The Mahābhārata is an epic narrative of the Kurukṣetra War and the fates of the Kaurava and the Pāṇḍava

princes. It also contains philosophical and

devotional material, such as a discussion of the four "goals of life" or puruṣārtha (12.161). Among the principal works and stories in the Mahābhārata are
the Bhagavadgītā, the story of Damayantī, an abbreviated version of the Rāmāyaṇa, and the story of Ṛṣyasringa, often considered as works in their own
right Traditionally, the authorship of the Mahābhārata is attributed to Vyāsa. There have been many attempts to unravel its historical growth and
compositional layers. The oldest preserved parts of the text are thought to be not much older than around 400 BCE, though the origins of the epic
probably fall between the 8th and 9th centuries BCE.[2] The text probably reached its final form by the early Gupta period (c. 4th century CE).[3] The title
may be translated as "the great tale of the Bhārata dynasty". According to the Mahābhārata itself, the tale is extended from a shorter version of 24,000
verses called simply Bhārata.[4] The Mahābhārata is the longest epic poem known and has been described as "the longest poem ever written". [5][6] Its
longest version consists of over 100,000 śloka or over 200,000 individual verse lines (each shloka is a couplet), and long prose passages. At about
1.8 million words in total, the Mahābhārata is roughly ten times the length of the Iliad and the Odyssey combined, or about four times the length of
the Rāmāyaṇa.[7][8] W. J. Johnson has compared the importance of the Mahābhārata in the context of world civilization to that of the Bible, the works
of Shakespeare, the works of Homer, Greek drama, or the Qur'an.[9]
The dice game

Draupadi humiliated Shakuni, Duryodhana's uncle, now arranges a dice game, playing against Yudhishthira with loaded dice. Yudhishthira

loses all his wealth, then his kingdom. He then even gambles his brothers, himself, and finally his wife into servitude. The jubilant Kauravas insult

the Pandavas in their helpless state and even try to disrobe Draupadi in front of the entire court, but her honour is saved by Krishna who

miraculously creates lengths of cloth to replace the ones being removed. Dhritarashtra, Bhishma, and the other elders are aghast at the

situation, but Duryodhana is adamant that there is no place for two crown princes in Hastinapura. Against his wishes Dhritarashtra orders for

another dice game. The Pandavas are required to go into exile for 12 years, and in the 13th year must remain hidden. If discovered by the

Kauravas, they will be forced into exile for another 12 years.

Exile and return

The Pandavas spend thirteen years in exile; many adventures occur during this time. They also prepare alliances for a possible future conflict. They
spend their final year in disguise in the court of Virata, and are discovered just after the end of the year.
At the end of their exile, they try to negotiate a return to Indraprastha. However, this fails, as Duryodhana objects that they were discovered while in
hiding, and that no return of their kingdom was agreed. War becomes inevitable.
The Religious Significance of the Mahabharata

Shredding her Paideia paper into tiny bits, my roommate yelled, "Who cares about Homer anyway? It’s just a stupid story about a bunch of people who never
existed!" At the time, I sympathized with her plight, yet the more that I learned about Western history, the more I realized that many of the themes in Homer were
applicable to the modern world, lending a sense of universality to a work that is otherwise highly topical in nature. The virtues of hard work, knowledge, trust,
honor, fidelity, and courage found in The Odyssey are not far removed from virtues of today. As long as these ideals are revered in Western culture, it is likely that
students will encounter this epic story for decades to come. Much like The Odyssey seeks to explore Western ideals and values, the Mahabharata is highly
useful in explaining many of the values of Hinduism. Though the main story line is the fight between the Pandavas and the Kauravas, a theme that is highly topical
and limited, there are also those underlying themes that bridge the gap of centuries, such as those of duty (dharma), action (karma), worship (bhakti), yoga, and
non-violence (ahimsa). As translator of the Mahabharata, Chakravarthi V. Narasimhan outlines some of these themes that are universally important to all Hindus,
past and present: "…it was intended to be a treatise on life itself, including religion and ethics (dharma sastra), polity and government (artha sastra), philosophy
and the pursuit of salvation (moksa sastra)." Within these categories lie the fundamental tenets of Hinduism that are creatively expounded in the form of an epic
story. If it is to be thought of as a story that is applicable to all Hindus, it is necessary that the Mahabharata concern itself with the most essential premise
for understanding the Hindu notion of existence: the all-pervading Self (Atman). Through the story of Krsna’s explanation to Arjuna of his duty to fight, we see
also a treatise on the imperishable nature of the Self that conveys this important message to the recipients of this story, both past and present. This paper seeks to
explore the notion of Atman in the Mahabharata through the use of textual examples and by placing the story of Arjuna’s delay in battle within the greater scope of
Hinduism as a whole. It is first necessary to tell the story of Arjuna’s delay and Krsna’s entreaty before launching into its implications on Hinduism. The
story takes place at a pivotal point in the Mahabharata: the camps of both the Pandavas and the Kauravas have assembled and are prepared to fight for the
kingdom. Before beginning the battle, Arjuna wishes to view the armies, at which point he is struck with doubt and incertitude. He casts aside his weapons and sits
down, "his eyes filled and oppressed with tears." It is strange that a battle scene—something that should inspire and ignite Arjuna—causes his distress. We find
that the reason for his despair lies in the fact that it is his family that will be engaging in battle. He says to Krsna,

"O Krsna, when I see my own people ready to fight

and eager for battle, my limbs shudder, my mouth is
dry, my body shivers, and my hair stands on end.
Furthermore, I see evil portents, and I can see no
good in killing my own kinsmen…How can we be
happy if we slay our own people?"

It seems that all hope is lost for Arjuna as he abandons his duty (dharma) as a ksatriya and chooses the path of inertia over the path of action. At a time when
it seems that the mighty hero of this epic has faltered and cannot attain glory, Krsna calls upon a fundamental epithet of Hinduism to allay Arjuna’s fears: Atman.
As that imperishable and unchanging force behind all, Atman alone is reality, yet Arjuna has forgotten this and laments the lives that will be lost. Krsna reminds
him, "Thou mournest those that deserve not to be mourned." Because Atman is the eternal soul behind everyone, it is futile to mourn for individual lives lost. The
individual does not exist except as a manifestation of Atman. Much like the sea manifests itself as waves, bubbles, and foam, the Atman manifests itself within
every person in a different outward manner. The appearance of individuality is reconciled with the oneness of Atman. Thus, as everyone belongs to that same
underlying and unifying soul, there is no distinction between those who perish in battle and those who remain alive, according Krsna. Arjuna is deluded in thinking
that his family will perish in battle because, under the unity of Atman, they will always be together.

