SRINIVAS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

(A UNIT OF A SHAMA RAO FOUNDATION)

VALACHIL, MANGALURU-574143

DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

NOTES OF LESSON

“Aircraft Structures I”
2017-2018
Subject Code: 15AE54
(V SEMESTER)

PREPARED BY:
Ms. Pavana K
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING
Department of Aeronautical Engineering Programme outcome (PO)
1. Graduates will demonstrate basic knowledge in mathematics, science and engineering
2. Graduates will demonstrate the ability to design and conduct experiments, Interpret and
analyzes data and report results.
3. Graduates will demonstrate the ability to design a Aeronautical system or a thermal
system or a process that meets desired specification and requirements
4. Graduates will demonstrate ability to function on engineering and science laboratory
teams, as well as on multidisciplinary design teams.
5. Graduates will demonstrate the ability to identify, formulate and solve aeronautical
engineering problems
6. Graduates will demonstrate an understanding of their professional and ethical
responsibilities.
7. Graduates will be able to communicate effectively in both verbal and written forms.
8. Graduates will have the confidence to apply engineering solutions in global and societal
context.
9. Graduates should be capable of self education and clearly understand the values of
lifelong learning.
10. Graduates will be broadly educated and will have an understanding of the impact of
engineering on society and demonstrate awareness of contemporary issues.
11. Graduates will be familiar with modern engineering software tools and equipment to
analyze mechanical engineering problems.
12. Lifelong learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to engage
in independent and lifelong learning in the broadest context of technological change.
Department of Aeronautical Engineering PSO

Department of Aeronautical Engineering has specifically defined program

objectives which make students to understand, analyse, design and implement the
knowledge and techniques learnt in this course for the betterment of society and
its sustainability
PSO 1 Analyze, design and evaluate air craft components and systems using state-of-the-art
manufacturing tools and techniques.

PSO 2 Understand , Analyze, design and evaluate thermal systems including IC engines,
Gas Turbines, Compressors, rockets and missiles.

PSO 3 Understand, analyse, the fluid flow behaviour, dynamics of flow and design and
evaluate aircraft structures

PSO 4: Apply modern management principles methods and required to work in a

team as well as to lead a team.
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 1

Module 3
Loads on Aircraft and Aircraft materials
Loads on Aircraft:
Types of loads:
Aircraft are generally built up from the basic components of wings, fuselage, tail units and control
surfaces. Each components has one or more specific functions and must be designed to ensure that it can
carry out these functions safely.

The structure of an aircraft is required to support two distinct classes of load: the first, termed
ground load, includes all loads encountered by the aircraft during movement or transportation on the ground
such as taxiing and landing loads, towing and hoisting loads; while the second, air loads, comprises loads
imposed on the structure during flight by manoeuvres and gusts. Carrier born aircraft, for instance, are
subjected to catapult take-off and arrested landing loads; most large civil and practically all military aircraft
have pressurized cabins for high altitude flying; amphibious aircraft must be capable of landing on water
and aircraft designed to fly at high speed at low altitude, e.g. the Tornado, require a structure of above
average strength to withstand the effects of flight in extremely turbulent air.

The two classes of loads may be further divided into surface forces which act upon the surface of
the structure, e.g. aerodynamic and hydrostatic pressure, and body forces which act over the volume of the
structure and are produced by gravitational and inertial effects. Basically, all air loads are the resultants of
the pressure distribution over the surfaces of the skin produced by steady flight, manoeuvre or gust
conditions. Generally, these resultants cause direct loads, bending, shear and torsion in all parts of the
structure in addition to local, normal pressure loads imposed on the skin.

Conventional aircraft usually consist of fuselage, wings and tail plane. The fuselage contains crew
and payload, the latter being passengers, cargo, weapons plus fuel, depending on the type of aircraft and its
function; the wings provide the lift and the tail plane is the main contributor to directional control. In
addition, ailerons, elevators and the rudder enable the pilot to manoeuvre the aircraft and maintain its
stability in flight, while wing flaps provide the necessary increase of lift for takeoff and landing. Figure 1
shows typical aerodynamic force resultants experienced by an aircraft in steady flight.

Fig. 1 Principal aerodynamic forces on an aircraft during flight.

Pavana K, Asst. Prof. Dept. of AE, SIT Mangaluru

 2

Aerodynamic loads:
However, there is, conveniently, a point in the aerofoil section about which the moment due to the
lift and drag forces remains constant. Thus we replace the lift and drag forces acting at the CP by lift and
drag forces acting at the aerodynamic centre (AC) plus a constant moment Mo as shown in Fig. 2.b.
(Actually, at high Mach numbers the position of the aerodynamic centre changes due to compressibility
effects.) While the chord wise pressure distribution fixes the position of the resultant aerodynamic load in
the wing cross-section, the span wise distribution locates its position in relation, say, to the wing root. A
typical distribution for a wing/fuselage combination is shown in Fig. 3. Similar distributions occur on
horizontal and vertical tail surfaces.

Therefore the wings, tail plane and the fuselage are each subjected to direct, bending, shear and
torsional loads and must be designed to withstand critical combinations of these. Note that manoeuvres and
gusts do not introduce different loads but result only in changes of magnitude and position of the type of
existing loads shown in Fig. 1. Over and above these basic in-flight loads, fuselages may be pressurized
and thereby support hoop stresses, wings may carry weapons and/or extra fuel tanks with resulting
additional aerodynamic and body forces contributing to the existing bending, shear and torsion, while the
thrust and weight of engines may affect either fuselage or wings depending on their relative positions.

Fig. 2 (a) Pressure distribution around an aerofoil; (b) transference of lift and drag loads to the aerodynamic centre.

