Fluid and Cement

Well Engineering Distance Learning Package (The DLP)
Chapter Six
Fluids and
Cement
Petroleum Engineer: Mohd. Zouhry El-Helu.
E-Mail Address: peteng.mzhelu@gmail.com

1.1 Drilling Fluids
1.1.1 Introduction
1.1.1.1 GENERAL
Man has been excavating the ground to recover the earth's resources
since before recorded history. The drilling industry has long been a
part of this occupation. It has come a long way since the Chinese and
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Egyptians first started using boring machines. Today our industry is

capable of
 drilling to over 20 km depths

 drilling 10m diameter shafts
 drilling 2 km horizontally at 3 km depth, and turning at right

angles.
 extracting geothermal energy at 400°C
 drilling in 5 km water depths
 drilling square holes
Truly remarkable feats. One of the controlling factors in this

development has been the corresponding strides made in drilling fluid
technology. Today we can formulate fluids to:
 withstand over 200°C

 transport pipeline debris over 192 km
 carry 5kg pieces of metal vertically from depths over 1,000m
 transport gold ore vertically from 4,000m
but regrettably there is often a large discrepancy between what we

can have and what we often use.
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The name 'Mud Doctor' has been used for many years as a humorous
title for the drilling fluids engineer. Although quite funny, it is not that
far from the truth for the drilling fluid can be viewed as the life blood
of the drilling operation. It cleanses the system, delivers energy and
carries "antibodies" to combat system problems. Without it drilling
cannot operate at peak performance.
The drilling fluid engineer's role is to ensure that the drilling

operation remains fit and healthy. To do this effectively he must be
knowledgeable of the anatomy of the body (formation and well) and
diagnose for genetic defects (downhole problems) and the blood
disorders (contaminants). He must then specify remedial treatments
to ensure the correct physico-chemical balance is maintained to
maximise performance.
However, in some respects, the name has also developed somewhat

from "Witch Doctor". The mud industry has historically been secretive
about how to plan and run a drilling fluid. Expressions such as
'experience', 'in-house expertise' and 'trade secrets' have often been
bandied about to limit the spread of knowledge. Sometimes it can
almost appear to be "Black Magic", with the old Mud Doctor throwing
in a secret ingredient or two and getting dramatic effects. This
secrecy has often blinded the drilling fluids industry to the needs of
their customers if the latter don't know how it is done they may not

want to challenge what is recommended for fear of appearing

ignorant.
One reason given for this restriction of information has been the
protection of R&D and training investment. "No company can afford
to give away its technical and commercial advantage". Equally we
cannot afford to have inefficient and expensive drilling fluids; that
compromises our technical and commercial advantage. The ultimate
goal, for all, is the well being of our operations. The responsibility for
resolving any potential conflict lies with both sides. Understanding
and properly using drilling fluids does produce successful wells,
ignorance can, and often does, have the opposite effect.
1.1.1.2 THE ANATOMY OF A DRILLING FLUID
What is the difference between Mud and a Drilling Fluid? Mud is a

mixture of dirt and water whereas a Drilling Fluid can be:
a Tool to Maximise Results and Minimise Costs
What are the Functions of a Drilling Fluid? Classically these have

been listed as being to:
 deliver sufficient energy to the bit to assist drilling.

 clean the drilling face of newly made cuttings.
 cool, clean and lubricate the bit.

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 drive any downhole motor or turbine.
 transport the cuttings out of the hole.
 suspend the cuttings during periods without circulation.
 stabilise the sides of the borehole.
 maintain an impermeable barrier on the borehole wall opposite

porous and permeable formations
 provide hydrostatic head to avoid the influx of formation fluids

into the borehole.
 release the carried cuttings before recirculating into the hole.
 to transmit data to surface.
This list of functions does not however accurately portray the true
role of the fluid in the drilling operation nor does it indicate the
potential impact upon the business. Like a doctor, or scientist, the
fluids engineer needs all of the facts and must evaluate the whole
picture before formulating an effective solution.
Putting the key functions from above into context against where in
the system they are required, as illustrated in Figure 6.1.1, a clearer

picture starts to emerge, not only of what the fluid is supposed to do,
but where, how and under what conditions.
Figure 6.1.1: Functions of a drilling fluid
By analysing the functions of the drilling fluid in the context of the

operation we can build up a better understanding of the way it must
perform, and under what influencing conditions. Thus we are able to
prescribe the optimum specification for the job to be done, monitor
the performance and carry out remedial treatments to rectify any
short fallings.

1.1.1.3 DRILLING FLUID PLANNING
All of a drilling fluid's functions are important, however the specific

goals of a particular drilling operation will place different emphasis on
them; for example, drilling through a water sensitive shale will place
more emphasis on the borehole stability aspect than would drilling
through a competent limestone. The key to efficient drilling fluid
design, and well planning, is using a logical, structured approach to
programming. Such an approach encompasses:
 specifying and ranking the goals and expectations of the

operation.
 recognising the system requirements to achieve the goals.
 identifying the drilling fluid functions within the system

requirements.
 matching the drilling fluid properties with the functions.
 profiling the performance under the varying condition for

optimum additive selection.
Throughout it is essential that the planning engineer liaise with all

interested parties involved with the well.

Firstly a ranked set of objectives has to be defined and agreed. For

example: Is it an exploration well? Then petrophysical logging may
be important to monitor progress against prognosis. Thus a near
gauge hole with minimum fluid invasion would be a key requirement.
What type of logs are required? Some are sensitive to salt, others are
sensitive to oil.
Secondly, the specific fluid properties required to achieve the goals

should be listed in a planning table. Each property should then be
examined specifically as to the requirements throughout the
circulating system. Having defined this model of optimum
performance, components can then be selected. Where variance from
the ideal occurs the design should be re-examined, with respect to
the prioritised objectives, to gauge the impact that less than
maximum performance may have.
As well as satisfying the operational objectives materials chosen must

meet a number of "common requirements" such as HSE,
compatibility with the make-up water and compatibility with other
additives.
Once the potential components have been identified, on a

performance basis, then, and only then, should the economics be
reviewed. The costs examined should be on an overall well basis. A
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balance must be always be sought between combating foreseeable

problems and overkilling all possible eventualities.
1.1.1.4 ECONOMICS
One of the major, and perhaps the most influential, planning and
operating parameters is 'cost'. "Cost control" and "expense reduction"
have developed as everyday catch phrases within our industry, and
rightly so. We have finite resources of funds with which to find,
develop and produce hydrocarbons.
Our goal is to reduce the cost of the whole operation. We must be

careful not to just focus on the price on individual products or
elements. We can all calculate that saving 20% on a US$1,000 item
is not equal to a consequential loss of 1% on a US$40,000 operation
due to using a sub-optimal drilling fluid. The key objective is to
minimise the cost of well construction and maximise productivity.
For example, compare a reasonably quality bentonite based drilling

fluid, costing approximately US$50/m3, versus a more expensive
polymer based fluid, costing around $88/m 3. Initially it would appear
that the bentonite based fluid offer significant savings over the
polymer fluid.
However, consider the implications when drilling through the

reservoir section of a well to be completed barefoot. If the damaging
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nature of the bentonite filter cake, which is chemically inert, reduces

the production from an estimated 1,000 m 3 per day to 900 m3 . A
remedial stimulation treatment to remove the damage could cost
upward of $50,000. It is easy to see that it would not take too long
to lose any advantage gained from the cheaper drilling fluid. This is
not to say that more expensive is better. The essential factor is
getting a fit-for-purpose product.
Drilling fluid planning must consider the overall effect and economics
on the operation, particularly the cost per barrel of production; this is
the ultimate goal. Cutting corners in one area may not necessarily
result in a cost saving in the overall project. Maximising the results is
as important as, if not more so than, reducing the cost. The result
from a properly structured planning process will be the optimum fluid
for achieving the specified goals with the minimum overall
operational cost, and thus give:
Maximum Return on Investment
1.1.1.5 THE SCOPE OF DRILLING FLUID

ENGINEERING
The planning of a drilling programme, and the day-to-day execution

of the programme, involve the well engineer in subjects ranging from
the chemistry of clay mineral molecules to the maintenance of
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pressure control in the well. The following subjects are covered to

the required depth in this part:
 Density and pressure gradients

 Rheology
 Hydraulics
 Borehole instability
 Clay chemistry
 Inhibition
 Invert oil emulsion systems
 Contaminants
 Temperature
 Drilled solids
 Drilling problems
 Well control
 Cementing
 Drill-in, completion and well intervention fluids
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1.1.2 Density and pressure gradients
1.1.2.1 INTRODUCTION
The process of laying down the various formations and the

subsequent actions on the ground by movements within the earth's
crust create abnormal conditions in the rocks through which the
operation will drill. These create specific problems that the drilling
fluid must overcome.
Uncontrolled production of formation fluids and gases can be a safety

risk, hazardous to the environment and a loss of revenue for the
Company and the asset holder. The drilling fluid is the first line of
defence against such occurrences. The second defence mechanism is
containment within the well.
The optimum density of the drilling fluid is a balance between

exerting enough downhole force to overbalance the pressure within
the formation whilst not compromising the integrity of the wellbore.
1.1.2.2 UNITS
Specific Gravity (S.G.) is the dimensionless ratio of a material's

density compared to that of a standard solution of fresh water at sea
level.
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Table 6.1.1: Units of Pressure, 'Fluid' gradient and density
Refer also to Appendix 1.
1.1.2.3 FORMATION STRESS & PRESSURE
 SEDIMENTARY ROCK FORMATION
Generally, in oilfield drilling the formations penetrated have been

built up by the deposition of sediments. As this process continues the
underlying material is subjected to increasing force. Interstitial water
is gradually squeezed out and the minerals are compacted into
sedimentary rocks.
 STRESSES
The stresses acting on the rock in the subsurface can be resolved

into 3 orthogonal components. These are called the principle stresses
( n).
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Fig 6.1.2: Principle Rock Stresses
Normally both the vertical and horizontal principle stresses will

increase with depth. The two are related by the fact that the rock is
laterally constrained by the neighbouring rock. However regional
tectonics may cause other effects. If the stresses are of different
magnitude then the convention is: 1> 2> 3.
The vertical, or overburden, stress is generally expressed as a

gradient; S/z. This can be derived by integrating the formation
density log.
As a rule of thumb: Overburden Gradient. 22·6 kPa/m (1 psi/ft)
Each principle stress is composed of two elements: the stress exerted

on the rock ( f) and that exerted on the pore fluids ( f).
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 NORMAL FORMATION PRESSURE.
The initial sediments are laid down with about 60 - 70%v water. This
material is gradually buried deeper and deeper under the slow
process of deposition.
At a burial depth of approximately 1000 m (±3,000 ft) grain to grain

contact occurs for the majority of the minerals and the material is
regarded as a rock. At this stage it contains about 26 - 30%v water.
In the mudstone/claystone /shale formations the water is held as
layers between the clay platelets by forces other than purely physical
confinement (bound water).
As the pressure increases from more overlying sediments, and the

temperature rises with burial, more water is stripped from between
the layers of clay particles. At around 2,000m (±7,000 ft) sufficient
energy has built up in the system to have fully dislodged one layer of
bound water from the clay structure. Further layers are removed by
approximately 5,000 m (±16,500 ft), 10,000 m (±33,000 ft) and
20,000 m (±65,000 ft).
Mixing with generated hydrocarbons, the released water slowly

migrates through the very low permeability environment of the clays
until it finds a more permeable formation, such as a sand. The excess
fluid bleeds through this zone back towards the surface. With
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geological time the pressure in the shale is relieved back to the

equivalent of a column of water to that depth. The pressure in the
pore spaces is therefore equal to the hydrostatic column of the
water. The remainder of the overburden stress is supported by the
rock matrix. This is termed a 'normally' pressured formation.
The water escaping from the compacting clay formations leaves

behind some of the originally dissolved salts. With increasing depth
the pore water has an increasing salinity resulting in a higher fluid
density. Thus the pressure exerted increases with depth. This can be
determined by integrating the resistivity log.
As a rule of thumb: A 'normal' pressure gradient of 10·5 kPa/m

(0·465 psi/ft) can be used to depths down to 3,000m.
 ABNORMAL PRESSURE
If at any time the shale, or the permeable formation, is isolated then

the excess pore fluid cannot bleed off. Then the increasing
overburden will be born by the incompressible pore fluid. Thus it will
be overpressured by the added mass of the formations from the
depth where it was isolated to its current depth.
Rapid deposition, or regional tectonic movement, can create

additional stress on the rock. This can accelerate the release of
bound water beyond the bleed off rate of the low permeability shale.
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An uplifted, isolated, formation will retain the original internal

pressure. Leaks along a fault, or through a bad cement job, can
connect a lower, higher pressured formation with a higher zone.
These formations will have a higher than normal pressure gradient.
Any one of the above phenomena raises the pressure of the fluid in
the pore spaces higher than normal. This is termed an 'abnormally'
pressured formation. Multiple overpressure situations are sometimes
termed 'supernormally' pressured formations.
 SUBNORMAL PRESSURE
The opposite effect can occur when two faults drop a centre block,
graben faulting. A normally pressured zone is suddenly (in geological
terms) at a depth greater than its equivalent column of water
pressure.
A reservoir, produced for some time, may be depleted to below the

normal hydrostatic pressure gradient.
1.1.2.4 FORMATION FRACTURE GRADIENT
Subsurface formations have a limited capacity to withstand an

imposed wellbore pressure before they fail. Below 1,000 m failure will
usually be a fracture in the vertical plane perpendicular to the least
principle stress.
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Normally the formations become more resistant to failure the more

compacted (buried) they are, thus the weakest rock exposed in the
wellbore during drilling is usually at the last casing seat.
 MINIMUM FRACTURE INITIATION PRESSURE
The minimum pressure at which a formation will breakdown or

fracture is denoted by the expression:
Pi = Pf + 3 +T
Where: Pi = 'Fracture', 'formation breakdown' or 'leak-off' pressure
Pf = 'Formation' or 'pore' pressure.
3 = Minimum rock stress
T = Tensile rock strength (= 0 for uncemented formations).
 TECTONICALLY STRESSED AREAS
Different horizontal stresses must be taken into account when

calculating the fracture gradient.
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Figure 6.1.3: Fracture Gradient v Deviatio
 DEVIATED WELLS
Well deviation means that the overburden stress is no longer parallel

to the well. Therefore it must be included in the calculation. The
software package STABOR gives estimates of the fracture gradient as
a function of tectonic stresses and wellbore deviation.
 OFFSHORE APPLICATIONS
In onshore applications all stresses are effective from the surface.

When drilling offshore the overburden and fracture gradients are only
effective below the sea floor, see Figures 6.1.4a & 4b. In deep water
operations this can have a significant impact on maximum fluid
gradients and casing setting depths.
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Figure 6.1.4a: Pressure Depth Plot - Onshore
Figure 6.1.4b: Pressure Depth Plot - Offshore
 ABNORMALLY PRESSURED FORMATIONS
The strength of the rock is proportional to the rock matrix stress.

Abnormally pressured pore fluids are supporting more of the principle
stress and the rock matrix stress is lower. Therefore the gap between
the formation pressure and the fracture gradient will be lower.
 FLUID LEAK OFF TEST
A direct measurement of Pi is sometimes carried out by pressurising

the formation until it fails. This is known as a 'leak-off' or 'micro-frac'
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test. In drilling operations the result is often expressed as the

Equivalent Maximum Mud Gradient:
EMMG = Current Mud Gradient + Pi/Df.
1.1.2.5 IMPACT ON DRILLING OPERATIONS
Pore fluids in an isolated porous formation within a shale will also be

over pressured. However, unlike the shale, the contents will be
mobile and can bled into a lower pressure region very quickly;
resulting in a kick.
The overpressured shale will want to relieve the pressure into the
hole if the drilling fluid pressure gradient is lower. However the
extremely low permeability of the shale will not let the pore fluid flow
easily so the force exerts itself on the rock in the vicinity of the
borehole. If the shale is plastic (generally high water content, 10% to
30%; rapid burial cause) it will deform and squeeze into the borehole
(swelling shale). If the shale is firm and brittle (generally low water
content - < 7%; sealed venting of pressure cause) it will spall off in
pieces (sloughing shale).
Drilling into a subnormally pressured formation with a higher drilling

fluid pressure gradient can result in higher rates of leak-off. This can
lead to differential sticking of the pipe and reservoir impairment. If
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the overbalance is higher than the strength of the formation then it

will fracture resulting in loss of circulation.
1.1.2.6 DRILLING FLUID DENSITY
For well control of subsurface pressures the drilling fluid pressure

gradient must be equal to or greater than that of the pore fluid.
However it must not be so high as to exceed the fracture gradient of
the weakest zone.
WEIGHTING MATERIALS
Salts & Brines
The liquid phase of the drilling fluid will have a specific density or
gravity. The common base fluids are water and oil (SG = ±0.8). The
density of water can be increased with salts.
Brine densities are reduced at higher temperatures, due to thermal

expansion, but are increased at higher pressures following
compression. For both effects corrections have to be applied during
the design and operation of a brine.
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Temperature correction: 2 = 1 - (ÆT)
Where  = Æ/ÆT correction (kg/m3/°C)
Pressure correction: 2 = 1 + (ÆT)
Where  = Æ/ÆP correction

(kg/m3/100kPa)
Solids
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Insoluble material may be suspended in the drilling fluid to raise its

bulk density to increase the effective hydrostatic pressure.
1.1.3 Rheology
One of the most influential properties of the drilling fluid is its

viscosity. Understanding the role of viscosity in drilling, and other
operations, and being able to match viscosity requirements to the
conditions prevalent for that requirement is a key factor in optimising
the efficiency of the fluid.
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1.1.3.2 TERMINOLOGY
 Rheology
The science of the deformation and flow of matter. Common usage -

the analysis of a fluid's viscosity behaviour under variable shear rate
conditions.
 Shearing Stress
A stress that acts tangentially to a face.
 Shear Stress ( )
Shear force per unit area of action. [Newtons per square meter or
Pascals]
 Shear Strain ( )
Shear displacement divided by the thickness of the fluid element.