After his initial chastisement of Arjuna’s inaction, Krsna launches into a philosophical explanation of Atman that is critical to the Hindu concept of Self. He says,
"Know that [the soul] to be immortal by which all this [universe] is pervaded. No one can compass the destruction of that which is imperishable." He goes on to
describe the attributes of Atman as "eternal, indestructible and infinite." These descriptions are similar to the description of Atman found in the Katha Upanisad:
"…bodiless among bodies, stable among the unstable, the great, all-pervading Self—on recognizing Him, the wise man sorrows not." Krsna continues his
argument by calling upon a battle metaphor to relate Atman to Arjuna, saying, "He who thinks it (the soul) to be the slayer and he who thinks it to be the slain,
both of them know nothing; for it neither slays nor is slain." Again, nearly identical rhetoric can be found within the Katha Upanisad: "If the slayer think to slay, if
the slain think himself slain, both these understand not. This one slays not, nor is slain." Krsna ends his discourse by a final concise statement that serves to
summarize his message: "The Embodied (soul), O Bharata, is ever indestructible in everyone’s body." Through his explanation of Atman, Krsna hopes to incite
Arjuna into battle so that he will fulfill his duty as a ksatriya and attain glory for his actions. To fulfill one’s duty is the highest perfection of the Self and to
resist one’s specific role in society at a critical time is unacceptable to Hindus. What if Arjuna chose not to heed the advice of Krsna and opted instead for the path
of inaction? He would then not attain glory and perfection in his duty and would thus lose his appeal as a model of the ksatriyas. Throughout the epic, Arjuna and
the other heroes are tested, much like Odysseus in The Odyssey, and through their correct choices, we are called to make the same decisions in our lives. While no
modern Hindu is likely fighting battles as a mighty car-warrior like Arjuna, they must realize from this story that it is the belief in Atman that permeates the
disparity in time and calls Hindus of all epochs to realize this unity. To further solidify this unity, Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan expounds various Hindu
philosophical and religious traditions to readers as he places the notion of Atman found in the Mahabharata in a modern context. Radhakrishnan identifies Atman
as "ultimate reality" and goes on to define it as "an unborn and so immortal element in man." With rhetoric similar to the Mahabharata and to the Katha Upanisad,
Radhakrishnan calls Atman "that which neither lives nor dies, which has neither movement nor change and which endures when all else passes away." Much like
Krsna speaks to Arjuna, the writings of Radhakrishnan speak to Hindus and bring the Mahabharata into the present world. What, then, must the modern
Hindu take from the notion of Atman found in the Mahabharata and the writings of Radhakrishnan? First, he is linked in spirit to all people, past and present,
through Atman. This unity is inescapable and thus he is called to act in such a way that reflects this unity. If the modern Hindu believes himself to be equal in spirit
to all people, he is less likely to do them harm, for in doing others harm, he is ultimately harming himself. Wars would not occur if everyone subscribed to this
view of Atman, nor would anyone wish injury on their neighbor. Second, if the Hindu does not realize the unity of Atman, he is condemned to the cycle of deaths
and rebirths (samsara) that govern the world. Continuing to see disparity, the Hindu will be reborn until he finally realizes unity and through it obtains liberation
(moksa). Finally, the notion of Atman calls the Hindu to expound these ideas to others. Much like Krsna was there to help Arjuna in a time of doubt, so must the
modern Hindu be prepared to defend this tenet and help others to understand its significance. Thus, we can surmise that the messages found in the
Mahabharata transcend time and appeal to modern Hindus as well. The notion of the Self, Atman, as the all-pervading, imperishable spirit is central to Hindu
beliefs and is important both in an epic setting and also in present-day philosophical writings, helping believers to discover an element that unites them despite the
seeming disparity in time. As long as there are epics like The Odyssey and the Mahabharata to teach and reveal virtues to those willing to hear them, they will have
an appeal that is beyond the topical, placing them within the grasp of the modern reader and assuring their survival for centuries to come
The Mahabharata is an ancient Sanskrit epic poem that tells the story of the kingdom of Kurus. It's based on a real war that took place in the 13th or
14th century B.C. between the Kuru and Panchala tribes of the Indian subcontinent. It is regarded as both a historical account of Hinduism's birth
and a code of ethics for the faithful.

BACKGROUND AND HISTORY

The Mahabharata, also known as the great epic of the Bharata Dynasty, is divided into two books of more than 100,000 verses, each containing two
lines or couplets totaling more than 1.8 million words. It is roughly 10 times as long as the Illiad, one of the most notable Western epic poems.
The Hindu holy man Vyasa is generally credited with being the first to compile the Mahabharata, although the entire text was assembled between
the 8th and 9th centuries B.C. and the oldest portions date back to almost 400 B.C. Vyasa himself appears several times in the Mahabharata.

SYNOPSIS OF THE MAHABHARATA

The Mahabharata is divided into 18 parvas or books. The primary narrative follows the five sons of the deceased King Pandu (the Pandavas) and the
100 sons of blind King Dhritarashtra (the Kauravas), who opposed each other in war for possession of the ancestral Bharata kingdom on the Ganga
river in north-central India. The principal figure in the epic is the god Krishna. Although Krishna is related to both Pandu and Dhritarashtra,
he is eager to see war occur between the two clans and considers Pandu's sons to be his human instruments for fulfilling that end. Leaders of
both clans engage in a dice game, but the game is rigged in the Dhritarashtras' favor and the Pandu clan lose, agreeing to spend 13 years in exile.
When the period of exile ends and the Pandu clan return, they find that their rivals are unwilling to share power. As a result, war breaks out.
After years of violent conflict, in which both sides commit numerous atrocities and many clan elders are killed, the Pandavas finally emerge the
winners. In the years that follow the war, the Pandavas live a life of asceticism in a forest retreat. Krishna is slaughtered in a drunken
brawl and his soul dissolves back into the Supreme God Vishnu. When they learn of this, the Pandavas believe it time for them to leave this world,
too. They embark upon a great journey, walking north toward heaven, where the dead of both clans will live in harmony. Multiple subplots
weave throughout the epic text, following the numerous characters as they pursue their own agendas, wrestle with ethical dilemmas and come into
conflict with one another.

PRIMARY THEME

Much of the action in the Mahabharata is accompanied by discussion and debate among the text's characters. The most famous sermon, Krishna's
pre-war lecture on ethics and divinity to his follower Arjuna, also known as the Bhagavad Gita, is contained within the epic. Several of the
important ethical and theological themes of the Mahabharata are tied together in this sermon, namely the difference between just and unjust
warfare. Krishna lays out the proper ways of attacking a foe, as well as when it is appropriate to use certain weapons and how prisoners of war
should be treated.

The importance of family and clan loyalty is another major theme.

IMPACT ON POPULAR CULTURE

The Mahabharata has had a profound influence on popular culture, especially in India, both in ancient and modern times. It was the source of
inspiration for "Andha Yug" (in English, "The Blind Epoch"), one of the most widely produced plays in India in the 20th century and first performed
in 1955. Pratibha Ray, one of India's most notable female writers, used the epic poem as inspiration for her award-winning novel
"Yajnaseni," first published in 1984.

The Hindu text has also inspired numerous TV shows and movies, including the film "Mahabharat," which was the most expensive animated film
ever produced in India when it was released in 2013.

