is a Hydraulic Structure constructed across a river to store water on its upstream
side. It is an impervious or semi impervious barrier put across a natural stream so that a
reservoir is formed. This water is ten utilized as and when it is needed.

Classification of Dams:
a) Classification according to use:
1. Storage dam Ex: Gravity dam, Earth dam, Rock fill dam, arch dam.
2. Diversion dam: Ex: Weir, barrage
3. Detention dam: Ex: Dike, Water spreading dam, Debris dam.
b) Classification by Hydraulic design:
1. over flow dam Ex: Spillways
2. Non over flow dams Ex: Earth dam, Rock fill dam

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c) Classification by materials:
1. Rigid dams Ex: Gravity dam, Arch dam, Buttress dam, Steel dam, Timber dam.
2. Non rigid dams Ex: Earth dam, Rock fill dam.

Classification according to use:

Based on use dams are classified as follows:
1. Storage dam
2. Diversion dam
3. Detention dam

1. Storage dam: This is the most common type of dam normally constructed. Storage
dam’s constructed to impound water to its upstream side during the periods of excess
supply in the river and is used in periods of deficient supply. The storage dams may be
constructed for various purposes such as irrigation, water supply, power generation. A
storage dam may be constructed of wide variety of materials such as stone, concrete,
earth, rock fill etc.
2. Diversion dam: The purpose of a diversion dam is essentially different. While a
storage dam stores water of its upstream for future use, a diversion dam simply raises
water level slightly in the river and thus provides head for carrying or diverting water
into ditches, canals. Common examples of diversion dams are weirs and barrages.
During the floods, water pass over or through these diversion dams while during
periods of normal flow, the river water, partly or wholly, is diverted to irrigation
channel.
3. Detention dam: A detention dam is constructed to store water during floods and
release it gradually at a safe rate, when the flood recedes. By the provision of artificial
storage during the floods, flood damage downstream is reduced. There are usually two
types of detention dams. In the first type, water is temporarily stored and released
through a suitable outlet structure. In the other type of detention dam, water is not
released and no outlet structure is provided. Instead, water is held in the reservoir as
long as possible. This held water seeps into previous banks and foundation strata. Due
to this seepage water, water level in wells in the adjoining area is increased and lift
irrigation may be possible. A detention dam is sometimes called water -spreading dam
ordike. Sometimes detention dams are constructed across tributaries carrying large silt
and sediment. In such case, it is known as a ‘debris dam’ used to trap the sediment to
flow into the main reservoir.

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 Classification according to Hydraulic Design:
According to Hydraulic design, dams may be classified as follows:
1. Non – over flow dam
2. Over flow dam.

1. Non - over flow dam: A non - over flow dam is the one in which the top of the dam is
kept at a higher elevation than the maximum expected flood level. Water is not
permitted to over top the dam. Hence a non – over flow dam may be constructed of
wide variety of materials such as earth, rock fill, masonry, concrete etc.
2. Over flow dams: An over flow dam is the one which is designed to carry surplus
discharge (including floods) over its crest. Its crest level is kept lower than the top of the
other portion of the dam. Such dams are generally made of concrete or masonry. An
over flow dam’s commonly known as ‘spillway’.
Very often in a river valley project, the two types of dams
are combined. The main dam is kept as a non-over flow dam made of either rigid
materials such as masonry or concrete or non rigid material such as earth and rock fill
and some portion of dam is kept as over flow dam (spillway) at suitable location along
the main dam.

Classification according to material:

According to this most common classification the dams may classified as follows.
1. Rigid dams
2. Non- rigid dams

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1. Rigid dams: Rigid dams are those which are constructed of rigid materials such as
masonry, concrete, steel or timber. Rigid dams may be further classified as follows:
a) Solid masonry or concrete gravity dam.
b) Arched masonry or concrete dam.
c) Concrete butters dam.
d) Steel dam.
e) Timber dam.
2. Non- rigid dams: Non-rigid dams are those which are constructed of non rigid
materials such as earth and / or rockfill.The most common types of non-rigid dams are:
a) Earth dam
b) Rockfill dam
c) Combined earth and rockfill dam.

Classification based on Size:

The dams may be classified according to size by using the hydraulic head and gross
storage behind the dam as given below.

Gravity dams:
A gravity dam is the one in which the external forces (such water pressure, uplift
pressure, silt pressure etc) are resisted by the weight of the dam itself. A gravity dam
may be constructed by masonry or concrete. All major and important gravity dams are
now constructed of concrete only. Masonry gravity dams are now-a-days constructed of
only small heights.

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Advantages:
1. Gravity dams are relatively more strong and stable than earth dams. They are
particularly suited across gorges having very steep side slopes where earth dam, if
constructed may slip.
2. Gravity dams are well adapted for use as an over flow spillway crest. Earth dams
cannot be used as over flow dams.
3. Gravity dams can be constructed of any height, provided suitable foundations are
available to bear the stresses. Highest dams in the world are made of gravity dams only.
4. A gravity dam requires the least maintenance.
5. The failure of a gravity dam, if any, is not sudden. It gives enough warning time. An
earth dam generally fails suddenly.
6. Deep–set sluices can be used in the gravity dams, to retard the sedimentation or silt
deposit in the reservoir.
7. They are not affected by very heavy rain fall.
Disadvantages:
1. Gravity dams can be constructed only on sound rock foundations. They are
unsuitable on weak foundations or permeable foundations.
2. The initial cost of a gravity dam is always higher than an earth dam.
3. Gravity dam take more time to construct.
4. Gravity dams require skilled labour or mechanized plants for its construction.
5. If height of the dam is to be raised, it cannot be done unless provision for it had been
made in the construction of the lower part of the dam.

Arch Dams:
An arch dam is a dam curved in plan and carries a major part of its water load
horizontally to the abutments by arch action. This part of water load depends primarily
upon the amount of curvature. The balance of the water load is transferred to the
foundation by cantilever action. The thrust developed by the water load carried by arch
action essentially requires strong side walls of the canyon to resist the arch forces. The
weight of arch dams is not counted on to assist materially in the resistance of external
loads. For this reason, the uplift on the base is not an important design factor.
Advantages:
1. Arch dams are particularly adapted to the gorges where the length is small in
proportion to height.
2. For a given height the section of an arch dam is much lesser than a corresponding
gravity dam. Hence, an arch dam requires less material and is, therefore, cheaper.
3. Because of much less base width, the problems of uplift pressure are minor

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4. Since only a small part of water load is transferred to the foundation by cantilever
action, an arch dam can be constructed in moderate foundations where gravity dam
requiring sound foundation.
Disadvantages:
1. If requires skilled labour and sophisticated from work. The design of an arch dam is
also quite specialized.
2. The speed of construction is normally slow.
3. It requires very strong abutments of solid rock capable of resisting arch thrust. Hence
it is not suitable in locations where strong abutments are not available.

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Buttress Dams:
Buttress dam consists of a number of buttress or piers dividing the space to be dammed
into a number of spans. To hold up water and retain the water between these buttresses,
panels are constructed of horizontal arches or flat slabs. When the panels consist of
arches it is known as multiple arches type buttress dam. If the panels consists of flat slab
if is known as deck type buttress dam.

Advantages:
1. A buttress dam is less massive than a gravity dam; it can be constructed even on
weak foundation on which gravity dam cannot be supported.
2. The water load acts normal to inclined deck. Hence the vertical component of the
water load stabilizes the dam against both overturning and sliding.
3. The Ice Pressure is relative important since the ice tends to slide over the inclined
U/S deck.
4. In the case of gravity dam, the height of the dam can be raised only by the provision
of crest shutter at over flow section. However in the case of buttress dam, further rising
of the height is possible and convenient by extending buttress and slab as shown in fig.
consequently buttress dams are used where a future increase in reservoir capacity is
contemplated.
5. Power houses and water treatment plants can be housed in between buttresses, thus
saving some cost of construction.
1 1
6. The amount of concrete used in buttress dam is about to of the concrete used in
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gravity dam of same height.
Disadvantages:
1. Skilled labour requirements and shuttering concrete ratio are greater than for solid
dams.
2. Deterioration of upstream concrete surfaces has serious effects on buttress dams with
very thin concrete face.

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 Earth dams and rock fill dams:
Earth dams are made of locally available soils and gravels and therefore, are most
common types of dams used up to moderate heights. Their construction involves
utilization of materials in the natural state requiring a minimum processing. With the
advancing knowledge of soil mechanics and with advent of more sophisticated earth
moving equipment, earth dams are now becoming more common, even for higher
heights. The foundation requirements of earth dams are less stringent than for other
types. Fig.7 shows a typical section of composite earth dam.
A Rock fill dam is an embankment which uses variable sizes of rock to provide stability
and on impervious membrane to provide water tightness. In modern practice, the rock
fill dam has four fundamental parts:
1. Dumped rockfill at the downstream
2. Upstream rubble cushion of laid - up stone bonding in to the dumped rock
3. Upstream impervious facing resting on rubble cushion.
4. Upstream cutoff to check under seepage.
Fig.8 shows a typical section. Fig.9 shows a combined earth and rockfill dam.

Advantages:
1. Earth dams can be constructed almost on any type of available foundations.
However, Rock fill dams impose some restriction on the quality of foundation but they
are much less rigid than those required for any other type.