[dimensionless]
 Shear Rate ( /( t, but usually written as )
Time rate of change of the shear strain (or shear strain rate). [sec -1.
"reciprocal seconds"]
This is the condition which changes most throughout the circulation

system. Fluid, in laminar flow, moves as parallel layers and has a
27

profile of changing velocity with distance from the walls. The Shear
Rate is an average representation of the movement relationship of
the layers of fluid in a cross section of the flow path.
 Viscosity (µ)
A fluid's internal resistance to flow (the shear stress at the shear

rate). [Newton seconds per square meter, or Poise]
 Newtonian Fluids
The shear stress of the fluid is constantly proportional to the shear

rate ( =µ ).
 Non-Newtonian Fluids
The shear stress of the fluid is not constantly proportional to the

shear rate. There are a number of different models and the key ones
are discussed later in this Topic.
 Pseudoplastic Fluids
Non-Newtonian fluid where the viscosity varies inversely to the shear

rate; it is thinner at higher shear rates ("Shear Thinning").
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 Thixotropic Fluids
Time dependent viscosity. Such fluids exhibit a hysteresis (difference)

between the shear stress/shear rate plot when applying and
removing energy to the fluid. The degree of shift is often related to a
realignment of particles with attractive tendencies.
Figure 6.1.5: Viscosity-Time relationship for a thixotropic fluid
 Gel Strength
Thixotropic fluids often exhibit an increase of viscosity with time

when at rest. In drilling fluid terminology this is referred to as the Gel
Strength. [Newtons per square meter or Pascals]
 Rheopectic Fluids
Time dependant fluids exhibiting the opposite phenomenon to

thixotropic fluids. Often high solids content slurries have rheopectic
behaviour.
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 Yield Stress
The Shear Stress required to overcome internal inertial forces.
 Turbulent Flow
Chaotic flow characterised by intense mixing caused by eddies.
 Laminar Flow
Smooth flow that is devoid of disturbances such as eddies,

characterised by parallel layer movement.
 Reynolds Number (NRe)
The ratio of the inertial forces to the viscous forces. [dimensionless].

Commonly used to determine the velocity at which a fluid's flow
regime changes from laminar to turbulent.
1.1.3.3 DRILLING FLUID VISCOSITY MODEL
An analysis of the various viscosity requirements on the drilling fluid,

throughout the circulating system, against the influencing conditions
will give us a model of the ideal drilling fluid rheology.
 VISCOSITY REQUIREMENTS FOR DRILLING
Inside the drill string the fluid is purely commuting to the bit. No
constructive (or destructive) work is being done. At the high
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velocities required in the drill string, overcoming the fluid's internal

resistance to flow consumes a large proportion of the input pump
energy. If the viscosity in this region can be kept to a minimum then
this energy can be conserved and better used to assist drilling. The
normal flow rate range in the drill string corresponds to a shear rate
range of approximately 200 to 2,000 sec-1.
At the bit the fluid is passing through small nozzles to generate

higher velocities to impact onto the rock to assist drilling. The
functions of the fluid at this point are to cool the bit, clean the bit,
and remove the cuttings. The first two are a direct function of the
velocity of the fluid, which can be maximised as a consequence of
minimising energy losses in the drill string.
The third function is also influenced by the consistency of the fluid. If

we imagine the action of a roller cone bit; it is making very fine
microfractures in the rock. When these join up a cutting is generated.
However the density of the fluid is normally maintained above that of
the formation pressure (well control). This differential pressure holds
the cutting in place. If the drilling fluid can permeate into the
fractures it will equalise the pressures around the cutting and
lubricate the surfaces to facilitate easier removal. With the high jet
velocity created by the bit nozzle, the fluid exerts additional hydraulic
force to assist in removing the cuttings. If the consistency of the
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drilling fluid is thick like that of honey it will not penetrate. If it is thin
like water then the resistance to flow into the fractures is significantly
lower. Thus a very low viscosity is required at the drilling face. The
shear rate range involved is from 5,000 to 100,000 sec-1.
Once the fluid commences its upwards journey the shear rate
environment is dramatically reduced and the viscosity requirements
are radically different. The generated cuttings must be efficiently
removed from the hole. Their vertical transportation is a function of
the uphole velocity of the fluid and their downward fall within that
fluid (Stokes Law).
If the diameter of the drilled hole is enlarged ("washed out") , and

the fluid's resistance to cuttings slip remains the same, then the
transport efficiency will reduce, as shown in the table opposite.
To ensure consistent cuttings transport the fluid must be able to

increase its resistance to the slippage of the cuttings inversely
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proportional to the fluid velocity. The annulus shear rate in the range
of 5 to 100 sec-1.
If the pumps are stopped then the uphole fluid velocity is zero. But
the cuttings can continue to slip. They can accumulate around the
drill string and stick the pipe. Thus, when at rest, the fluid must build
a very high resistance to the cuttings settling. It is normally accepted
that the shear rate around a particle in a viscous fluid at rest
corresponds to a range of 0·1 - 1 sec-1.
When the pumps are restarted we do not want the fluid to have an
excessively high resistance to commence movement. This would be
manifested as a high pressure at the bottom of the hole. This could
be sufficient to overcome the strength of the rock and cause loss of
whole fluid. Thus we want a minimum of thixotropy.
The profile of the velocity of the various parallel layers influences the
way in which the cuttings are transported. If the profile is parabolic
as in Newtonian fluids the cuttings will move outwards to the lower
velocity layers, thus slowing their net velocity. If the profile is flatter
(higher pseudoplasticity) the cuttings will tend to stay in the same
position in the fluid for more efficient transportation.
If the ratio of the inertial forces to the viscous forces exceeds a

certain value (NRe 3,000 - 4,000) then the fluid flow will become
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turbulent. The magnitude of the transition point is controlled

(proportionately) by the fluid's ability to react to the rate of the
imposed shear (pseudoplasticity).
Inhibiting invasion of fluid into a permeable zone is essential to

protect the formation and facilitate higher quality data. The viscosity
of the fluid can be utilised to limit fluid loss (in addition to or in place
of a filter cake). A thick fluid consistency will have a high resistance
to flow along the permeation channels limiting the ability of the fluid
to invade. However in the reservoir section, this fluid must be
removed for maximum recovery of the hydrocarbons. Therefore the
invading fluid, with its high resistance, needs to thin rapidly on the
application of a greater force acting towards the borehole and flow
easily out of the formation. The shear rates on entering a typical
permeable sand formation are in the range of 0·01 to 0·5 sec -1.
When the cuttings laden fluid reaches the surface, it must be rapidly
processed to limit recycling of the drilled material. Due to the design
of the fluid so far settling of the cuttings would take too long. Solids
removal equipment utilise inertia, momentum and acceleration
differences (due to mass differences between the fluid and the
particles) to facilitate liquid/solid separation. Fluid resistance to the
movement of the solids should be at a minimum. The processing
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equipment shear rate usually corresponds to the range of 200 to

5,000 sec-1.
 IDEAL MODEL
Analysing the viscosity requirements of the drilling fluid leads to an

ideal model being:
Above 200 sec-1 minimum viscosity.
a controlled viscosity inversely proportional

200 - 5 sec-1
with shear rate.
a very high viscosity, easily thinning with an

5 - 1 sec-1
increase in the shear rate.
an ultra high viscosity, rapidly thinning with an

Below 1 sec-1
increase in the shear rate.
 OPTIMUM MODEL
Common drilling fluids do not behave on such an exacting basis.

However most behave as pseudoplastic fluids. What is required is a
best match viscosity profile to the ideal model established; an
optimum model.
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Figure 6.1.6: Optimum Viscosity Model for a Drilling Fluid
The optimum model is a viscosity profile where the viscosity at the

higher shear rates is thinner and at the lower shear rates is ever
increasing with a reduction in shear, without any hysteresis between
the increasing and decreasing shear rate curves. This describes a
fluid with rheological profile termed non-thixotropic, pseudoplastic.
This model forms the basis for the specification for the drilling fluid
rheology. Each hole section will have a specification that addresses
the individual needs of the drilling operation and resultant product.
1.1.3.4 RHEOLOGICAL MODEL
Historically three methods have been commonly used to describe the

viscous behaviour of a drilling fluid; the Marsh Funnel Viscosity, the
Bingham Plastic Rheology Model and the Power Law Rheology Model.
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1.1.3.4.1 MARSH FUNNEL VISCOSITY (MFV)
The Marsh Funnel Viscosity test measures the time taken for a unit
volume of drilling fluid to flow through a standard tube section. The
test has a number of limitations. It generates a high shear rate, in
the range of 2,000 to 20,000 sec-1, and provides only a single data
point. Due to the complexity of drilling fluid composition it is not
possible to extrapolate this data to other ranges of shear. Thus the
MFV cannot be used to evaluate performance in those regions of the
circulating system. In addition the primary controlling parameters
vary throughout the test making detailed analysis highly complicated.
However due to the simplicity and robustness of the Marsh Funnel it
remains the most useful tool for quick, routine monitoring for change.
1.1.3.4.2 BINGHAM PLASTIC MODEL (PV & YP)
The Bingham Plastic Model describes a fluid which is Newtonian and

has an initial yield stress. Mathematically the model can be
represented as:
t= PV(g) + YP
The slope of the line (Newtonian viscosity region) is called the Plastic
Viscosity (PV) and the intercept with the y axis (initial yield stress) is
the Yield Point (YP). The model descriptors are calculated from two
readings (Topic, COAXIAL DIRECT READING VISCOMETER (VG
37

METER, VISCOMETER OR RHEOMETER)) taken at 1,022 and 511 sec -

1
(to give the data directly in viscosity units).
PV = [600 rpm Reading] - [300 rpm Reading]
YP = [300 rpm Reading] - [PV]
As can be seen in Figure 6.1.8, the model does approximate the

typical drilling fluid viscosity profile in the medium shear rate ranges
and therefore can be used for interpretation in this region. The
predominant factor affecting this part of the viscosity profile is the
concentration of solids in the drilling fluid. The PV is a useful indicator
of resistance in the drill string. The model deviates significantly in the
lower shear rate range, corresponding to the annular regions. The YP
is not a usable descriptor for interpretation of performance.
38

Figure 6.1.8: Rheology Model Fits for Common Drilling Fluid Viscosity
Profiles
As MFV and PV are applicable for only medium and high shear rate
ranges they are useful for a quick look evaluation but cannot be used
to predict performance at the lower shear rates of the annulus
region.
1.1.3.4.3 POWER LAW MODEL (n & K)
The Power Law Model describes a fluid which is Non-Newtonian

(Pseudoplastic) with no initial yield stress. Mathematically the model
can be represented as:
 = K()n or µ = K()n-1
When plotted on a log-log graph of viscosity versus shear rate it

yields a straight line. The Flow Index ('n') is the slope of the line
(degree of pseudoplasticity). The Consistency Factor ('K') is the
vertical displacement of the line (thickness or consistency). The
model descriptors are calculated from readings taken at 511 and 5.11
sec-1. (one corresponding to the drill string and the other to the
annulus).
n = (Log [300 rpm Reading] - Log [3 rpm Reading])/2

K = 5.11 x [300 rpm Reading] / 511n
39

As can be seen in Figure 6.1.8 the model does approximate the

typical drilling fluid viscosity profile at the lower shear rate ranges
and therefore can be used for interpretation in this region. A lower 'n'
indicates a larger viscosity change with variations in shear and is
primarily influenced by the type of viscosifier. 'K' is the consistency of
the fluid and is primarily influenced by the concentration of the
viscosifier.
1.1.3.4.4 COAXIAL DIRECT READING VISCOMETER (VG METER,

VISCOMETER OR RHEOMETER)
The VG meter is used to provide multiple data points to for more

detailed analysis of the drilling fluid's viscosity profile. The outer
rotating sleeve speed can be varied to produce different shear rates
in the annulus around the bob. Shear stress is measured by the
deflection of the dial attached to the bob which is held by a spring of
known resistance. The instrument configuration is such every 1° of
deflection is 5.11 cp/sec-1.
40

Figure 6.1.7: Co-axial Viscometer
1.1.3.5 MODEL DESCRIPTION
The Power Law Model of rheology can be used to describe the key
annular region parameters of the optimum model:
 sufficient carrying and suspension ability to remove the

cuttings.
 a rate of viscosity change with shear variation sufficient to

maintain effective hole cleaning.
The PV of the Bingham Plastic Model is used when calculating

pressure losses in the drill string.
1.1.3.5.1 DRILLING FLUID RHEOLOGY SPECIFICATION
Using a ranked list of objectives the design engineer must then

determine what will be the 'fit-for-purpose' rheology required. This,
41

of course, will be influenced by many variables; including hole sizes,

formations, data requirements, cementation requirements, rig
equipment etc. However the two over-riding factors will be the
transportation efficiency required and the cuttings settling rate when
the fluid is acquiescent (not moving). Once these have been
determined, ranges for the Power Law indices 'n' and 'K' can be
derived.
These are the specifications which the fluids engineer will use to
prepare and manage the rheology of the drilling fluid.
1.1.3.5.2 FIELD MONITORING
The essential factors in field management of drilling fluid rheology

are:
 a quick recognition of any deviation from the specification.

 distinguishing the type and degree of non-conformance.
 identifying the probable cause of, and remedial action for, the
change.
Therefore any monitoring procedure must produce a fair

representation of the fluid in use against the optimum model
established.
42

Neither of the two classic models fully represents the typical viscosity
profile of a field used drilling fluid. More complicated models exist.
However the interpretation of them is correspondingly more complex
and other factors, such as instrument error and well irregularities,
negate their practical use.
The dial readings from the viscometer plotted directly onto a log-log
graph give a visual representation of the viscosity profile of the
drilling fluid. This representation can be easily compared against the
fluid's specification. Without calculation, the fluid can be qualitatively,
and fairly reliably, assessed for its capacity to do the job. In addition,
errors in reading the instrument are quickly spotted as the resultant
graph will not be smooth. Quantification of performance using the
graph derived data will be more accurate.
The key benefit of this system of rheology monitoring is the simplicity

for field application of a very sophisticated, and relatively accurate
representation of performance against the specification model. This is
particularly useful when troubleshooting problems. The specific short
falls can be easily identified and readily explained to anyone. Also
when the fluid is blamed for an operational deficiency, its
performance in that region of shear rate can be clearly and visibly
assessed.
43

1.1.3.5.3 FIELD APPLICATION
 Product Performance
Having identified the optimum model of viscosity required, then

available viscosifiers can be evaluated functionally for performance
and then economically to select the most fit-for-purpose material.
Figure 6.1.9: Direct Viscosity Plot
Using the plot, functional efficiency is evaluated against the optimum

model. A material's strong and weak points can be properly
compared with other materials. After eliminating poor performance
material the remaining contenders can be economically evaluated by
comparing the cost to prepare a slurry with a specific consistency.
44

 Problem Analysis
When a change in viscosity is identified (say through a change in

MFV) the specific region of variation can be easily identified and
assessed. This will direct the engineer to the right area for remedial
action. Having identified the area for corrective treatment, and
having an evaluation of materials available he can formulate an
effective treatment.
 Pilot Testing
The engineer can pre-test the potential impact of a treatment by pilot

testing and comparing the two plots. This will also give him an
assessment of how much material will be needed to return the fluid
to specification.
1.1.3.6 CONCLUSION
The MFV is useful to monitor for change. The Bingham Plastic and
Power Law Models should only be used as a quick look analysis. They
should not be used as specification parameters, performance
indicators nor as the basis for assessing non-conformance or
recommending remedial treatments.
The direct plot of the fluid viscosity versus the shear rate is a more
reliable drilling fluid management tool.
45

 It provides a specification the drilling fluid that targets

operational performance.
 Rheology modifiers can be logically chosen based upon true
performance and economics.
 Non-conformance can be properly assessed and remedial

treatments verified.
The more readings that can be taken (i.e. Fann 6 or 9 speed) the
more accurate will be the evaluation.
1.1.4 Hydraulics
Managing the effective use of available hydraulic energy to assist

hole excavation is a key factor in drilling optimisation.
 IMPACT FORCE (I.F.)
The bit nozzles provide a high energy jet to:
 inject fluid into the microfractures to equalise pressure around,

and apply hydraulic lift to, the cuttings.
 flush away the newly made cuttings from the drilling face.
 blast the bit teeth and cutters to keep them clean.

46

 circulate heat away from the high energy areas of the bit
(cutters and bearings)
Maximising the Impact Force (I.F.) and Crossflow Velocity are the key
factors in optimising bit hydraulics.
 EQUIVALENT CIRCULATING DENSITY (E.C.D.)
Energy is consumed in circulating the fluid up the annulus. This

manifests itself as an additional pressure effect on the bottom of the
hole. This pressure could exceed the strength of a weak formation
resulting in a fracture and loss of integrity.
 MANAGING ANNULAR VELOCITIES
A minimum velocity is required for efficient cuttings removal and a

maximum velocity is set to avoid erosion of weak formations.
 CALCULATION ACCURACY
The pressure drop calculations for the bit nozzles are normally
accurate. Calculated pressure drops in the drill string are also
generally within acceptable limits. However calculating pressure
drops in the annulus are subject to many indeterminable variables,
such as hole size, wall roughness and downhole fluid viscosity.
47

1.1.4.2 OPTIMISATION THEORY
1.1.4.2.1 OBJECTIVE
To optimise the application of input hydraulic energy at the bit to

assist hole excavation whilst maintaining the other circulation criteria.
1.1.4.2.2 CONTROLLING FACTORS
 Minimum & Maximum Flow Rate
The maximum flow rate is dictated by two factors:
 avoiding hole erosion,

 controlling the total pressure in the annulus acting on the
formation at its weakest point.
Up to a certain shear rate the viscosity of the fluid can control the
fluid flow to discrete laminae moving in one direction (Laminar Flow).
Above this shear rate, excess internal friction begins to create
random disorder causing eddies to develop (Transitional Flow). At
higher shear rates greater disruption occurs (Turbulent Flow). In
practice it is considered that this transition is demarcated by a
Reynold's Number (NRe) of 3,000.
It is desirable to keep the fluid in laminar flow in the annulus as an

essentially non-moving layer against the borehole wall will act as a
48

protective barrier against erosion. In turbulent flow, the random

action of the fluid disrupts this layer and impinges directly upon the
formation.
Therefore the maximum flow rate should be less than transition to

turbulent flow (Critical Velocity; Vc).
The loss of energy in circulating the fluid up the annulus manifests

itself as a pressure drop (P a) which acts on the bottom of the hole; in
addition to the pressure due to the Hydrostatic Head of the column of
the fluid (Pm). The total effective pressure (ECD) should not exceed
the pressure at which the formation fractures and takes fluid ingress
(Equivalent Maximum Mud Gradient or Leak Off Pressure). This limit
will be derived from offset well experience or a Leak-Off Test. In
certain circumstances, such as deep, slim and high pressure drilling,
the maximum circulation rate may be governed by an ECD ceiling.
The minimum flow rate will be determined by the required hole

cleaning efficiency.
As a rule of thumb the minimum V a should be >2 times the V s. Refer

also to the Well Engineers Notebook, page E-5.
49

 Surface Pressure Limitations
The surface equipment of the rig has a maximum working pressure

rating. Normally the contractor does not like to exceed 85% of this as
maintenance requirements dramatically increase.
Thus there is a maximum pressure that can be applied to the

circulation of the drilling fluid.
 Friction Losses in the Circulating System
Energy is consumed in overcoming frictional resistance to moving the

fluid around the circulation system. The drilling fluid design should
target reducing these scavenger losses to an acceptable range that
allows sufficient energy to be available to assist drilling progress.
Input data inaccuracies preclude individual assessment of these

pressure losses. In addition they are all non-productive. Therefore,
for the purposes of optimising energy application at the bit they can
be regarded as a single entity.
Minor changes in a drilling assembly will not normally have a

significant effect on PS. However adjustment for some downhole
tools, such as turbines or mud-motors, can be made the with
manufacturer's data.
50