Silk route = Millennia ago, when there were no means of rapid communication, how did people, ideas and goods move? In this vast land of Jambudwipa, how

did the pearls of the Pandyas and the cotton of Madurai become bywords in Pataliputra? How did the teachings of Prince Siddhartha of the Sakas reach

Manimekalai, the beautiful daughter of Kovalan and Madhavi in Kaveripattinam? It was the trade routes, along which people, goods and ideas

moved. These were the pulsating veins of the body politic which rendered it alive and vibrant and communicating within itself. Trade has been

a mainstay of prosperity across time and dynasties in Jambudwipa, situated as it is in the Indian Ocean littoral. The east and the west have always been in its grasp
because of its position, apart from its own vast lands and diverse products eagerly exchanged between regions. The first mention in Sanskrit literature of

trade routes or ‘panihas’ comes in the Prithvi Sukta of the Atharva Veda. It mentions the many routes and arteries of the land and the fact that they were the

principal means of communication for the people, chariots and bullock carts plied on these roads and everyone had the right to use them. All had to be safeguarded

against the depredations of wild animals and robbers. These safe and well-guarded routes symbolised the happiness of the earth. The two major trade

routes of the subcontinent are the Uttarapath of the north and north-west and the Dakshinapath of the centre and south of the peninsula. From about 2,600 odd

years BP they became ubiquitous and even formally recognised in literature, but their genesis lies much before this. The beginnings of civilisation in India

can be traced back to what may be called the pre-Harappan cultures, roughly to the north and northwest, the plains of the Indus and Sarasvati rivers. During these

times most of the trade was within the catchment areas of the cultures themselves, with Sind and Baluchistan completely interconnected and routes also connecting

it to the Indus plains and the Indo-Gangetic divide. Items such as lapis lazuli, copper, silver, turquoise and ceramics and beads have been found disseminated along

their routes. A central place was Mehrgarh from where external trade routes went up to Bolan, Quetta and Kandahar and from there to Iran and Turkmenia.

Another route went to Kabul from where northern Afghanistan was reached. As far as the next phase, the early Harappan phase, as it is called, is concerned,

internal trade routes connected Sind and Baluchistan, the Indus plains were connected to Rajasthan, an additional axis connected the Karachi coast to the northern

highlands beyond the Bari Doab and there were also lines of communication from there to the Hindukush and the Karakoram mountains. East Punjab was

connected both to Rajasthan and Sind, and Sind to Gujarat. During this period the establishment of ‘international’ trade with the Persian Gulf and

Mesopotamia both by land and sea was a stunning new development. The northern overland route was to Mesopotamia through Northern Afghanistan, Northern

Iran and Turkmenia, while the southern overland route was from Tepe Yahya to Jalalabad to Kalleh Nisar, and then Susa and Ur. There was a well-developed

maritime route, which went along the Gujarat, Sind and Makran coasts to the Persian Gulf. Sea routes merit separate examination on their own with

Saurashtra, Kalinga, the Tamizh and Chera lands, playing a stellar role in the story, but that is for some other time. This article focuses on the internal land routes

of the Uttarapath and Dakshinapath. There were also the cultures outside the Harappan zone spread around the rest of the subcontinent, but connected to

each other and to the primary cultural area of Harappa through different routes. As the script of the Sarasvati-Sindhu civilisation has not yet been deciphered the

above description is based only on archaeological evidence. At this stage we can take into account inscriptional and literary sources and match them to

archeological evidence, and the streams coalesce. The Uttarapath has been mentioned by name first in Panini’s Ashtadhyayi where he lists the various

kingdoms along the ‘Uttarapathenahritam’. Although the term as such does not appear in the Mahabharat or the Ramayan, there are extensive actual descriptions

of sectors of this route. There are extensive descriptions also in the Jatakas, the Vinaya texts and the various adaptations of the 6th century BCE story cluster

the Brihatkatha of Gunadhya. It was the major trans-regional trade route of northern India. It could be described as a land-cum-river route as the Ganga and

its tributaries, the Yamuna, Ghaghra and the Sarayu were part of the communication route. It swept across north-west India, crossed the Indo-Gangetic

plains and went up to the port of Tamralipti in the Bay of Bengal. It had a northern part, called the Haimvatapath in the Arthashastra which went through

Lahore, Jullunder, Saharanpur to Bijnor, Gorakhpur, Bihar and then Bengal. The southern sector started from Lahore and went on towards Delhi, Hastinapur,

Varanasi, Allahabad and then Pataliputra and Rajgir. Manibhadra, the yaksha was the presiding deity of the traders of the Uttarapath. Massive larger than

life statues of this deity have been found dating from Mauryan and Sunga periods. Interestingly, the statue of the yaksha, which stands in front of the Reserve Bank

of India with a bag of money in its hand, is modeled on a Manibhadra statue found in Mathura and dated to the Mauryan period. The Dakshinapath is also

mentioned in the Arthashastra. It went from Pataliputra and Kaushambi, to Vidisha, Ujjaini and Pratishthana. Manimekalai was the presiding goddess for the

traders of this route. There were feeder routes branching off from these two great trade routes, which were connected to the seaports of the east and west

coast of Jambudwipa. For instance, the Uttarapath was connected to the Rajasthan, Sind and Orissa coasts; the Dakshinapath to Virampattinam or the modern

Arikamedu, through Pratishthan. Although we do have evidence of the Harappans as traders, it would not be wrong to say that it was before and during

the Mauryan period that trade really came into its own in Jambudwipa. It was not for nothing that the greatest followers of Gautam Buddha and those primarily

responsible for the spread of this cult were the prosperous traders of the times. These routes did not lose their importance no matter how ruling dynasties

changed. During the period of the Kushans, a significant and novel development was the fact that Kanishka controlled both a part of the Chinese empire

and also northern India giving Indians access to the silk route and opening up new vistas for cultural and trade links. The Red Sea route to the Roman Empire

opened up spectacularly in the common era giving impetus to internal trade, too. The finds from Arikamedu, Baroda, Kolhapur, Kapisi and Taxila confirm this.

During the times of the Satvahana-Saka conflict for the ports of Broach and Surparaka other ports developed and trade shifted to the port of Muziris further down
the western coast to Malabar. The system of rivers provided an inland waterway system, which supplemented and complemented these two land

routes. It is interesting to note the combination of land and river route followed by Ram, Seeta and Lakshman as they proceed to their vanavas in the Ayodhya

Kand of the Valmiki Ramayan. Ferry systems were well established as the numerous stories about boat men in Hindu, Buddhist and Jain stories attest. These were

all connected to the Uttarapath and the Dakshinapath in some way or the other. The two routes met at Kaushambi on the Yamuna river, at its confluence with

the Ganga, which gave it a unique importance in the ancient period. This is borne out by its deep religious and cultural significance which continues in an

unbroken line even today. It is the place at which the Ganga, Yamuna and the lost Sarasvati meet. A symbolic confluence of streams from across the east and the

west of Jambudwipa, all meeting at Prayag. In an interesting continuation, 82.5-degree East longitude on which is based Indian Standard Time passes through

Allahabad. The importance of Kaushambi endures. So who were the people who moved on these routes and what were the goods carried over them? Apart

from merchants, monks, pilgrims, pedlars, horse traders, acrobats, actors, students and even tourists used these beaten paths to travel for their own purposes. The

goods that were traded included raw materials and finished goods moving up and down the routes. Lapis lazuli, silver and semi precious stones were sourced

from Afghanistan and Central Asia and sea shells from the east coast made their way up the Uttarapath. Rajasthan was one of the most mineral-rich parts of the

subcontinent and provided semi-precious stones, and metals like silver, gold, lead, copper and iron. Sandalwood and hides were other important items. Precious

stones, shells and pearls and gold, cotton cloth and spices were important trade items on the Dakshinapath. Kautilya mentions conch-shells, diamonds, rubies,

pearls and gold in the Arthashastra. Cloth from Madurai was famous across the subcontinent as was the rain-proof cloth from Gandhara and Nepal. Coins, as a

natural concomitant of trade, have been found distributed along these routes and much mapping can be done through an analysis of this numismatic evidence.