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2. They can be constructed rapidly with relatively unskilled labour and with materials
available on the spot.
3. There are generally cheaper than other types.
4. They can be subsequently raised in height without much difficulty if such a need
arises in future.
Disadvantages:
1. Fails suddenly without sufficient warning.
2. They cannot be used as over flow dams
3. They are not suitable at locations where heavy down pour is more common
4. They require heavy maintenance cost and constant supervision

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Factors governing selecting site for dam:
Following are the requisites of good sites for various types of dams:
1. Foundations:
Suitable foundations should be available at the site selected for a particular type of dam.
For gravity dams, sound rock is essential. For earth dams, any type of foundations is
suitable with proper treatment. In general, however the foundations should be free
from seams, open pockets as fault planes. Formation in which hard and soft layers
alternate are not generally good, because the penetration of water may weaken the soft
layers and lead to movement along them. Alternations of sand, stones and shale’s may
also lead to slipping during the excavation of trench. The best conditions are when a
dam can be built on one uniform formation; if more than one kind of rock is present in
the foundation, different bearing strengths may lead to differential settlement of
structure.
2. Topography:
(a).The river cross section at the dam site should preferably have a narrow gorge to
reduce the length of the dam. However, the gorge should open out upstream to provide
large basin for a reservoir.
(b). A major position of the dam should preferably be located on high ground as
compared to river basin, as this would reduce the cost and facilitate drainage of the
dam section.
3. Site for spillway:
A suitable site for the spillway should be available in the vicinity of the dam if the
spillway is to be located separately from the dam, especially in the case of earth or rick
fill dam. However, in the spillway is to be an integral part of the dam then there is no
special site requirement for the spillway.
4. Materials:
Materials required for a particular type of dam should be available nearby, without
requiring much of transportation. This would very much reduce the cost of
construction.
5. Reservoir and Catchment Area:
1. The site should ensure adequate storage capacity of reservoir basin at a minimum
cost.
2. The cost of land and property submerged in the water spread area should be
minimum.
3. The reservoir site should be such that quantity of leakage through its side and bed is
minimum.
4. The geological conditions of the catchment area should be such that percolation losses
are minimum and maximum run off is obtained.
5. The site should be such that deep reservoir is formed. A deep reservoir is preferable
to shallow one because of a) lower cost of land submerged per unit of capacity b)) less
evaporation losses because of reduction in water spread area and c) less likelihood of
weed growth.
6. Communication:
It would be preferable to select a site which is connected by a road or rail link or can be
convenient by connected to the site for transportation of cement, labour, machinery,
food and other equipment.
7. Locality:
The surrounding near the site should preferably be healthy and free of mosquito etc, as
labour and staff colonies have to be constructed near the site.

Factors governing selection of type of dam:

The selection of a type of a dam at a given site depends upon many physical factors
such as topography, geological and foundation conditions, available materials, suitable
site for spillway, data about earthquake etc.
Before selecting the best type of dam at a particular site, one must consider the
characteristics of each type of dam, as related to the physical features of the site and
adaption to the purposes the dam is supposed to serve, as well as economy, safety and
other pertinent limitations.
The choice of a dam may also be guided by many local problems such as availability of
labour and equipment, accessibility of site, limitations imposed by outlet works and
cost of protection needed from spillway discharge as well as time required for its
construction.

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Some of the physical facts governing the selection of type of dam are discussed below.
1. Topography:
The first choice of dam is usually governed by the topography for the site. A low
rolling plains country suggests an earth dam with a separate spillway. A low narrow V-
shaped valley suggests an arch dam; provided the top width of valley is less than one
fourth its height and separate site for spillway is available. A narrow stream following
between high, rocky walls (giving rise to a U-shaped valley) would suggest a concrete
over flow dam. In intermediate conditions, other factors such as foundation condition,
location of suitable site for spillway and availability of materials of construction play an
important role in the selection of the type.
2. Geology and foundation conditions:
The next important fact is the geology and foundation conditions. If the foundation
consists of sound rock, with no fault or fissures, any type of dam can be constructed on
it. Rocks like granite, gniss and schist make very satisfactory foundation for gravity
dam. However, these rocks may have sums or fractures. The removal of disintegrated
rock together with the sealing of seams and fractures by grouting will frequently be
necessary.
1. Poor rock or gravel foundations are suitable for earth dam, rock fill dam or low
concrete gravity dam. Since there will be considerable under seepage in this case,
effective water cutoffs or seals have to be provided.
2. Silt or fine sand foundations have the problems of settlement, seepage and toe-
erosion. Hence such foundations are suitable only for either earth dam or low concrete
gravity dam but not rock fill dams.
3. Clay foundations have often the problems of long range consolidation under the
weight of the dam, resulting in cracks. Hence only earth dams are suitable with proper
foundation treatment. Gravity dams or rock fill dams are not suitable on clay
foundations.
3. Materials of Construction:
The next important fact is the availability of materials of construction for dam. The cost
of construction of a particular type of dam will depend upon the availability of the
materials in nearby area, so that transportation charges are reduced. If sand, gravel and
crushed stone are available, a concrete gravity dam may be more suitable. If however,
course and fine grained soils are available an earth dam may be suitable. The
preliminary selection of a particular type, based on the first tow physical factors, must
correspond with the easy availability of the materials required for its construction
otherwise that type of dam should be dropped.

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Spill way size and location:
The safe discharge of flood water through a dam is very essential, and for that suitable
site for spillway should be available. The size and type of spillway are mainly decided
by the magnitude of the flood to be bypassed and its location depends on the site
conditions. The choice of the type of dam is also affected by size, type and location of
spillway.
If a large spillway is required to be provided, and then spillway and dam are combined
in to one structure, in which case concrete dam may be adopted.
If small spillway is required, then earth dam or rock fill dam may the choice.
The spillway may be located either away from the dam or within t he limits of the dam.
When spillway is located at a site away from the dam, then entire dam can be non-over
flow type and the choice may include rigid as well as non-rigid dams.
In case the spillway to occupy only a portion of Main River the dam will include an
overflow type of spillway and the reminder could be non-over flow dam of earth, rock
or concrete.
5. Road way:
If road a way is to be passed over the top of the dam an earth dam or gravity dam
could be preferred.
6. Length & Height of Dam:
If the length of dam is very long and its height is low, an earth dam could be better
choice. If the length is small but height is more gravity dam is preferred.
7. Life of dam:
Concrete or Masonry gravity dams have very long life. Earth and Rock fill dams have
intermediate life. However timber dams are adopted only for temporary storages.
 RESERVOIRS

When a barrier is constructed across some river in the form of a dam, water gets stored
on the upstream side of the barrier, forming a pool of water, generally called a
reservoir, or an impounding reservoir or a storage reservoir.
Storage is done during the period when the flow is in excess of the demand for release
during the lean supply period.

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Reservoirs are constructed to serve many purposes, which includes:
1. Storage and control of water for irrigation.
2. Storage and diversion of water for domestic uses.
3. Water supplies for industrial uses.
4. Development of Hydroelectric power.
5. Increasing water depths for navigation.
6. Storage space for flood control.
7. Reclamation of low-lying lands
The reservoirs on the other hand have certain disadvantages:
1. Submergence of fertile valley lands.
2. Displacement of large population from reservoir area and their resettlement cost at
new area.
3. Adverse effects on the ecology of the present area.
4. Flooding the forest and displacement of wild life.

Classification of Reservoirs:
Reservoirs are classified as below, on the basis of the purpose served by them.

RESERVOIR

Storage Flood control Distribution Multipurpose Balancing

Reservoir Reservoir Reservoir Reservoir Reservoir

Retarding Detention

1. Storage Reservoir:
Also termed as conservation reservoir. They are primarily used for water supply for
irrigation, hydro electric power development, domestic and industrial uses. Storage
reservoir stores surplus water during the period of excess flow so as to maintain
continuous supply during the period of lean supply in the river, but when demand is
keen.

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2. Flood Control Reservoir:
Flood protection reservoirs are those which store water during flood and release it
gradually at a safe rate when the flood reduces. By the provision of artificial storage
during the floods, flood damage downstream is reduced.
Fig.2 shows a typical inflow and out flow Hydrograph for a reservoir. ABC is the
natural Hydrograph at the dam site having a maximum flood discharge Q 1. By the
construction of the dam, the natural Hydrograph is moderated by the reservoir as
shown by dotted lines AB’C. Thus the flood discharge is reduced from Q 1 to Q2. The
area shown as hatched represents the storage to be provided in the reservoir. The
portion marked by dots represents the excess volume released latter. Construction of
reservoir solely for flood control measures is not advisable except in very special cases
due to high cost of construction.

Flood control reservoirs may be either retarding reservoirs or detention reservoirs.

Retarding Reservoirs: A retarding reservoir is the one which is provided with outlets
and spillway not controlled by gates or valves. The discharging capacity of the outlets
and spillway is so fixed that it is not in excess of the flood carrying capacity of the
reservoir channel downstream. With the rise in the reservoir level, the amount of water
released is such as would not create flooding the areas downstream. They are preferred
on small rivers.
Detention Reservoirs: Detention Reservoirs are those which have gated outlets so as to
provide greater flexibility in the operation of reservoirs. They are especially suitable
when the area under control increased in size and protected area is wide spread.

