S T R U C T U R A L A N A LY S I S 53

Based on the above, it is suggested that pinned type footing connections should have
γ = 10 and γ = 0.6 for rigidly connected footing connections—unless, as AS 4100
points out, a rational analysis can substantiate another value.
Two values of γ are required, one at each end, γ1 and γ2 . AS 4100 gives graphs for
evaluating ke based on γ1 and γ2 . One graph is for sway frames and the other for braced
frames, and both are reproduced in Figure 4.5. Examples 4.1 and 4.2 in Section 4.7
illustrate the use of these graphs.
For members in triangulated structures, AS 4100 offers two options:
• taking ke as 1.0 for effective lengths from node to node
• carrying out a rational buckling analysis.
The second option can sometimes be satisfied by using published solutions (e.g. Packer
& Henderson [1997]).

4.6 Calculation of factor for unequal end moments cm

This Section should be read in conjunction with Section 4.4.2 and applies only to the
moment amplification method. The highest moment amplification factor occurs when
the bending moment is uniform along the member, resulting in cm =1.0.
Usually, the bending moment varies along the member length and cm is less than 1.0.
The value of cm is calculated from Clause 4.4.2.2 of AS 4100:
cm = 0.6 – 0.4βm <1.0
where the coefficient βm is calculated from the ratio of the smaller to the larger bending
moment at member ends:
M
βm = }}1
M2
where M1 is the numerically smaller moment. The sign of βm is negative when the
member is bent in single curvature, and positive when bent in reverse curvature, thus:
βm = −1 for uniform moment distribution
βm = +1 for a moment distribution varying along the member from
+M to –M (reverse curvature)
The above expressions for βm are based on bending moment distributions arising from
end moments only. However, AS 4100 also permits the above equation for cm to be used
for transverse and moment loads, with βm being determined as:
(a) βm = −1.0 (conservative)
(b) using Figure 4.4.2.2 as AS 4100 with varying bending moment distributions due to
uniform distributed loads, concentrated loads, end moments, concentrated mid-span
moments, uniform moments, etc. acting either singly or in combination. Figure
4.4.2.2 in AS 4100 is very useful for determining βm as long as it has a similar
bending moment diagram along the member

(c) βm = 1 2 }1 22Dct
Dcw
with –1.0 < βm <1.0

where 6ct is the mid-span deflection of the member loaded by transverse loads together
with end moments. The value 6cw is calculated in the same way but without those end
moments, which tend to reduce the deflection.
54 STEEL DESIGNERS’ HANDBOOK

Table 4.4 summarises the value of βm as noted in (b) above.

Table 4.4 Summary of βm values as noted in Figure 4.4.2.2 of AS 4100

Moment distribution Curve βm cm Moment distribution Curve βm cm

End moments only: contra– a 0 0.6 End moments only: single a –1.0 1.0
flexure & single end b +0.5 0.4 curvature & single end b –0.5 0.8
c +1.0 0.2 c 0 0.6
M*
M*
—–
M* 2 M* M*
—–
2

UDL &/or end moments a –0.5 0.8 Mid-span concentrated force a –1.0 1.0
b –0.2 0.68 &/or equal end moments b +0.5 0.4
c β ** c +1.0 0.2

M* M* M* M*
—– —–
2 2
M*
—–
M* bM* 2 M*

UDL + equal end moments a –1.0 1.0 Mid-span concentrated force a +0.4 0.44
b +0.2 0.52 + single end moment b 0 0.6
c +0.6 0.36 c +0.5 0.4
M* M* M* M*
—–
—–
2 2
M*
—–
M* M* 2

UDL + unequal end moments a –0.4 0.76 Mid-span moment &/or a +1.0 0.2
b +0.1 0.56 end moments b –0.4 0.76
c +0.7 0.32 c –0.1 0.64
‘b’ & ‘c’
M* M* M* M*
—– —–
2 2
M*
—– M*
—–
M* 2 M* 2

UDL + single end moment a –0.5 0.8 Mid-span moment + a –0.5 0.8
b +0.2 0.52 end moments b –0.1 0.64
c +0.2 0.52 c +0.3 0.48
M* M*
—–
M* M*
—–
2 2
M*
—– M*
—–
M* 2 M* 2

Note: indicates moment distribution curve ‘a’

indicates moment distribution curve ‘b’
indicates moment distribution curve ‘c’
** indicates cm = 0.6 – 0.4β where β is positive when the member is in double curvature.