Kings travelling on their military expeditions used these same routes, Chandragupta Maurya, according to Greek sources, is said to have gone up the Uttarapath to

meet Seleucus in battle on the banks of the Indus. Down along the same road came Megasthenes, the ambassador of Seleucus to spend time in the Mauryan court.

Control of these trade routes was an important cause for war; indeed it was the issue of control of the Haimavatamarg, which led to the clash between

Chandragupta and Seleucus. Along these routes also travelled ideas and religions. A rough study of the expansion of Buddhism can more or less be mapped

on the Uttarapath, the Dakshinapath, the Silk Route and the maritime trading lanes. With his astute and shrewd political sense Gautama Buddha concentrated on

converting royalty and after that, the rich traders to his cult. The advantages were obvious, where kings led, subjects followed. Also, the age of explosive trade had

made traders rich beyond the dreams of avarice. They provided money for further expansion of the cult and also popularised it as they travelled up and down the

trade routes.

The Kurukshetra War, also called the Mahabharata War, is a war described in the Indian epic Mahabharata. The conflict arose from a dynastic
succession struggle between two groups of cousins, the Kauravas and Pandavas, for the throne of Hastinapura in an Indian kingdom called Kuru. It
involved a number of ancient kingdoms participating as allies of the rival groups.
The location of the battle is described as having occurred in Kurukshetra in the modern state of Haryana. Despite only referring to these eighteen
days, the war narrative forms more than a quarter of the book, suggesting its relative importance within the epic, which overall spans decades of the
warring families. The narrative describes individual battles and deaths of various heroes of both sides, military formations, war diplomacy, meetings
and discussions among the characters, and the weapons used. The chapters (parvas) dealing with the war (from chapter six to ten) are considered
amongst the oldest in the entire Mahabharata.
The historicity of the war remains subject to scholarly discussions.[1] Attempts have been made to assign a historical date to the Kurukshetra War.
Popular tradition holds that the war marks the transition to Kaliyuga and thus dates it to 3102 BCE.
Kaurava Army

The Kaurava army consisted of 11 Akshauhinis. Duryodhana requested Bhishma to command the Kaurava army. Bhishma accepted on the
condition that, while he would fight the battle sincerely, he would not harm the five Pandava brothers. In addition, Bhishma said that Karna would
not fight under him as long as he was in the battlefield. Having little choice, Duryodhana agreed to Bhishma's conditions and made him the supreme
commander of the Kaurava army, while Karna was debarred from fighting. But Karna entered the war later when Bhishma was severely wounded
by Arjuna. Apart from the one hundred Kaurava brothers, headed by Duryodhana himself and his brother Dussasana, the Kauravas were assisted
on the battlefield by Drona and his son Ashwatthama, the Kauravas' brother-in-law Jayadratha,
the Brahmin Kripa, Kritavarma, Shalya, Sudakshina, Bhurishravas, Bahlika, Shakuni, Bhagadatta and many more who were bound by their loyalty
towards either Hastinapura or Dhritarashtra.
Neutral parties

The kingdom of Bhojakata, with its King Rukmi, Vidura, the ex-prime minister of Hastinapur and younger brother to Dhritarashtra,
and Balarama were the only neutrals in this war. Rukmi wanted to join the war, but Arjuna refused to allow him because he had lost to Krishna
during Rumini's swayavar and yet he boasted about his war strength and army, whereas Duryodhana did not want Arjuna's reject. Vidura did not
want to see the bloodshed of the war and was insulted extremely by Duryodhana, although he was the embodiment of Dharama himself and would
have won the war for the Kauravas. The powerful Balarama refused to fight at Kurukshetra, because he was both Bheema's and Duryodhana's
coach in gadhayudhdh (fighting with maces) and his brother Krishna is on the other side. [citation needed]
Army divisions and weaponry

The combined number of warriors and soldiers in both armies was approximately 3.94 million. [23] Each Akshauhini was under a commander or a
general, apart from the commander-in-chief or the generalissimo who was the head of the entire army.
During the Kurukshetra War, various types of weapons were used by prominent warriors as well as ordinary soldiers. The weapons included:
the bow, the mace, the sword, the lance and the dart. Almost all prominent warriors used bows, including the Pandavas, the
Kauravas, Bhishma, Drona, Karna, Satyaki, Drupada, Jayadratha, Dhrishtadyumna, Kripa, Kritavarma, Abhimanyu and Shalya. However, many of
them frequently used other weapons as well, for instance; the mace was used by Bhima, Duryodhana, Shalya, and Karna;
the sword by Nakula, Satyaki, Jayadratha, Abhimanyu and Kripa; and the lance by Yudhishthira, Karna and Duryodhana.[24]
The Game of Dice is a dramatic point of the Indian epic Mahabharata where antagonists Duryodhan and Shakuni trick the
protagonists Yudhisthir and the Pandavas into losing their everything while playing the game. The game was used as for gambling where
the Yudhisthir lost his empire, wealth, brothers, and wife Draupadi.

The game[edit]

The game is traditionally called Dyut or Chaupar . It is similar to Ludo. The game however had different rules including staking
wealth. Kshatriyas (those of royal families) used to have a pact that they can however never refuse to play Dyut. Hence this led to the fall of
Yudhistir who could not leave the game mid-way.
Shakuni is said to have magical dices which fell according to its master's wishes. There is a conflict as it may be possible that he was a shrewd dice
player and that his expertise on dices made him throw correct numbers.