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3. Distribution Reservoir:
A distribution reservoir is a small storage reservoir constructed within a city water
supply system. Such a reservoir is required to fulfill the varying demands of the
consumers at different periods of the day. The water is stored during the period of no
demand or slack demand to meet the demand in excess of constant pumping rate form
the storage during the period of maximum demand. The reservoir thus permits the
pumping plants and water treatment plants to work at uniform rate.
4. Multipurpose Reservoir:
A Multipurpose reservoir is that which serves more than one purpose. For example a
reservoir designed to protect the downstream area from floods, and to store water for
irrigation and Hydroelectric purposes is a multipurpose reservoir.
5. Balancing Reservoir:
It is a reservoir, usually of limited capacity located downstream of (or subsidiary to) a
main reservoir, to store the water let down from the reservoir in excess of that reservoir
for irrigation or additional power generation.

Selection of site for a Reservoir:

The selection of site for reservoir depends on the following factors:
1. Suitable dam site must be available where the reservoir is proposed to be constructed.
2. The river valley at the site should be narrow so that the length of the dam to be
constructed is less, but it should be open out on upstream side to provide a large basin
for the reservoir.
3. The surrounding hills which constitute the rim of the reservoir should be water tight,
so that there is no leakage of water through any part of the rim.
4. The site should be such that as far as possible minimum land and property is
submerged in the reservoir.
5. The site should be such that it avoids water from those tributaries which carry
unusually high content of sediment.
6. The site must be such that adequate reservoir capacity is made available.
7. As far as possible a deep reservoir must be formed so that the land costs per unit
capacity is low, evaporation loss is less and there is less likelihood of weed growth.
8. Soil in the catchment area does not contain harmful soluble salts and minerals
9. Good run off from the catchment area with minimum percolation losses.
10. The site should be such that the costs of associated works such as roads, rails
housing colonies for workers and other staff etc are not excessive.

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Storage zones of a Reservoir:
The entire storage capacity of a reservoir may be divided into a number of zones by
certain water surfaces or pool levels in the reservoir as indicated below:
Normal pool level (N.P.L):
It is the maximum elevation to which the water surface will rise in the reservoir during
ordinary operating conditions. In case of an ungated spillway the normal pool level is
determined by the elevation of the spillway crest. However, if the spillway is gated then
the normal pool level is determined by the top of the spillway gates. The normal pool
level is also known as Full Reservoir Level (FRL) or Full Tank Level (FTL).
Minimum Pool Level:
It is the lowest elevation to which the water is drawn from the reservoir under normal
conditions. This level may be fixed by the elevation of the lowest outlet in the dam, or in
case of hydroelectric reservoir, by the minimum head required for efficient functioning
of turbines.
Maximum Pool Level:
During high floods water is discharged over the spillway, but will cause the water level
to rise in the reservoir above the normal pool level. It is the max elevation to which the
water surface will rise in the reservoir during the design flood (or worst flood). It is also
Maximum Water Level (MWL) or Full Reservoir Level (FRL) or
known as
Maximum Pool Level.

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The various zones of storage in a reservoir are as follows:
a) Useful Storage
b) Dead Storage
c) Surcharge Storage
d) Bank Storage
e) Valley Storage

a) Useful Storage:
The volume of water stored between the Normal Pool Level and Minimum Pool Level
of reservoir is called Useful Storage. In multipurpose reservoir the useful storage may be
subdivided into conservation storage and flood control storage in accordance with the
adopted plan of operation of the reservoir. The useful storage is also known as ‘live
storage’ as it can be used for various purposes required to be served by the reservoir.
b) Dead Storage:
The volume of water hold below the Minimum Pool Level of a reservoir is known as
dead storage. It cannot be used for any purpose under ordinary operating conditions.
c) Surcharge Storage:
The volume of water stored between the Normal Pool Level and Maximum Pool Level
of a reservoir is called surcharge storage. The surcharge storage is an uncontrolled
storage as it exists only while a flood is occurring and cannot be retained for later use.
d) Bank Storage:
The bank storage is the volume of water that is temporarily stored in the permeable
banks of a reservoir when the reservoir fills and drains out as the water level in the
reservoir is lowered. The bank storage effectively increases the capacity of the reservoir
above that indicated by elevation-capacity curve. The amount of bank storage depends
on geologic conditions and may account to several percent of the reservoir volume.
e) Valley Storage:
The volume of water held by a natural stream channel is known as Valley Storage. Even
before a reservoir is constructed certain amount of water is stored in the natural stream
channel as a Valley Storage which may however vary.

Reservoir Yield:
The most important aspect of the design of storage reservoir is an analysis of the
relation between yield and capacity.
Yield is the amount of water which can be supplied from the reservoir in a specified
interval of time.

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The time interval may vary from a day for small distribution reservoir to a year or more
for a large storage reservoir. Yield is dependent upon inflow and will vary from year to
year.
For most of the storage reservoir in addition to yield it is also necessary to know safe or
firm yield and secondary yield.
Safe or firm yield is the maximum quantity of water which can be supplied during a
critical (or worst) dry period. In practice the period of lowest natural flow on record for
the stream is usually taken as the critical period.
Secondary yield is the quantity of water available in excess of safe yield during periods of
high flows.
Average yield is the arithmetic average of firm or secondary yield over a long period of
time.
The yield of a reservoir and its storage capacity are very much dependent on each other.
Further the storage capacity of reservoir also depends on the inflow to a reservoir. The
Inflow, yield and storage capacity of a reservoir are related by the following storage
equation:
Inflow – Yield = change in storage
The reservoir capacity corresponding to a specific yield is determined with the help of a
mass inflow curve or mass curve and the demand curve.

Mass Curve:
A mass curve or mass inflow curve is a plot between cumulative inflows in the reservoir
with time. Or it is a plot between accumulated flows in a river against time.
A mass curve can be prepared from the flow hydrograph of a river for a large number
of consecutive previous years.

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Fig.4 shows a flood hydrograph of inflow for several years. Fig.5 shows a mass curve
prepared from the flood hydrograph of Fig 4.Taking the starting year (i.e. 1957) as the
base, the total quantity of water from 1957 to time t1 (say 1960) that has flown through
the river is the volume represented by the hatched area. In the mass curve (Fig 5), the
corresponding ordinate at time t1 (ordinate AB) will, therefore, be equal to the volume
of water indicated by the hatched area of Fig 4. Similarly, the ordinates of the mass
curve corresponding to other years can be computed from Fig 4 and plotted.

A mass curve continuously rises as it shows accumulated inflow. If there is no inflow

during certain period, the mass curve will be horizontal during that period. The mass
curve will rise very sharply during the period of high flood. Thus relatively dry periods
are indicated as concave depressions on the mass curve. The mass curve may also be
called RIPPLE DIAGRAM. The slope of the mass curve of any time is a measure of the
inflow rate at that time.

Demand Curve:
A demand curve is a plot between accumulated demands with time. If the demand is at
constant rate then the demand curve is a straight line having its slope equal to the
demand rate (Fig 6a).If the demand is not constant then the demand curve will be
curved indicating variable rate of demand (Fig 6b).

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Estimation of capacity of reservoir using mass curve:

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1. A mass curve is prepared form the flow hydrograph for the number of consecutive
years.
2. Corresponding to the given rate of demand, a demand occurs is prepared. If the rate
of demand is constant, the corresponding demand curve is a straight line.
3. Lines such as GH, FJ etc are drawn parallel to the demand curve and tangential to the
high points G, F, etc, of the mass curve (or the points at the beginning of dry periods)
4. The maximum vertical intercepts X1Y1; X2Y2 etc between tangential lines drawn in
step (3) and the mass curve are measured. The vertical intercepts indicate the volume by
which the total flow in the stream falls short of the demand and hence required to be
provided from the reservoir storage. For example assuming the reservoir to be full at G,
for periods corresponding to points G and Z1, there is a total flow in the stream
represented by Y1 Z1 land there is total demand represented by X1Z1,leaving a gap of
volume represented by X1 Y1 which must be met with from the reservoir storage.
5. The largest of the max vertical intercepts X1Y1, X2Y2 etc., determined in step (4)
represents the reservoir capacity to satisfy the given demand. However the requirement
of storage so obtained would be the net storage which must be available for utilization
and it must be increased by the amount of water lost by evaporation and seepage.
The vertical distance between the successive tangential lines such as GH and FJ
represents the quantity of water which would spill over from the reservoir through the
spillway and so as a waste to the downstream side. This is so because between H and F
the reservoir would remain full and all inflow in excess of demand would flow through
the spillway to the downstream side.
Further it may also be noted that tangential lines drawn parallel to the demand curve
when extended forward must intersect the mass curve such as H, J etc so that the
reservoir which was full at G and F will be filled again at H and J. However if the line
does not intersect the mass curve, the reservoir will not be filled again. Moreover, if the
reservoir is very large the time interval between the points G and H, F and J may be
several years.