 Bit Nozzles - Total Flow Area
Having determined the limitations and controlling factors, the

complete circulating system can then be evaluated to select the bit
nozzles that maximise the amount of energy that can be directed to
the bit.
1.1.4.3 OPTIMISING PROCESS
 GRAPHICAL METHOD
A graphical process for optimising bit hydraulics is:
1) Determine the operating limits:
 Maximum pump rate based upon maintaining laminar flow in

the annulus or limiting the ECD.
 Minimum pump rate to ensure adequate hole cleaning.
 Maximum allowable surface pressure.
2) Determine the available pressure drops at the bit versus the pump
rate:
 At the end of a bit run, record the circulating pressures (P t) at

three pump rates (Q); these should be spread across the
51

working range for the hole (also applicable to the Well Control
Worksheet).
 For each flow rate calculate the pressure drop across the bit
nozzles or TFA (Pb)
 Subtract Pb from Pt to determine the remaining 'system'

pressure loss (PS).
 confirm the actual nozzles when the bit is recovered.
3) Create a graph with the operating limits:
 On log-log paper draw a boundary line at the minimum and

maximum (annular velocity) pump rates.
 Draw a boundary line for the maximum allowable surface
pressure.
 Plot the total circulation pressures (Pt ) against pump rates.
 At the intercept with the maximum surface pressure draw a

boundary line for the maximum pump rate; if lower than the
previous maximum allowable (annular velocity) flow rate.
4) Create a plot of the 'system' pressure losses versus pump rate.
 Plot the determined PS against the respective circulation rates.
52

 Draw a line through the 'system' losses inside the operating

limits.
 This line can be subsequently interpolated/extrapolated for any

circulating rate.
5) Plot the design criteria line:
 Maximum I.F. occurs when PS = ±0·5 Pt
6) Determine the optimum pump rate.
 Intercept of the 'system' pressure loss with the design criteria

line.
 If the intercept is outside of a boundary limit then review the

limit, drilling fluid properties or design criteria and determine
the required pump rate as appropriate for the operation.
7) Calculate the total flow area to achieve the optimum or available

pressure drop at the bit.
 Subtract PS at the optimum required flow rate from the

maximum allowable surface pressure.
 Use the Well Engineer's Notebook, page E-3, to calculate the

total flow area required through the nozzles.
53

8) Determine the nozzles required to approximate the flow.
 Use the table on page E-4 of the Well Engineers Notebook to

choose the nozzles which give a flow area closest to the
calculated area.
 If the nozzles are below a minimum size (to avoid plugging off)
then re-examine the flow properties to increase the transition
flow rate (Vc) to allow an increase in the pumping rate or
reduce PS.
 Alternatively blanking off one nozzle can allow smaller flow

areas with larger jets.
 CALCULATION METHOD
The Well Engineers Notebook (page E-3/4) contains all the necessary
equations for optimising bit hydraulic horsepower or jet impact force
by means of calculations.
1.1.4.4 ROUTINE MONITORING
Periodic monitoring is restricted to analysing the ECD to ensure well

integrity and maintain pressure control.
As stated previously annular pressure drop calculations are

inappropriate due to input data inaccuracy. The most practical
method to determine the ECD is to calculate the drill string and bit
54

hydraulics and subtract them from a reasonably accurate standpipe

pressure (choke gauge). Direct calculations should only be used in
critical cases and must be properly calibrated against measured total
annulus pressure losses.
1.1.5 Borehole instability
An unstable borehole can pose major problems for the drilling, and
subsequent, operations:
 Fill on trips increasing the drilling time and reducing bit life.
 Swelling formations producing tight hole.
 Hole washout compromising cementation.
 Caving formations that may result in stuck pipe.
There are many symptoms but there only a few causes of borehole
instability. The key to effective problem solving is identification and
treatment of the source, not the effect. Details of the various
preventative or remedial actions are covered in subsequent
subtopics.
55

1.1.5.2 HOLE EROSION
 CAUSE
Hole erosion results from the hydraulic impact on formations with

poor inter-grain cementation. Generally it is caused by turbulent fluid
flow in the annulus or excessive circulation in one place with the bit
off bottom.
 IMPACT
The annular fluid velocity will be reduced in enlarged hole sections. If

the drilling fluid is not highly pseudoplastic, the cuttings can
concentrate in this area. Eventually they may form a 'mud ring' or
ball of agglomerated cuttings, which in severe cases can lead to hole
pack-off and stuck pipe.
Many logging tools require contact with the borehole wall. If the
washout is irregular the tool contact will be intermittent giving poor
data. If the hole is excessively large the tool may not even contact
the wall. Ledges may cause the logging tools to hang-up.
During well killing operations if a gas bubble encounters a washout it

will expand laterally and the height will reduce proportionately,
changing the hydrostatic pressure. If it re-enters a near gauge
56

portion, the opposite will happen. Choke control will need to be

accurate and rapid to maintain the bottom hole pressure constant.
Ledges may hold up casing, particularly in deviated holes. Good

cementing practice requires turbulent flow to ensure proper drilling
fluid removal. Large washed out sections may cause the flow to
become laminar and induce channelling or poor drilling fluid removal.
Eddies in the flow may cause entrapment of drilling fluid pockets in
the cement.
 PREVENTION
 Keep the flow regime laminar, where possible. Maintain highly

pseudoplastic rheology (n<0·5); the critical Reynold's Number
is inversely proportional to the flow Index 'n'.
 High low shear rate viscosity has been successfully used to

resist movement of loose formation grains. Along with the
reduced flow rate requirements this makes an excellent fluid
for unconsolidated formations.
 Minimise circulating off bottom. Always reciprocate the pipe a

full kelly length. When circulating bottoms up, remove one or
two pipe joints half way through so as to relocate the impact
area.
57

 In silty formations examine the possibility of water sensitive

clays causing further destabilisation. If suspected, test with
small treatments of inhibiting chemicals or polymers.
Use of K+ to combat such instability has proven detrimental in some

areas. Lattice collapse is thought to lead to mechanical instability.
One such area is in the northern region of the Malay Basin.
 CURE
None. Once the problem has manifested itself the only action is
careful planning for subsequent activities.
1.1.5.3 SWELLING SHALE
 CAUSE
Swelling shale is the plastic deformation into the wellbore of high

water content shales. This often occurs in the younger formations in
the upper hole sections. It is the result of water imbibition by a
smectitic shale. In deep, older, formations it is caused by entrapped
fluids (abnormal pressure).
 IMPACT
The annular diameter is reduced. The drill string, logging tools and
casing may not easily pass through. Increased annular friction
58

pressure losses may raise the ECD above the fracture pressure for a
lower zone. .
 PREVENTION
 Ensure that the fluid pressure gradient is higher than that of

the formation.
 For the younger clays, evaluate an inhibitor to mitigate water

imbibition effect. Cl-, Ca+2 and PO-4 generally prove effective.
The reaction rate of K+ is too slow. Encapsulating polymers are
ineffective in stopping water imbibition over a long period;
though they may assist in maintaining cuttings integrity.
 CURE
 If the problem is not underbalanced drilling fluid density, apply

an inhibitor. Increase dosage gradually and observe reaction. If
no effect is noted, a long chain encapsulating polymer may
assist in the short term.
 The problem is most easily handled if water imbibition is

controlled from the outset. Once it has started it is generally
very difficult to control or reverse.
59

1.1.5.4 SPALLING SHALE
 CAUSE
 Spalling shale is caused by the formation pressure exceeding

the drilling fluid hydrostatic pressure; Pf > Pm. The rock's low
permeability resists pressure equalisation. If the differential is
higher than the tensile strength the rock will fail by 'exploding'
into the wellbore. The spalled pieces are often long and
twisted; like shrapnel.
 IMPACT
 Apart from hole enlargement, covered above, spalling can have

a major impact on drilling. Large pieces can quickly build up in
the annulus and can pack-off around the larger diameters (i.e.
stabilisers and bit); blocking circulation and sticking the pipe .
 PREVENTION
 Ensure that the fluid pressure gradient is higher than that of

the formation. (Except when underbalanced drilling is being
undertaken, the borehole pressure should always be higher
than the formation pressure. If not, then a kick would result if
a porous and permeable zone is penetrated.)
60

 CURE
 Raise the drilling fluid density. Examine the cuttings on the

shakers for confirmation of the effect of the treatment. Be
aware, however, of the fracture pressure limit.
1.1.5.5 SLOUGHING SHALE
 CAUSE
Sloughing shale is caused by brittle failure resulting from differential

rock stress. This can be due to tectonic activity or deviation of the
well bore from vertical. The rock can fail in either tension or
compression depending upon the orientation of the stresses to the
wellbore wall. The sloughed pieces tend to be slivers or flat shapes
for tensile failure and block shapes for compressive failure.
 IMPACT
Comparable with spalling shale.
 PREVENTION
 The drilling fluid hydrostatic cannot fully oppose the maximum

rock stress. However maintaining a positive pressure
overbalance against the formation pressure will help to hold
the failed rock pieces in place.
61

 Wellbore fluid communication with the pore fluid will raise the
near wellbore pore pressure and negate the differential effect.
Pore isolation techniques such as TAME (Thermally Activated
Mud Emulsion) or IOES (Invert Oil Emulsion Systems) will
maintain the differential effect.
 In some formations water imbibition can accelerate

destabilisation. If suspected, test with small treatments of
inhibiting chemicals, generally Cl- and K+.
 CURE
 The problem is most easily handled if a positive overbalance is

maintained from the outset. Once sloughing has started it can
be very difficult to control or reverse.
 Slowly raising the fluid density can maintain a positive

differential for a longer period.
 Apply pore isolating techniques; TAME or IOES.
 If the problem is not underbalanced pressure, apply an

inhibitor. Increase dosage gradually and observe reaction. If
no effect is noted a long chain encapsulating polymer may
assist in the short term.
62

1.1.6 SALT FORMATIONS

 CAUSE
Salt formations can cause problems as a result of wellbore instability

through plastic deformation or dissolution by undersaturated water
based fluids.
 EFFECT
Plastic deformation results in a reduced wellbore size while

dissolution causes hole washout.
 PREVENTION
 Sufficient fluid density to resist plastic flow; for the period

needed to drill and case the section.
 Use a saturated salt water based drilling fluid or an inert IOES.
 CURE
 If the problem is not severe, use the preventative measures

above.
 Plastically deformed salt can be washed out with an

undersaturated brine.
63

There is no cure for washed out salt sections - these cannot be

replaced.
1.1.7 Clay chemistry
The vast majority of formations drilled are marine, clastic

(sedimentary) formations. The bulk of these are mudstones and
shales, which are predominantly composed of clay. Therefore it is
helpful to know something about the basic chemistry, composition
and reactive nature of these minerals.
1.1.7.2 CLAY TYPES
1.1.7.2.1 GENERAL COMPOSITION
The normally encountered clays are similar in composition and

structure. They are formed by the weathering of igneous minerals.
They are then transported by the streams and rivers and deposited in
lakes, swamps and the seas. Burial compacts them into sedimentary
rocks.
Each clay lattice is made up of two sheets of silica tetrahedra with a

central sheet of alumina octahedra. The tips of the tetrahedra point
towards the centre of the lattice, and with one of the hydroxyls of the
64

octahedral sheet form a common layer. The lattices are continuous in

the x and y directions (horizontal plane) and are stacked one above
the other in the z direction (vertical).
Figure 6.1.10: Clay Lattice Building Blocks
The O-2 layers of each tetrahedra base are adjacent to O -2 layers of

the neighbouring lattice, with the consequence that there is a weak
bond and an excellent cleavage plane between them. In between the
lattices, bound water is oriented such that the two hydrogens face
each layer of oxygens.
Differences between the various clays encountered are primarily due

to substitution of the aluminium in the central octahedral layer and
silica in the outer tetrahedral layers by other multivalent cations. This
creates a charge imbalance which is compensated by adsorbed
65

exchange of cations in the interlattice zone. Chlorite is the exception

in that the interlattice zone is filled with a further molecular sheet
structure.
1.1.7.2.2 DIAGENESIS
Diagenesis is the sequence of increasing modification (diagenesis),

through this substitution and exchange.
 Feldspar (source mineral for weathering)

 Smectite
 Mixed Layer Clay (a smectite to illite graduation)
 Illite
 Muscovite
Conversion to the next clay group in the sequence is catalysed by

increasing input energy from the depth of burial and geothermal
heat. The sequence is marked by a reduction from high reactivity, to
water and ion exchange, to inert interlattice activity. This is a result
of the ever decreasing interlattice separation and the binding effect
of the Potassium (K+), which 'fixes' adjacent clay platelets into their
most stable condition.
66

Figure 6.1.11: Clay Diagenesis Cycle
1.1.7.2.3 SMECTITE (MONTMORILLONITE, BENTONITE)
Slight substitution in the clay lattice results in about 0·66 anionic (-

ve) charge of per cell unit. This is balanced by exchangeable cations
(+ve) adsorbed between the unit layers.
A main feature of the smectite group is the wide interlattice gap and
weak bonding. Water and other polar molecules can enter between
the unit layers and cause the lattice to expand in the z direction. The
interlattice dimension varies from 9·6 Å to complete separation.
67

Figure 6.1.12: Smectite Clay Structure
The interlattice cations are loosely bound and can be readily

exchanged; with the replacement power ranking of
Li<Na<K<Ca<Mg<Al.
The two main exchangeable cations are Na + and Ca++. The

multivalent cation smectite is less reactive with water. Calcium more
readily exchanges with sodium than sodium replace calcium. This
phenomenon is used in drilling fluid design for stabilising smectite
clay sections.
The Potassium ion is unique in that its hydrated size, and

coordination properties, fit exactly into the basal oxygen sheet of the
tetrahedral layer. When exchanged for the other cations the
interlattice distance decreases to the minimum height, the potassium
68

is very difficult to remove and the lattices are essentially fixed. This is
the final stage in the diagenesis of smectite to illite.
This phenomenon is used to stabilise clays that have been exposed

to sufficient pressure and temperature for diagenesis, but where the
original depositional environment was deficient in potassium (i.e.
lacustrine).
1.1.7.2.4 ILLITE
Illite is a transitional stage in the diagenesis of smectite to muscovite.

The lattice structure is the same as smectite except that there is a
higher degree of substitution of Al+++ for Si++++. The charge
deficiency is increased to 1·3 - 1·5 per unit cell, mostly in the silica
sheets and therefore closer to the surface. K + is the fixed interlattice
cation.
Because of these differences, the illite lattices are relatively fixed in

position, so that polar ions cannot enter readily between them and
cause expansion. Thus they are not very sensitive to water.
69

Figure 6.1.13: Illite-Muscovite Clay Structure
The traditional shale classification (after Mondshine) shown in Table

6.1.6 clearly shows the diagenetic trend. With increasing burial, the
water content decreases, the density increases, the salinity rises and
the amount of reactive (high Cation Exchange Capacity) clay
decreases. Exceptions are formations with abnormal pressures (high
water content and porosity) and where the original deposition
environment was deficient in potassium (high CEC).
70

This classification can be used to broadly categorise shales into

different inhibition requirements, as shown in Table 6.1.7.
1.1.7.2.5 CHLORITE
Chlorite is a mixed layer clay derived from the different source

minerals. The structure is basically the same as the other clays
except that in between the mica layers is a free floating alumina
octahedral 'brucite' layer. The deficiency charge on the talc layers is
balanced by the excess charge on the brucite sheet. The bonding
between the sheets is partly electrostatic and partly due to adjacent
sheets of oxygen and hydroxyl ions. The fixed nature of the structure
precludes adsorption of dipolar molecules.
Thus it is non-reactive to water.
71

Figure 6.1.14: Chlorite Clay Structure
1.1.7.2.6 KAOLINITE
Kaolinite has a slightly different structure. It is a two layer type which

is equi-dimensional in the x and y directions. The charges within the
lattice are balanced. Hence there are no adsorbed interlattice ions
and it is non-expanding.
Thus it is non-reactive to water.
Figure 6.1.15: Kaolinite Clay Structure
72

1.1.8 Inhibition
1.1.8.1 INHIBITING CHEMICALS
1.1.8.1.1 INTRODUCTION
There are three approaches to stopping the clay formations

deteriorating upon contact with the drilling fluid:
 slow down the clay-water reaction or render the clay inert

(inhibiting chemicals).
 limit the penetration into the shales (polymers, asphaltenes
and polyglycols)
 render the drilling fluid inert (invert oil emulsion systems)
In the younger shales the main destabilising mechanism is dispersion

of the clay lattices by penetration of water into the interlattice zone.
Limiting water penetration in these formations is difficult due to their
rapid reaction rate. Using IOES is generally not economic due to the
large volumes required and the potential for downhole losses. The
main stabilising mechanism is the use of inhibitive chemicals.
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1.1.8.1.2 CATION EXCHANGE
 General
The interlayer cations, which control the dispersion of clay lattices,

are exchangeable. Many factors influence this reaction.
The replacing power of the common cations is Na +<K+<Ca++<Mg+

+
<NH4+. The exchange is stoichiometric and the laws of mass action
hold. Increased concentration of the replacing cation results in
greater exchange. The ease of release depends not only on the ion,
but also upon the other ions filling the remainder of the exchange
positions. Replaceability varies with the nature of the anions present
in the solution; Ca++ in the hydroxyl form is more available for
exchange than the sulphate variety. The pH dramatically affects the
reaction. Fixation of the exchange cations varies with the size of ions
of the same valence. For ions of equal valence, those that are the
least hydrated have the greatest energy of replacement. K + fits into
the basal oxygen sheet and remains fixed. The internal clay structure
also plays an important role.
With so many influencing factors, predicting the response of a

particular shale is potentially unreliable. In exploration drilling the
estimate will generally be reliant upon experience in surrounding
areas. In development drilling, cores (albeit sidewall cores) are
74

available and should be tested to determine the most effective

solution. Recovered cuttings cannot be used as they will have already
undergone some alteration.
 Chloride
Highly ionic solutions, particularly those with monovalent anions

severely reduce the rate of water imbibition by smectite clays. The
most common, and most economical, is chloride (Cl -); usually as
common salt, NaCl. In offshore applications this is readily available
(and free) from the sea water (20,000 mg/l).
 Calcium
The Ca++ smectite is considerably less reactive to water than the Na +

variety. Ca++ preferentially replaces Na+. Common sources of calcium
are: CaCl2, Ca(OH)2 [lime] and CaSO4,.2H2,O [gyp].
Calcium drilling fluids are more difficult to run as most common

additives adversely react with divalent ions; there are some tolerant
materials available. High calcium systems, in conjunction with high
temperatures and hydro-aluminium silicates (clays), can form a type
of cement, rendering the drilling fluid irretrievably solid.
75