Fig. 3 Typical lift distribution for a wing fuselage combination

Other loads include engine thrust on the wings or fuselage which acts in the plane of symmetry
but may, in the case of engine failure, cause severe fuselage bending moments, as shown in Fig. 4;
concentrated shock loads during a catapult launch; and hydrodynamic pressure on the fuselages or floats of
seaplanes.

Functions of Structural Components:

Loads acting on wing:
The basic functions of an aircraft’s structure are to transmit and resist the applied loads; to provide
an aerodynamic shape and to protect passengers, payload, systems etc. from the environmental conditions
encountered in flight. These requirements, in most aircraft, result in thin shell structures where the outer
surface or skin of the shell is usually supported by longitudinal stiffening members and transverse frames

Pavana K, Asst. Prof. Dept. of AE, SIT Mangaluru

 3

to enable it to resist bending, compressive and torsional loads without buckling. Such structures are known
as semi-monocoque.

Consider wing sections shape of the cross-section is governed by aerodynamic considerations and
clearly must be maintained for all combinations of load; this is one of the functions of the ribs. Ribs increase
the column buckling stress of the longitudinal stiffeners by providing end restraint and establishing their
column length; in a similar manner they increase the plate buckling stress of the skin panels. The dimensions
of ribs are governed by their span wise position in the wing and by the loads they are required to support.

The primary function of the wing skin is to form an impermeable surface for supporting the
aerodynamic pressure distribution from which the lifting capability of the wing is derived. These
aerodynamic forces are transmitted in turn to the ribs and stringers by the skin through plate and membrane
action. Resistance to shear and torsional loads is supplied by shear stresses developed in the skin and spar
webs, while axial and bending loads are reacted by the combined action of skin and stringers.

Although the thin skin is efficient for resisting shear and tensile loads, it buckles under
comparatively low compressive loads. Rather than increase the skin thickness and suffer a consequent
weight penalty, stringers are attached to the skin and ribs, thereby dividing the skin into small panels and
increasing the buckling and failing stresses. This stabilizing action of the stringers on the skin is, in fact,
reciprocated to some extent although the effect normal to the surface of the skin is minimal. Stringers rely
chiefly on rib attachments for preventing column action in this direction.

The role of spar webs in developing shear stresses to resist shear and torsional loads; they perform
a secondary but significant function in stabilizing, with the skin, the spar flanges or caps which are therefore
capable of supporting large compressive loads from axial and bending effects. In turn, spar webs exert a
stabilizing influence on the skin in a similar manner to the stringers.

Loads acting on fuselage:

Fuselages, while of different shape to the aerodynamic surfaces, comprise members which perform
similar functions to their counterparts in the wings and tail plane. Aerodynamic forces on the fuselage skin
are relatively low; on the other hand, the fuselage supports large concentrated loads such as wing reactions,
tailplane reactions, undercarriage reactions and it carries payloads of varying size and weight, which may
cause large inertia forces. Furthermore, aircraft designed for high altitude flight must withstand internal
pressure. The shape of the fuselage cross-section is determined by operational requirements. For example,
the most efficient sectional shape for a pressurized fuselage is circular or a combination of circular elements.
Irrespective of shape, the basic fuselage structure is essentially a single cell thin-walled tube comprising
skin, transverse frames and stringers; transverse frames which extend completely across the fuselage are
known as bulkheads.

Pressure bulkhead are fitted in the nose and tail portion of the aircraft. They are flat discs, like a
drum skin or curved and their purpose is to withstand the loads imposed by pressurization of the fuselage.
Cut outs are made in the fuselage to allow the door and window. This cause structural problems, because
the fuselage needs to be strengthened around them. It is important to make sure that loads are not routed
around these cutouts and instead spread evenly into surrounding skin and structure.

Pavana K, Asst. Prof. Dept. of AE, SIT Mangaluru

 4

Loads acting on tail unit:

The tail plane normally comprises a fixed vertical fin with movable rudder and either a fixed
horizontal surface with movable elevators or an all moving horizontal surface. The front section of vertical
tail (fin) prevents the aircraft from yawing back and forth. The rear section of the vertical tail is used to turn
the aircraft. The horizontal stabilizer is called the elevator and is usually hinged to the horizontal stabilizer.
The elevator is a movable airfoil that controls the up and down motion of the aircraft nose.

The tail needs to be at the end of a long arm. For this reason, it is placed at the rare of the fuselage,
farthest from the aircraft centre of gravity. Forces created by the tail are up, down, left, and right and there
are usually twisting forces as well. All these forces must be resisted by absorbed by the fuselage. Tail plane
of small aircraft may be built in a similar way to a fabric-covered wing. Stressed skin tail planes are similar
in construction to stressed-skin wings, but they are smaller and usually have a different section because of
they are not required to produce the lift in the normal flight.

Loads acting on landing gear:

The undercarriage serves two important purposes. The first is to support the aircraft on ground and
allow its movements. The second is to absorb landing shocks, allowing the aircraft to land smoothly without
bouncing. It must also resist large braking loads during landing. It should also withstand the side loads of
cross wing take-offs and landings. The undercarriage is not required during flight. Therefore, it must be as
small and light as possible. It is normally retracted into wings or fuselage during the flight to reduce the
drag.

The landing gear absorbs landing forces and holds the forward part of the aircraft weight when it
makes a landing. The landing gear shock strut absorbs landing forces and transmits vertical loads to the
aircraft structured. An aircraft is usually supported on the ground b two main wheels and a nose wheel.
Some small aircraft have a tail wheel configuration instead of a nose wheel.it must have the lowest possible
structure weight, but have a stiff and strong structure with a high degree of safety.