25
 GRAVITY DAMS

A gravity dam has been defined as a structure which is designed in such a way that its
own weight resists the external forces. This type of dam is most commonly used. The
most ancient gravity dam on record was built in Egypt more than 400 B.C. of
uncemented masonry. Gravity dams may be made of either masonry or cement
concrete. However with the advent of most improved methods of construction, quality
control, and curing, cement concrete is mostly used. The gravity dams are mostly solid.
However they can be constructed hollow also. The highest dams in the world are of
gravity type. The highest gravity dam in the world is Grand Dixence Dam in Switzerland
(284 m) followed by Bhakra Dam in India (226 m). Fig.1 shows a typical cross section of a
concrete gravity dam.

Forces acting on gravity Dam:

The various external forces acting on a gravity dam may be:
1. Water Pressure
2. Uplift Pressure
3. Pressure due to earth quake forces
4. Silt Pressure
5. Wave Pressure
6. Ice Pressure
7. Weight of the dam

1
1. Water Pressure: Water Pressure (P) is the most major external force acting on a
dam. The Horizontal water Pressure, exerted by the weight of water stored on U/S of
dam can be estimated from rule of Hydrostatic Pressure distribution; which is
triangular in shape as shown in Fig.2 and Fig.3.

When the U/S face is vertical, the intensity is zero at the water surface and
equal to wH at the base; where W is unit weight of water and H is the depth of the
1 H
water. The resultant force due to this external water = wH 2 acting at from the base.
2 3

2
 When the U/S face is partly vertical and partly inclined (Fig.3), the
resulting water force can be resolved into Horizontal component (P 1) and vertical
1 H
component (P2). The Horizontal component P1 = wH 2 acting at from the bass; and the
2 3
vertical component P2 is equal to the weight of water stored in the column ABCDA and
acts at the CG of the area.
Similarly, if there is tail water on D/S, it will have Horizontal and
Vertical components as shown in Fig.3.

2. Uplift Pressure: Water seeping through the pores, cracks and fissures of the
foundation material, and water seeping through the dam body and then to the bottom
through the joints between the body of the dam and its foundation at the base; exert an
uplift pressure on the base of the dam. It is the second major external face and must be
accounted for all calculations. Such an uplift force vertically reduces the down ward
weight of the body of dam and hence, acts against the dam stability.
The amount of uplift is a matter of research and the present
recommendations which are followed, are those suggested by United States Bureau of
Reclamation (USBR). According to these recommendations, the uplift pressure
intensities at the Heel and Toe should be taken equal to their respective hydrostatic
pressures and joined by a straight line in between as shown in Fig.4a.

3
 When drainage galleries are provided to relieve the uplift, the
recommended uplift at the face of the gallery is equal to the hydrostatic pressure at Toe
1
(wHI) plus rd the difference of hydrostatic pressures at the Heel and Toe as shown in
3
1
Fig.4b; i.e. [ wHI + (wH – wHI)]. It is also assumed that uplift pressures are not
3
affected by earthquake forces.

The uplift pressures can be controlled by constructing cut- off walls

under the upstream face, by constructing drainage channels between the dam and its
foundation, and by pressure grouting the foundation.

3. Earthquake Forces: If the dam to be designed is to be located in a region which is

susceptible to earthquakes, allowance must be made for the stresses generated by the
earthquakes.
An earth quakes produces waves which are capable of shaking the Earth
upon which the dam is resting, in every possible direction.

4
 The effect of an earthquake is, therefore, equivalent to imparting
acceleration to the foundations of the dam in the direction in which the waves is
travelling at the moment. Earthquake wave may move in any direction, and for design
purposes, it has to be resolved in Vertical and Horizontal components. Hence two
accelerations i.e. one Horizontal acceleration (αh) and one Vertical acceleration (αv) are
induced by an earthquake. The values of these accelerations are generally expressed as
percentage of the acceleration due to gravity (g), i.e. α= 0.1g or 0.2g, etc.
In India the entire country has been divided into five seismic zones
depending upon the severity of earth quakes. Zone V is the most serious zone and
includes Himalayan regions of North India.
On an average, a value of α equal to 0.1 to 0.15 g is generally
sufficient for high dams in seismic zones. A value equal to 0.15 g has been used in
Bhakra dam and 0.2g in Ramaganga dam design. However for areas not subjected to
extreme earthquakes or very less earthquakes, αh = 0.1g and αv=0.05g may be used. In
extremely seismic regions and in conservative designs, even a value upto 0.3 g may
sometimes be adopted.

Effect of Vertical acceleration (αV):

A vertical acceleration may either act downward or upward. When it is
acting in the upward direction, then the foundations of the dam will be lifted upward
and becomes closer to the body of the dam, and thus effective weight of dam will
increase and hence, the stresses developed will increase.
When the vertical acceleration is acting downward, the foundations
shall try to move downward away from the dam body; thus reducing the effective
weight and the stability of the dam, and hence is the worst case for designs.
Such acceleration will therefore exert an inertia force given by
W
v (i.e. force = Mass x acceleration)
g
Where W is the total weight of the dam.
W
 The net effective weight of the dam = W v
g
If αv = kv.g
Where Kv is the fraction of gravity adopted for vertical
acceleration such as 0.1 or 0.2, etc.

5
 The net effective weight of the dam
W
= W v.g W1 Kv
g
In other words vertical acceleration reduces the unit weight of dam
material and that of water to (1-Kv) times their original unit weights.

Effects of Horizontal acceleration (αh):

The Horizontal acceleration may cause the following two forces:
1. Hydrodynamic Pressure; and
2. Horizontal Inertia Force.
1. Hydrodynamic Pressures: Horizontal acceleration acting towards the reservoir
causes a momentary increase In the water pressure, as the foundation and dam
accelerate towards the reservoir and the water resists the movement owing to its Inertia.
The extra pressure exerted by this process is known as ‘Hydrodynamic Pressure’.
According to VON-KARMAN the amount of this Hydrodynamic force (Pe) is given by:
4H
Pe = 0.555 kh.w.H2 and it acts at a height of above the base,as shown in Fig.5.
3
Where kh = the fraction of gravity adopted for horizontal acceleration, such as 0.1, 0.2
etc.
w = unit weight of water
Moment of this force about the base
4H
Me = P e = 0.424 Pe H
3

6
 Zanger has given certain big formulas for evaluating the amount of this
force and its position, etc. on the vertical as well as on an inclined faces. The results of
these big formulas are quite comparable to those given by Von-Karman equation and
hence, for average ordinary purposes, the Von-Karman equation is sufficient.
ZANGER’s Formula for Hydrodynamic Pressure:
Pe = 0.726 pe H
Where pe = Cm. Kh.w.H
 Pe = 0.726 Cm.Kh.wH2
Where Cm = Maximum value of pressure co-efficient for a given constant slope.

= 0.735 0
90
 = angle in degrees, which the U/S face of the dam makes with the Horizontal.
Kh = Fraction of gravity adopted for horizontal acceleration αh such as αh = Kh.gw
w = unit weight of water.
The moment of this face about the base is given by
Me = 0.299 pe. H2
Pe
= 0.299 .H 2
0.726H
Me = 0.412 Pe H
It was further stated that if the upstream face is partly inclined (Fig.6a), which does not
exceed to more than half of depth of the reservoir, it can be taken as vertical. If the slope
extends to more than half the depth (Fig.6b), the overall slope upto the whole height
may be taken as the value of in the eq. of Cm

7
2. Horizontal Inertia Force: In addition to exerting the Hydrodynamic Pressure, the
Horizontal acceleration produces an inertia force into the body of the dam. This force is
generated in order to keep the body and the foundation of the dam together as one
piece. The direction of the produced force will be opposite to the acceleration imparted
by the earthquake. For the worst case, when the reservoir is full this force should act
downstream (i.e. when Horizontal acceleration towards the reservoir is produced). The
amount of this force is equal to the product of the Mass of the dam and the acceleration.
W w
 This Horizontal Inertia Force =
g g
(where Kh is the fraction of gravity adopted for Horizontal acceleration such as 0.1 and
0.2 etc).
This force should be considered to be acting at the centre of gravity of the mass,
regardless of the shape of the cross section and it acts horizontally downstream in worst
cases for reservoir full case.

4. Silt Pressure: If h is the height of silt deposited, then the force exerted by this silt in
addition to external water pressure can be represented by Rankine’s Formula as:
1
P silt = ws h 2 k a and it acts at h/3 from base.
2
1 sin
Ka is the coefficient of active earth pressure of silt = where the angle of
1 sin
internal friction of soil, and cohesion is is neglected
ws = submerged unit weight of silt material.
h = Height of silt deposited.
If the upstream face is inclined, the vertical weight of the silt supported
on the slop also act as vertical force.
According to USBR recommendations, deposited silt may be taken as
equivalent to a fluid exerting a force with a density equal to 360 kg/m 3 in the
Horizontal directions and vertical force with a density of 920 kg/m3.
h2
Hence the total Horizontal force will be 360 = 180 h2
2
h2
and vertical force will be 920 = 460 h2
2
In most of the gravity dam designs, the silt pressure is neglected,
the basis for neglecting this force is that:

8
Initially, the silt load is not present, and by the time if becomes significant, it gets
consolidated to some extent and, therefore, acts less like a fluid. Moreover, silt
deposited in reservoir is somewhat impervious and, therefore, will help to minimise the
uplift under the dam.

