Radiation Damage Studies in Silicon

Photomultiplier with Gamma Rays and Neutrons

Taylor Shimek (Texas State University, San Marcos, TX 78666)
Sean Stoll and Craig Woody (Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, NY 11873)

Abstract
Silicon photomultipliers (SiPMs) are used to detect light/photons and other charged particles for various types of detectors used at the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider (RHIC) at Brookhaven National Laboratory (BNL). These include Electromagnetic
Calorimeters (EMCAL), Hadronic Calorimeters (HCal), and other types of scintillator detectors. Previous research suggests that SiPM’s detection characteristics suffer from gamma and neutron radiation, which is the type of radiation that SiPMs will be
exposed to at RHIC. My project was to study this radiation damage in SiPMs and determine its causes in order to help improve SiPM performance so that future research at BNL will be able to address new challenges in nuclear physics. Three different types
of SiPMs with four different types of epoxy/silicone window materials were irradiated to various levels of Cobalt (60Co) and neutron radiation and tested for radiation damage by measuring the change in transparency of the window, and the change in the
SiPM’s dark current and saturation level. The results showed that the transparency of the window worsened with higher levels of gamma radiation, but not with neutron radiation. However, neutrons cause a much larger increase in dark current than gammas,
and SiPMs with larger pixels showed more damage than those with smaller pixels. We also observed that the dark current decreased with time after the exposure. In conclusion, we determined that gammas and neutrons produce different types of radiation
damage in SiPMs. The amount of damage depended on the size of the pixels in the SiPMs, and the radiation induced dark current partially decreased over time.

Introduction & Hypothesis Methods & Materials

Silicon Photomultipliers (SiPMs) – Are being proposed for use at the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider (RHIC) at Measured the Optical Transmission The SiPMs and epoxy/silicone samples were irradiated at
Brookhaven National Laboratory (BNL) to detect light/photons signals generated by other charged particles. - Using a Hitachi U3210 Spectrophotometer BNL’s Solid State Gamma Irradiation Facility (SSGRIF) using a
SiPMs are single photon sensitive devices made of avalanche photodiodes (APDs) on a silicone substrate. They - Of four different types samples as shown to 60Cobalt gamma source and a 14MeV neutron generator.

consist of an array of pixels that operate in a Geiger avalanche mode which amplify the charge from a single the left
electron produced by the conversion of a single photon by a factor of typically a few x 105. The devices we -  Potting Epoxy, Potting Silicone, All measurements were taken
studied had an operating voltage (Vop) between 55-70 V. Experimental detectors at RHIC are exposed to various Molding Epoxy, Molding Silicone -  Before and after different cumulative exposures to Cobalt
levels of gamma irradiation and neutron radiation. My project was to see how SiPMs are adversely affected by -  Thickness: 0.3mm (60Co) gamma rays (1.17 MeV and 1.33 MeV)
this radiation. Measured Dark Current -  With 1 kRad, 10 kRad, 100 kRad, and 1 MRad
- Using a Keithley K647 Picoammeter/Voltage exposures
The Main SiPM Characteristics
Source -  Before and after different cumulative exposures to 14 MeV
- Optical Transmission
- Of three different micropixel sizes of SiPMs Neutrons
-  The SiPMs are covered by either Epoxy or Silicone coating the silicon wafer and wire bonds from
-  15µm x 15µm , 25µm x 25µm, -  With 108 n/cm2, 109 n/cm2, 1010 n/cm2 exposures
mechanical damage. How this material lets light/photons through is its Optical Transmission
- Dark Current (Internal Noise) 50µm x 50µm
-  Besides photon-generated carriers, other carriers from thermal noise can also fire the avalanche Measured Saturation Curves Left: Hamamatsu’s 50 µm SiPM
process that can produce signals in SiPMs - Using a pulsed LED and a charge integrating
Right: Epoxy sample
- Saturation Curves ADC
Sandwiched between two
-  The output signal is linearly proportional to the number of incident photons up to a level. The photon - Of three different micropixel sizes of SiPMs Quarks windows
count rate begins to depart from a linear relationship with incident flux as the number of incident -  15µm x 15µm , 25µm x 25mµm,
50µm x 50µm Spacer
photons increases due to the finite number of pixels in the SiPM. Measured Region

Optical Transmission of Epoxy and Silicone Samples Measured Optical Transmission of Silicone and Epoxy Samples Change in Optical Transmission of Molding Epoxy Change in Optical Transmission of Molding Epoxy
10 2 10 2
Before and After Exposure to 10 n/cm pf 14 MeV Neutrons Before and After 1 MRad Gamma irradiation With Exposure to 10 n/cm of 14 MeV Neutrons
Optical With 1 MRad Gamma Irradiation

100 100
Transmission 0
0

80 80 Data -5
-5

-10
% Transmission
% Transmission

-10
% Difference

60 60

% Difference
Potting Silicone - Before Radiation Potting Silicone - Before Radiation
Potting Silicone - After 1010 n/cm2 Potting Silicone - After 1 MRad
Molding Silicone - Before Radiation Molding Silicone - Before Radiation Wavelength of light being read -15 -15
Molding Silicone - After 1010 n/cm2 Molding Silicone - After 1 MRad
40
Potting Epoxy - Before Radiation
40
Potting Epoxy - Before Radiation out in the EM Calorimeter is
Potting Epoxy - After 1 MRad -20
Potting Epoxy - After 1010 n/cm2
Molding Epoxy - Before Radiation
Molding Epoxy - Before Radiation marked with an arrow: 450nm % Difference after 1010 n/cm2 -20