Thermal loads:
Thermal loads such as thrust and torque, the thrust loads are generated by the engines. These
loads are transmitted through the engine mounts into the surrounding structure. In a constant speed flight,
the thrust will equal the total drag of the aircraft, but usually acts common on the large transport aircraft.
In such cases, the thrust acts along a line below the wing causing torsional loads on the wing.

Pressurization:
Pressurization loads are important especially if the fuselage is not circular. A fuselage with non-
circular cross-section will try to become circular under the internal pressure and impose bending loads on
the fuselage frames.

Structural design V_n diagram/ Load Factor/ Velocity diagram:

The airworthiness of an aircraft is concerned with the standards of safety incorporated in all aspects
of its construction. These range from structural strength to the provision of certain safeguards in the event
of crash landings, and include design requirements relating to aerodynamics, performance and electrical
and hydraulic systems. The selection of minimum standards of safety is largely the concern of airworthiness

Pavana K, Asst. Prof. Dept. of AE, SIT Mangaluru

 5

authorities who prepare handbooks of official requirements. The handbooks include operational
requirements, minimum safety requirements, recommended practices and design data etc.

The control of weight in aircraft design is of extreme importance. Increases in weight require
stronger structures to support them, which in turn lead to further increases in weight and so on. Excesses of
structural weight mean lesser amounts of payload, thereby affecting the economic viability of the aircraft.
The limit load, which is the maximum load that the aircraft is expected to experience in normal operation,
the proof load, which is the product of the limit load and the proof factor (1.0- 1.25), and the ultimate load,
which is the product of the limit load and the ultimate factor (usually 1.5). The aircraft’s structure must
withstand the proof load without detrimental distortion and should not fail until the ultimate load has been
achieved.

Fig. 5 Flight envelope.

The basic strength and fight performance limits for a particular aircraft are selected by the
airworthiness authorities and are contained in the flight envelope or V-n diagram shown in Fig. 5. The
curves OA and OF correspond to the stalled condition of the aircraft and are obtained from the well-known
aerodynamic relationship.

Thus, for speeds below VA (positive wing incidence) and VF (negative incidence) the maximum
loads which can be applied to the aircraft are governed by CL max. As the speed increases it is possible to
apply the positive and negative limit loads, corresponding to n1 and n3, without stalling the aircraft so that
AC and FE represent maximum operational load factors for the aircraft. Above the design cruising speed
Vc the cut-off lines CD1 and D2E relieve the design cases to be covered since it is not expected that the
limit loads will be applied at maximum speed. Values of nl, n2 and n3 are specified by the airworthiness
authorities for particular aircraft.

A particular flight envelope is applicable to one altitude only since CLmax, is generally reduced
with an increase of altitude, and the speed of sound decreases with altitude thereby reducing the critical
Mach number and hence the design diving speed VD. Flight envelopes are therefore drawn for a range of
altitudes from sea level to the operational ceiling of the aircraft.

Pavana K, Asst. Prof. Dept. of AE, SIT Mangaluru

 6

Asymmetric flight manoeuvers load:

Gust loads:
The movement of the air in turbulence are generally known as gusts and produce changes in wing
incidence, thereby subjecting the aircraft to sudden or gradual increase or decrease in lift from which normal
accelerations results. Airworthiness requirements usually specify that gust loads shall be calculated at
certain combinations of gust and flight speed. The equations for gust load factor n is proportional to aircraft
speed for a given gust velocity u resulting in “sharp-edge” gust of fig 6(a). Calculation of normal
acceleration and aircraft response were based on the assumption that the aircraft’s flight is undisturbed
while the aircraft passes from the still air into the moving air of the gust during the time taken for the gust
load to build up; that the aerodynamic force on the aircraft are determined by the instantaneous incidence
of the particular lifting surface and finally that the aircraft structure is rigid. The second assumption here
relating the aerodynamic force on a lifting surface to its instantaneous incidence neglect the fact that in a
disturbance such as a gust there is a gradual growth of circulation. This lead to an overestimation of the
upward acceleration of an aircraft and therefore of gust loads. The sharp gust was replaced when it was
realized that the gust velocity built up to a maximum over a period of time. Airworthiness requirements
were modified on the assumption that the gust velocity increased linearly to a maximum value over a
specified gust gradient distance H. hence the “graded” gust of fig (b).

Fig 6: (a) Sharp-edged gust; (b) graded gust; (c) 1 - cosine gust

Sharp edged gust:

Fig. 7 Increase in wing incidence due to a sharp-edged gust.

In Fig. 7 the aircraft is flying at a speed V with wing incidence αo in still air. After entering the gust of
upward velocity u, the incidence increases by an amount tan-1 (u/ V), or since u is usually small compared
with V, u/ V. This is accompanied by an increase in aircraft speed from V to (V2 + u2)0.5, but again this
increase is neglected since u is small. The increase in wing lift ∆L is then given by

Pavana K, Asst. Prof. Dept. of AE, SIT Mangaluru

 7

(1)

where ∂CL/∂a is the wing lift-curve slope. Neglecting the change of lift on the tail plane as a first
approximation, the gust load factor ∆n produced by this change of lift is

(2)

where W is the aircraft weight. Expressing Eq. (2) in terms of the wing loading,

w = W/S, we have

(3)

This increment in gust load factor is additional to the steady level flight value n = 1.