5. Wave Pressure: Waves are generated on the surface of the reservoir by the blowing
wind, which exerts a pressure towards the downstream side. Wave pressure depends
upon wave height.
Wave height may given by equation:
hw = 0.032 V .F 0.763 0.271(F ) 3 4 For F < 32 KM

hw = 0.032 V F for F> 32 KM

where hw = Height of water from top of crest to bottom of though in metres.
V = wind velocity in KM/hr
F = Straight length of water expense in KM
The maximum pressure intensity due to water action may be given by
hw
pw = 2.4 w.hw and acts at m above the still water surface.
8
5hw
The pressure distribution may be assumed to be triangular of Height
3
as shown in Fig.7.
Hence the total force due to wave action (P w)
1
= 2.4 w hw. 5 hw
2 3
= 2 w (hw) 2
= 2000 hw2 kg/ m or 19.62 hw2 KN/m
3
and this force acts at a distance of hw above the reservoir surface.
8

9
6. Ice Pressure: The Ice which may be formed on the water surface of the reservoir in
cold countries may sometimes melt and expand. The dam face has then to resist the
thrust exerted the expanding Ice. The coefficient of thermal expansion of Ice being five
times more than that of concrete. This force acts linearly along the length of the dam at
the reservoir level and its magnitude varies from 2.5 to 15 kg/cm 2 ( 250 to 1500 KN/m2)
depending upon temperature variations. On an average, a value of 5kg/cm 2 ( 500
KN/m2) may be allowed under ordinary conditions.

7. Weight of dam: The weight of the dam body and its foundation is the major
resisting force. In two dimensional analysis of a gravity dam, a unit length of gravity
dam may be considered. The cross-section can then be divided into rectangles and
triangles. The weight of each along with their C.G can be determined. The resultant of
all these downward forces will represent the total weight of dam acting at the C.G of the
dam.

Causes of Failure of Gravity Dam:

Following are the modes of failure of a gravity dam:
1. Overturning
2. Sliding
3. Compression or crushing
4. Tension

1. Overturning: The overturning of the dam section takes place when the resultant
force at any section cuts the base of the dam downstream of toe. In that case the
resultant moment at the toe becomes clockwise (or-ve). On the other hand, if the
resultant cuts the base with in the body of the dam, there will be no overturning.
In stability requirements the dam must be safe against overturning. The factor of
safety against overturning is defined as the Ratio of Righting moment (+ve) to the over
turning moments.
Righting Moments
FS = 
 over turning moments
= M R
M 0
Since the magnitude and direction of each and every force considered in the
previous articles are known, their moments above the toe can very easily be found and
FS computed. The FS against overturning should not less than 1.5.

10
2. Sliding: Sliding (or shear failure) will occur when the net Horizontal force above any
plane in the dam or at the base of the dam exceeds the frictional resistance developed at
that level.

The friction developed between two surfaces (Fig.7) is equal to V

whereV is the algebraic sum of all the vertical forces whether upward or
downward, and is the coefficient of friction between the surfaces.
In order that no sliding takes place, the external Horizontal forces ( H )
must be less than the shear resistance  V
OR H V
 V
1
H
 V
Represents the Factor of Safety against sliding
H
which must be greater than unity.
 V
 Factor of Safety against sliding=F.S.S =
H
In low dams, the safety against sliding should be checked only
for friction, but in high dams for economical precise designs the shear strength of the
joint which is an additional shear resistance, must also be considered.
If this shear resistance of the joint is also considered, then the
equation for Factor of Safety against Sliding which is measured by shear friction factor
(S.F.F) becomes.

11
 V Bq
SFF =
H
Where B = width of the dam at joint
q = average shear strength of the joint which varies from
14kg/cm2 ( 1400 KN/m2 )for poor rocks to 40 kg/cm2 (4000 KN/m2)for good rocks.
The value of generally varies from 0.65 to 0.75.
Attempts are always made to increase this shear strength (q) at the base
and at other joints. For this purpose, foundation is stepped at the base as shown in Fig.8
and measures are taken to ensure a better bond between the dam base and rock
foundation.
During construction of dam, Horizontal joints have to be left as shown in
Fig.8. The shear strength of these joints should be made as good as possible by ensuring
better bond between the two surfaces. For this purpose, the lower surface must be
thoroughly cleaned and a layer of neat cement or rich cement motor should be spread
before pouring the standard concrete mix for the upper layer. If these precautions of
quality control are not adhered to in the field, the assumption made in accounting for
this shear strength in design, will not be justified. That is why for small dams, where
quality control is less, this shear strength of the joint is not taken into account at all,
while determining the shear friction factor or of safety against sliding.

12
3. Compression or Crushing: A dam may fail by the failure of its material i.e. the
compressive stresses produced may exceed the allowable stresses, and the dam material
may get crushed.
The vertical direct stresses distribution at the base is given by the equation
p = direct stress + bending stress

V V .e V 6e
Pmax/ min =  
B 1 1 2 B 1 B
B
6
where e = Eccentricity of the resultant forces from the centre of the base.
V = total vertical force
B = Base width
The positive sign will be used for calculating normal stress at the toe and negative sign
will be used for calculating normal stress at the heel.

13
Fig.9. shows the normal stress distribution for a general case when the pressure at both
Toe and Heel is compressive. Evidently, the maximum compressive stress occurs at the
Toe and For safety, this should not be greater than the allowable compressive stress ‘f’
For foundation material. Hence from strength point of view
V 6e
1  f
b V
B
When the eccentricity e is equal to we get
6
V 6B 2V
Pmax Toe = 1  
B B6 B
The corresponding stress at the heel in that circumstance will evidently be zero.
If Pmin comes out to be negative, it means that tension shall be produced at the
appropriate end.
If Pmax exceeds the allowable compressive stress the dam material (originally taken as 30
kg/cm2 for concrete) the dam may crush and fail by crushing.

4. Tension: Masonry and concrete gravity dams are usually design in such a way that
no tension is developed anywhere, because these materials cannot with stand sustained
tensile stresses. If subjected to such stresses these materials may finally crack. However,
for achieving economy in designs of very high gravity dams, certain amount of tension
may be permitted under severest loading conditions. This may be permitted because of
the fact that such worst loading conditions shall occur only momentarily for a little time
and would neither last long nor occur frequently. The max permissible tensile stress for
high concrete dams, under worst loading, may be taken as 5kg / cm 2 (500 KN/m2).
Effect produced by Tension cracks:

14
 In a dam, when such a tension crack develops say at the Heal, crack width (or strictly
speaking crack area) loses contact with the bottom foundations, and thus becomes
ineffective.
Hence, the effective width B (considering unit length) of the dam base will be
reduced. This will increase Pmax at the Toe.
Moreover the uplift pressure diagram gets modified due to crack formation, as
shown in Fig.10, resulting in an increase in the uplift. Since the uplift increases and the
net effective down ward force reduces, the resultant will shift more towards the toe and
thus further increasing the compressive stress at toe and further lengthening the crack
due to further tension development. The process continues; the effective base width
goes on reducing and compressive stresses at the toe goes on increasing; finally leading
to the failure of the toe by direct compression. Hence, a tension crack by itself does not
fail the structure, but it leads to the failure of structure by providing excessive
compressive stresses.
In order to ensure that no tension is developed anywhere, we must ensure that
Pmin is at the most equal to zero.
V 6e
Pmin =
B 1 B
if Pmin = 0

v 6e 6e
1 0
B 1 B  0 B
B
e=
6
Hence maximum value of eccentricity that can be permitted on either side of the centre
is equal to B/6; which leads to the famous statement: the resultant must lie within the
middle third.

Elementary profile of a Gravity Dam:

The elementary profile of a dam, subjected only to the external water pressure on the
U/S side will be a Right angled Triangle, having zero width at the water level and a
base width ‘B’ at bottom. In other words, the shape of such a profile is similar to the
shape of the hydrostatic Pressure distribution. (Fig.11.)
When the reservoir is empty, the only single force acting on it is the self weight
(W) of the dam and it acts at a distance of B/3 from the heel. This is the Maximum
possible inner most position of the resultant for no tension to develop. Hence such a

15
 line of action of ‘W’ is the most ideal, as it gives the Maximum possible stabilizing
moment about the toe without causing tension at toe, when the reservoir is empty.

The vertical stress distribution at the base when the reservoir is empty is given by:
6e
Pmax/min = 1
B B
B
WhereV w e
6
max W 6B
p  1
min B 6B
2W
Pmax = Pmin = 0
B
2W
Hence Max vertical stress equal to will act at the heel (The resultant is nearer the
B
heel) and the vertical stress at the toe will be zero.
When the reservoir is full the base width is governed by:
1. The resultant of all the forces, i.e. P, W and U passes through the outer most middle
third point (i.e. lower middle third point).
2. The dam is safe in sliding

16
1.For the first condition to be satisfied, we proceed as follows:
Talking moments of all the forces about the lower middle third point. For the reservoir
full condition for no tension to develop, the resultant ‘R’ must pass through the outer
third point .
B B H
W  U  P  R 0
3 3 3
B H
(W-U)  P. =0
3 3
1
Where W =  B H 1 Sg w Sg = sp. Gravity of the dam material
2
w = unit weight of water
1
U= c.w.HB c = uplift pressure intensity pressure coefficient.(USBR
2
recommendation is taken equal to 1)
1 wH 2

P= .w.H. H =
2 2
1 1 B wH 2 H
. 0
2 BH . S g w 2 c.w.HB 3 2 3
B1 WH 3
 BH .w S g c 
32
  6
B2 (Sg – c) = H2
H
 B
S g c
H
Hence if B is taken equal to or greater than no tension will be developed at the
S g c
heel with full reservoir.