The Dishonor of Draupadi[edit]

Draupadi, the common wife of the Pandavas was tricked to be gambled away by Yudhisthir. On losing her, she was redeemed of her royal
Emperess status to a lowly slave status. Duryodhanordered his slaves to inform Draupadi as to leave the Queens' chambers and relocate
to Hastinapur's slave chambers. Draupadi who was menstruating that day refused to subject to as she was residing then at the Royal bath.
Infuriated Duryodhan immediately ordered his brother Dushasana to drag her to the court. In the court then were present many of the revered
seniors like the family's sire Bheeshma, the masters of the princes Drona and Kripa, and also the King Dhritarashtra. According to Indian traditions,
it was highly offensive to see a woman half dressed, that too a royal lady and a Queen. Draupadi was the family's daughter-in-law. Therefore, it was
an utter disgrace for such lady to be summoned thus in the court. She pleaded Dushasana not to touch her, but he dragged her with her hairs
forcibly all the way through the palace. She was clad in an Ekavastra (one piece attire, a long saree without the other sub-cloths), stained in blood
with disheveled hairs.
Draupadi questioned the assembly about her dishonor on which no one raised their voice. The learned Vidura tried to save her but she was mostly
mocked over her chastity. The mighty Karnaridiculed "this woman however has many husbands, therefore it must be that she isn't chaste. Thus
bringing a woman in an Ekavastra or completely naked makes no difference!" On this note, Dushasana forcibly disrobed Draupadi in public.

Draupadi's Grace and Seeds of the Kurukshetra War[edit]

Draupadi was however saved from being completely naked. She prayed to the almighty when she was being disrobed. Her saree never ended and
at last Dushasana himself gave up of fatigue and shame. It is seen as Lord Krishna saved her grace by sending a never ending cloth.
This vile act of the Kauravas is still remembered and ridiculed as a proverb in the Indian society over the safety of women. The Game of Dice hence
became the ground where the seeds of the cataclysmic Kurukshetra war was first sown. The then helpless Pandava brothers swore to themselves
to avenge their wife's dishonor. The second Panadava brother Bhima swore to kill all the true brothers of Duryodhana (the 100 Kaurava brothers).
Duryodhan had mocked on Draupadi showing his thigh (as an invitation for her to sit over). Bhima hence swore to break the thigh of Duryodhan. He
also swore to rip off the arms of Dusshasan as they had dared to touch Draupadi's hair. Draupadi swore to never tie her hairs until they are washed
in Dushasana's blood. Bhimapromised to bring her the blood of Dusshassan's chest. Arjun, the third Pandava brother swore to kill Karna who had
dared badmouthed Draupadi. And lastly Sahadeva, the fifth brother swore to kill Shakuni whom he thought to have been the root of all the chaos.

Aftermath[edit]

The pandavas were sent on an exile of twelve years and an extra one year in incognito. In case they are caught during their time in incognito they
would reprise their exile again for next twelve years and this cycle may go on. The Pandavas however successfully finish their exile and return to
reprise their status as rulers. Duryodhan rejects to abide by his promises which breaks the Kurukshetra War in which the entire race is wiped out.
All the pandavas fulfill their oaths and Draupadi is washed in Dusshassan's blood. Of the great war with millions of warriors, elephants, horses only
ten people survive, prominently the five Pandavas who won the war. Yudhistir is then crowned as the emperor.

Yudhisthira appointed Arjuna as the in-charge for the army and security forces of Hastinapura.

Arjuna led the armed forces, many kings accpeted Yudhistir as king and many fought with Arjun and surrendered or died. Arjun continues with his

triumphant journey behind the sacrificial Horse and returns to Hastinapura. The yagna is performed in great style and pomp. Kings, invitees and

the unfortunate are all treated well. There are mountains of great variety food everywhere and oceans of drinks of all types. The fame of this

Ashwamedha spreads all over the world. Gifts of money, jewels and gold rain on people. By his munificence, the king is blessed and becomes free

from his sins and enters the city! Gandahari struck with grief on the death of his sons curses Shri Krishna that the Yadavas will also die a

same death. Shri Krishna accepts the curse. After around 35 years the sons of Shri Krishna playfully misbehaved some rishis and got

cursed in return. Samba dressed as a pregnant woman, along with other Yadavas, went on asking rishis to predict the gender of her future child. One

rishi gets angry and curses he will give birth to an iron piece which will destroy their entire race. Dwarika witnesses bad omens and sinful

activites increase. Shri Krishna instructs others to go on a pilgrimage to Prabhasa.At Prabhasa, the Yadavas drink wine and get intoxicated. A fight
ensues among them and every Yadava kills one another. Only Shri Krishna, Daruka, Vabhru and Balarama survive. But later on Vabhru and

Balarama leave this world too.Shri Krishna sends Daruka to inform Arjuna and bring help. Meanwhile, a hunter mistakenly shoots an arrow that

strikes at Shri Krishna's foot and leaves Him wounded. Shri Krishna consoles the hunter and then merges in the image of Vishnu and leaves this

mortal world for His own abode.Arjuna reaches there. Tries to save widowed queens of Shri Krishna but loses in fight against the barbarians.

Vedavyasa instructs Arjuna that the Pandavas' purpose of life has been over. Yudhisthira coronates Parikshit and the 5 Pandavas along with

Draupadi set out for their journey towards heaven by climbing the mountain Himalaya. A dog follows them on their way up to the mountain.Along

their way while climbing the mountain one after another in the order of Draupadi, Sahadeva, Nakula, Arjuna and Bhima fall down and

die.Yudhisthira alone survives and Indra comes to welcome to heaven him with his chariot. Indra asks Yudhisthira to leave the dog behind

and enter into the chariot and go to heaven. Yudhisthira declines the offer to enter into heaven unless the dog also goes with him as the dog has

befriended him. The dog then becomes Yama and tells Yudhisthira that he has passed the test. After that Yudhisthira enters into heaven.

Thus, after many such series of events Shri Krishna and the Pandavas leave this mortal world. The city of Dwaraka submerges into the ocean and

eventually the present age of Kali begins.

Total Destruction Of India and its Civilization after Mahabharata War.

One thing from the Mahabharata is to learn that there is no solution to any problem, and it is also certain that nothing is achieved from the war. This

means that after the talks failed, fight and after the war, tear on the catastrophe. The question arises when negotiations fail?

Negotiations fail when one of the front parties adopts a stupid attitude and in the end all are forced to cooperate with them. Well .. Did the

Mahabharata war and war have been devastated India? This question is very important that what is the speed of India after the war of Mahabharata.

Everyone talks about Mahabharata but the result of this war is discussed very little. The impact of this war on the whole of India has been discussed

very little.

 Population of the armies of Kaurav Pandavas:

In the presence of Lord Krishna's Akshahini Narayani army, there were 11 Akshakwadis, while the Pandavas had assembled 7 Akhushinis forces. In

this way, more than 10 million people participated in this war, including the armies of all the Mahariteans{great great Warriors}.The population of

the earth was not much in that period. If we compare with the current 7 billion population, then all the armies of the world will now be one million.

But in that period the population was not so much. Before 1947, India's population was around 400 million.

In 650 AD, the whole earth's population was about 50 million. So if we go back further then the Earth's population was even half that number. Can

we then guess what the population of the earth must have been before 3112 BC? Estimation is not knowledge, it can be close to reality and not even.

But if one crore people would have participated in the war, surely at least the population of India would have been between 5 to 6 crore, because

then today there were no winning cities or villages.