Therefore, as a result of the gust, the total gust load factor is

(4)

Simply, for a downgust

(5)

If flight conditions are expressed in terms of equivalent sea-level conditions then V becomes the equivalent
airspeed (EAS), VE, u becomes uE and the air density p is replaced by the sea-level value po. Equations (4)
and (5) are written

(6)

And

(7)

We observe from Eqs (4)-(7) that the gust load factor is directly proportional to aircraft speed but inversely
proportional to wing loading. It follows that high-speed aircraft with low or moderate wing loadings are
most likely to be affected by gust loads.

The contribution to normal acceleration of the change in tail load produced by the gust may be calculated
using the same assumptions as before. However, the change in tailplane incidence is not equal to the change
in wing incidence due to downwash effects at the tail. Thus if ∆P is the increase (or decrease) in tailplane
load, then

(8)

Pavana K, Asst. Prof. Dept. of AE, SIT Mangaluru

 8

where ST is the tailplane area and ∆CL,T the increment of tailplane lift coefficient given by

(9)

in which ∂CL,T / ∂α the rate of change of tailplane lift coefficient with wing incidence. From aerodynamic
theory

where ∂CL,T / ∂αT is the rate of change of CL,T with tailplane incidence and ∂ɛ/∂α the rate of change of
downwash angle with wing incidence. Substituting for ∆CL,T from Eq. (9) into Eq. (8), we have

(10)

For positive increments of wing lift and tailplane load

∆nW = ∆L -k ∆P

or, from Eqs (6) and (10)

(11)

The graded gust:

The 'graded' gust of Fig. 6(b) may be converted to an equivalent 'sharp-edged' gust by multiplying the
maximum velocity in the gust by a gust alleviation factor, F. Thus Eq. (6) becomes

(12)

Similar modifications are carried out on Eqs (4), (5), (7) and (11). The gust alleviation factor allows for
some of the dynamic properties of the aircraft, including unsteady lift, and has been calculated taking into
account the heaving motion (that is, the up and down motion with zero rate of pitch) of the aircraft only.
Horizontal gusts cause lateral loads on the vertical tail or fin. Their magnitudes may be calculated in an
identical manner to those above, except that areas and values of lift curve slope are referred to the vertical
tail. Also, the gust alleviation factor in the 'graded' gust case becomes Fl and includes allowances for the
aerodynamic yawing moment produced by the gust and the yawing inertia of the aircraft.

Problems:

Pavana K, Asst. Prof. Dept. of AE, SIT Mangaluru

 9

Fig 13.3

Pavana K, Asst. Prof. Dept. of AE, SIT Mangaluru

 10

Fig 13.4

__________________________________________________________________________________

Pavana K, Asst. Prof. Dept. of AE, SIT Mangaluru

 11

Fig 13.5

Pavana K, Asst. Prof. Dept. of AE, SIT Mangaluru

 12

__________________________________________________________________________________

The aircraft shown just touched down and braking force 20000kg at CG is applied to bring the aircraft to
rest. The landing horizontal velocity is 100kmph. Neglecting other forces, what is the landing distance and
time taken to come to rest? What are reactions R1 and R2?

Pavana K, Asst. Prof. Dept. of AE, SIT Mangaluru

 13

Pavana K, Asst. Prof. Dept. of AE, SIT Mangaluru

 14

Pavana K, Asst. Prof. Dept. of AE, SIT Mangaluru

 15

Aircraft inertia load:

Pavana K, Asst. Prof. Dept. of AE, SIT Mangaluru

 16

Pavana K, Asst. Prof. Dept. of AE, SIT Mangaluru

 17

Symmetric maneuver loads:

Although steady level flight is not a maneuver in the strict sense of the word, it is a useful condition to
investigate initially since it establishes points of load application and gives some idea of the equilibrium of
an aircraft in the longitudinal plane. The loads acting on an aircraft in steady flight are shown in Fig, with
the following notation:

L is the lift acting at the aerodynamic center of the wing.

D is the aircraft drag.

M0 is the aerodynamic pitching moment of the aircraft less its horizontal tail.

P is the horizontal tail load acting at the aerodynamic center of the tail, usually taken to be at approximately
one-third of the tailplane chord.

W is the aircraft weight acting at its CG.

T is the engine thrust, assumed here to act parallel to the direction of flight in order to simplify calculation.

The loads are in static equilibrium since the aircraft is in a steady, unaccelerated, level flight condition.

Thus, for vertical equilibrium

L +P −W = 0 (1)

for horizontal equilibrium

T −D = 0 (2)

and taking moments about the aircraft’s CG in the plane of symmetry

La −Db −Tc −M0−Pl = 0 (3)

For a given aircraft weight, speed, and altitude, Eqs. (1, 2, and 3) may be solved for the unknown lift, drag,
and tail loads. However, other parameters in these equations, such as M0, dependupon the wing incidence
α, which in turn is a function of the required wing lift so that, in practice, a method of successive
approximation is found to be the most convenient means of solution.

As a first approximation, we assume that the tail load P is small compared with the wing lift L so that, from
Eq. (1), L ≈W. From aerodynamic theory with the usual notation,

Pavana K, Asst. Prof. Dept. of AE, SIT Mangaluru

 18

Hence (4)

 Equation (4) gives the approximate lift coefficient CLand thus (from CL−α curves established by
wind tunnel tests) the wing incidence α.
 The drag load D follows (knowing V and α) and hence we obtain the required engine thrust T from
Eq. (2). Also, M0, a, b, c, and l may be calculated (again, since V and α are known) and Eq. (3)
solved for P.
 As a second approximation, this value of P is substituted in Eq. (13.7) to obtain a more accurate
value for L, and the procedure is repeated.
 Usually three approximations are sufficient to produce reasonably accurate values. In most cases,
P, D, and T are small compared with the lift and aircraft weight.
therefore, from Eq. (1) L ≈W, and substitution in Eq. (3) gives, neglecting D and T

(5)

We see from Eq. (5) that if a is large, then P will most likely be positive. In other words, the tail load acts
upward when the CG of the aircraft is far aft. When a is small or negative—in other words, a forward CG
then P will probably be negative and act downward.