Molding Epoxy - After 1 MRad

20 Molding Epoxy - After 1010 n/cm2 20 % Difference after 1 MRad
-25 -25

0 0 -30
-30
200 300 400 500 600 700 800 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 300 400 500 600 700
300 400 500 600 700
Wavelength (nm) Wavelength (nm) Wavelength (nm)
Wavelength (nm)

Saturation Curves Dark Current Measurements

Gamma Irradiation Neutron Radiation SiPMs Factor Increase in Dark Current at Operating
Optical Saturation Curves
Hamnmatsu S12572-015P #1641 MPPC Voltage (Vop)
With Different CumulativeGamma Radiation Exposures
Factor Increase Factor Increase
105 in Dark Current in Dark Current
Total Number of Pixels
at Vop with 1 at Vop with 1010
Type/Pixel Total # of MRad Gamma n/cm2 of 14
104
Size (µm) Micropixels Gain PDE IrradiaGon MeV Neutrons
15x15 40,000 2.31x105 0.25 X42.3 X912.5
Micropixels Fired

103
25x25 14,400 5.15x105 0.35 x41.3 X1144.4
0 Rad
102 1 kRad 50x50 3,600 1.7x106 0.40 x78.5 X2150.5
10 kRad
100 kRad
1 MRad
101

0 105 2x105 3x105 4x105

Incident Photons

15um SiPM Irradiated with Different 15um SiPMs Exposed

Cumulative Gamma Radiation Exposures to Different Cumulative
Factor Increase in Dark Exposures to 14 MeV
Total Number of Pixels RadiaGon Current at OperaGng Voltage Neutrons
Exposure Amount (Vop) Factor Increase in
1 kRad x1.3 RadiaGon Dark Current at
3 Days aYer 1 Exposure OperaGng
kRad Exposure x1.3 Amount Voltage (Vop)
10 kRad x3.3 108 n/cm2 x12.7
100 kRad x14.2 109 n/cm2 x98.9
2 Days aYer 100 1010 n/cm2 x912.5
kRad Exposure x10 5 Days
1 MRad x42.3 aYer 1010
1 Day aYer 1 n/cm2
MRad Exposure x40 Exposure
Vop
Vop
8 Days aYer 1 (Recovery) x646.9
MRad Exposure x34.1

Conclusion Acknowledgements References

From the data, I have concluded that the gamma radiation affected the optical transmission of the epoxy/silicone samples This means [1] A. Heering, Yu Musienko, et al. Nucl.
that the coating on the SiPMs is darkening, and as such, will not allow as many photons through, thereby making the SiPMs less Thank you Bob Azmoun, Sean Stoll and Craig Instrum. Methods 824 (2016) 114.
effective. As can be observed on the graph, at 450nm, which is the wavelength of light being read out in the EM Woody for all their help this summer. [2] E. Garutti, R. Klanner, et al. Silicon
Calorimeter, approximately 5% of the signal will be lost after this much radiation damage. The neutron radiation did not affect the Photomultiplier characterization and radiation
We thank Jim Kierstead and the BNL damage investigation for high energy particle
optical transmission as much as the gamma radiation. However, neutrons cause a much larger increase in dark current than gammas. physics applications., 2014 JINST 9 C03021
By observing the graphs, it can be concluded that the dark current at the operating voltage has a higher factor increase from neutron Instrumentation Division for the use of their [doi:10.1088].
radiation than the gamma radiation. The 15µm SiPM’s dark current at operating voltage increased by a factor of 912.5 after being Gamma Ray Irradiation Facility and Neutron
Generator. [6] Hamamatsu Photonics K.K.
exposed to 1010 n/cm2 of 14 MeV neutrons and only increased by a factor of 42.3 after being exposed to 1 MRad of gamma irradiation. http://www.hamamatsu.com/jp/en/
The graphs also reveal that the SiPMs with larger pixels showed more damage than those with smaller pixels. You can see that for both S133603050VE.html.
the gamma and the neutron radiation, the factor increase in dark current at the operation voltage increased with the size of the pixels. It was
This project was supported in part by the U.S. [3] R. Pagano, S. Lombardo, et al. Nucl.
also observed that the dark current decreased with time after the exposure. The 15µm SiPM’s increased dark current at the operation Department of Energy, Office of Science, Office of Instrum. Methods 767 (2014) 342.
voltage decreased by 19% 8 days after 1 MRad of gamma irradiation. The same SiPM’s increased dark current at operation voltage went Workforce Development for Teachers and
decreased by 29% only 5 days after 10^10 n/cm2 of neutron radiation. The optical saturation curves do not appear to be affected by either [4] Yu Musienko, A. Heering, et al. Nucl.
Scientists (WDTS) under the Science
the gamma radiation or neutron radiation. In conclusion, we determined that gammas and neutrons produce different types of radiation Instrum. Methods 787 (2015) 312.
Undergraduate Laboratory Internships Program
damage in SiPMs. The amount of damage depended on the size of the pixels in the SiPMs, the amount of radiation and what type of (SULI). [5] Yu Musienko, D. Renker, et al. Nucl.
radiation the SiPM was exposed to. We further determined that the radiation induced dark current partially decreased over time. Instrum. Methods 610 (2009) 87-92.