All those who were killed in the war were left, only 18: The war of Mahabharata between the one million army went on for 18 days and

only 18 warriors were alive in this war. After the war of Mahabharata, from the side of the Kurus and from the Pandavas, only 15 were 18 warriors

survived. Those whose names are - Devvatsa, Krupacharya and Ashwaththama of Kaurava, while Yuyutsu, Yudhishtir, Arjun, Bhima, Nakul,

Sahadev, Krishna, Satyaaki etc. from the Pandavas However, according to some pages of history, 39 lakh 40 thousand warriors were killed in the

war of Mahabharata.That half of the population of 60 million will be women so that about two and a half million women Now there are two and a

half million survivors, of whom millions will be children. Meaning this war is old and the soldiers fought it. Some of them were young then their

sons, who had no son.

  Kaurav Side: Duryodhana and his 99 brothers including Bhishma, Dronacharya, Karna, Madernesh Shalya, Bhurishruva, Alambus,

Kalingaaraj, Shrutayudh, Shakuni, Khedadatta, Jayadratha, Vind-Arivand, Kambojraj Sudakshana and Brihadlal etc. and their son's

grandson All who were killed were killed. The total of Kauravas was destroyed. The only Yuyutsu of Kaurav dynasty was left.

 Pandav Side: Abhimanyu, Ghatotkach, Virat, Drupada, Dhrishtadyumna, Shikhandi, Pandiyaraj, Kuntibhoja, Uttamauja, Shaibya

and Anupraj Nil etc. on behalf of Pandavas.

About fifty sons of Pandavas were also killed. His only son was left in the womb of Uttara, wife of Arjun's son Abhimanyu, in the Pandav dynasty,

which was saved by Krishna. Its name was tested. After winning the Pandav war, they were defeated even after they had nothing left. Each Pandav

had 10-10 sons but all were killed. Yadav Party: In the war between Shri Krishna's Narayani army and some Yadav war and later the curse of

Gandhari, the total of Shri Krishna's death was destroyed The mother Gandhari of Kurus gave a curse to Krishna, as if such a painful death of

my children has happened, in the same way your Yadava-family will also be agitated in mutual wars. The side of the other kings: In this way we saw

that many grandfathers, fathers and sons had participated together in this war, due to which three readings were finished together. In this

Mahamrarna war of Kauravas and Pandavas, only their descent was not destroyed, the descent of the kings of many states of India and their armies

was also destroyed.

In this war millions of kings, Maharajas and soldiers from all over India and abroad participated. Copyright: Webdunia The result of the war on the

next page was shattered: India: We have written above how three generations have ended. In this, millions of women were widowed in a young man.

The crisis of men was raised in front of millions of women.

It is also important for men to be married for their marriage. It can only be estimated. Estimated knowledge does not exist. But it is certain that this

led to a misunderstanding in society. There was no one to lead the society. The states had been scattered. There were not many people that they

would govern the state's order. It is said that as a result of this war, India's Vedic religion, society, culture and civilization collapsed.

Since this war, the unbroken India became a land of multi-religious and multiculturalism and became a fragment of the continent. * After the war,

Yudhisthira became the King of the whole year but lost everything. In any of the Pandavas, there was no desire to do Rajpatta. Everyone had

attained conquest. On seeing the Yudhishthira entrusted the throne of the king to the test and proceeded himself towards the Himalayas, on the last

journey of life.His four brothers and Draupadi etc run with them. Before them, Dhritarashtra and Gandhari went to the Himalayas. Everyone ended

up there The country was wasted due to the Mahabharata war. That war broke the entire Aryavarta clause. After this war, the country was divided

into pieces. Lack of silence for hundreds of years. People started living their own way. Mythological religion and many other religions began to

develop. * Foreigners started settling in India, started looting our treasures.

The invasion of Yavan, Susa, Hun and Kushanas began very much later, before the Mahabharata, thousands of Indians, millions of people from

outside India came out of India in Arabia, Turks, Egypt, Malaysia, Indonesia, China, Russia etc. Go and settle down A new path of religion began to

open.There they laid the foundations of new culture and religion. There is no description of how this Jain and Hindu saints spread the propaganda

of religion by visiting Arab, Europe and Russia, due to which human civilization living in the tribes there received a new light of knowledge.

 After Mahabharata, the center of Dharma gradually shifted from Takshshila (Peshawar) to Pataliputra in Magadha, which proved fatal

in that matter.Garg codes refer to the history of Mahabharata later Ayodhya Total of Manu was a great king in the 94th generation. His

descendants were descendants of Somadhi, Shrutashvar, Ayutayu, Nirmitra, Sukrat, Gratakarman, Sajyajit, Vibhu, Shuchi, Khamam,

Suvrata, Nivrati, Trinetra, Mahasen, Sumati, Achal, Sunetra, Satyajit, Veerjit and Arinjay. He ruled Magadha before former religion.
  In the form of Great Dynasty (Jarasandh), 3233 BC To rpunjay 2011 v. At the time of Shatruenjaya, the kingdom of Lord Vishnav was

born, afterwards, the descendants of Yadavas scattered in various sections like Mithila, Magadha, Vidarbha, Gondal, Jaisalmer,

Karauli, Kathiawar, Satara, South Mathura Pandya Mand, Pallava etc. 3. After the Mahabharata, the last king of the Kuru dynasty was

Nichaksu. According to the Puranas, Hastinapur king Nichshu, who was a descendant of the test (in the 7th generation from

Yudhisthira)

 On the shedding of Ganga of Hastinapur, Kaushambi city of his capital Vatsa made the city. In the 26th generation of this lineage,

during the time of Buddha, King Udayan of Kaushambi was. Nikhshu and Kuru are also mentioned in the Shankshootu in

Shankhakshtra. 4. Shunak Vansi Pradyot and its 5th Vashandhar Nandivardhan (1873 BC).

Mahabharata is a nearly perfect example of how to go about your life except, of course, the war. The war of Kurukshetra, is considered to be one of

the bloodiest wars ever fought in human history. It was so monstrous that despite lasting for only eighteen days, it resulted in the death of almost 80

percent of the Indian male population, and its narrative forms more than a quarter of the book. What's widely known is that the Pandavas won and

the Kauravas lost. Ever imagined what happened after the Pandavas won? Who all survived? How long did the Pandavas rule Hastinapur? How did

they finally die or were they actually murdered? And most importantly, what happened with Lord Krishna? Well, here are the (probable) answers.

1) After winning the war of Kurukshetra, Pandavas are crowned the rulers of Hastinapur with Yudhistira being at the helm of affairs. A grief-

stricken Gandhari curses Krishna wishing for him and the whole Yadav clan a painfull death just like her sons (Kauravas).

2) Pandavas rule Hastinapur for 36 long years. Meanwhile, Gandhari's curse to Lord Krishna starts taking shape. Witnessing ominous events in

Dwarka, Krishna leads an exodus of the entire Yadav clan to Prabhasa. In Prabhasa, a murderous rebellion ensues amongst the clan, and the Yadavs

end up killing each other to the extent of almost wiping out their entire race.