Steady Pull-Out:
Let us suppose that the aircraft has just begun its pull-out from a dive so that it is describing a curved

flight path but is not yet at its lowest point. The loads acting on the aircraft at this stage of the maneuver are
shown in Fig, where R is the radius of curvature of the flight path. In this case, the lift vector must equilibrate
the normal (to the flight path) component of the aircraft weight and provide the force producing the
centripetal acceleration V2/R of the aircraft toward the center of curvature of the flight path. Thus,

Pavana K, Asst. Prof. Dept. of AE, SIT Mangaluru

 19

or, since L =nW

n = (V2/gR) +cos θ (1)

At the lowest point of the pull-out, θ =0, and

n = (V2/gR)+1 (2)

We see from either Eq. (13.15) or Eq. (13.16) that the smaller the radius of the flight path, that is the more
severe the pull-out, the greater the value of n. It is quite possible, therefore, for a severe pull-out to overstress
the aircraft by subjecting it to loads which lie outside the flight envelope and which may even exceed the
proof or ultimate loads. In practice, the control surface movement may be limited by stops incorporated in
the control circuit. These stops usually operate only above a certain speed, giving the aircraft adequate
maneuverability at lower speeds. For hydraulically operated controls, “artificial feel” is built in to the
system whereby the stick force increases progressively as the speed increase a necessary precaution in this
type of system since the pilot is merely opening and closing valves in the control circuit and therefore
receives no direct physical indication of control surface forces.

Alternatively, at low speeds, a severe pull-out or pull-up may stall the aircraft. Again safety precautions are
usually incorporated in the form of stall warning devices, since, for modern high-speed aircraft, a stall can
be disastrous, particularly at low altitudes.

Correctly Banked Turn:

In this maneuver, the aircraft flies in a horizontal turn with no sideslip at constant speed. If the radius of the
turn is R and the angle of bank φ, then the forces acting on the aircraft are those shown in Fig. The horizontal
component of the lift vector in this case provides the force necessary to produce the centripetal acceleration
of the aircraft toward the center of the turn. Then

(a)

and for vertical equilibrium

L cos φ = W (1)

or

L = W sec φ (2)

Pavana K, Asst. Prof. Dept. of AE, SIT Mangaluru

 20

From Eq. (2), we see that the load factor n in the turn is given by

n = sec φ (3)

Also, dividing Eq. (a) by Eq. (1)

tan φ = (V2/gR) (4)

Examination of Eq. (13.21) reveals that the tighter the turn the greater the angle of bank required to maintain
horizontal flight. Furthermore, we see from Eq. (13.20) that an increase in bank angle results in an increased
load factor. Aerodynamic theory shows that for a limiting value of n, the minimum time taken to turn
through a given angle at a given value of engine thrust occurs when the lift coefficient C is a maximum that
is, with the aircraft on the point of stalling.

Aircraft Materials:
Aluminum alloys:
Pure aluminum is a relatively low-strength, extremely flexible metal with virtually no structural
applications.

However, when alloyed with other metals, its properties are improved significantly. Three groups of
aluminum alloy have been used in the aircraft industry for many years and still play a major role in aircraft
construction. In the first of these, aluminum is alloyed with copper, magnesium, manganese, silicon, and
iron and has a typical composition of 4% copper, 0.5% magnesium, 0.5% manganese, 0.3% silicon, and
0.2% iron, with the remainder being aluminum. In the wrought, heat-treated, naturally aged condition, this
alloy possesses a 0.1 percent proof stress not less than 230 N/mm2, a tensile strength not less than 390
N/mm2, and an elongation at fracture of 15 percent. Artificial aging at a raised temperature of, for example,
170◦C increases the proof stress to not less than 370 N/mm2 and the tensile strength to not less than 460
N/mm2, with an elongation of 8 percent.

The second group of alloys contains, in addition to the preceding 1 to 2% of nickel, a higher content of
magnesium and possible variations in the amounts of copper, silicon, and iron. The most important property
of these alloys is their retention of strength at high temperatures, which makes them particularly suitable
for aero engine manufacture. A development of these alloys by Rolls-Royce and High Duty Alloys Ltd
replaced some of the nickel with iron and reduced the copper content; these RR alloys, as they were called,
were used for forgings and extrusions in aero engines and airframes.

The third group of alloys depends on the inclusion of zinc and magnesium for their high strength and has a
typical composition of 2.5% copper, 5%zinc, 3%magnesium, and up to 1%nickel, with mechanical
properties of 0.1 percent proof stress 510 N/mm2, tensile strength 585 N/mm2, and an elongation of 8
percent. In a modern development of this alloy, nickel has been eliminated and provision made for the
addition of chromium and further amounts of manganese.

Alloys from each of the preceding groups have been used extensively for airframes, skins, and other stressed
components, the choice of alloy being influenced by factors such as strength (proof and ultimate stress),
ductility, ease of manufacture (e.g., in extrusion and forging), resistance to corrosion and amenability to
protective treatment, fatigue strength, freedom from liability to sudden cracking due to internal stresses,
and resistance to fast crack propagation under load. Clearly, different types of aircraft have differing

Pavana K, Asst. Prof. Dept. of AE, SIT Mangaluru

 21

requirements. A military aircraft, for instance, having a relatively short life measured in hundreds of hours,
does not call for the same degree of fatigue and corrosion resistance as a civil aircraft with a required life
of 30 000 hours or more.