 Magnesium
Mg++ reacts similarly to Ca++ . However many more additives are

adversely sensitive to Mg++.
 Potassium
A primary agent in the diagenesis of smectite to illite/muscovite. The

process is normally slow (geological time) and requires high energy
(pressure and heat). However in some cases (K ++ deficient deposition
environments) the reaction does progress fast enough to be
beneficial. Commonly K+ is provided by KCl.
K+ activity can be negated by high concentrations of Na +. K+ varieties

of common fluid additives, such as KOH and K 2CO3, are available.
When using sea water, ensure sufficient K + concentration to exceed
that of the Na+.
Once fashionable were Potassium-Lime/Gyp systems. It was

theorised that first the Ca++ would convert the reactive Na + smectite
to the low reactive type and then the slower reacting K + would then
convert the smectite to sub-illite. Exchange chemistry indicates that
this cannot happen.
76

KOH has been promoted as a stabiliser for reactive clays. However,

the OH- radical is the prime clay dispersive element; therefore this
reaction is dubious.
 Phosphate
Complexing of the phosphate anion with the exchangeable cations

can preclude cation exchange and water imbibition. The most
commonly employed forms are PO 4- or P2O7-. Bit balling additives are
phosphate surfactants. Most phosphates have a temperature limit of
65°C; though Na2HPO2 can be used up to ±200°C.
 Other Compounds
Periodically other chemicals are investigated or promoted. The

reactions, and any side effects, should be thoroughly investigated
before field testing. Evaluation should consider all potentially
beneficial factors.
1.1.8.2 INHIBITING POLYMERS
In the more competent shales the naturally low permeability resists

ingress of water, within the time frame of drilling the section, and the
shales are usually composed of the less reactive Illite. The main
destabilising mechanism is differential tectonic stress.
77

The drilling fluid cannot permanently protect the formation against

this deterioration. However it can mitigate the effect by providing a
restraining differential pressure to hold the failed pieces in place. To
maintain this protection until casing point the fluid must resist
pressure equalisation into the shale for that length of time.
Cuttings from these formations also need protection from the annular
environment. They are subjected to considerable force and abrading
action in their journey. Maintaining them at the largest possible size
facilitates easier and earlier removal at the surface. This protection
must be rapid as the cuttings are being attacked immediately they
are released from the bottom of the hole.
 ENCAPSULATING POLYMERS
Coating the exposed clay edges at the wellbore wall with high
molecular weight polymers to slow down or try and repel the water is
not effective. Such materials are too large to effectively stop pressure
transmission.
78

The limited successes reported in the field is attributed to a

mechanical binding effect from these highly adsorptive materials or
to other mechanisms in the system, such as increased
pseudoplasticity.
Encapsulating polymers can provide sufficient protection to the

cuttings to allow them to be transported to the surface. Application is
limited to the shales that produce actual cuttings during drilling
(medium to hard). The soft shales mechanically disintegrate too
easily, and every small particle of shale will take up polymer. This
consumes expensive material for no benefit in keeping the particles
together.
PAC (Poly Anionic Cellulose)
PAC is a modified CMC. It is a relatively long chain polymer that is

Poly Anionically charged.
PHPA (Partially Hydrolysed PolyAcrylate/Amide)
PHPA is a synthetic long chain copolymer based upon acrylic acid.

The side chains are highly anionic.
1.1.8.2.1 HYDROPHOBIC POLYMERS
These materials are anionic asphaltene like substances. Application is

limited to high temperature wells they can soften and bond to the
79

borehole walls. Like encapsulating polymers, they do not stop pore

pressure penetration. Their limited success in certain areas is
attributed to a mechanical binding effect.
 BLOCKING AGENTS
TAME (Thermally Activated Mud Emulsion)
Outside of invert oil emulsion systems the only available material to

effectively block the pore throats and stop pressure transmission are
polyglycols.
These molecules are normally soluble in a drilling fluid at surface

conditions. When the temperature passes a critical point, the
polyglycols change to an insoluble phase; this transition is called the
cloud point. The resultant micro-gels are large enough to block the
shale pore throats and stop pressure transmission.
The transition temperature can be regulated with the choice of

polyglycol and salinity of the base water to match the cloud point
with the formation temperature. The polymer then penetrates the
pore throat, heats up, comes out of solution and blocks further
penetration.
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1.1.8.3 INHIBITIVE SYSTEMS
1.1.8.3.1 DESIGN
Having decided to use an inhibiting system, selection then proceeds

to satisfy all the criteria to drill the well.
 Selection Criteria
In addition to those already discussed other performance criteria are:
 Fluid Invasion
 Minimum petrophysical log interference
 Minimum reservoir impact
 Filter Cake Minimise differential sticking
 Lubricity Minimum drilling energy loss
The drilling fluid must also satisfy some common requirements, such
as:
Environmental Non toxic and safe
Temperature Tolerant to the expected downhole & surface

temperatures
81

Compatibility No adverse reaction with other additives
Contamination Tolerant of expected contaminants
Ease of use Minimum manpower
No Lumping Maximum utilisation
Rapid mixing Fast preparation in emergency
 Selection Process
Each phase is analysed. The fluid properties are investigated to

determine the performance levels required. Additives are compared
against the models. The economics of the various products are then
evaluated to select the optimum fluid for the well.
1.1.8.3.2 TYPICAL FORMULATIONS
The salt polymer systems follow the same basic make-up. Typical
components are: hardness sequestrant, inhibiting salt, viscosifier,
encapsulating polymer, filter cake polymer, hydroxide, defoamer,
biocide, lubricant (high angle directional only), anti-scalant, corrosion
protection, weighting material and oxygen scavenger.
 Saltwater Polymer
Upper hole sections where hole stability is from type 1 and 2 shales
and uncemented formations.
82

 Inhibiting Salt
 NaCl (low concentrations)
 CaCl2 (low concentrations)
 Phosphate (low concentrations) for bit balling.
 Pore Fluid Isolation
 Polyglycol.
 Viscosifier
 Bentonite
 CMC Hi Vis (upper sections)
 Xanthan Gum (lower critical sections)
 Encapsulator
 PAC (type 2 shale only)
 PHPA (type 2 shale only)
 Filter cake
 Bentonite (uncemented formations)
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 Stabilised starch
 CMC Lo Vis
 pH
 Caustic Soda (NaOH)
 Salt Polymer
Type 2, 3 and 4 shales. Additives in addition, or alternate to, those

listed for the saltwater-polymer system:
 Inhibiting Salt
 NaCl (up to saturation)
 Viscosifier
 Xanthan Gum
 KCl Polymer
Type 5 shales. Additives in addition, or alternate to, those listed for

the salt-polymer system:
 Inhibiting Salt
84

 KCl ( 3 to 7 % for freshwater based) (10 to 15 % for

sea water based)
 pH Caustic Potash (KOH)
There are many individual variations depending upon the specific

goals to be achieved, the conditions prevailing and the economics of
the operation. The above are purely meant as typical guidelines.
1.1.8.3.3 ENGINEERING
The key to successfully drilling unstable ground is maintaining stable

properties and composition.
In addition the system must be adaptable to variances from the

original hypotheses. Unless permanently converted , any potentially
troublesome formation will revert to being problematic if the
stabilising mechanism is diluted or removed. Most fluid designs are
based upon what will probably happen, some on what might happen,
but very few upon what will happen. Thus the engineer must be
aware of changes in the formation and its relation to the drilling fluid.
If a change is observed or if the fluid is not inhibiting the formation
sufficiently he must adjust the right parameters accordingly.
A key requirement for effective management of the inhibitive drilling

fluid is single function additives. Individual properties can then be
85

adjusted without interference to the other properties. This is

essentially for maintaining overall efficiency.
 Monitoring Performance
The key to proper engineering of the inhibited fluid is being able to

recognise the indicators of a problem.
 Penetration rate
The penetration rate can be an indicator of increased porosity in a

shale section due to abnormal pressure.
 Cuttings and Cavings
The cuttings being screened at the shakers are a primary indicator of

what is happening downhole.
Class 1 Poor quality cuttings.

shales
Class 2 Good sized, though soft, cuttings when properly

shales inhibited.
Class 3 Hard cuttings when properly inhibited.

shales
Class 4 Very hard. These generally cannot be broken with the
86

shales finger nail.
Class 5 Good firm cuttings when properly inhibited.

shales
Shape and Long teeth and PDC's give big cuttings, carbide
size buttons give small chips, diamonds give very small
cuttings. The driller is a good reference on this subject.
Long slivers indicate geopressure. Blocks indicate
stress compressive failure, slivers or flat shape tensile
failure.
Volume An increase in the amount of cuttings could indicate

improved cutting inhibition, deterioration of the
borehole , or a slug of poorly transported cuttings.
A decrease could indicate increased borehole
inhibition, increasing dispersion of the formation, or
decreasing transport efficiency.
 Hole Conditions
Tight hole and excessive torque indicate that the hole is less than
gauge. This can be due to swelling of water sensitive young clays or
geopressured plastic formations.
Background Gas
87

In abnormally pressured formations extra gas is contained in the

larger porosity.
Bottoms up lag time
Any washed out or undergauge sections will affect the circulation

time.
Drilling fluid Properties
Several drilling fluid properties can give an insight into the effect of
the fluid on hole stability.
An increase in fine solids may indicate dispersion of the formation

clays.
If KCl is being employed the take-up of K + by the formation can be

interpreted by analysing plots of the K + and Cl- concentrations . If the
K+ is being consumed the plots will diverge with an increasing Cl -. If
the plots are parallel then no K+ is being taken out of the system.
Property Control and Adjustment
An inhibited drilling fluid should be designed where each major

property is controlled with a single function additive. The make up
will generally be:
 Viscosifier
88

 Inhibiting Chemical
 Encapsulating Polymer
 Filtrate Reducing Agent
 Weighting Material
Replacement volume, for new hole drilled, should be with whole,

prepared fluid. This will minimise variations to properties resulting
from addition variations.
1.1.9 Invert oil emulsion systems
A non aqueous fluid in contact with a water sensitive clay will not
have the problem of interaction and dispersion of the lattices. An
immiscible liquid will have a capillary resistance to flow into the
minute pore throats of the shale, thus resisting pore pressure
penetration. Therefore a drilling fluid based upon an oil medium can
resist borehole instability from both of these mechanisms.
1.1.9.2 THEORY
It is not practical to use an all oil drilling fluid. In any drilling

operation there are numerous sources of water; including released
89

connate water. Encapsulated, high salinity water has an osmotic

interaction with the shale. This reduces the desire to imbibe water.
Thus the invert oil emulsion system (IOES) was developed.
The encapsulated water must be evenly disseminated and emulsified

to resist coalescence. The emulsifier is a surfactant (a fatty acid
soap) that makes the surface of the water droplet oil wet and
repellent to water. {Oil in water emulsifiers work in the opposite way
by making oil droplets water wet and repellent to oil.}
This barrier acts as a semi-permeable membrane. It is selective in

allowing the passage of water without allowing any of the dissolved
salts to pass. The clays in the formations being drilled contain
interlayer water. The encapsulated water is made more saline than
the connate water. By the process of osmosis it pulls water from the
formation. This negates the desire of the newly drilled rock to
'sponge' up fluid from the drilling fluid.
IOES have a low coefficient of friction due to the natural lubricating

properties of the base oil. This can be advantageous in high angle
wells. They are particularly efficient and cost effective on multi-well
platforms and sites where the fluid can be reconditioned and reused.
90

IOES is not preferred on exploration wells as the oil interferes with

visual hydrocarbon spotting, gas chromatography and a number of
the normally used logging parameters.
The primary disadvantages with IOES is the cost of the base oil and
the environmental impact.
1.1.9.3 ENGINEERING
 BASE OIL
A primary restriction on the use of IOES is the potential health and

environmental impact of the base oil. Diesel, the traditional media, is
unacceptable due to the content of aromatic hydrocarbons. So called
'Low Toxicity' mineral oil is also not preferred as it still has an
unacceptably high impact on the environment.
Several modified vegetable and animal (fish) oils have been

developed and are marketed under the name of 'Pseudo Oil Base
Mud'. Whilst apparently acceptable within the current legislative limits
these are still oil base fluids and can have a range of impacts on the
environment.
Before specifying an IOES all HSE factors must be evaluated; such as

oxygen consumption on biodegradation, the toxicity of all breakdown
products, nutrient blanketing and additive toxicity.
91

 OIL/WATER RATIO
The desired ratio will depend upon the density, viscosity and the
amount of water expected to be absorbed. If a lot of water is drawn
then the salinity of a low water content drilling fluid would be quickly
reduced - the expected water intake per circulation should be no
more than 0·5% of the water content of the drilling fluid.
Most oil systems operate comfortably in the range of oil/water ratio

of 90/10 to 65/35; though some systems can be prepared to handle
ratios as high as 35/65.
 EMULSIFIERS
The encapsulating barrier of the emulsifier is the main protection

against water contact with the shales. It must be strong enough the
resist the differential pressure applied at the wellbore wall. The
hydroxyl ion converts the fatty acid to the emulsifying surfactant.
Lime, Ca(OH)2, is used; to be compatible with the CaCl 2 salinity of the
water phase.
 SALINITY
Because of its higher attraction for water (activity) CaCl 2 is the

preferred salt.
92

There are two schools of thought on the concentration required to

drill a hole: balanced (Exxon promoted) and overbalanced (industry,
incl. Shell, promoted) activity.
In the balanced activity system the engineer matches the desire to

absorb water (activity) of the IOES to the activity of the formation.
The main problems with this concept are:
 The activity is based upon measurements on the cuttings,

which have already been exposed to the oil mud and stress
relieved. Their activity has been modified.
 Over a long section of drilling the formation may change its

activity. Which formation to balance?
In the overbalanced concept the IOES is run with a considerably

higher salinity. The objective is to create a differential force towards
the wellbore. This will provide an extra protection against any desire
for the formation to imbibe fluid.
An important point to remember when making CaCl 2 additions is its

natural water content, 72-77% or 95-98%, and its hygroscopic
nature. Old stocks should always be checked in the retort. The water
content will affect both the oil/water ratio and the final solution
salinity.
93

Determining Salinity Requirements
To ensure that the IOES has a higher activity it is essential to

determine the actual activity of the formation.
Several methods of direct measurement have been proposed,

however all use the already modified cuttings.
By analysing all of the influencing factors, an activity balance can be

established.
To Formation From Formation
Hydrostatic Head of the Drilling fluid Pore Pressure
Desire from Salinity of Connate Desire from Salinity of Drilling

Water Fluid
Matrix Stress Relief of Formation
The lowest IOES activity should balance or exceed the highest

formation activity.
 VISCOSIFIER
An emulsion has a base consistency; comparable to that of dispersed,

fine, solids. Amine treated bentonite, called organophyllic clay, is the
primary viscosifier for IOES. It provides a bentonite like viscosity.
94

 FLUID LOSS
The bentonite filter cake is supplemented with amine treated lignite

and other materials that decrease the cake permeability.
 CONDITIONER
A term given to an additive (often Lecithin based) that oil wets

normally water wet solids such as barytes to disperse them in the
continuous oil phase.
 THINNER
A chemical strips the amine from the organophyllic clay rendering it

ineffective. The disadvantage is that any other amine treated
material is also stripped and subsequent additions of viscosifier may
be affected.
 WEIGHTING AGENTS
These are as per water based drilling fluids.
Note that Barytes which has been recovered by a flotation process

may be coated in a water wetting surfactant which could create
problems in an IOES application.
95

1.1.9.4 MONITORING
Apart from the normal properties it is important to ensure that the

IOES has an activity overbalance and emulsion stability.
The activity balance should be regularly updated for formation

pressure and salinity changes.
The best method of evaluating the emulsion stability is by examining

the filtrate from a High Temperature High Pressure fluid loss test.
The filtrate should contain no oil. Otherwise the membrane has not
been effective at this pressure overbalance. If water is observed,
emulsifier must be added to reinforce the membrane.
A quick check of the emulsion stability can be made with the

Emulsion Stability Meter. It uses an imposed voltage potential to
determine the resistance to coalescing the water droplets to pass the
current. However it should only be used as an initial screening tool.
Confirmation of stability must be made with the fluid loss test.
1.1.10 Contaminants
A contaminant is an intruding element that adversely impacts upon

the functions of the drilling fluid. It could be an ion, drilled solids,
96

temperature or even water. This Topic deals with chemical

contaminants, their effect on water based bentonite and polymer
fluids, identification tests and treatment guide-lines.
1.1.10.2 CHEMICAL CONTAMINANTS
 SOURCES
The main chemical contaminants are:
Divalent Cations Calcium/Magnesium
Monovalent Anion Chloride
Acid Gases H2S, CO2
The sources of the contaminant can be manifold and it is critical to

the treatment decision that this be identified. If it is a short term
event then remedial treatment may suffice. However, if it is likely to
be a long term contamination then conversion to a more tolerant
fluid type may be required.
97

 EFFECTS
Contaminants have varying effects on different drilling fluid materials;

due to composition and ionic variances.
98

Flocculated bentonite will have a higher low shear viscosity and

increased thixotropy. Precipitated polymers will be taken out of
solution and their influence reduced.
 IDENTIFICATION
Most contamination can be deduced from the routine density and

Marsh Funnel tests and a simple pH measurement.
Solids increase the density and viscosity, water has the opposite
effect. Gas drops the density, but raises the viscosity. Cement
contains lime which raises the pH while the acid gases lower it.
In the event of formation or accidental contamination the Total

Hardness test, which identifies both Calcium and Magnesium, will
suffice to differentiate it from Chloride contamination. It is used in
preference, as chlorides cannot be treated out.
99

Figure 6.1.16: Contaminant Identification
In some case the Calcium and Magnesium need to be further

differentiated as some of the newer generation polymers are
sensitive to only one. The supplier should advise on such
idiosyncrasies.
H2S can be readily differentiated from CO 2 by a gas detector and its

unique odour. However care should be taken with high pH fluids as
the H2S may be in solution and not immediately detectable.
100

Carbonate treatment of Ca++ and Mg++ contamination can

dramatically affect the pH/Alkalinity of the drilling fluid. This is
covered more fully under property testing, but suffice it to say that
alkalinity should always be tested when Carbonate ions have been
used.
1.1.10.3 TREATMENT
 CALCIUM/MAGNESIUM
Short term contamination can readily be treated out with a

sequestrant. The choice will depend on availability, application,
environment and the resultant effect on the fluid.
101

Long term contamination requires a change to a tolerant drilling fluid.