C is a constant according to USBR recommendation is taken equal to 1.0 in calculations

and will be equal to zero when no uplift is considered.
H
B= ,
S g 1
H
Uplift not considered B=
Sg

17
2. For second condition (i.e. dam is safe in sliding) to be satisfied:
The frictional resistanceV or (W U ) should be equal to or more than the
Horizontal forcesH P
W U P
1 1 wH 2
2 2 2
1 wH 2
2 2

H
B
S g c
H
Under limiting condition B
S g c
H H
If c = 1 B If C = 0 B=
S g
The vertical stress distribution when the reservoir is full is given by
V 6e
Pmax/min =
B 1 B
V W U
1 1
= BH .S g w
2 2 cw.HB

=
1
2

BwH S g c  e = B/6

1
2

.Bw.H S g c  6B
 Pmax/ min 1
B 6B
Max stress will occur at toe, because the resultant is near the toe,
1
Pmax at Toe = wHS g c2 wHS g c
2
 Pv at Toe = wH (Sg – c)

Pmin at Heel = 0

18
The principal stress near the toe ( ) which is the maximum normal stress in the dam is
given by:
 = Pv Sec2 - P’ tan2

Where there is no tail water P’ = 0

 = Pv Sec2

 at toe, with full reservoir, in elementary profile

= wH (Sg-c) Sec2 

= wH (Sg – c) (1+tan2 )

B2
= wH (Sg – c) 1
H2

H B2 1 1
But B =  
S g c H ( S g c ) S g c
2 2

1
 = wH (Sg – c) 1
S g c

 = wH (Sg – c + 1)

The Shear Stress to at the Horizontal plane near the toe is given by eq.

0= (Pv - P’) tan 

if P’ = 0 0 = Pv tan

But Pv = wH (Sg – c) 0 = wH (Sg – c) tan 

B
= wH (Sg – c)
H
1
= wH (Sg – c)
S g c

 0 wH S g c

19
High and Low Gravity dams:
The principal stress calculated for an elementary profile is given by eq.  = wH(Sg-c+1).
The value of principal stress above varies only with ‘H’ as all other factors are fixed.
To avoid dam failure by crushing, the value of ‘  ’ should be less than or at the
most equal to the Maximum allowable compressive stress of dam material. If ‘f’
represents the allowable stress of the dam material, then the Maximum height (H max)
which can be obtained in an elementary profile, without exceeding the allowable
compressive stresses of the dam material, is given by
f = wH (Sg – c+1)
f
OR H=
wS g c 1
The lowest value of ‘H’ will be obtained when c = 0 i.e. when uplift is neglected. Hence
for determining the limiting height and to be on a safer side, uplift is neglected.
f
Hmax i.e. maximum possible height =
wS g 1
Hence if the height of a dam having an elementary profile of triangle is more than that
given by above equation the Maximum compressive stress generated will exceed the
allowable value. In order to keep it safe within limits, extra slopes on upstream as well
as on the downstream, below the limiting height will have to be given, as shown in
Fig.12.

20
 This limiting height (Hmax) given by above equation, draws a dividing line
between a low gravity dam and a high gravity dam, which are purely technical terms to
differentiate between them.
Hence a low gravity dam is the one whose height is less than that given by the
above equation. If the height of the dam is more than this, it is known as high gravity
dam.
For generally adopted values of stress etc, the limiting height of a low concrete gravity
dam: f/w (Sg+1)
Where w = 9.81kN/m3 Sg = 2.4 f = 3000 kN/m 2
3000
Hmax =  90m
9.812.4 1

Practical profile of a Gravity dam:

The elementary profile of the dam is only a theoretical profile. However, such a profile
is not possible in practice because of the provision of (i) roadway at the top (ii)
additional loads due to the road way and (iii) free board. Due to these provisions, the
resultant force of the weight of the dam and water pressure falls outside the middle
third of the base of the dam when the reservoir is full. To eliminate tension, some
masonry is to be provided to the upstream side. Fig.13 shows the dimensions of the
practical profile of a gravity dam.

21
Stability Analysis:
The stability analysis of a gravity dam section may be carried out by the following
methods:
1. Gravity Method or two dimensional methods
a. Graphical Method
b. Analytical Method
2. Trail Load Twist Method
3. Slab Analogy Method
4. Lattice analogy Method
5. Experimental Methods
a. Direct Method
b. Indirect Method

Gravity Method:
The preliminary analysis of all gravity dams can be made easily by isolating a typical
cross section of the dam of unit width. This section is assumed to behave independently
of adjoining sections. In other words, the dam is considered to be made of number of
cantilevers of unit width each, which act independently of each other. This assumption
of independent functioning of each section disregards the beam action in the dam as a
whole.
If the vertical transverse joints of the dam are not grouted keyed together, this
assumption is nearly true. Hence for a wide U-shaped valley, where transverse joints
are not generally grouted this assumption is nearly satisfied. But for Narrow V-Shaped
valleys, where the transverse joints are keyed together and the entire dam acts
monolithically as a single body. In such cases preliminary designs may be done by
gravity method and precise final designs may be carried out by any of the available
three dimensional methods.
Assumptions: The various assumptions made in two dimensional designs of gravity
dam are summarized below:
1. The dam is considered to be composed of number of cantilevers each of which is 1m
thick and each of which acts independent of other.
2. No loads are transferred to the abutments by beam action.
3. The foundation and the dam behave as single unit, the joint being perfect.
4. The materials in the foundation and the body of the dam are Isotropic and
homogeneous.

22
5. The stresses developed in the foundation and the body of the dam is within elastic
limits.
6. No movements of the foundation are caused due to TransForce of loads
7. Small openings made in the body of the dam do not effect the general distribution of
stresses.

Graphical method:
In the graphical method, the entire dam section is divided into a number of Horizontal
sections of some suitable intervals particularly at the places where the slope changes as
shown in Fig.13.
For each section, the sum of the vertical forces ( ) and sum of all Horizontal forces (
H ) acting above the particular section are worked out and the resultant face (R) is
drawn graphically.
This is done for each section and a line joining all points where the individual resultants
cut the individual section is drawn.
This line represents the resultant force and should lie within the middle third for no
tension to develop.
The procedure should be carried out for reservoir full case as well as reservoir empty
case.
The resultant in both cases must show non development of tension in the dam body.

23
Analytical method:
The stability of the dam can be analyzed in the following steps:
1. Consider unit length of the dam
2. Workout the magnitude and directions of all vertical forces acting on the dam and
their algebraic sum i.e
3. Similarly work out all Horizontal forces and their algebraic sum i.e H
4. Determine the lever arm of all these forces about the toe.
5. Determine the movements of all these forces about the toe and find out the algebraic
sum of all those moments i.e.M
6. Find out the location of the resultant force by determining its distance from the toe

X
M
V
B
7. Find out the eccentricity ‘e’ of the resultant ‘R’ using e = X it must be less than
2
B/6 in order to ensure that no tension is developed anywhere in the dam.
V 6e
8. Determine the vertical stresses at toe and heel using eq. P v =
B 1 B
9. Determine the Max normal stresses i.e. principal stresses at the toe and the heel using
equations already discussed. They should not exceed the maximum allowable values.
10. Determine the factor of safety against overturning as equal to
 stabilizing moments ()
+ ve sign for anti clockwise direction and –ve sign used for
 disturbing moments ()
clockwise moments.
11. Determine the factor of safety against sliding using sliding factor = V /H
V Bq
Shear Friction Factor (SFF) =
H
Sliding factor must be greater than unity and SFF must be greater than 3 to 5. The
analysis should be carried out for reservoir full case as well as for reservoir empty case.

Galleries in gravity dam:

1. Galleries are the horizontal or sloping openings or passages left in the body of the
dam.
2. They may run longitudinally (parallel to dam axis) or transversely (normal to the
dam axis) and are provided at various elevations.
3. All the galleries are interconnected by steeply sloping passages or by vertical shafts
fitted with stairs or mechanical lifts.

24
4. The size of the gallery will depend upon the size of the dam and function of the
gallery.
Foundation gallery:
1. A gallery provided in a dam may serve one particular purpose or more than one
purpose. For example a gallery provided near the Rock foundation, serves to drain off
the water which percolates through the foundations. This gallery is called foundation
gallery or drainage gallery.
2. It runs longitudinally and is quite near to the U/S face of the dam.
3. Its size usually varies from 1.5 mx 2.2m to 1.8m x 2.4m
4. Drain holes are drilled from the floor of this gallery after the foundation grouting has
been completed. Seepage is collected through these drain holes.
5. The size of the gallery should be sufficient to accommodate at least a drilling
machine.
Inspection galleries:
1. The water which seeps through the body of the dam is collected by means of a system
of galleries provided at various elevations (say at height of 15m or 50) and inter
connected by vertical shafts.
2. All these galleries besides draining off seepage water serve inspection purpose. They
provide access to the interior of the dam and are therefore called inspection galleries.
They generally serve other purposes along with this purpose. Their main
functions are summarized below:
1. They intercept and drain off the water seeping through the dam body
2. The provided access to dam interior for observing the behavior of dam.
3. They provide enough space for carrying pipes etc, during artificial cooling of concrete
4. They provide access for grouting the contraction joints when this cannot be done
from the face of the dam.
5. They provide access to all the outlets and spillway gates by housing their electrical
and mechanical controls.
6. They provide space for drilling and grouting of the foundations.