3) While trying to extinguish the rebellion, a hunter mistakenly shoots an arrow at the ‘mortal' Lord Krishna, ultimately killing him. Thereafter,

Krishna merges in the image of Vishnu and leaves his mortal human body. After the demise of Lord Krishna, Ved Vyasa tells Arjuna that the

purpose of his and his brothers' lives is over.

4) At about the same time, Dwapara Yuga is on the verge of ending, and Kali Yuga is about to start. Looking at the chaos and adharma creeping into

his kingdom, Yudhistira crowns Parikshit as the king, and the Pandavas, along with Draupadi, decide to climb the Himalayas as a final penance to

reach heaven. A stray dog (Lord Yama in disguise) joins them on their way to the top.

5) As the pack climbs up, one by one, they start falling to their death. It starts with Draupadi, and Bheem is the last to fall to death. The reasons for

their death are associated with their desires, issues, and troubles caused by their pride. Only Yudhistira, who didn't take pride in anything, along

with the dog, makes it to the gateway of heaven atop the Himalayas.

6) At the gateway of heaven, Lord Yama, disguised as the dog, reveals his identity and before letting Yudhistira enter heaven, takes him on a tour

through the gallows of hell. In hell, Yudhistira witnesses his brothers and Draupadi redeeming their sins. Lord Indira, then, takes Yudhistira to

heaven and promises him that his brothers and Draupadi will be there.

This is how Lord Krishna and the Pandavas, the most important characters of Mahabharata, left the mortal world. After this, began the Kali Yuga,

which is the world as we know today.

Advantages of the Marginal Utility Analysis

Prof. Marshall writes that the application of marginal utility concept extends over almost every field of economics such as production, distribution,
consumption, public finance, and so on. Let us look at how the principle of marginal utility applies to all these fields.

Production

In the case of a consumer, the goal is to attain maximum satisfaction. Similarly, the goal of any entrepreneur would be to get maximum profit. In
order to achieve maximum profit, the producer has to increase output with least cost. Towards this end, the producer employs all factors of
production according to the following condition:

MPL/PL = MPc/Pc = MPX/PX or MPL/MPc = PL/Pc

According to the principle of marginal utility, when a producer employs all factors of production as per the condition mentioned above, he or she is
able to attain maximum output with least cost.

Distribution

In distribution, what we are looking at is how the rewards (wages) are distributed among various factors of production. From demand curve from
marginal utility curve, we learned that the price of a commodity is equal to its marginal utility (click here for an explanation). Likewise, the reward is
equal to the marginal product of a factor of production.

Consumption

As stated earlier, the aim of a consumer is to attain maximum satisfaction from his or her limited resources. Here, the consumer faces a unique
problem of multiple choices. The question now is how the consumer is able to achieve maximum satisfaction with limited resources and multiple
choices. In order to achieve maximum satisfaction, a rational consumer arranges expenditures in such a way that

MUx/Px = MUy/Py = MUz/Pz

When consumer arranges expenditure in this way, he or she gets maximum satisfaction.

Furthermore, the concept of marginal utility helps to distribute income between savings (future needs) and consumption (present needs) rationally.
Marshall explains that a rational human being tries to distribute resources between consumption and savings in such a way that the marginal utility
of the last dollar put on saving is equal to the marginal utility of the last dollar spent on consumption.

Public Finance

In public finance, the principle of marginal utility helps to attain maximum social welfare. Professors Hicks and Dalton attributes that in order to
achieve maximum social welfare, the revenue should be distributed in such a way that the last unit of expenditure on various programs brings equal
welfare.

Time Management

We all are endowed with limited time, i.e., twenty-four hours a day. The concept of marginal utility helps to utilize the limited time optimally.
According to Prof. Boulding, a person should spend his limited time among various works such as reading, playing, cooking, earning and gardening
in such a way that the marginal utility from all these works are equal.

 The Law of Diminishing Marginal Utility or Gossen's First Law

 The Law of Equi-Marginal Utility or Gossen's Second Law

Disadvantages of the Marginal Utility Analysis

Though the marginal utility analysis is helpful in various fields of economics, it has certain limitations as well. Some economists such as Prof. Hicks
feel that the analysis may be useful to explore elementary economic behavior. However, the concept may be of no use when it comes to an
advanced analysis of consumer behavior. The following are the important weaknesses of the marginal utility approach:

Unrealistic Assumptions

This is one of the most common criticisms against theories of social sciences. The theory of marginal utility is also subject to this criticism.
According to critics, too many unrealistic assumptions haunts over Marshall’s utility theory. Because of these unrealistic assumptions, the theory
becomes too vague. Critics confront the following assumptions of the theory:

1. Constant marginal utility of money

The theory states that marginal utility of money is constant. However, this is not the case in the real world. When money in your hand increases, the
marginal utility derived from it decreases because of abundance. In real world, you can see affluent people being extravagant in their expenditures.
Hence, according to the critics, money, as assumed by the theory, cannot be a measuring rod, as its own utility changes.

2. Utility is measurable

Cardinal utility theory claims that utility is measurable in cardinal numbers (1, 2, 3,….). However, utility is a subjective phenomenon, which can be
felt by a consumer psychologically, and cannot be measured.

3. Complements and substitutes

The Marshallian utility theory ignores complements and substitutes of the commodity under consideration. The theory states that no complement or
substitute of a commodity influences the utility derived from it. However, in real life, there are various complements and substitutes for a commodity.
Hence, the utility derived from the commodity under consideration is subject to all those goods. For instance, the utility derived from a car depends
upon fuel price also

4. Rationality
The theory assumes that the consumer is rational. However, various factors such as advertisement and ignorance can influence the consumer’s
decision.

10 Major Defects and Weaknesses found in the Marshallian Utility Analysis | Managerial Economics

Some of the major defects and weaknesses found in the marshallian utility analysis are discussed below:

(1) Utility cannot be measured cardinally:

The entire Marshallian utility analysis is based on the hypothesis that utility is cardinally measured. According to the cardinal system, the utility of a

commodity is measured in ‘utils’ or units and that utility can be added and subtracted. For instance, when a consumer takes the first chapati, he

gets utility equivalent to 15 units; from the second and third chapati 10 and 5 units respectively and when he consumes the fourth chapati marginal

utility becomes zero. If it is supposed that he has no desire after the fourth chapati, the utility from the fifth will be negative 5 units; if he takes this

chapati. In this way, the total utility in each case will be 15, 25, 30 and 30, when from the fifth chapati the total utility will be 25 (30-5).

Besides, the utility analysis is based on this assumption that the consumer is aware of his preferences and is capable of comparing them. For

example, if the utility of one apple is 10 units, of banana 20 units and of orange 40 units, it means that the consumer gives twice the preference to

banana as against apple and four times to orange. It shows that utility is transitive. Hicks opine that the basis of the utility analysis—that it is

measurable—is defective because utility is a subjective and psychological concept which cannot be measured cardinally. In reality, it can be

measured ordinarily.

(2) Single Commodity Model is Unrealistic:

The utility analysis is a single commodity model in which the utility of one commodity is regarded independent of the other. Marshall considered

substitutes and complementaries as one commodity, but it makes the utility analysis unrealistic.