'Gyp' and 'Lime' drilling fluids are very inefficient in terms of rheology,
with high friction pressure losses and poor carrying characteristics.
But their worst feature is the progressive Gel Strengths that can
develop during trips (particular at elevated bottom hole
temperatures), resulting in high surge and swab effects and
excessive pump pressures to break circulation. This can, in part, be
controlled with 'thinners' (also called 'deflocculants'); though their
use should be limited because they effect the low shear part of
rheology profile by reducing interparticle attraction.
Modern polymer technology has developed products which are

tolerant to high levels of Ca++ and Mg++ whilst providing good fluid
properties for efficient operation.
 CHLORIDE
There is no chemical treatment to remove the Chloride ion. Unless

the contamination is a one off occurrence, the system must be
converted to compatible products. Most polymers work effectively in
salt solutions up to sea water concentration. Various products are
discussed in the sections on salt polymer systems.
102

 ACID GASES
H2S can be held in solution in the safe HS - form by maintaining the

fluid's pH above 9. Remedial treatment uses sequestering ions for
H2S, these are Fe++ and Zn++. Zinc compounds (as Carbonate or
Chelate) are used as a pre-treatment and for moderate levels of
contamination (<1,000 mg/l). A special form of sintered Fe 2O3
(sponge) is sometimes used; however it is a solid and creates surface
processing problems.
In solution CO2 is in the bicarbonate form. Calcium is used as the

sequestrant.
103

 OTHER
Borate (B4O7--) can be found in sea water. It can affect some

polymers, but most particularly Guar Gum. Removal treatment is
expensive, hence a change of polymer is recommended.
1.1.10.4 TREATMENT CHEMISTRY
In the treatment of contaminants the objective is to remove the

majority of the offending ion, without introducing new complications.
It is desirable to match the amount of treatment and offending
contaminant.
CALCIUM WITH SODA ASH (ANHYDRITE SOURCE)
Equation Ca++ + CO3-- = CaCO3 (precipitate)
(1g/l) (1.5 g/l)
Carbonate constitutes 56·6% of Soda Ash; thus 2·65 g/l is required.
SODIUM BICARBONATE
Equation Ca++ + HCO3-- = CaCO3 (precipitate) + H+
(1g/l) (3.05 g/l)
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Bicarbonate constitutes 72·6% of Sodium Bicarbonate: thus 4·2 g/l is

required.
H2S WITH ZINC
Equation S-- + Zn++ = ZnS (precipitate)
(1g/l) (x g/l)
3 gm/l will remove 500 mg/l.
H2S WITH IRON
Equation S-- + Fe++ = FeS (precipitate)
(1g/l) (x g/l)
3 gm/l will remove 200 mg/l.
1.1.11 Temperature
1.1.11.1 DEGRADATION LIMITATIONS
Nearly all drilling fluid additives have a temperature limitations.
105

The polysaccharide polymers can be extended by the use of oxygen

and free radical scavengers. Potassium formate will extend long chain
polysaccharides, like xanthan gum, up to 190°C.
Note that the actual degradation characteristics of a product may

vary and should be checked with the supplier.
1.1.11.2 TEMPERATURE RESPONSE
In high temperature applications bentonite based fluids can exhibit

an unusual response. Initially the slurry will thin, as do most drilling
106

fluids. However, with prolonged exposure to temperatures over

175°C the surface charge and water envelope change in nature. The
fluid begins to develop a high progressive gel structure. This results
in a very thick drilling fluid on bottom that requires a very high pump
pressure to re-initiate flow. The problem can be combated by the use
of deflocculants (which must be tolerant to the temperatures as
well). However care must be taken with this method as the thinned
fluid may be compounded by the initial temperature thinning effect,
resulting in very poor suspension characteristics.
All viscosifying polymers thin with increasing temperature. There are

two primary aspects to the effect:
 Viscosity reduction at the elevated temperatures.

 Viscosity regain upon cooling.
The specific response is individual to each polymer. The temperature

response curves for both low and high shear rates (recommended
5·11 sec-1 and 511 sec-1) should be requested from the supplier.
Reduction in the Consistency Index 'K' can be compensated by
raising the concentration. But an increase in the Flow Index 'n' shows
a loss of performance potential.
107

Note that the temperature response of blended materials should be

conducted on the final slurry as synergistic or antagonistic effects
may significantly alter the results.
1.1.11.3 BREAKDOWN PRODUCTS
Lignosulphonate breaks down and gives off S - and SO2-- gases which
are corrosive and lower the pH of the drilling fluid rendering
remaining lignosulphonate ineffectual.
Deflocculating pyrophosphates convert to the strongly flocculating

orthophosphates.
Most polymers simply break along the backbone to yield smaller, less
effect, polymeric chains. The natural polymers (Starch, Guar,
Xanthan etc.) on breaking do not cause any side effects. Cellulosics,
108

and synthetic polymers, can produce shorter chain end products that
are strong deflocculants.
1.1.12 Drilled solids
It has been said that "without drilled solids there would be no need
for a drilling fluid engineer".
To some respect this is true. A large proportion of the day to day

treatments are in response to the effects of unremovable solids and
to replace volume lost via the solids removal equipment.
The drilling process breaks the formations into small cuttings. During
the journey to surface they are subjected to various abrading forces
further reducing them in size. The larger sizes are readily separated
by the shale shaker. But the finer particles are harder to remove.
Recycling of these smaller particles in the circulating system reduces

the performance of the drilling operation, is potentially damaging to
the production zone and can be a safety risk.
109

1.1.12.2 EFFECT
1.1.12.2.1 DRILLING FLUID
Solids incorporation in the drilling fluid raises the fluid density and
viscosity. Maintenance to a maximum limit will require dilution;
increasing cost. Viscosity effects will raise the ECD impact on the
bottom of the hole.
Incorporated solids provide increased surface area upon which the

base liquids adsorb. This reduces the free fluid for flow, raising the
consistency of the fluid. The solids are essentially inert and do not
have the ability to provide a pseudoplastic (shear thinning) rheology.
This reduces drilling performance.
The incorporated drilled solids are generally angular, blocky shaped,

particles. In the filter cake they create porosity and permeability.
Thus the cake continues to leak filtrate to the formation. This results
in a continuing build up of cake, increasing the potential for
differential sticking of the drill string.
1.1.12.2.2 DRILLING RATE
The recycled solids are good bridging particles. They restrict the flow
of fluid into the fractures made by the bit thus reducing the drilling
rate.
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The angular, hard, particles abrade and erode components in the

circulating system. This can cause premature failure resulting in
expensive downtime, repairs and possibly the failure of safety
devices.
1.1.12.2.3 PRODUCTION POTENTIAL
The bridging effect of the incorporated drilled solids also impacts

upon the permeable production zone. Once in place the particles are
very difficult to remove. The composition of the solids is mostly silica
(SiO2) and clay which are inert to all chemicals except hydrofluoric
acid (HF).
1.1.12.2.4 WEIGHTING UP POTENTIAL
The consistency of a drilling fluid is proportional to the surface area

of incorporated solids. Allowing for the effects of viscosifying
additives, there is a limit to the amount of solids that a fluid can
incorporate before it is rendered unpumpable. If a kick is taken, it
may not be possible to weight up if this limit will be exceeded.
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1.1.12.3 PREVENTION
 IN HOLE
The main preventative measure is to ensure that the cuttings are

transported to the surface with as little degradation as possible. This
means minimising exposure time and protecting against weakening.
The rheology of the drilling fluid should provide a high net cuttings
velocity (Vf -Vs) and a flat flow profile to minimise cuttings tumbling.
Turbulent flow increases the amount of inter-particulate collision,
increasing degradation. A well designed fluid rheology plays a very
important role in minimising cuttings degradation.
A key element in protecting weak cuttings is a rapid coating with an

isolating layer. Highly anionic, high molecular weight polymers, such
as PHPA, can quickly attach to the clay and provide a suitable barrier.
 SURFACE REMOVAL
Surface processing equipment also provide mechanical degradation

forces. Rapid removal is essential in controlling the incorporation of
fine drilled solids.
Shale Shakers
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The most effective solids removal equipment is the shale shaker. It

can handle a wide size variation and makes a definitive size cut.
If the cuttings are not excessively degraded the shaker is capable of

removing the vast majority of the solids. Multiple units with fine
screens, and a suitable drilling fluid design, have removed up to 85%
of the drilled material; with the cut as low as 440 µm.
Hydrocyclones
These use acceleration to separate solids by mass differential. They

come in various sizes, but the most common sizes are:
Desanders 8" - 12"
Desilters 4" - 6"
Because of the time needed for separation the hydrocyclone removes

a varying proportion of a range of particle sizes. The cut point is
stated as where the cyclone removes 50% of that particle size.
Factors influencing the cut points are shape of particle, density of
particle, quantity of particles, rheology of the fluid, shape and length
of cone, vortex finder and discharge orifice.
The specific performance curves are available from the manufacturer.
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Mud Cleaner
Where expensive, or environmentally sensitive, base liquids are used

the hydrocyclone can be used as a concentrator to allow finer
screening. This reduces the volume processed by the screen to
improve separation efficiency. In oilfield terminology this has been
called a mud cleaner.
Centrifuge
The last stage in mechanically treating the drilling fluid is the

decanting centrifuge. This uses the same principles as the
hydrocyclone. However more energy can be utilised and the
influencing parameters can be varied to tune separation to the solids
in the system. It is capable of removing down to about 2 µm.
A variation on the mud cleaner concept is to use a hydrocyclone as a

concentrator before centrifuging.
Flocculants
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Chemical flocculants increase the effective particle size and hence

quantity of material separated at each removal stage.
A common flocculant used is FeCl3. This material is a severe skin

irritant.
Equipment Sequence
It is important that the removal of drilled solids is conducted in a size

decreasing sequence. The larger particles should be treated by
equipment more suited to handle them. Apart from the aspect of
overloading the subsequent equipment, the finer particle treating
machines use increasing energy and thus have a higher mechanical
degradation effect.
No fluid should by-pass any stage of treatment. Topping up of tanks

must be with already treated fluid.
Solids removal equipment should not be bypassed for any reason,

even lost circulation. Lost circulation materials are cheaper than the
drilling fluid and circulating system components.
Dilution
Dilution is generally an expensive method of removing drilled solids

effects. It does not remove the solids but reduces their
concentration. Until discarded with the excess volume they are still in
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the system, abrading to finer and finer particles with more and more
surface area. In nearly all cases mechanical removal is cheaper.
As a rule of thumb it takes 25 m3 of dilution for every 1 m3 of solids

retained in the fluid.
 CURE
Solids removal with a centrifuge (or dilution if insufficient centrifuge

capacity).
 NO CURE
Deflocculants
These are not a remedial treatment against the build up of drilled

solids. They do not remove the solids.
Deflocculants attach to the negative charges on reactive clays

reducing interparticle attraction. In a bentonite based drilling fluid,
the deflocculant will preferentially coat out on the desirable Na +
Bentonite; negating its beneficial effects.
Deflocculants remove the attraction forces that contribute to the low

shear rate viscosity which is providing beneficial carrying capacity (to
minimise cuttings exposure time ).
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In non bentonite based systems, the deflocculant will be ineffectual

as it has no reactive material to work on.
Deflocculants are a cosmetic cover-up of the effects of a solids build-

up. They do not remove the effect and can be likened to taking an
aspirin for a bullet wound to the head. They should only be used in
emergency to get the drilling fluid to a usable state. Solids removal
should then be used to restore the desired properties.
1.1.12.4 MONITORING AND EVALUATION
Each situation must be evaluated separately. A mass balance of

volume drilled versus solids removed will highlight the effectiveness
of each removal stage.
The economics of solids removal equipment can be quickly evaluated

by comparing the dilution cost to maintain a specific solids content
against the cost of using proper SRE.
1.1.13 Drilling problems
1.1.13.1 BIT BALLING
Water sensitive, young shales can form soft sticky clay when exposed
to water. This sticky clay can adhere to water wet metal. If the
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problem becomes severe the clay may block the annulus, or cover
the bit completely.
 PREVENTION
 Ensure good bit and hole cleaning.
 Specify an inhibitive fluid to limit the water imbibition. Ca ++, Cl-

and PO4--- ions are generally very effective.
 CURE
 Apply a concentrated slug of phosphate surfactant to ensure oil

wetting of the metal surfaces.
 Apply an inhibitor to limit the water imbibition.
1.1.13.2 1.12.2 TORQUE AND DRAG
Torque is rotational resistance arising from contact with the wellbore.

Drag is the linear resistance. Excessive wall contact and sticky clays
can increase the torque and drag; reducing drilling efficiency
 VERTICAL HOLES
In vertical holes torque and drag are usually well within tolerable
levels. High values are an indicator of a more specific problem and
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should be investigated to determine the actual cause. Curing without

such an investigation may mask a more serious problem.
 DEVIATED HOLES
In deviated holes the drill string is in more intimate contact with the
wall. Over long sections the contact may eventually require a
lubricant to optimise the delivery of power.
Again, excessive build up of torque and drag is generally an indicator

of a different problem and all possible causes should be thoroughly
investigated before applying treatments with lubricants.
 ADDITIVES
Several proprietary brands of lubricant are available. They are based

upon blends of mineral oils or processed vegetable and fish oils. The
choice is based upon proven performance and HSE considerations.
The use of straight diesel oil is bad practice. It is toxic, has a very low
surface adsorption potential and is rapidly emulsified in the fluid
rendering it ineffectual.
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1.1.13.3 1.12.3 DIFFERENTIALLY STUCK PIPE
The inability to move the drill string can result from a number of
circumstances; many of which have already been covered. The
remaining, drilling fluid related, cause is differential sticking.
 CAUSE
Differential pressure, towards the formation, also acts on any pipe in

contact with the filter cake. A soft, thick, cake can act like a 'suction'
cup and hold the pipe in place.
 PREVENTION
 Ensure that the minimum drilling fluid density, to safely drill

the well, is maintained.
 Use additives that will give a thin, tough, slick, impermeable

cake under downhole conditions.
 Use fluted or spiral drill collars.
 Do not let pipe remain stationary longer than absolutely

necessary and never when pumping.
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 CURE
 Immediately reduce the pump rate and commence jarring. Do

not stop pumps entirely as the cuttings must be circulated out
to avoid complicating the problem.
 Spot one of the proprietary blended spotting fluids (packaged

oil based fluids).
Use sufficient to cover the zone plus 10% above. A further
volume is required, as the pill should be moved 5 m up the
hole every 10 minutes to ensure good contact. Normally
soaking time should be approximately 1 hour. Therefore an
extra 30 m of annular volume is needed.
The spotting fluid should be weighted to prevent an ingress of
formation fluid.
 Failing this an overshot with a drilling face is needed. During

fishing the drilling fluid must be highly treated to minimise new
filter cake build up. High levels of lubricant should be used to
minimise friction on both overshot and drill string. The fluid
density must be kept to a minimum to ensure that the
overshot is not stuck as well.
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1.1.13.4 1.12.4 LOST CIRCULATION
 INTRODUCTION
When the hydrostatic pressure of the fluid exceeds the invasion

resistance fluid will be lost to the formation. When the permeability
channels exceed a size that the normal drilling fluid cake or particles
cannot bridge then whole fluid will be lost into the formation. This is
lost circulation. The severity of the loss will dictate the criticality of
the situation and the response.
Seepage losses (less than 25% of the circulating rate) are usually
treated as a routine problem without interfering with the ongoing
operation. Severe losses (above 25%) are considered hazardous and
require ongoing operations (excluding well control) to be halted until
remedial action has resolved the problem.
In certain circumstances, incurable problem with manageable risk,

losses may be untreated.
Prevention
Minimum overbalance of hydrostatic head, plus ECD.
Cure
 Cut down the pump rate
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 Reduce the overbalance
 Block the permeation channels.
 CONVENTIONAL MATERIALS
Plating Materials
These are materials such as mica, cellophane flakes and paper sacks
that supplement the filter cake. This cure is often temporary as the
cake can be later removed by the actions of downhole tool and fluid.
Bridging and Blocking Materials
These are materials such as ground limestone, nut hulls and fibres
that enter the permeation channels and bridge off. These are
effective in stopping losses into both course granular formations and
small fractures. The effect is generally permanent.
 SPECIAL TECHNIQUES
Foam
To produce a lighter hydrostatic column. The average density of a

drilling foam is less than 1·2 kPa/m.
Plugging Material
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Granular bentonite swells by imbibing the formation and drilling fluid

water to form a plug of plastic material.
A 'Gunk' squeeze (DOB) is created with powdered bentonite

dispersed in oil (1,100 kg/m3). The slurry is pumped into the
offending zone. On contact with water the bentonite hydrates and
forms a plastic plug.
'DOB2C' is a variation on the gunk squeeze. Cement replaces 60% of

the bentonite. The resultant plug is stronger and more permanent.
Hydrational polymers (called super-absorbants) can take up to 1,000

times their own weight of fresh water. The unhydrated grains are lost
to the formation. They absorb water from the formation and swell to
occupy the volume of the absorbed water. The space or fracture is
then filled with a gel.
Floating Mud Cap
When incurable lost circulation is below a zone of high pressure a

'floating mud cap' can be used. Lighter fluid is pumped down the drill
string for drilling. In the annulus a column of higher density fluid is
maintained by continual injection into the top of the annulus. Both
fluids are lost into the thief zone, along with the drilled cuttings, but
sufficient hydrostatic head is maintained on the high pressure zone to
control an influx.
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This method requires very careful planning and good logistics.