25
 EARTH DAMS

Earth Dams have been built since early days of civilization. Today, as in the past, the
earth dams constitute to be the most common type of dams, since it is generally built of
locally available materials in their natural state with minimum of processing.

Types of Earth Dams:

Depending upon the method of construction, earth dams can be divided into two
categories:
i. Rolled Fill Dam
ii. Hydraulic Fill Dam

In the Rolled Fill Dam, the embankment is constructed in successive,

mechanically compacted layers. The suitable materials are transported from the borrow
pits to the construction site by suitable earth moving machinery. It is then spread by
bulldozers and sprinkled to form layers of limited thickness having proper water
content. They are then thoroughly compacted and bonded with the preceding layer by
means of power-operated rollers of proper design and weight.
In case of Hydraulic Fill Dam, the materials are excavated, transported and placed
by hydraulic methods. Flumes are laid at suitable gradient along the outer edge of the
embankment. The material, mixed with water at the barrow pits, is pumped and
washed into these flumes. The slush is discharged through the out-lets in the flumes, at
1
suitable interval along their length. The slush is thus flows towards the centre of the
bank. The coarse materials of the slush settle at the outer edge while the fine materials
settle at the centre. No compaction is done.
Rolled – Fill earth dams can further be sub-divided into following types:
1. Homogenous embankment type
2. Zoned embankment type
3. Diaphragm embankment type

1. Homogeneous embankment Type:

A purely homogeneous type earth dam is composed of single kind of
material (exclusive of the slope protection). They are used only for low to moderate
heights. A purely homogeneous section has been replaced by the modified
homogeneous section in which integral drainage system in the form of a horizontal
filter drain or rock toe is provided. This controls the action of seepage so as to permit
much steeper slopes. The drainage system also keeps the pheratic line well within the
body of the dam.
Homogenous dams usually composed of impervious or semi-impervious
soils to provide an adequate water barrier. However, the upstream slope has to be
flatter to make it safe during the ‘sudden draw down condition’.

2
2. Zoned embankment Type:
This type of dam is made up of more than one material. The most
common type of a rolled earth dam section is that which a central core is flanked by
zones of materials considerably more pervious. A suitable drainage system in the form
of a horizontal drain or a rock toe is also provided.
In this type outer shells are made of pervious, freely draining materials.
The shells give stability to the central impervious fill, and at the same time distribute

3
the load over a larger area in the foundation. Sometimes a semi pervious zone is
provided to serve as a transition between the outer shell and the central core. The
upstream pervious zone affords stability against Rapid draw down while the
downstream pervious zone acts as a drain to control the line of seepage. The Central
Impervious core cheeks the seepage.

4
 3. Diaphragm embankment Type:
This is a modification over the homogeneous embankment type, in
which the bulk of the embankment is constructed of pervious material and a thin
diaphragm of impermeable materials is provided to check the seepage. The diaphragm
may be of impervious soils, cement concrete, bituminous concrete etc and may be
placed either at the centre of the section as a central vertical core, or at the upstream face
as a blanket.
However the distribution between a diaphragm type and zoned type
must be clearly known. if the horizontal thickness of the diagram (made of impervious
soil) at any elevation is less than 10m or less than the height of embankment above any
corresponding elevation in the dam, the dam is of the diaphragm type. If the
impervious earth diaphragm equals or exceeds these thicknesses, the dam is considered
to be zoned embankment type.

Causes of failure of earth dams:

On the basis of investigation reports on most of the past failures, it has now been
possible to categorize the types of failures into three main classes:
1. Hydraulic Failures : 40%
2. Seepage Failures : 30%
3. Structural Failures : 30%
1. Hydraulic Failures:
Hydraulic failures include the following:
a). Over Topping
b). Wave erosion
c). Toe erosion
d). Gullying

5
a). Over Topping: The earth dam may get overtopped:
1) If the design flood is under estimated or
2) If the spillway is of insufficient capacity. Faulty operation of spillway gates etc may
also sometimes lead to over topping
3) Insufficient free board or
4) Settlement of foundation and embankment may also lead to over topping

b). Wave Erosion: Fig.9a shows failures due to wave erosion. The effects of wave are to
notch out earth from the upstream slope in the absence of proper slope protection in the
form of riprap. Rollers are developed in the waves which try to scoop out the earth.
Waves can also cause upstream slips (Fig.9b).

6
c). Toe Erosion: Toe erosion may occur due to two reasons:
a) Erosion due to Tail water. (Fig.10)
b) Erosion due to cross-currents that may come from spillway buckets or from exit areas
of outlets.
The Toe erosion can be avoided by providing thick rip rap on the D/S slope,
upto a height slightly above the tail water level. Diaphragm walls of sufficient length
and height should be provided to check the cross flow towards the earth dam.

d). Gullying: Downstream slope may fail due to the formation of gullies by heavy
down pour.(Fig.11). To eliminate failure due to gullying, proper berms, turfing and
good drainage system should be provided to the downstream side.

7
2. See page Failures:
Seepage failures may be due to:
a) Piping and
b) Sloughing.

a) Piping: The seepage of water through the body and foundation of the earth dam lead
to piping or progressive erosion of concentrated leaks, causing a large number of
catastrophic failures. Water seeping through the earth dam may have four bad effects.
1) Seeping water generates erosive forces which dislodge particles from the soil
structure and cause rearrangement or migration of the fines to voids between larger
grains.
2) The flow with its associated differential pore pressure can lift portion of soil mass
causing brailing.
3) Interval erosion of the soil mass, progressive backwards from the point of exit leads
to the formation of an open conduit through the soil (i.e. piping)
4) The internal pressures in the soil water can reduce that part of the soil strength that is
developed by internal friction and thereby lead to weakening of the soil mass and even
failure by shear.
Most of the serious trouble from piping has resulted from progressive backward
erosion of concentrated leaks which develop through or under the dam. Leaks in the
embankment may also lead to piping failure.

8
b)Sloughing: Failures due to progressive sloughing or raveling is closely related to
piping. Under the full reservoir condition the downstream toe remains saturated, and
may erode, producing a small slump or miniature slide. This miniature slide leaves a
relatively steep face, which becomes saturated by seepage from the reservoir and
slumps again, forming a slightly a higher and more unstable face. (Fig.13).This reveling
process can continue till the remaining portion of the dam is too thin to with stand the
water pressure and complete failure occurs suddenly as the reservoir breaks through.

3. Structural Failures:
Structural failures may be due to the following reasons:
1) Upstream slope failure due to sudden draw down.
2) Downstream slope failure due to full reservoir condition.
3) Foundation side.
4) Failure by spreading.
5) Failure due to earth quake.
6) Slope protection failures.
7) Failure due to damage caused by barrowing animals
8) Damage caused by water soluble materials

1) Upstream slope failure due to sudden draw down:

An embankment dam, under filled up condition develops pore water pressure within
the body of the dam. If the reservoir water is suddenly depleted , say due to the need of
emptying the reservoir in expectation of an incoming flood, then the pore pressure
cannot get released, which causes the upstream face of the dam to slump (Fig.14).

9
2) Downstream slope failure due to full reservoir condition:
Critical condition for downstream slope occurs when the reservoir is full and
percolation is at its maximum rate. The pore water pressure acting on the soil mass
below the saturation line reduces the effective stress responsible for mobilizing shearing
resistance. The deep slides generally pass through the clayey dam and clayey
foundations. When a deep slide has taken place there is no relief to pore pressure and
the un stable vertical slide scrap, left standing often sloughs or slides. This process of
slides keeps on repeating until dam reaches the point of breach. One strong wave of
water will now cause breach and failure of the dam.

3) Foundation slide:
1. When the earth dam has foundation of fine silt or soft silt. It can slide wholly.
Sometimes a soft and week clayey seam exists under the foundation and the dam can
slide over it causing the failure.
2. Excess water pressure on confined sand and silt seams in the foundation may also
cause unbalanced condition causing foundation failure.
3. Expansion of soils on saturation may cause lifting of the slopes and thus may cause
failure of foundation
4. One of the most difficult problems facing the earth dam designer is the analysis of the
stability of loose sand foundations against the possibility of liquefaction or flow slides.

10
4) Failure by spreading:
Failures by spreading have been observed only in connection with fills located above
stratified deposits that contain layers of soft clay.