For instance, tea and coffee are substitute products. When there is a change in the stock of any one product, there is change in the marginal utility of

both the products. Suppose there is increase in the stock of tea. There will not only be fall in the marginal utility of tea but also of coffee.

Similarly, a change in the stock of coffee will bring a change in the marginal utility of both coffee and tea. The effect of one commodity on the other,

and vice versa is called the cross effect. The utility analysis neglects the cross effects of substitutes, complementaries and unrelated goods. This

makes the utility analysis unrealistic. To overcome it, Hicks constructed the two-commodity model in the indifference curve approach.

(3) Money is an Imperfect Measure of Utility:

Marshall Measure’s utility in terms of money, but money is an incorrect and imperfect measure of utility because the value of money often changes.

If there is fall in the value of money, the consumer will not be getting the same utility from the homogeneous units of a commodity at different

times. Fall in the value of money is a natural consequence of rise in prices. Again, if two consumers spend the same amount of money at a time,

they will not be getting equal utilities because the amount of utility depends upon the intensity of desire of each consumer for the commodity. For

instance, consumer A may be getting more utility than В by spending the same amount of money if his intensity of desire for the commodity is

greater. Thus, money is an imperfect and unreliable measuring rod of utility.

(4) Marginal Utility of Money is not constant:

The utility analysis assumes the marginal utility of money to be constant. Marshall supported this argument on the plea that a consumer spends only

a small portion of his income on a commodity at a time so that there is an insignificant reduction in the stock of the remaining amount of money.

But the fact is that a consumer does not buy only one commodity but a number of commodities at a time. In this way when a major part of his

income is spent on buying commodities, the marginal utility of the remaining stock of money increases. For instance, every consumer spends a

major portion of his income in the first week of the month to meet his domestic requirements. After this, he spends the remaining amount of

money wisely. It implies that the utility of the remaining sum of money has increased. Thus, the assumption that the marginal utility of money

remains constant is away from reality and makes this analysis hypothetical.

(5) Man is not Rational:

The utility analysis is based on the assumption that the consumer is rational who prudently buys the commodity and has the capacity to calculate

the dis-utilities and utilities of different commodities, and buys only those units which give him greater utility. This assumption is also

unrealistic because no consumer compares the utility and disutility from each unit of a commodity while buying it. Rather, he buys them under the

influence of his desires, tastes or habits. Moreover, consumer’s income and prices of commodities also influence his purchases. Thus the consumer

does not buy commodities rationally. This makes the utility analysis unrealistic and impracticable.

(6) Consumer not of Calculating Mind:

This analysis assumes that the consumer can calculate the utilities of different units of a commodity and purchases those which provide him more

utility. However, no consumer calculates in this manner while buying commodities. But he purchases them according to his income and their prices.

(7) Utility Analysis does not study Income Effect, Substitution Effect and Price Effect:

The greatest defect in the utility analysis is that it ignores the study of income effect, substitution effect and price effect. The utility analysis does not

explain the effect of a rise or fall in the income of the consumer on the demand for the commodities. It thus neglects the income effect. Again

when with the change in the price of one commodity there is a relative change in the price of the other commodity, the consumer substitute’s one for

the other. This is the substitution effect which the utility analysis fails to discuss, being based on one-commodity model. Besides, when the

price of one commodity changes, there is change in its demand and in the demand for related goods. This is the price effect which is also ignored by

the utility analysis. When, say, the price of good X falls the utility analysis only tells us that its demand will increase. But it fails to analyse the

income and substitution effects of a price fall via the increase in the real income of the consumer.

(8) Utility Analysis fails to clarify the Study of Inferior and Giffen Goods:

Marshall’s utility analysis of demand does not clarify the fact as to why a fall in the price of inferior and Giffen goods leads to a decline in its

demand. Marshall failed to explain this paradox because the utility analysis does not discuss the income and substitution effects of the price effect.

This makes the Marshallian law of demand incomplete.

(9) The Assumption that the Consumer buys more Units of a Commodity when its Price falls is Unrealistic:

The utility analysis of demand is based on the assumption that the consumer buys more units of a commodity when its price falls. It may be true in

the case of food products like oranges, bananas, apples, etc. but not in the case of durable goods. When, for example, the price of bicycle, radio,

etc. falls a consumer will not buy two or three bicycles or radios. It is another thing that a rich man may buy two or three cars, pairs of shoes and

variety of cloths, etc. but he does so irrespective of the fall in their prices because he is rich. The argument therefore does not hold good on ordinary

persons.

(10) This Analysis fails to explain the Demand for Indivisible Goods:

The utility analysis breaks down in the case of durable consumer goods like scooters, transistors, radio, etc. because they are indivisible. The

consumer buys only one unit of such commodities at a time so that it is neither possible to calculate the marginal utility of one unit nor can the

demand schedule and the demand curve for that good be drawn. Hence the utility analysis is not applicable to indivisible goods. These glaring

defects in the utility analysis led economists like Hicks to explain the demand analysis of the consumer with the help of indifference curve approach.

Conclusion
In spite of these drawbacks, however, the general equilibrium represents a bold attempt to view the numerous interdependencies of an
economic system. As the methods of computation improve, its practical utility may considerably increase.
Summing lip
In Economics, equilibrium analysis is of two kinds: Partial Equilibrium analysis and General Equilibrium analysis. In the partial equilibrium analysis,
we focus our attention on individual economic units i.e. the consumer, the firm, an industry . or a particular sector of an economy. It takes
into account a number of variables for intensive study assuming that the economic process is not disturbed by influences external to the part of the
economy we are studying. To use Schneider’s words “The surrounding world is regarded as fixed or frozen over the. period for which it is being
studied. This type of theory discusses the determination of prices and outputs of particular commodities assuming those of others remaining
unchanged. In other words, in partial equilibrium analysis, we isolate a particular type of activity for special investigation in great depth even though
we know that there is, in fact, much interdependence between that under.investigation and that held aside.
The partial equilibrium analysis has obvious limitations. It assumes that disturbances in a particular sector of the economy have only localisation
effects. In reality it is not so. Inspite ‘of such limitations, the partial economic analysis occupies an important place in price, and resource allocation
theory. According to Marshall, it is easily comprehensible and more effective. It provides simpler propositions and simpler analysis. On the other
hand, general equilibrium ‘. approach is more complicated than the partial equilibrium approach. But with the advancement of mathematics this
approach is becoming- more popular among the economists.
I have taken efforts in this project. However, it would not have been possible without the kind support and help of many individuals and
organizations. I would like to extend my sincere thanks to all of them.

I am highly indebted to (Name of your Organization Guide) for their guidance and constant supervision as well as for providing necessary
information regarding the project & also for their support in completing the project.
I would like to express my gratitude towards my parents & member of (Organization Name)for their kind co-operation and encouragement which
help me in completion of this project.
I would like to express my special gratitude and thanks to industry persons for giving me such attention and time.
My thanks and appreciations also go to my colleague in developing the project and people who have willingly helped me out with their abilities.