Connections and trips are difficult operations under these conditions.
If the heavy column of drilling fluid cannot be maintained then a kick
will be taken and an underground blowout may result.
1.1.13.5 1.12.5 CORROSION
 INTRODUCTION
Corrosion is the destruction of metal by chemical or electrochemical

interaction with the environment. In drilling the main effect of
corrosion is weakening of the drill pipe resulting in washouts or pin
failure.
The major corrodants encountered are carbon dioxide (CO 2),

hydrogen sulphide (H2S) and dissolved oxygen (O2). In salt based
drilling fluids the corrosion potential can be enhanced by the
presence of dissociated ions. Influencing factors are the chemical
composition of the fluid, temperature, velocity, pressure and
metallurgy. The specific reactions are complex with more than one
type of corrosion possible. Specific details on the reactions and
interplay should be sought from the corrosion engineers.
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 TREATMENT
Oxygen is the most commonly occurring corrodant in the drilling

fluid. Sodium Sulphite powder and Ammonium Bisulphite liquid are
the two most common oxygen scavengers used. Treatments are
usually based upon maintaining 100 mg/l excess sulphite in the
system. Additions should be made directly at the mud pump suction
so that oxygen is removed at the point of entering the system.
Oil wetting agents lay a monomolecular layer of hydrocarbon based

fluid against the metal components to minimise water, ion and
oxygen contact.
Scale (calcium, magnesium or iron carbonate) can form a precipitate

layer on metal surfaces. The layer can seal the metal from the
environment, and from corrosion control treatments. Under the layer
initial corrosion establishes a galvanic system which leads to further
corrosion. Organic phosphates are used to precipitate divalent ions
which would otherwise react with the carbonate to form the scale.
As previously discussed hydrogen sulphide is directly scavenged from

the system.
Sulphate reducing bacteria cause sulphide corrosion in an aerobic

environment. The organisms utilise hydrogen formed by
electrochemical corrosion during their growth to reduce sulphate to
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H2S. Various bactericides are available. In polymer fluids these are

often required to prevent degradation of the polymers.
 MONITORING
The corrosion coupon is a ring placed into a tool joint. It gives an

accurate measure of the corrosion rate taking place inside the drill
string. The coupon must be accurately weighed and visually checked.
The galvanic probe gives a continuous, and instantaneous reading, of

the corrosion taking place on two sacrificial pieces of metal (brass
and iron). It gives an qualitative indication of changes to the
corrosion rate.
1.1.14 Well control

Being able to control subsurface pressures is critical for the safety of
the whole drilling operation. This Topic deals only with the drilling
fluid aspects of well control. Well control procedures are not covered.
1.1.14.1 PREVENTION
Except when under-balanced drilling, the pressure exerted by the

drilling fluid must be higher than the bottom hole formation pressure.
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Where abnormal pressures are present the drilling fluid density must
be routinely and frequently checked. Additions of water (or oil) at all
locations on the rig must be controlled and monitored.
1.1.14.2 EFFECTS OF KICK TYPES
 SALT WATER
Dilution of additives and flocculation of bentonite are the major

problems. In IOES the water must be rapidly emulsified to prevent
water wetting the weighting material which will then drop out.
 OIL
Entrained oil acts as a solid in water-based drilling fluids. In IOES it

dilutes additive concentration and density.
 GAS
In IOES gas can be soluble in the hydrocarbon phase whilst under

pressure. This complicates annular pressure response during well
killing as the gas comes out of solution and rapidly expands higher in
the well.
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1.1.14.3 CURE
Raise the density of the fluid to control the pore pressure and
circulate out the influx. Any detrimental impact on the drilling fluid
should be treated as soon as possible.
1.1.14.4 PREPAREDNESS
It is important to know the circulating volume and rate at which

density can be increase with the rig's mixing system.
1.1.14.5 KICK AND LOST CIRCULATION
If one of the formations exposed is weak and cannot withstand the

wellbore pressures then lost circulation will occur, complicating the
well killing procedure.
 LOSSES ABOVE KICK
The problem is to provide a variable hydrostatic head whereby the

exerted pressure at the kick zone is sufficient to kill the well and the
pressure at the loss zone is insufficient to lose drilling fluid. A tricky
situation.
In severe cases, trying to circulate different density fluids around will

not be successful. The generally accepted method is to set a barytes
plug over the overpressured zone. This will provide a very heavy and
129

impermeable barrier. The losses can then be cured before drilling

ahead
The plug is basically a slurry of barytes and water that is pumped

down the drill pipe and placed at the bottom of the wellbore. The
purpose of the barytes plug is twofold:
 Kill the well
 Settle and mechanically plug the wellbore.
The composition of a barytes plug is:
Water 0.5 m3
Barytes 320 kg
Phosphate
Deflocculant 2 kg/m3
Lignosulphonate
8 kg/m3 (+ Caustic 3 kg/m3)
Lignite
12 kg/m3 (+ Caustic 3 kg/m3)
Synthetic
2 kg/m3
Polymer
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The barytes plug is mixed and pumped on the fly; usually with a
cement unit. Once started, pumping cannot stop until the plug is
outside the drill string. Otherwise it will bridge off and stop any
circulation capability.
 LOSSES BELOW KICK
This is the more difficult situation of the two. The losses must be
tackled first and then the well killed.
However the influx must be controlled from rising up the annulus.

Weighted fluid must be continually pumped into the top of the
annulus to stop ingress of the kick material. Low density drilling fluid
must be continually pumped in through the drillpipe to satisfy the
losses to the thief zone thus minimising the loss of weighted fluid.
When remedial action taken to combat the lost circulation, it must be

mixed separately to the circulating fluid and then placed without
stopping circulation to avoid losing control.
The major problem is being able to prepare all of the drilling fluids
fast enough to maintain control.
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1.1.15 Cementing
Successful primary cementation requires an uncontaminated annulus
of cement with good bond to the pipe and borehole. Key factors for
the cement slurry to achieve this are: a consistent hole shape
throughout the section and good displacement of the drilling fluid.
1.1.15.1 HOLE CONDITION
Drilling fluid displacement from inconsistent washouts is difficult to

achieve.
Enlarged hole sizes require higher pumping rates to achieve

turbulence for good scouring of the annulus to remove the drilling
fluid and filter cake.
Excessive hole enlargement requires larger volumes of cement to be

pumped. Apart from the expense, the slurry will require conditioning
to modify the thickening time. Whenever additives are used there is a
possibility of an incorrect assessment of the dosage required. Unlike
faulty drilling fluids treatments, poor cement conditioning is
permanent.
Proper fluid design, to produce a stable and relatively consistent hole

shape, is essential.
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1.1.15.2 DRILLING FLUID CONDITION
A properly designed and maintained drilling fluid should need no

conditioning for either running casing or cementing. It should already
provide good suspension, have low energy flow and be easy to
displace.
1.1.15.3 DRILLING FLUID - CEMENT SPACERS
The key factors in designing the cement spacer are:
 Avoiding contamination of either fluid.

 Displacement of all drilling fluid in front of cement
 Removal of any filter cake that has developed.
RHEOLOGY
The rheology of the spacer should be designed to ensure complete

displacement of the drilling fluid. The rheology should promote easy
transition into turbulent flow to assist scouring.
VOLUME
The annular height of the spacer should be sufficient to have >4

minutes of contact time.
FORMULATION
133

Water is the simplest spacer. It can be easily pumped in turbulence

and has the minimum contamination potential. A light cement slurry
(scavenger slurry) is the next simplest spacer. The cement grains
provide some scouring effect to assist in filter cake erosion.
For complicated operations the spacer may require special additives.

With IOES the pipes and formations are oil wet. Cement bonding may
be compromised. A water wetting surfactant is often added to the
spacer.
For overpressure situations the length of the spacer column should

be kept to a minimum to avoid well control problems. The spacer can
be weighted with salt (up to 1·2 S.G.). Otherwise a scavenger slurry
can be used to achieve sufficient spacer density.
High temperature, high pressure wells may require specially designed

weighted spacers. These should be thoroughly tested for
compatibility with both fluids before usage.
1.1.15.4 1.14.4 CEMENT PLUGS
Sometimes a problem during drilling (such as lost circulation, stuck

pipe, kick control or deviation correction) requires a cement plug to
be placed in the hole. Problems in setting these plugs above lower
density drilling fluids, without a bridge plug, can arise from unstable
134

interfaces causing the fluids to intermingle thus contaminating the

integrity of the plug.
This can be avoided by spotting a high consistency pill below the

intended cement plug. A thixotropic rheology is better suited to this
application as the gel strength is more able to resist the flow
tendency of the heavier cement. The pill should be prepared by
adding bentonite to the existing fluid to get maximum consistency
with a pumpable fluid. For the average polymer based drilling fluid
7% to 8% bentonite (pre-hydrated) can be added to give the fluid
needed thixotropy.
1.1.16 Drill-in, completion and well

intervention fluids
Once the top of the reservoir is reached there must be a change in

the criteria for the design of the fluids to be used in the well. In
addition to achieving the operational processes there is the need to
protect the reservoir from impairment. Therefore the drilling fluid is
generally re-named to 'drill-in' fluid to ensure that the right mind-set
is achieved. In effect the drill-in fluid should be regarded as a
completion or well intervention fluid. Therefore all fluids will be
135

regarded within this category. Specific criteria for the operational

aspect will conform to those covered in previous chapters (i.e.:
rheology)
The design criteria remain essentially the same except that the fluid
should not have a negative impact on the reservoir production (or
injection) potential.
1.1.16.2 PRODUCTIVITY IMPAIRMENT
There are two terms used in connection with a reduction in

permeability caused by the drilling process:
 Damage is defined as "a reduction in permeability in the

immediate near wellbore region".
 Impairment is defined as "an irreversible reduction in

permeability in the immediate near wellbore region".
Most damage manifests itself in the near well bore area - the zone of
damage is consequently called the "skin". The resulting effect on
production is termed the "skin effect".
The mechanisms of damage are:
 particles plugging the formation pore throats or fractures
136

 drilling and completion fluids reacting with formation water to

form a precipitate
 emulsion from mixing oil and water and stabilising with natural
or introduced surfactants
 surfactants changing the wetting characteristics (anti bit balling

additives and invert oil emulsifiers)
Of these mechanisms particle plugging is by far the major

contributory factor; though emulsions and oil wetting changes from
IOES fluids can affect the effective fluid viscosity. Therefore the
major attention in design is on ensuring that the plugging mechanism
does not result in irreversible permeability reduction.
1.1.16.3 WELLBORE FLUID DESIGN
The primary design criterion in Drill-in, Completion and Well

Intervention fluids is to ensure minimum impairment of the reservoir.
In most cases it will be difficult to eliminate all material that will
cause impairment. Therefore in most cases the design will allow for a
damage mechanism, via a reversible process, to initially protect the
reservoir and then allow maximum permeability regain.
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1.1.16.3.1 DENSITY CONTROL
In most cases the fluid will be prepared using a brine to achieve the
density required for well control. If the required density cannot be
achieved then 'acid soluble' weighting agents are generally used. In
some circumstances (high density with perforated completions)
insoluble solid weighting agents are used.
Refer to Topic 1.2.6, DRILLING FLUID DENSITY for information on

using soluble salts as weighting agents.
1.1.16.3.2 CRYSTALLISATION TEMPERATURE
Care must be taken with brine solutions (including those with

polymers added) to ensure that they are used above the
crystallisation point. Otherwise the salt can precipitate and the
salinity and density will drop and the viscosity will increase.
The crystallisation temperature is the temperature at which the brine

is saturated with respect to one of the salts that it contains. Below
the crystallisation temperature, this least soluble salt becomes
insoluble and precipitates. The crystals can be either salt solids or
freshwater ice.
The salt will crystallise first at the coolest location (usually the tanks).
If the salt crystals settle in the pits, the density of the brine pumped
138

downhole will be lower. As more crystals form, without settling, they

will increase the brine viscosity. Eventually the viscosity can become
so high that the brine appears to be frozen solid. It cannot be
pumped and the lines are plugged. In deep offshore wells this cooling
point could be in the riser; with the disastrous consequences of a
'frozen' annulus.
 First Crystal To Appear (FCTA): This is the temperature at

which visible crystals start to form. It appears at the first
inflexion in the cooling curve. It will include some super-cooling
effect.
 True Crystallisation Temperature (TCT): This is the maximum
temperature reached following the super-cooling minimum. It
is the FCTA if no super-cooling takes place.
 Last Crystal To Dissolve (LCTD): This is the temperature at

which crystals disappear, or the inflexion point in the heating
curve.
TCT is the best measure of the crystallisation temperature of a brine.

The test procedure defined in API Recommended Practices 13J
should be used.
For treated brines both the raw salt solution and the final mix should
be tested as additives can have a significant effect. For example
139

Xanthan Gum and Starch are crystallisation temperature

suppressants.
The crystallisation temperature can be altered by changing the brine

composition. As a rule the lower the TCT the higher the price.
Therefore, selecting a brine with an excessively low crystallisation
temperature can be very costly. You should specify a TCT a few
degrees below the lowest expected temperature.
1.1.16.3.3 FORMATION COMPATIBILITY.
There are three areas of concern with respect to compatibility: rock,

water and hydrocarbons.
 Rock
The primary concern is whether the fluid will cause

swelling/dispersion of the formation clays in the pore spaces.
Normally providing some salinity will cure this problem. This is usually
achieved by using 3% NH4Cl or 2% KCl. However, in some cases, a
higher salinity can also destabilise the formation clays. It is generally
difficult to assess whether formation clays will be affected by a fluid
without extensive core flush testing.
However as a general rule, if the same ionic character as the original

formation water can be maintained then the clays should remain in
140

equilibrium. Hence some areas now use 'Dehydration Water' to

formulate Drill-in and CWI Fluids.
 Water
The chief concern is the formation of precipitates, or scales. The

most common scales are calcium and iron carbonates; calcium,
barium and strontium sulphates; sodium chloride; iron sulphide; and
silicates. Scale can be formed due to:
 mixing incompatible waters (divalent cations and anions react

together)
 solubility change with temperature
 solubility change with temperature and pressure.
For example: certain saturated CaBr2/CaCl2 brines can cause NaCl to

precipitate from saturated NaCl formation water. A 60°C TCT brine
will give strong precipitation whilst a -37°C brine will have no
reaction.
Compatibility checks on all waters should always be confirmed by

testing at downhole conditions.
141

 Hydrocarbons
The chief concern is the formation of emulsions or the destabilisation

of heavy crude components that precipitate as sludge. Generally low
to moderate salinity brines will not be problematic. It is only the
heavy, fully saturated brines that will cause problems; particularly
those with a very high or very low pH.
Surfactants added to the system may exacerbate the problem.
Compatibility testing with core flushing should be carried out.
1.1.16.3.4 FLUID/SOLID INVASION CONTROL.
Large overbalance, high permeable streaks and long perforated or

open-hole sections can cause substantial loss of fluid to the
formation. Such losses are expensive and may increase production
impairment potential.
To minimise the potential for production impairment many wells are

deliberately 'damaged' with materials that will naturally disappear or
can be removed. These materials can be bridging agents (sized
particulates) viscosifiers or cross-linked polymers.
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 Bridging Materials (including lost circulation materials)
There are currently three basic options for bridging : sized salt,
ground CaCO3 and oil soluble resin.
Sized salt is the basis of the Thixsal and Bridgsal systems. It requires
a saturated brine base. The major advantage of the system is that
the solute for the bridging agent is water. The disadvantages are that
the base brine density is high and not suitable for depleted reservoir
applications, the wash water solution can cause formation damage
and the dissolving process can be slow (using rig time or delaying
production).
Ground CaCO3 is the most common bridging material used, especially

in the case of major fluid losses. The advantages are that it is cheap
and the dissolving action with acid is vigorous promoting easy
removal. The disadvantages are that the acid solution is dangerous
and corrosive.
Oil soluble resin is currently not used outside of some limited

applications in stimulation as it is not always fully oil soluble when
used in water based systems.
Particle size must be chosen such that the smallest grain will be >
33% of the largest pore throat size. This is normally selected after
examining cores and scanning electron microscope photos.
143

The filter cake formed by the bridging agents, if maintained

externally may not be robust enough to survive the activities being
conducted in the well. Therefore it is often supplemented with a
binding agent such as starch. This is selected because it is generally
not damaging in its own right and is fully acid soluble.
 Viscosifiers
High filtrate viscosities can damage the effective permeability of the

formation (increasing µ to decrease Q). It is essential to use fully acid
soluble polymers such as HEC and Biopolymer (Xanthan Gum).
Viscosifiers will also be required when using bridging particulates

(albeit at a lower concentration). The key factor in selecting the
material is high quality pure material that is degradable under the
conditions of use. For example: HEC comes in many grades; some
with high concentrations of acid insoluble impurities. Xanthan Gum is
not readily acid degradable below 65°C.
 Crossed Linked Polymers
These are rarely used in working fluids except during hydraulic

fracturing due to the difficulty to control the process without affecting
a circulating fluid.
144

1.1.16.3.5 CORROSION
The electrically conductive nature of brines provides an environment

favourable for the corrosion of metal to occur. Given that it is not
practical to stop corrosion the aim is to reduce it to an acceptable
level. For temporary fluids (CWIF) this is generally set as <10
kg/m2/yr using a corrosion coupon test. For packer fluids this must be
lower due to the prolonged exposure.
For most brine based systems the key agent for corrosion is oxygen.
The solubility of oxygen decreases as the saturation point of the salt
is approached. Even though a brine may initially contain oxygen, if it
is not replenished it will soon deplete as a result of the corrosion
process. Therefore oxygen scavengers are not used. In brines to be
circulated ammonium bisulphite is generally used to scavenge the
oxygen.
Film forming amine corrosion inhibitors are not recommended as they

are also adsorbing on silica and silicates and may cause impairment.
Organophosphate inhibitors are also not used as they often give
incomplete coverage and can result in galvanic cell corrosion.
Very dense bromide brines have a very low pH which means that
they can cause leaching corrosion (preferentially dissolving grains in
the steel).
145

Bacterial growth can cause acid conditions to develop. Additions of

high shock, degradable biocides are sometimes used.
1.1.16.4 WELLBORE FLUID PREPARATION
Despite all of the best planning and pre-testing, poor preparation of

the fluids to be used in the reservoir section is still the major source
of production impairment.
 SOLIDS
Solids, other than those deliberately added, can be picked up from

the drilling process, dirty tanks, the drill water supply or even
airborne sources.
 POLYMERS
Non-completion grade HEC contains high concentrations of partially-

or un-reacted cellulose material that can block pore throats. This
cellulose material is not acid soluble.
HEC and Xanthan which is not fully hydrated can have minute
polymer 'lumps' which subsequently hydrate in place causing
blockage and hence impairment. This polymer blockage is often
difficult to access with acid stimulation.
146

 FILTRATION
Both HEC and Xanthan, when fully hydrated will pass through a 2µm
filter cell. Therefore to ensure that no damaging materials have been
included the fluid should be filtered to less than the pore through size
before adding the bridging agent.
To ensure that fluid will readily pass through the filters without
excessive blocking the solution should be tested with the API fluid
loss test. Both polymers will pass through the Watman 50 filter
paper.
1.1.16.5 DAMAGE/IMPAIRMENT REMOVAL
The key factor is to ensure that all of the "damaging" material is

removed to restore original formation permeability. This is more
easily said than done.
 In carbonate formations acidising the matrix can release the

bridging solids. It is essential however that the acid solution is
not too strong. Otherwise it will dissolve the first point of
contact, establish a path to the permeable formation and be
"lost" before it can remove all of the cake. Too often a report
states "Got good losses immediately upon contacting with
acid". This usually means that some cake is still there to impair
production.
147

The acid wash treatment should be lower strength, at or near

balance to the reservoir pressure and should preferably be
viscosified to resist seepage into the formation.
 Inert solids are difficult to remove. Surging and jetting can be
tried, though success is usually very low.
 Emulsion blocks can be treated with a demulsifier but success

is very low.
 Surfactants can restore the wetting characteristics but success

is very low.
1.1.17 Appendix
1.1.17.1 Appendix (1) Terminology and symbols
The drilling industry uses technology from various sources; internal

and external. Consequently different symbols often depict the same
data unit or the same symbols represents different data. This can
lead to confusion for the uninitiated. For example 'd' is sometimes
used to denote depth. However, in rock mechanics 'z' is used for
depth. In engineering 'd' is used to denote diameter.
148