5) Failure due to earth quake:

Most serious damages and failures may be due to the following effects due to earth
quake:
1. Cracks in the core of dam leading the leakage and piping failure.
2. Settlement of the crest due to compression of foundation and/or embankment,
thereby reducing the free board and increasing the changes of over topping.
3. Shaking of reservoir bottom causing slow waves, and hence the failure due to over
topping
4. Sliding of natural hill side causing over topping and damaging appurtenant
structures.
5. Liquefaction of sand below foundation.
6. Acceleration forces on embankment may cause shear slide of appreciable point of the
slope of the dam
7. Fault movement causing reduction in the reservoir capacity and consequent over
topping.
6) Slope protection failures:
Slopes are generally protected by riprap over a layer of gravel or filter blanket. During a
heavy storm the waves on the surface of the reservoir beat repeatedly against the slope
just above the reservoir level. The wave energy is dissipated in turbulent action on and
within the rocks of the riprap layer. This action may have two effects:
1. The waves may pass through the voids of riprap and may wash away the filter layer,
settling the riprap layer and exposing the embankment to wave erosion, and

11
2) If the average size of rock comprising riprap is not heavy, it may be washed out of
the layer by the hydraulic faces generated by the waves. However, failure of filter layer
is most common.

7) Failure due to damage caused by barrowing animals:

Burrowing animals may cause piping failures of small dams only. Animals like
muskrats burrow into embankment either to make homes or to dig passage from one
pond to another as shown in Fig.18 (a) and (b). If many muskrats are involved, their
holes may dangerously honey comb a small earth dam, moving it extremely weak.

12
 8) Damage caused by water soluble materials:
The leaching of natural deposits of water soluble materials, such as gypsum, has created
trouble at many dams. Where considerable foundation leakage occurs, leaching of
gypsum of the foundation may cause excessive settlement. The deposition of soluble
material previously leached from the natural soil may tend to plug specially designed
filters.

Criteria for safe design of earth dam:

An earth dam must be safe and stable during phase of construction and operation of
reservoir. The practical criteria for the design of earth dam may be stated briefly as
follows:
1. The embankment must be safe against over topping by provision of sufficient
spillway and outlet works
2. The dam must have sufficient free board that it is not overtopped by wave action
3. The seepage line should be well within the d/s face, so that no sloughing of slope
takes place.
4. Seepage flow through the embankments, foundation and abutments must be
controlled by suitable design provisions.
5. The portion of the d/s of impervious core should be properly drained
6. The u/s and d/s slopes should be so designed that they are safe during and
immediately after construction.
7. The d/s slope should be so designed that it is safe during steady seepage case under
full reservoir condition
8. The u/s slope should be stable during rapid draw down condition.
9. The dam as a whole should be earth quake resistant
10. The u/s slope must be protected against erosion by wave’s action, and the crest and
d/s slope must be protected against erosion due to wind and rain.
Measures for control of seepage:
The seepage control measures are necessitated to prevent adverse effects of water
percolating through embankment and its foundation. The following devices are used
for seepage control through earth Dam:
a) Embankment seepage control
1. Toe filter
2. Horizontal drainage filter
3. Protective filter d/s of the toe.
4. d/s coarse section (Embankment zoning)
5. Chimney drains

13
 b) Foundation Seepage control
6. Impervious cutoff
7. Upstream impervious blanket
8. d/s seepage berms
9. Drainage trenches
10. Relief wells
1) Rock Toe or Toe filter:
The ‘Rock Toe’ consists of stones of size usually varying from 15 to 20 cm. A Toe tilter
(graded in layers) provided as a transition zone, between the homogenous
embankments fill and Rock Toe. Toe filter generally consists of three layers of fine sand,
coarse sand and gravel as per the filter criteria requirements. The height of the Rock Toe
is generally kept between 25 to 35% of reservoir head. The top of the Rock Toe must be
sufficiently higher than the tail water depth, so as to prevent the wave action of the tail
water. (Fig.19).

2) Horizontal drainage filter:

The horizontal filter extends from the Toe (d/s end) of the dam, inwards, up to a
distance varying from 25 to 100% of the distance of the Toe from the centre line of the
dam. Generally a length equal to three times the height of the dam is sufficient. It keeps
the phreatic line well within the embankment. The blanket should be properly designed
as per the filter criteria, and should be sufficiently pervious to drain off effectively.

14
3. Protective filter downstream of the toe:
The provision of such filter (Fig.21) provides additional weight and thus makes the
upward flow safer.

4. Downstream coarse section:

This also intercepts the flow through the embankment, and makes the d/s slope safe
against piping. It is also an earthquake resistant measure. (Fig.22)

5) Chimney Drain:
The horizontal filter not only helps in bringing the phreatic line down in the body of the
dam, but also provides drainage of the foundation and helps in rapid consolidation. But
the horizontal filter tries to make the soil more pervious in horizontal direction and thus
causes the stratification. When large scale stratification occurs such a filter becomes in
efficient. In such a possible case a vertical filter (or inclined U/S or d/s) is placed along
with the horizontal filter, so as to intercept the seeping water effectively as shown in
Fig.23 such an arrangement is known as ‘Chimney drain’.

15
 6) Impervious cut offs:
Vertical impervious cut offs made of concrete or sheet piles may be provided at the
upstream end (i.e. at heel) of the earth dam. The cut offs should, generally, extend
through the entire depth of pervious foundation, so as to achieve effective control on
the seeping water. When the depth of the pervious foundation strata is very large, a cut
off up to a lesser depth called a partial cut off may be provided. Such a cut off reduces
the seepage discharge by a smaller amount. So much so that a 50% depth reduces the
discharge by 25% and 90% depth reduces the discharge by 65% or so.
7). Upstream impervious blanket:
Impervious upstream or river side blankets overlaying a pervious foundation are
effective in reducing the quantity of seepage. They also, to some extent, reduce uplift
pressure and escape gradients downstream of land side. A part of the reservoir head is
dissipated through the blanket. The length of the blanket can be determined by the
Bennett’s analysis.

8. D/S Seepage Berms:

(Fig.25) Berms can be used to control seepage efficiently where the d/s top stratum is
relatively thin and uniform, or where no d/s top stratum is present. They serve two
purposes:
i) They provide additional weight to resist uplift pressure beneath the top
stratum, and
ii) They afford some protection against possible sloughing of the d/s slope of
the dam as a result of seepage.

16
9. Drainage Trenches:
(Fig.26) They are provided when top stratum is thin and pervious stratum is also
shallow.

10) Relief wells:

When large scale seepage takes place through the pervious foundations, overlaid by a
thin, less pervious layer, there is a possibility that the water may boil up near the toe of
the dam as shown in Fig 27. Such a possibility can be controlled by constructing relief
wells through the upper impervious layer, so as to permit escape of seeping of water.

17
 Seepage through earth dam – graphical method:
Let’s now consider the case of a homogeneous earth dam with a horizontal filter as
shown in Fig.28, in order to draw the flow net, it is first essential to find the location and
shape of the phreatic line or top flow line separating the saturated and unsaturated zones.
The phreatic line of seepage line is defined as the line with in a dam section below which
there are positive hydrostatic pressures in the dam. The hydrostatic pressure on the
phreatic line itself is atmospheric or zero. The phreatic line can be located by (i) analytical
method (ii) graphical method (iii) experimental method. We shall first discuss the
graphical method of determination of phreatic line by casagrande method.

Casagrande assumed the phreatic line to be base parabola with its focus at F,
the starting point at the filter FE.

The following is the procedure for locating the phreatic line graphically :

1. AB is the upstream face. Let its horizontal projection be L. on the water surface,
measure the distance BC=0.3L. Then the point C is starting point of base parabola.

2. To locate the position of directrix of the parabola, we utilize the principle that any
point on the parabola is equidistant from the focus as well as directrix. Hence with the
point C is the centre, and CF as the radius, draw an arc to cut the horizontal line through
CB in D. Draw a vertical tangent to the curve FD at D. evidently, CD=CF . Hence the
vertical line DH is the directrix.

3. The last point G on the parabola will evidently lie midway between F and H.

4. In order to locate the intermediate points on the parabola we use the principle that its
distance from the focus and directrix must be equal. For example, to locate any point p,

18
draw vertical line QP at any distance ‘x’ from F. Measure the distance QH. With F as
centre with QH as the radius, drawn an arc to cut the vertical line through Q in point P.

5. Join all these points to get the base parabola. However correction is to be made at the
entry point. The pheratic line must start from B, and not from C. Also the pheratic line is
a flow line, and must start perpendicular to the u/s face AB which is a 100%
equipotential line. Hence the portion of the pheratic line at B is sketched free hand in such
a way that it is starts perpendicular to AB, and meets the rest of parabola tangentially
without any kink. The base parabola should also meet the d/s filter perpendicularly (i.e,
vertically) at G.

In order to find the equation of base parabola, consider any point P on it, with
coordinate (x, y) with respect to focus F as origin.

From the property of parabola, we have

PF= QH

x 2 y 2 QF FH x s

Where FH = s = focal distance

x2+y2 = x2+s2 + 2xs

x = y2-s2/2s

y2 = 2xs + s2
This is the equation of base parabola.

In order to get an expression for the discharge ‘q’ through the body of the dam for the

present case of horizontal filter, we observe that, through the vertical section PQ,

q = kiA = K. dy/dx. (yx1)

Y = (2xs + s2 )1/2

dy/dx = s/(2xs+s2)1/2

S
q K . 2xs s 2
1/2

2xs s 
1/2
2

q = ks

This is very single expression for discharge ‘q ‘in terms of focal distance ‘s’. The
distance‘s’ can either be determined graphically or can be calculated analytically.