DESIGN ACTIONS 33

a factor for reduction of imposed floor loads due to area (ca)—see Clauses 3.4.1 and
3.4.2 of AS/NZS 1170.1. Overall, it is argued, the effect is the same. Additionally, there
has been some change in the philosophy of loading and magnitude of load to reflect the
New Zealand and ISO (International Organization for Standardization) principles.
Reference should be made to the Supplementary Commentary of AS/NZS 1170.1 for
further information on the changes and use of the Standard.

Table 3.5 Typical values of imposed floor and roof loads

Specific uses UDL Concentrated load

kN/m2 kN

Self-contained dwellings 1.5 1.8

Balconies and accessible roof areas
in self-contained dwellings 2.0 1.8
Offices for general use, classrooms (with tables) 3.0 2.7
Work rooms, light industrial (no storage) 3.0 3.5
Public assembly areas with fixed seats 4.0 2.7
Terraces and plazas 4.0 4.5
Assembly areas without fixed seating 5.0 3.6
Parking garages restricted to cars 2.5 13
Structural elements and cladding of roofs 0.12+1.8/A 1.4
Min 0.25
Roof trusses, joists, hangers - 1.4

Note: (1) For further information and detailed tabulation of specific imposed action requirements see AS/NZS 1170.1.
(2) A = plan projection of roof area supported by member, in sq.m.

3.4 Wind actions

Wind load intensities and load determination are specified in AS/NSZ 1170.2.
The site wind speed is given by:
Vsit, β = V R M d (M z,cat M s M t )
where VR = 3 second gust speed applicable to the region and for an annual probability
of exceedance, 1/R (500 return period for normal structures)—see Table 3.6
Md = 1.0 or smaller wind direction multiplier
Mz,cat = multiplier for building height and terrain category—see Table 3.7
Ms = shielding multiplier—upwind buildings effect
Mt = topographical multiplier—effect of ramping, ridges
The reference annual probability of exceedance is linked to the risk of failure levels
(importance levels) as specified in AS/NZS 1170.0. The design wind forces are
determined from the following expression:
34 STEEL DESIGNERS’ HANDBOOK

F = 0.5ρair (V des,θ ) 2 C fig C dyn A ref

with ρair = 1.2 kg/m3 (density of air), then
F = 0.0006(V des,θ ) 2 C fig C dyn A ref
where F is the design wind force in kN
Vdes,θ = maximum value of Vsit, β (see above)
= design wind speed
Cfig = aerodynamic shape factor—internal and external pressures

Cdyn = dynamic response factor, use 1.0 unless the structure is wind
sensitive

A ref = reference area, at height upon which the wind pressure acts,
in sq.m.

Table 3.6 Regional wind speed (VR) for annual probability of exceedance of 1 in 500 (V500) for
normal structures

Region Wind velocity Cities

for V500 in Australia in New Zealand

A1 to A7 45 m/s Brisbane, Hobart, Auckland, Dunedin,

Perth, Sydney, Adelaide, Christchurch,
Canberra, Melbourne Westport, Wanganui
B 57 m/s Norfolk Is., Brisbane
C 66 m/s Cairns, Townsville
Darwin, Pt Hedland
D 80 m/s Carnarvon, Onslow
W 51 m/s Wellington

Note: Refer to AS/NZS 1170.2 for other locations and probability levels.

Table 3.7 Terrain category and height multiplier Mz,cat for ultimate limit state design (not
serviceability) in regions A1 to A7, W and B.