Standard drilling fluid symbols and terminology have been used in

this Part - the ones most commonly used. These may differ from
those that you are familiar with.
Standard Units
All working units are 'standard Shell' oilfield SI. Alternate units are
shown in brackets where appropriate. Pressure is in Pascals (Pa).
149

Table 6.1.16: Symbols used
1.2 Cement
150

1.2.1 Introduction
 GENERAL
Well cementing in its simplest form can be described as the

placement of a material that sets to form a solid mass which has
supporting and sealing properties.
Annually the Group, excluding North America and Canada, spends

approximately $600 million on drilling and workover related activities.
Figure 6.2.1 shows a generalised distribution of this expenditure.
In 1994 some $140 million was spent on drilling fluids and

cementing; with about 12% being spent on cement and cementing
additives. The actual expenditure varies amongst Operating Units but
averages some 3-6% of the overall drilling budget. However this
seemingly small portion plays a vital role in well integrity.
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Figure 6.2.1: 1994 Group Drilling Expenditure breakdown
A poor cementation can significantly impact on subsequent well

performance and return on investment. In comparison to the initial
expenditure, a poor cement job can result in very high remedial
costs. For example, failure to achieve good zonal isolation in primary
cementing (the initial cementing of casing) costs the group millions of
dollars each year in well repairs and lost production.
To achieve a successful cementation the Well Engineer must have a

working knowledge of the following:
 Cement types.
 Cement slurry characteristics.
 Cement hydration process.
 The effects of pressure and temperature on cement hydration.
152

 The effect of additives.
 Contaminants and their effects.
 Cement testing procedures and terminology.
 Wellbore fluid displacement and mud cake removal.
 Primary and secondary cementing techniques.
 Evaluation procedures.
 REASONS FOR CEMENTING
Cementing jobs are carried out in oil wells for a number of reasons,
including:
 Well tubular support: To provide support for casing/liner

strings to prevent movement.
 Well bore/tubular collapse: To resist plastic/brittle deformation
of the surrounding formation which may impact upon well
tubulars and cause their collapse.
 Zonal isolation: To provide a pressure (to Gas) tight seal

between different zones (formation-formation or formation-
surface). Includes sealing perforations to control water
production or prior to a workover.
153

 Corrosion protection: To isolate metal tubulars from corrosive

gases and liquids contained in the formations.
 Kick-off plugs: To fill the hole with a material that is harder

than the surrounding formation to encourage the drill string to
deviate from the original borehole trajectory.
 Lost circulation cures: A material that will permanently seal

leakage paths into the formation.
 Well abandonment: To isolate all open hole sections from the

surface.
 PRIMARY CEMENTATION
Primary cementing covers all operations to fix a casing and/or liner

string in a newly drilled wellbore. The cement slurry is placed in the
annulus between the pipe and the wall of the open hole. In this
placement the cement has to displace the annular contents, usually
drilling fluid, as completely as possible to permit adequate bonding to
pipe and formation as well as developing its sealing properties.
 SECONDARY CEMENTATION
Secondary cementation covers all applications other than primary

cementing; including the repair of an unsuccessful primary
154

cementation. Cement is either injected under pressure (squeeze job)

or placed into the required position (plug job).
 A SUCCESSFUL CEMENTATION
The key to successful primary and secondary cementations is proper

'up-front engineering' in the design stage and close, involved and
experienced supervision of the execution phase. Factors that can
positively affect the success of a cementation include:
 Adequate and timely testing of slurries using field sampled

materials and water.
 Proper blending of cement and additives.
 High energy, recirculating mixing.
 The use of centralises and/or scratchers.
 Reciprocating or rotation of the casing/liner string during

displacement.
 Proper drilling fluid properties.
 Adequate displacement rate.
The role of the Well Engineer and the Drilling Chemist is to focus on
fit-for-purpose specifications in a partnership with the Cementing
155

Contractor who concentrates on the detailed design and execution

aspects.
1.2.2 Cement - the product
1.2.2.1 THE CHOICE OF CEMENT
The requirement is to have a material which is pumpable but which

sets and hardens after placement. Although there are a number of
chemicals available, e.g. epoxy, high load polymers, elastomers,
cement has some distinct advantages:
 It is a 'Fit-For Purpose' Hydraulic Material that hardens to a

sufficient compressive strength and low permeability for most
well applications.
 There is an abundant supply readily available world-wide.
 Price, being a commodity product cement is cheaper than any

alternative material.
 Experience in manufacturing, preparation and placement

technology is mature.
 Additives are available to modify its performance to most

specifications.
156

As with every material, cement also has its limitations:
 Cement has a variable composition and therefore can have a

variable performance.
 It shrinks during setting which can compromise it bonding
properties.
 It is susceptible to chemical contamination which affect short

and long term performance.
 The hydration process (Topic, Cement hydration) is susceptible

to the physical conditions present in the well.
 It is expensive to manufacture to individual specifications
1.2.2.2 CEMENT MANUFACTURE
All classes of cement are prepared in essentially the same way and
made up of the same ingredients, only in different proportions. The
basic process is:
 The cement is prepared by kiln-burning limestone with clay to

form 'clinker'.
 Average kiln temperature is 1,300°C to 1,500°C.
157

 Iron and alumina may be added if the clay source is

deficient in these ions.
 Cooling of the clinker is done in two stages: slow cooling to

1,250°C followed by rapid cooling at 18-20°C/min
 Cooling too slowly results in a cement which is not

hydraulically active.
 Cooling too fast results in a cement with poor long term

strength.
 Gypsum is dry blended during grinding of the Clinker.
 This is to prevent 'Flash' setting (Topic, FALSE SET.
 The mill must be cool at this stage to prevent the

gypsum dehydrating to Anhydrite as this can result in
'False' setting.
 Storage in airtight silos.
 Cement is hygroscopic and sensitive to moisture and

CO2.
 Storage in hot regions can result in dehydration of

Gypsum to Anhydrite.
158

1.2.2.3 CEMENT CHEMISTRY ABBREVIATIONS
A set of abbreviations is used when discussing cement chemistry,

composition and properties.
 Composition Elements
C = CaO F = Fe2O3 N = Na2O P = P2O5
A = Al2O3 f = FeO M = MgO K = K2O
S = SiO2 H = H2O L = Li2O T = TiO2

 Hydration Compounds (Topic, Cement hydration)
C2S = 2CaO.SiO2 C3A = 3CaO.Al2O3
C3S = 3CaO.SiO2 C4AF = 4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3
 Sulphate Resistance
Sulphates can react with cement decreasing its long term strength
and increasing porosity.
MSR = Moderate sulphate resistance
HSR = High sulphate resistance.
159

 Bearden Units of Consistency (Bc.)
No direct correlation to other rheology measurements. Used to

evaluate slurry pumpability during displacement and initial setting.
 Concentration
BWOC = By Weight Of Cement
BWOW = By Weight Of Water.
1.2.2.4 CEMENT COMPOSITION
Portland cement contains four basic components, each contributing in

different ways to the properties of a slurry and/or the set cement.
Small changes in the concentration may significantly affect the

setting behaviour of a cement. Individual testing of all cement
batches, with field sampled material, is a prerequisite to avoid
unexpected setting characteristics.
160

It is possible to change the properties of the cement by changing the

ratio of the basic components, the process temperature, the rate of
cooling or by adjusting the grinding of the cement clinker to yield
coarser or finer grains.
161

Figure 6.2.2: Typical Class G cement setting characteristics
This is done as follows:
 High Early Strength (Most Oilfield Cements).
 Increasing the C3S Content.
 Grinding Finer.
 Better Retardation (HPHT Applications).
 Reducing C3S and C3A Content.
 Grinding Coarser.
 Low Heat of Hydration (Permafrost Applications)
162

 Reducing C3S and C3A Content.
 Resistance to Sulphate Attack (Most Oilfield Cements).
 Reducing the C3A Content.
1.2.2.5 CEMENT GRADES
The American Petroleum Institute (API) has designated eight classes

of oil well cement (reference API Standards 10 "Specification for Oil-
Well Cements and Cement Additives"). These are shown in Table
6.2.2.
163

Most oilfield cements are API "Portland" cement Class G. It is

primarily intended for use from surface to 2,500m; covering the
range of typical temperatures and pressures encountered.
Typical properties of API Class G Portland cement are (note that a

"sack" has been made equal to one cubic foot):
Specific
3·15
Gravity
Bulk Volume 1·47 kg/l 94 lbm/ft3
Water
18·9 l/sack 5.00 gal/sack
Requirement
Slurry
1·89 kg/l 15.8 lbm/gal
Weight
Slurry
32·56 l/sack 1.15 ft3/sack
Volume
Class H is identical in composition but has a coarser grind.
During the manufacture of classes G and H no additives can be

included. Only calcium sulphate (gypsum) and water may be added
to the clinker. Glycols and acetates which improve grinding efficiency
cannot be used; these interfere with other cement slurry additive
performance.
164

Both classes G and H are available as MSR or HSR.
API classes D, E and F contain a retarding additive and therefore will

exhibit adequate thickening time when used in the correct
temperature range. Be aware that these additives may be
incompatible with other desired additives (e.g. for fluid loss control).
The general purpose class G and H cements are preferred as the
properties can be adjusted within wide margins to suit a range of
applications.
Oil-well cement usually represents some 3% - 4% of the total

capacity of a manufacturer. Coupled with the much more stringent
specification and quality criteria, it usually commands a higher price.
It is recommended to obtain oil-well cement from a reputable
manufacturer who has been API certified; though this is not an
absolute guarantee of consistent quality.
1.2.3 Cement hydration

The exact mechanisms in the hydration of cement are not fully
understood. A general outline, however, can be given.
165

1.2.3.1 SINGLE PHASE HYDRATION
 SILICATE PHASES (C2S & C3S).
 Form C.S.H. (C3S2H3) 'Gel'; ~70% of fully hydrated Portland

cement. Ultimately the principle binder of hardened cement.
 C3S is responsible for the beginning of set and early strength

development.
 C2S is responsible for the final strength.
 There are five distinct stages in the setting process of the

silicate phase:
 ALUMINATE PHASES (C3A & C4AF).
 Rapidly hydrate.
166

 Predominantly influential on rheology and early strength

development.
 Rate controlled by the addition of gypsum which forms the

needle like mineral 'Ettringite' which slows down the hydration
rate.
1.2.3.2 COMPOUND SYSTEM HYDRATION
However the actual hydration process of Portland cement is a

sequence of overlapping chemical reactions leading to continuous
thickening and hardening.
The C2S model is generally used to represent this process; however

the phases influence each other and should be considered.
 The hydration of C3A is modified by the presence of hydrating

C3S.
 The clinker material is not pure and trace elements can
catalyse reactions.
 The hydration rate and nature, stability and morphology of the

hydration products are strongly affected by temperature.
Elevated temperature (>40°C) accelerates initial hydration; but
may decrease the ultimate hydration and compressive
strength.
167

 Particle size distribution affects the hydration rate, initial

setting time and final strength.
 Sulphates can react with the set cement and reduce strength
and increase porosity.
1.2.3.3 THE HYDRATION PROCESS & HEAT OF

REACTION
When cement is mixed with water two distinct peaks of heat

liberation can be distinguished. Each of these peaks results from an
important phase in the hydration process. This feature is useful in
laboratory studies to identify the onset and completion of cement
setting.
The first peak occurs almost immediately after the mixing, in the Pre-
induction stage. It is caused by an exothermic reaction between C 3A,
gypsum and water. The surface of the C3A grains is partly hydrated
and dissolving gypsum moves towards this hydration layer.
A thin C.S.H. gel layer forms at the surface of the C 3A and C4AF
grains. The slurry then enters an apparent 'dormant' period, the
Induction stage. During this period the slurry remains liquid and it
appears that all reactions have stopped.
168

Figure 6.2.3.: Cement Hydration Terminology
However the reaction within the hydration layer continues and after a
given time, the hydration layer bursts open, the Acceleration stage.
Fibrils of recrystallising material grow rapidly from the cement grains.
This recrystallisation process causes a second peak of heat liberation.
The fibrils initially interfere with each other causing an increase in gel
strength. Ultimately they connect and form the basic cement
structure and give rise to the early strength development.
The reactions now slow down, the Deceleration stage, but the
cement strength continues to build up. The reactions continue on for
some time, albeit very slowly, the Diffusion stage, during which the
ultimate strength is developed.
169

Initial hydration may be adversely affected if the cement has been

exposed to a humid atmosphere.
A sound mixing/shearing of the initial slurry will give rise to a more

regular initial hydration and therefore to a better final cement
structure.
The length of the dormant period and therefore the final setting time
of the cement is determined by the slurry temperature and can be
adjusted by a number of accelerating or retarding additives.
Figure 6.2.4: Thermogram of Setting Portland Cement
170

1.2.3.4 FLASH SET (OR QUICK SET)
When Portland cement clinker, without sufficient gypsum, is hydrated

the C3A rapidly reacts, the temperature increases and an irreversible
'Stiffening' occurs.
1.2.3.5 FALSE SET
During grinding, natural calcium sulphate in the Clinker is dehydrated

to Anhydrite which has a higher solubility. Consequently, in the slurry
secondary Gypsum precipitation can occur. This gives rise to strong
thixotropy, or very high Gel Strengths. This can appear, due to a
surface pump pressure increase, as a Flash Set. However this Gel is
reversible upon strong agitation.
1.2.3.6 WATER/CEMENT RATIO
The minimum required amount of mix water for cement hydration is

some 0·150 m3/1,000 kg of cement. This, however, leads to a very
viscous, unpumpable, slurry. In oil well cementing ratios between
0·38 m3/1,000 kg and 0·5 m3/1,000 kg are routinely used. Optimum
water/cement ratios are defined for the various types of cement
(reference Contractor Cementing tables).
171

1.2.4 Cement types and additives

The properties of regular Portland cement don't always conform to
the job at hand.
 Temperatures from Ambient to >350°C.

 Pressure from Atmospheric to > 200 MPa.
 Pumping Times from Minutes to Hours.
Additives are used to modify cement properties and can be

categorised as:
 Density Control.
 Dispersants or Friction Reducers.
 Accelerators: increase hydration rate, decrease pumping time.
 Retarders: decrease hydration rate, increase pumping time.
 Fluid Loss Control: reduce aqueous phase losses.
 Lost Circulation Control.
 Speciality Additives.
 Speciality Application.
172

1.2.4.1 DENSITY CONTROL
During placement well control must be maintained. The cement

density may need to be adjusted to ensure that the bottom hole
pressure remains within finite limits.
A cement slurry density can be increased with heavy-weight additives

(such as barytes or hematite) or saline mix water or by using less mix
water (though this may have other detrimental effects).
A cement slurry density can be reduced by 'extending'. This means

adding a material to reduce the grain density and at the same time
enabling a higher water/cement ratio to be used.
173

Figure 6.2.5: Density Range for Various Cements and Additives
 POZZOLANIC CEMENTS
Pozzolan was originally a volcanic ash named after the place in Italy
where it is found in large quantities. The term is now used for a
group of materials that react with lime to form cement like
compounds; such as blast furnace 'fly-ash'. Pozzolans are mostly
blended in a 1:1 ratio with API Class B oil-well cement. They have
been extensively used in various cementing industries.
Pozzolan cement blends have a grain density of 2,820 kg/m 3 and a

bulk density of 1,185 kg/m3.
Pozzolan cement slurries have gradients in the range 15·5 to 16·0

kPa/m (13·2 to 13·6 ppg) but can be made into stable slurries in the
range 14·5 to 17·0 kPa/m (12·3 to 14·7 ppg), using additives.
174

An additional advantage of Pozzolans is a reduction in natural cement

strength retrogression. When Portland cement hydrates it releases
some 20%mass lime. This contributes nothing to the strength of the
cement, but being soluble it eventually leads to a weakening of the
matrix. Pozzolan combines with the lime increasing the strength and
reducing the permeability of the cement.
The main attraction of natural Pozzolan is its consistent quality. The

quality of fly-ash can vary significantly between sources. It also
differs from volcanic ash in that it also contains iron oxides (Si, Al and
Fe). The use of fly-ash should be accompanied by quality control
testing to achieve satisfactory results.
Fly-ash in Portland cement is usually blended in a 50/50 by volume

ratio in admixture with 2-4% BWOC of bentonite to improve stability
and reduce 'free water'.
 FLY-ASH CEMENTS
Fly ash and lime can be prepared and need no addition of Portland
cement. Their reaction is slower and the mixture is therefore suited
to high temperatures.
175

 SLAG MIX
'Pozzolan' or 'Fly Ash' is the cement material used in the preparation

of 'Slag Mix' or 'S-Mix' cements. In this system drilling fluid is used as
the mix water. Because of the highly variable nature of drilling fluids
extensive testing is usually required to ensure a good quality job. It is
essential that the drilling fluid sampled for testing is not used again.
1.2.4.2 DISPERSANTS OR FRICTION REDUCERS
For maximum displacement efficiency (i.e. mud removal) the cement

should be as thin as possible and be displaced at maximum velocity.
Well cement slurries are highly concentrated suspensions of solids;
up to 70%volume. There is an electrostatic interaction between the
C.S.H. layers around the grains; similar to the interaction with
bentonite particles. A dispersant aims to reduce this viscosity effect in
the cement slurry, thereby promoting turbulent flow at lower pump
rates. The need for a well dispersed low viscous cement slurry
becomes more and more critical with deeper, slimmer, hotter wells.
Organic acids, in particular polysulphonates, are the most common

dispersants. Modified polysaccharide polymers are also effective
dispersants.
176

Dispersants also retard hydration and reduce thixotropic properties.