Unfortunately, as one particular property of aluminum alloys is improved, other desirable proper- ties are
sacrificed. For example, the extremely high static strength of the aluminum–zinc–magnesium alloys was
accompanied for many years by a sudden liability to crack in an unloaded condition due to the retention of
internal stresses in bars, forgings, and sheet after heat treatment. Although variations in composition have
eliminated this problem to a considerable extent, other deficiencies showed themselves. Early postwar
passenger aircraft experienced large numbers of stress-corrosion failures of forgings and extrusions. The
problem became so serious that in 1953 it was decided to replace as many aluminum–zinc–manganese
components as possible with the aluminum–4% copper Alloy L65 and to prohibit the use of forgings in
zinc-bearing alloy in all future designs. However, improvements in the stress-corrosion resistance of the
aluminum–zinc–magnesium alloys have resulted in recent years from

The first group of alloys possesses a lower static strength than the preceding zinc-bearing alloys but are
preferred for portions of the structure where fatigue considerations are of primary importance, such as the
undersurfaces of wings, where tensile fatigue loads predominate. Experience has shown that the naturally
aged version of these alloys has important advantages over the fully heat-treated forms in fatigue endurance
and resistance to crack propagation. Furthermore, the inclusion of a higher percentage of magnesium was
found, in America, to produce, in the naturally aged condition, mechanical properties between those of the
normal naturally aged and artificially aged alloy. This alloy designated 2024 (aluminum–copper alloys form
the 2000 series) has the nominal composition: 4.5% copper, 1.5% magnesium, 0.6% manganese, with the
remainder aluminum and appears to be a satisfactory compromise between the various important, but
sometimes conflicting, mechanical properties.

Interest in aluminum–magnesium–silicon alloys has recently increased, although they have been in general
use in the aerospace industry for decades. The reasons for this renewed interest are that they are potentially
cheaper than aluminum–copper alloys and, being weld able, are capable of reducing manufacturing costs.
In addition, variants, such as the ISO 6013 alloy, have improved property levels and, generally, possess a
similar high fracture toughness and resistance to crack propagation as the 2000 series alloys.

Steel:
The use of steel for the manufacture of thin-walled, box-section spars in the 1930s has been superseded by
the aluminum alloys, its high specific gravity prevents its widespread use in aircraft construction, but it has
retained some value as a material for castings for small components demanding high tensile strengths, high
stiffness, and high resistance to wear. Such components include undercarriage pivot brackets, wing-root
attachments, fasteners, and tracks.

Although the attainment of high and ultra-high tensile strengths presents no difficulty with steel, it is found
that other properties are sacrificed and that it is difficult to manufacture into finished components. To
overcome some of these difficulties, types of steel known as MARAGING steels were developed in 1961,
from which carbon is either eliminated entirely or present only in very small amounts. Carbon, while
producing the necessary hardening of conventional high-tensile steels, causes brittleness and distortion; the
latter is not easily rectifiable, as machining is difficult and cold forming impracticable. Welded fabrication
is also almost impossible or very expensive. The hardening of maraging steels is achieved by the addition

Pavana K, Asst. Prof. Dept. of AE, SIT Mangaluru

 22

of other elements such as nickel, cobalt, and molybdenum. A typical maraging steel would have these
elements present in the proportions: nickel 17 to 19%, cobalt 8 to 9%, molybdenum 3 to 3.5%, with titanium
0.15 to 0.25%. The carbon content would be a maximum of 0.03%, with traces of manganese, silicon,
sulfur, phosphorus, aluminum, boron, calcium, and zirconium. Its 0.2 percent proof stress would be
nominally 1400 N/mm2 and its modulus of elasticity 180 000 N/mm2.

The main advantages of maraging steels over conventional low-alloy steels are higher fracture toughness
and notched strength, simpler heat treatment, much lower volume change and distortion during hardening,
very much simpler to weld, easier to machine, and better resistance to stress corrosion/ hydrogen
embrittlement. On the other hand, the material cost of maraging steels is three or more times greater than
the cost of conventional steels, although this may be more than offset by the increased cost of fabricating a
complex component from the latter steel. Maraging steels have been used in aircraft arrester hooks, rocket
motor cases, helicopter undercarriages, gears, ejector seats, and various structural forgings. In addition to
the preceding, steel in its stainless form has found applications primarily in the construction of supersonic
and hypersonic experimental and research aircraft, where temperature effects are considerable. Stainless
steel formed the primary structural material in the Bristol 188, built to investigate kinetic heating effects,
and also in the American rocket aircraft, the X-15, capable of speeds of the order of Mach 5–6.

Titanium:
The use of titanium alloys increased significantly in the 1980s, particularly in the construction of combat
aircraft as opposed to transport aircraft. This increase continued in the 1990s to the stage where, for combat
aircraft, the percentage of titanium alloy as a fraction of structural weight is of the same order as that of
aluminum alloy. Titanium alloys possess high specific properties, have a good fatigue strength/tensile
strength ratio with a distinct fatigue limit, and have some retain considerable strength at temperatures up to
400 to 500◦C. Generally, there is also a good resistance to corrosion and corrosion fatigue, although
properties are adversely affected by exposure to temperature and stress in a salt environment. The latter
poses particular problems in the engines of carrier-operated aircraft.

Further disadvantages are a relatively high density so that weight penalties are imposed if the alloy is
extensively used, coupled with high primary and high fabrication costs, approximately seven times those
of aluminum and steel.