Height Terrain category

m 1 2 3 4

5 1.05 0.91 0.83 0.75

10 1.12 1.0 0.83 0.75
15 1.16 1.05 0.89 0.75
20 1.19 1.08 0.94 0.75
30 1.22 1.12 1.00 0.80
50 1.25 1.18 1.07 0.90
100 1.29 1.24 1.16 1.03
 DESIGN ACTIONS 35

3.5 Earthquake actions

Intuitively, the structural response to wind actions is somewhat immediate to the
application of the actions—that is, a typical building structure responds directly to the
pressure forces imposed on its surfaces. In contrast, earthquake actions arise from the
structure’s response to base (foundation) movements. That is, the building structure does
not respond to forces imparted directly to it—it responds to translational movements at
the base. This means that inertial forces come into play which, coupled with effects from
the distribution of the structure’s mass and stiffness, may not be synchronised with the
base movement (in terms of time and intensity). Though different in the nature of
loading, earthquake loads on structures can be modelled in design by using quasi-static
loads, much like the design for wind loads.
At the time of this Handbook, there is no joint Australian and New Zealand
earthquake loading (action) Standard. From an Australian perspective, load evaluation
and other requirements (e.g. detailing, ductility of framing) for earthquakes are covered
in AS 1170.4. Section 13 of AS 4100 sets out some additional minimum design and
detailing requirements.
The method of determining ultimate limit state earthquake forces from AS 1170.4
requires the following parameters to be evaluated:
• Acceleration coefficient (a)—dependent on geographic location and expressed as a
proportion of the gravity constant (g). It is a measure of the relative seismicity of a
region and relates the effective peak ground acceleration, which approximately
corresponds to a 500-year return period. Typical values of a range between 0.03 to
0.22 in Australia.
• Site factor (S)—dependent on site-verified geotechnical data, it considers foundation
material conditions and stiffness, and varies between 0.67 (rock) and 2.0 (silts and soft
clays) in Australia.
• Structure classification—Types I, II or III, which reflects the importance of a building
in terms of post-disaster functions. Type III buildings are required for post-earthquake
roles or structures for hazardous operations. Type II buildings include those which
contain many people, and Type I buildings consider general structures and those
buildings not placed in the other categories.
• Earthquake design category of the building—categories A, B, C, D or E and evaluated
from Structure classification, a and S.
• Whether the structural configuration is considered regular or irregular in both its
horizontal and vertical planes. Irregularities may arise from geometric, stiffness and
mass asymmetries and discontinuities.
The type of earthquake design category and the structural regularity/irregularity
determines the type of analysis (static or dynamic) required. If static analysis is undertaken,
the base shear force (V) imparted by the earthquake on the structure is given by:

1 2
CSI
V = } Gg with CS <2.5a
Rf
36 STEEL DESIGNERS’ HANDBOOK

where
C = earthquake design coefficient and is a function of acceleration
and the structural period of vibration (T )
= 1.25aT – 0.667
a = acceleration coefficient as noted above
T = the structure period (in seconds), which may be evaluated by a
simple method or rigorous structural analysis
S = site factor as noted above
I = importance factor of the structure and is dependent on structure
classification. It can be 1.25 (for critically important structures)
and 1.0 (generally all others)
Rf = structural response factor and considers the structure’s energy-
absorbing capabilities and can range between 4 to 8 for structural
steel
Gg = the gravity load on the structure, which includes the permanent
loads plus a portion of the imposed loads that can be reasonably
expected during an earthquake event
After the evaluation of V, the individual floor loads are distributed up the structure with
respect to height and vertical mass distribution. In lieu of static analysis, a dynamic
analysis is undertaken for irregular steel buildings in Earthquake Design Categories D
and E. Additional considerations for structures subject to earthquakes include torsional
effects at each storey, overturning stability effects and drift (overall) deflections.
Further useful references, which detail the background and use of AS 1170.4 and the
seismic provisions of AS 4100, include the Commentaries to both Standards, Woodside
[1994], Hutchinson et al. [1994] and McBean [1997].

3.6 Other actions

As specified in AS/NZS 1170.0, various other actions must be considered in the design
of buildings and other structures. Where relevant, such actions include:
• snow and ice loads (as noted in AS/NZS 1170.3)
• retaining wall/earth pressures
• liquid pressures
• ground water effects
• rainwater ponding on roofs
• dynamic actions of installed machinery, plant, equipment and crane loads
• vehicle and vehicle impact loads
• temperature effects (changes and gradients)
• construction loads
• silo and containment vessel loads
• differential settlement of foundations
• volumetric changes (e.g. shrinkage, creep)