In spite of this, titanium alloys were used previously in the airframe and engines of Concorde, while the
Tornado wing carry-through box is fabricated from a weld able medium-strength titanium alloy. Titanium
alloys are also used extensively in the F15 and F22 American fighter aircraft and are incorporated in the
tail assembly of the Boeing 777 civil airliner. Other uses include forged components such as flap and slat
tracks and undercarriage parts.

New fabrication processes (e.g., superplastic forming combined with diffusion bonding) enable large and
complex components to be produced, resulting in a reduction in production man-hours and weight. Typical
savings are 30 percent in man-hours, 30 percent in weight, and 50 percent in cost compared with
conventional riveted titanium structures. It is predicted that the number of titanium components fabricated
in this way for aircraft will increase significantly and include items such as access doors, sheet for areas of
hot gas impingement, and so forth.

Pavana K, Asst. Prof. Dept. of AE, SIT Mangaluru

 23

Plastics:
Plain plastic materials have specific gravities of approximately unity and are therefore considerably heavier
than wood, although of comparable strength. On the other hand, their specific gravities are less than half
those of the aluminum alloys so that they find uses as windows or lightly stressed parts whose dimensions
are established by handling requirements rather than strength. They are also particularly useful as electrical
insulators and as energy-absorbing shields for delicate instrumentation and even structures where severe
vibration such as in a rocket or space shuttle launches occurs.

Glass:
The majority of modern aircraft have cabins pressurized for flight at high altitudes. Windscreens and
windows are therefore subjected to loads normal to their midplanes. Glass is frequently the material used
for this purpose in the form of plain or laminated plate or heat-strengthened plate. The types of plate glass
used in aircraft have a modulus of elasticity between 70 000 and 75 000 N/mm2 with a modulus of rupture
in bending of 45 N/mm2 Heat-strengthened plate has a modulus of rupture of about four and a half times
this figure.

Composite materials:
Composite materials consist of strong fibers such as glass or carbon set in a matrix of plastic or epoxy resin,
which is mechanically and chemically protective. The fibers may be continuous or discontinuous but
possess a strength very much greater than that of the same bulk materials. For example, carbon fibers have
a tensile strength of the order of 2400 N/mm2 and a modulus of elasticity of 400 000 N/mm2.

A sheet of fiber-reinforced material is anisotropic—in other words, its properties depend on the direction
of the fibers. Generally, therefore, in structural form, two or more sheets are sandwiched together to form
a lay-up so that the fiber directions match those of the major loads.

In the early stages of the development of composite materials, glass fibers were used in a matrix of epoxy
resin. This glass-reinforced plastic (GRP) was used for radomes and helicopter blades but found limited
use in components of fixed wing aircraft due to its low stiffness. In the 1960s, new fibrous reinforcements
were introduced; Kevlar, for example, is an aramid material with the same strength as glass but is stiffer.
Kevlar composites are tough but poor in compression and difficult to machine, so they were used in
secondary structures. Another composite, using boron fiber and developed in the United States, was the first
to possess sufficient strength and stiffness for primary structures.

These composites have now been replaced by carbon-fiber-reinforced plastics (CFRP), which have similar
properties to boron composites but are very much cheaper. Typically, CFRP has a modulus of the order of
three times that of GRP, one and a half times that of a Kevlar composite, and twice that of aluminum alloy.
Its strength is three times that of aluminum alloy, approximately the same as that of GRP, and slightly less
than that of Kevlar composites. CFRP does, however, suffer from some disadvantages. It is a brittle material
and therefore does not yield plastically in regions of high stress concentration. Its strength is reduced by
impact damage which may not be visible, and the epoxy resin matrices can absorb moisture over a long
period, which reduces its matrix-dependent properties, such as its compressive strength; this effect increases
with increase of temperature. Further, the properties of CFRP are subject to more random variation than
those of metals. All these factors must be allowed for in design. On the other hand, the stiffness of CFRP
is much less affected than its strength by the preceding, and it is less prone to fatigue damage than metals.

Pavana K, Asst. Prof. Dept. of AE, SIT Mangaluru

 24

It is estimated that replacing 40 percent of an aluminum alloy structure by CFRP would result in a 12
percent saving in total structural weight.

CFRP is included in the wing, tailplane, and forward fuselage of the latest Harrier development, is used in
the Tornado taileron, and has been used to construct a complete Jaguar wing and engine bay door for testing
purposes. The use of CFRP in the fabrication of helicopter blades has led to significant increases in their
service life, where fatigue resistance rather than stiffness is of primary importance.

Figure shows the structural complexity of a Sea King helicopter rotor blade, which incorporates CFRP,
GRP, stainless steel, a honeycomb core, and foam filling. An additional advantage of the use of composites
for helicopter rotor blades is that the molding techniques used allow variations of cross section along the
span, resulting in substantial aerodynamic benefits. This approach is being used in the fabrication of the
main rotor blades of the GKN Westland Helicopters EH101.

A composite (fiberglass and aluminum) is used in the tail assembly of the Boeing 777, while the leading
edge of the Airbus A310–300/A320 fin assembly is of conventional reinforced glass fiber construction,
reinforced at the nose to withstand bird strikes. A complete composite airframe was produced for the
Beechcraft Starship turboprop executive aircraft, which, however, was not a commercial success due to its
canard configuration causing drag and weight penalties.

The development of composite materials is continuing with research into the removal of strength- reducing
flaws and local imperfections from carbon fibers. Other matrices, such as polyetheretherketone which
absorbs much less moisture than epoxy resin, has an indefinite shelf life, and performs well under impact,
are being developed; fabrication, however, requires much higher temperatures. Metal matrix composites
such as graphite–aluminum and boron–aluminum are lightweight and retain their strength at higher
temperatures than aluminum alloys but are expensive to produce.

Generally, the use of composites in aircraft construction appears to have reached a plateau, particularly in
civil subsonic aircraft, where the fraction of the structure comprising composites is approximately 15
percent. This is due largely to the greater cost of manufacturing composites compared with aluminum alloy

Pavana K, Asst. Prof. Dept. of AE, SIT Mangaluru

 25

structures, since composites require handcrafting of the materials and manual construction processes. These
increased costs are particularly important in civil aircraft construction and are becoming increasingly
important in military aircraft.

Properties of materials:
Ductility

A material is said to be ductile if it is capable of withstanding large strains under load before fracture occurs.
These large strains are accompanied by a visible change in cross-sectional dimensions and therefore give
warning of impending failure. Materials in this category include mild steel, aluminum, and some of its
alloys, copper, and polymers.

Brittleness

A brittle material exhibits little deformation before fracture, the strain normally being below 5 percent.
Brittle materials therefore may fail suddenly without visible warning. Included in this group are concrete,
cast iron, high-strength steel, timber, and ceramics.

Elastic Materials

A material is said to be elastic if deformations disappear completely on removal of the load. All known
engineering materials are, in addition, linearly elastic within certain limits of stress so that strain, within
these limits, is directly proportional to stress.

Plasticity

A material is perfectly plastic if no strain disappears after the removal of load. Ductile materials are
elastoplastic and behave in an elastic manner until the elastic limit is reached, after which they behave
plastically. When the stress is relieved, the elastic component of the strain is recovered, but the plastic strain
remains as a permanent set.

Isotropic Materials

In many materials, the elastic properties are the same in all directions at each point in the material, although
they may vary from point to point; such a material is known as isotropic. An isotropic material having the
same properties at all points is known as homogeneous (e.g., mild steel).

Anisotropic Materials

Materials having varying elastic properties in different directions are known as anisotropic. Orthotropic
Materials Although a structural material may possess different elastic properties in different directions, this
variation may be limited, as in the case of timber, which has just two values of Young’s modulus, one in
the direction of the grain and one perpendicular to the grain. A material whose elastic properties are limited
to three different values in three mutually perpendicular directions is known as orthotropic.

Fatigue:
Structural members are frequently subjected to repetitive loading over a long period of time. For example,
the members of a bridge structure suffer variations in loading possibly thousands of times a day as traffic

Pavana K, Asst. Prof. Dept. of AE, SIT Mangaluru

 26

moves over the bridge. In these circumstances, a structural member may fracture at a level of stress
substantially below the ultimate stress for non-repetitive static loads; this phenomenon is known as fatigue.

Fatigue cracks are most frequently initiated at sections in a structural member where changes in geometry,
such as holes, notches, or sudden changes in section, cause stress concentrations. Designers seek to
eliminate such areas by ensuring that rapid changes in section are as smooth as possible. At re-entrant
corners, for example, fillets are provided, as shown in Fig.

Other factors which affect the failure of a material under repetitive loading are the type of loading (fatigue
is primarily a problem with repeated tensile stresses due, probably, to the fact that microscopic cracks can
propagate more easily under tension), temperature, the material, surface finish (machine marks are potential
crack propagators), corrosion, and residual stresses produced by welding.

Frequently, in structural members, an alternating stress, σalt is superimposed on a static or mean a static or
mean stress, σmean, as illustrated in Fig. 2. The value of σalt, is the most important factor in determining the
number of cycles of load that produce failure. The stress σalt, that can be withstood for a specified number
of cycles is called the fatigue strength of the material. Some materials, such as mild steel, possess a stress
level that can be withstood for an indefinite number of cycles. This stress is known as the endurance limit
of the material; no such limit has been found for aluminum and its alloys. Fatigue data are frequently
presented in the form of an S–n curve or stress–endurance curve, as shown in Fig. 3

Fig 2 Fig 3

In many practical situations, the amplitude of the alternating stress varies and is frequently random in nature.
The S–n curve does not, therefore, apply directly and an alternative means of predicting failure is required.
Miner’s cumulative damage theory suggests that failure occurs when

Pavana K, Asst. Prof. Dept. of AE, SIT Mangaluru

 27

where n1, n2, ..., nr are the number of applications of stresses σalt, σmean ,and N1, N2, ..., Nr are the number
of cycles to failure of stresses σalt, σmean

Fracture:

Stress Intensity Factor:

The stress intensity factor (K) is used in the field of fracture mechanics. It predicts stress intensity near the
tip of a crack caused by a remote load or residual stresses.

The magnitude of K depends on:

Pavana K, Asst. Prof. Dept. of AE, SIT Mangaluru

 28

Sample geometry

Size and location of the crack, Magnitude of load, Distribution of load

The stress intensity factor is a single-parameter characterization of the crack tip stress field.

The following equation describes stress intensity:

Where ß describes the relationship between gross geometrical features to the stress intensity factors. ß can
be a function of crack length as well as other geometrical features. K represents nominal stress that is remote
from the crack.

The above equation shows that the intensity of the stress field — and therefore the stresses in the crack tip
region are linearly proportional to remotely applied stress and proportional to the square root of half the
crack's length.

Stress intensity can be determined by:

Finite element analysis

ASTM E1681 standard method

Weight function method

Crack growth rate derivation:

Pavana K, Asst. Prof. Dept. of AE, SIT Mangaluru

 29

Pavana K, Asst. Prof. Dept. of AE, SIT Mangaluru

 30

Pavana K, Asst. Prof. Dept. of AE, SIT Mangaluru

 31

Pavana K, Asst. Prof. Dept. of AE, SIT Mangaluru

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