The combination of a dispersant with a fluid loss reduction additive
exhibits strong synergy.
Excessive use of dispersants can lead to settling of the cement

particles causing segregation and non-uniform slurry densities This is
particularly important with batch mixed job that are not adequately
agitated before pumping.
1.2.4.3 ACCELERATORS
Accelerators are materials that shorten the thickening time of the

cement slurry and accelerate strength development in situations
where low temperatures would lead to excessive waiting on cement
177

times. They are often used to offset the hydration delaying effect of
other additives.
They are usually inorganic salts. There is an efficiency series of:
Ca++ > Mg++ > Li+ > Na+ > H2O; OH- > Cl- > Br- > NO3- > SO4-- = H2O
CaCl2 is the most cost effective accelerator. In dosages of 0 to 5%

BWOW (2 - 4% BWOC) it will accelerate the setting of a slurry by up to
30%. Concentrations of CaCl2 higher over 5% are not recommended
as the reaction becomes very unpredictable.
178

CaCl2 dissolution is an exothermic reaction. Therefore to avoid any

side effects caused by a high mix water temperature it should be
added to the mix water several hours in advance.
NaCl is also a commonly used accelerator. Up to 10% BWOW it will

accelerate the setting by some 20 %. Between 10 and 18% it is
neutral. Over 18% it is a retarder.
Magnesium salts are also very powerful accelerators. Aluminium

sulphate is also a very effective accelerator. However its thixotropic
effect makes it less attractive for most applications as it will adversely
affect displacement and give unacceptably high ECDs.
The actions by which accelerators work are very complex and not
fully understood. Predominantly they accelerate the hydration of C 3S.
CaCl2 changes the C.S.H. gel structure to make it more permeable and
allow more diffusion of water to the underlying clinker. Chloride ions
diffused into the C.S.H. gel cause excessive internal pressures
resulting in an earlier rupturing of the membrane. CaCl 2 Increases the
rate of heat generation during the first few hours which accelerates
the chemical reactions.
Magnesium salts are also very powerful accelerators. Aluminium

sulphate is also a very effective accelerator. However its thixotropic
179

effect makes it less attractive for most applications as it will adversely

affect displacement and give unacceptably high ECDs.
The actions by which accelerators work are very complex and not
fully understood. Predominantly they accelerate the hydration of C 3S.
CaCl2 changes the C.S.H. gel structure to make it more permeable and
allow more diffusion of water to the underlying clinker. Chloride ions
diffused into the C.S.H. gel cause excessive internal pressures
resulting in an earlier rupturing of the membrane. CaCl 2 Increases the
rate of heat generation during the first few hours which accelerates
the chemical reactions.
Figure 6.2.6: Action of Accelerators and Retarders on Cement

Hydration.
180

1.2.4.4 RETARDERS
These products are applied to achieve the opposite effect of

accelerators, i.e. increasing the thickening time, at the temperature
and pressure, to allow the slurry to be placed before initial set.
Most retarders are organic acids, salts or polymers. The most

common are Na- and Ca-lignosulphonic acids. The active components
are the saccharide carbohydrates and aldonic acids which are
naturally present in the raw material. Refined lignosulphonate, as
used in drilling fluids, are deficient in these compounds and therefore
should not be used. Lignosulphonates are most effective in the range
of 0·1 - 1·5% BWOC.
Figure 6.2.7: Impact of Retarder Concentrations.
Cellulose derivatives such as CMHEC are also effective retarders; as

are organophosphates, such alkylene phosphonic acid and NaCl at
concentrations >18% BWOW.
181

Most retarders are characterised by an exponential response in the

thickening time of the cement slurry, i.e. at low dosage rates the
effect is rather small but it increases exponentially with further
chemical addition (See Figure 6.2.7). Therefore they should only be
used over a certain concentration range.
The retarding effect is temperature dependent and most commercial

products can be used only in a given temperature range.
182

A common, beneficial, side-effect of a retarder is the reduction of

slurry viscosity and yield point due to its dispersive action.
183

1.2.4.5 FLUID LOSS CONTROL
Neat cement slurries exhibit a very high, essentially uncontrolled,

fluid loss against a permeable media. For most cementations some
measure of fluid loss control is highly desirable to prevent excessive
slurry dehydration. An API fluid loss of 150 to 300 cm 3 (Spec. 10A) is
recommended to provide adequate control for primary cementations.
Most of the fluid loss reducers in use are either a cellulose derivative,
a polymer or a filter cake building solid.
These additives will generally act as retarders. They also tend to

increase slurry consistency, which is usually countered by adding
some dispersant. Like retarders, fluid loss control additives exhibit a
temperature dependent action within a specific envelope.
Hydroxyethylcellulose derivatives (such as CMHEC) are common fluid

loss reducers. The HEC polymer molecules tie up the water and
prevent it from freely leaking off. This loss of free water results in a
slurry viscosity increase.
Other types of fluid loss reducers, such as Diacel LWL, build up a

filter cake. It should be emphasised that this type of products will
only work if the slurry is sufficiently dispersed to provide the small
particles required for a good filter cake.
184

FREE WATER AND PARTICLE SETTLING
Non-homogeneous cement columns are unacceptable, particularly

when the wellbore is highly deviated or horizontal. Ultimate cement
sheath integrity and strength may be severely compromised. Anti-
settling agents are used to provide (or restore with the use of
dispersants) sufficient viscosity to maintain slurry consistency.
185

Bentonite and HEC derivatives are most commonly used to restore

this viscosity.
For deviated and horizontal wells it is important to test this

phenomena at the actual well angle.
1.2.4.6 LOST CIRCULATION MATERIALS
Lost circulation is a potential problem when drilling through

permeable, well fractured, faulted or cavernous formations. To
restore circulation, or reduce the chance of creating losses during
cementation, lost circulation materials may be added to the cement.
A tabulation of available LCM is shown in Table 6.2.9 below.
186

187

1.2.4.7 SPECIALITY ADDITIVES
 EXPANDING AND BOND IMPROVEMENT
Ordinary Portland cement shrinks about 4% upon setting. This can

reduce bottom hole pressure below the static slurry and compromise
the cement bond. These agents target reducing shrinkage.
Chemical or crystal growth expanders
Calcium sulphate hemi-hydrate and calcined magnesium oxides are

the most prominent compounds. They produce their expanding effect
well after the cement has set.
Gas-generating expanders
Gas (hydrogen) can be generated in-situ during the gelling stage of

the cement slurry. Expansion takes place as a consequence of the
reduced hydrostatic pressure as the cement column is progressively
carried by the gel structure. The most common material used for this
purpose is aluminium powder. The safety aspects of hydrogen
however should not be overlooked.
188

 STRENGTH RETROGRESSION
An addition of 35% BWOC of silica flour is recommended to combat

strength retrogression in high temperature wells.
 ANTI-FOAM
High energy cement preparation introduces a considerable amount of

air into the slurry. This can affect density and cause suction and
cavitation problems at the pump. Anti-foam agents cause the air to
break-out rapidly by lowering the surface tension of the air bubbles.
189

Silicone based compounds are suspensions of ultra-fine silica particles

in a silicone fluid carrier. They are very effective, even when added
after foaming occurs. Polyglycol ethers, such as polypropylene glycol,
are effective defoamers only when present before the entrainment.
However they are less expensive and therefore are more extensively
used. Treatment doses are in the range of 0·05 - 0·1% BWOW. They
are most commonly added to the mix water before mixing.
1.2.4.8 ADDITIVES IN PRACTICE
 SECONDARY EFFECTS
Some additives have secondary effects on other cement properties.

For example using CMHEC as a fluid loss additive retards hydration
and increases slurry viscosity.
190

Figure 6.2.8: Affect of Various Additive Types on Hydration Time.
 INFLUENCE OF PHYSICAL CONDITIONS ON ADDITIVE

PERFORMANCE
As with all additives, the physical conditions of storage, mixing and

placement can have a significant impact of their performance.
191

Figure 6.2.09: Effect of Physical Condition on Retarder Performance.
 ADDITIVE QUALITY CONTROL
Additive effectiveness can be control by many factors.
 Cement property variance.

 Physical conditions.
 Mix water chemistry and contaminants
 Preparation and placement conditions.
 Additive quality
192

 Age versus shelf life and storage conditions.
 Additive interaction (+ve synergy or the opposite)
Some additives and combinations under certain conditions can give

rise to a 'Reverse Temperature Effect'. Hydration modifier
performance is inversely proportional to the temperature profile over
a specific temperature range.
Quality testing is essential to obtain a slurry composition with

requisite properties. All samples must be taken from all ingredients to
be used for the cementing job on hand, including the mix water.
 ADDITIVE MIXING
Dry Blending with Cement
The mixing of a relatively small quantity of a powdery product,

typically 1% into a large matrix is rather problematic and can easily
result in a poor, inhomogeneous distribution. This method is not
recommended.
Mixing in the Mix-Water
This affords a good control over the actual rates applied and ensures
a consistent treatment. Although waste is incurred because, as a
contingency, most of the time the volume of mix water prepared is
193

larger than actually needed for the job, the simplicity of the operation
and the accurate dosing makes this the preferred route.
It is essential to ensure that the crew only mix at the desired

concentration. "Finishing the bag" with some additives (such as high
performance retarders) can significantly affect slurry performance.
Mixing liquid additives 'on the fly'
Liquid additives are fed directly into the mix water tanks of the
cement unit when filling up. This avoids the waste of the mix water
quantity. Accurate dosing requires a reliable, often complicated,
metering system able to stand the rigours of a cementing operation.
This method therefore can be recommended only for advanced and
integrated operations.
1.2.4.9 SPECIAL PURPOSE CEMENTS
 THIXOTROPIC CEMENT
In lost circulation situations a thixotropic slurry may resist losses to

the formation by rapidly developing a self-supporting gel structure.
This carries part of the hydrostatic pressure of the cement column
thereby reducing the bottom hole pressure. Shear breaks the (fragile)
gel structure making it possible to pump the slurry.
194

Thixotropic slurries are often used for plug cementations to avoid

slumping into the lighter fluid.
The thixotropy is generally achieved by adding gypsum. Bentonite

will also increase the thixotropy of a slurry.
 FOAM CEMENT
Foam cement is created by injection of air or nitrogen and a

surfactant into a conventional neat slurry. It will create a light weight
slurry with a gradient limit of about 8 kPa/m (6·8 ppg). It will develop
a lower compressive strength than neat cement.
Caution needs to be taken with well control as the slurry will have a
variable hydrostatic head due to compression of the gas bubbles.
 ULTRA FINE CEMENT
Portland cement clinker is ground to a much smaller, nearly sub-

micron particle size. The smaller size allows the particles to pass
through pore throats. The cement forms an internal filter cake
resulting in better sealing and shut-off after setting.
195

 SURFACTANT CEMENT
Surfactants are added to the slurry formulation to aid in gas influx

control. However their effect remains unproven and most migration is
believed to be via micro-annuli which remain unaffected.
Cationic surfactants precipitate the positively charged cement

particles and accelerate setting.
 LATEX CEMENT
Cements with >25% BWOC latex added have a higher tensile strength
than ordinary cement that resisting stress cracking from subsequent
temperature and pressure fluctuations.
 FIBRE CEMENT
In this development from Shell, polypropylene fibres are added to a

conventional slurry. The fibres increase the tensile strength of the set
cement which will improve the cement sheath integrity during
subsequent drilling phases. The fibres also resist fluid losses in
fractured formations.
 SLAG-MIX CEMENT
A blast furnace slag, together with an activator (lime or caustic soda),

is mixed with a drilling fluid in conventional cementing equipment.
196

The main advantages are less shrinkage, <1%, and waste reduction
by using the drilling fluid.
Extensive testing of the mix is required to achieve the desired results.

Do not use the drilling fluid after sampling for testing as its
composition may change thus affecting the setting characteristics.
1.2.5 Gas well cementing

Many wells with gas bearing formations have pressured annuli and
potentially dangerous situations. Subsequent repair operations are
often difficult and expensive. Several possible mechanisms for gas
migration have been postulated. The major ones, dealt with in this
topic, are:.
 Incomplete drilling fluid dispacement

 Low bottom hole pressure during displacement
 Gas channelling
 Subsequent micro-annulus development
The solutions that have been postulated and/or used for dealing with
the problem are also given.
197

1.2.5.1 MECHANISMS OF MIGRATION
 INCOMPLETE DRILLING FLUID DISPLACEMENT
The primary cause of gas migration is attributed to incomplete mud

displacement. If the resulting fluid column of mud and spacer above
the zone exerts too low a hydrostatic pressure to contain the gas
then gas influx and migration can occur. Resolving this problem is
dealt with more fully in the section dedicated to cement placement.
 LOW BOTTOM HOLE PRESSURE DURING DISPLACEMENT
Failure to maintain an overbalance during all phases of displacement

can lead to a gas influx into the moving slurry. Depending upon the
severity of the under-balance, the form, this can vary from gas
cutting to major channelling.
Generally the designed cement slurry will provide sufficient

overbalance when in place. The problem usually arises when
lightweight 'scavenger' slurries or spacers are used. Contractor
software packages predict the bottom hole pressures during
displacement and should be consulted to ensure adequate well
control throughout. 'Cementing' in Wellplan for Windows can also be
used to check for well control.
198

Figure 6.2.10: Potential gas migration path
 GAS CHANNELLING
The channelling of gas through, or past, a 'set' cement matrix has

been identified as recurring problem by many operators.
Considerable effort has been made to find the mechanism/s
governing this channelling. However there is still no consensus on the
actual mechanism of gas influx and migration in cement. The
following summarises the SIEP RTS viewpoint.
Directly after cement placement the hydrostatic gradient of the

cement slurry, and the other annulus fluids, provides the bottom hole
pressure. However during setting the cement will develop gel
strength, or a resistance to flow. Ultimately this gellation becomes so
strong that the cement becomes self supporting; i.e. it 'hangs' in the
annulus. Consequently hydrostatic pressure can not be (fully)
transmit through the column.
199

In this situation the pressure exerted by the gel on the formation will
equilibrate with the pressure in the gas bearing zone. This
phenomena is widely reported by researchers into this subject. Refer
to the first chart in Figure 6.2.11 which shows the measured bottom
hole pressure after cement placement. This equilibration in itself does
not lead to a gas influx. Only when a volume reduction in the gelled
cement occurs, does gas have the opportunity to flow into the
wellbore.
Fluid loss from the gelled cement to a permeable formation has been
implicated as a mechanism for this volume reduction. Hence a lot
emphasis has been placed on controlling fluid loss. However, fluid
loss can only take place when there is a pressure differential between
the cement and the gas zone. As there is pressure equilibrium
between the gelled cement and the gas zone, fluid loss cannot occur.
Chart 4 of Figure 6.2.11 indicates that fluid loss is restricted to a very
short period after displacement, is a minimal volume and does not
correlate with bottom hole pressure loss.
200

Figure 6.2.11: General Experimental Data from RTS Gas Migration

Studies
Other mechanisms of volume reduction of gelled cement are

unknown, implying that gas influx or gas migration is unlikely to
occur in this stage. This is confirmed with chart 3 of Figure 6.2.11
which shows that gas influx occurs after the cement has achieved a
solid state. Additionally the very high gel strength will resist migration
of the gas through the cement gel matrix.
The cement then passes from the semi-fluid gel state into a two
phase system, a solid with a fluid-filled pore structure. Oil well
cements all have a certain degree of shrinkage in this process. Total
201

volume loss is typically in the order of a few percent. This can lead to
a reduction in bottom hole pressure causing gas influx into the well
bore. This is shown in chart 3 of Figure 6.2.11 which clearly shows
gas influx. This is not a problem for a well developed cement pore
structure without channels or voids. The permeability of the set
material is in the order of nanoDarcys and is low enough to resist any
gas flow.
The overall physical shrinkage however can lead to a micro-annulus

at the cement/pipe or cement/formation interfaces. Most formations
however are sufficiently plastic to move inwards as hydrostatic
pressure is relaxed and close off this micro-annulus. On the other
hand, shrinkage of the cement around the pipe may cause bond
failure and the pipe cannot follow the receding cement. This failed
bonding can then provide a leak path for the gas. This is shown in
chart 3 of Figure 6.2.11 which clearly shows continued gas flow.
Physical observation confirmed that the gas migration path was
through a micro-annulus around the inner pipe.
Internal shrinkage may lead to stress fractures in the matrix. These

must connect up to a continuous channel is migration is to occur over
the whole column. This is not believed to be a common failure
mechanism.
202

 SUBSEQUENT MICRO-ANNULUS DEVELOPMENT
Pressure and temperature cycles inside the well (during subsequent

drilling and production operations) cause expansion and contraction
of the cemented pipe. This can lead to failure of the bond and result
in leak paths around the cement. This is responsible for the
observation of (slow) annular pressure build-up during the weeks or
even years after the cementation has taken place.
Some researchers have identified that with high solids drilling fluids
there can be significant filter cake development on permeable
formations. In linear cement displacement there is generally
insufficient erosion to remove this cake. If gas is allowed to percolate
into the well bore it may dehydrate this cake and gradually form a
channel. This will only be over a short length but may result in
interzonal communication.
1.2.5.2 SOLUTIONS
1.2.5.2.1 HISTORICAL SOLUTIONS
The problem of gas influx into the cement matrix has historically
been attacked in many ways.
203

 Lower Top of Cement
If the cement column above the gas bearing zone is shorter the
effect of shrinkage is reduced and therefore the amount of gas influx
will be reduced. A short cement column may lead to well control
problems, thus a two stage cement job may be required. This
solution is unproven.
 Mud Hydrostatic or Annular Pressure
Increasing the mud gradient, or applying annular back pressure, will

increase the initial overbalance on the gas zone. Sufficient
overbalance will avoid gas influx. When considering this type of
solution the formation strength must be carefully taken into account.
This solution is unproven.
 Cement Fluid Loss
Fluid loss of the cement slurry during the hydration phase will
increase the problem of volume and therefore pressure reduction.
Unproven in the experiments.
 Shorter Transition Time
Gas influx into the cement matrix is restricted to the period during
which the hydration process takes place. As short as possible
transition time between the slurry phase and hardened cement is
204

therefore essential to reduce the effect of gas influx. This is termed

'right angle set'. Unproven in the experiments as gas influx occurs
after set. Additionally the cement gel strength is sufficiently high
enough to resist gas migration.
 Additives
Several additives are marketed to control the migration of invaded

gas.
Surfactants are claimed to result in a foam which has a higher

resistance to movement. Sufficient shear energy to form the foam is
unlikely in the case of migrating gas and is limited to the gel stage.
Latex particles commingled into the cement will be forced to the pore
throats and will prevent further gas percolation. In sufficient
concentration, latex can give the resultant cement sufficient flexibility
to yield under shrinkage and deform to maintain pipe and borehole
bond. Unproven, cement already has an extremely low permeability
and it requires very high latex concentrations (>25% BWOC).
Microsilica is claimed to also block the pores in the cement gel

structure. Shell Oil are advocating the use of salt saturated mix
water. When the mix water starts hydrating with the cement the salt
becomes supersaturated and will therefore crystallise and block gel
pores
205

Several expanding cement formulations have been marketed.

Aluminium powder when added to the slurry and exposed to the
higher bottom hole temperature will react with water to form
hydrogen gas. This causes expansion of the cement volume during
the setting phase. There is a risk of hydrogen percolating to surface
and expansion is limited to the gel stage.
1.2.5.2.2 ALTERNATE SOLUTIONS
All of the above historic solutions, excluding latex, do not address the
issue of subsequent pipe to cement movement and the development
of micro-annuli.
RTS investigations into the mechanism of gas influx and migration

have led to the conclusion that modifying the cement is not the
complete solution. This issue of subsequent micro-annuli
development still remains. Therefore they recommend using a
mechanical sealing technique such as Gemoco rings. They are
encouraging service contractors to develop more modern and durable
versions of these rubber type seals. External Casing Packers (ECPs)
are thought to also be a viable option. These are dealt with in Section
5 Part 2 : "Casing and cementing operations".
206

Figure 6.2.12:
Comparison of Gas Migration Sealing Methods
1.2.6 Cement testing

Prior to a cement job, laboratory tests must be carried out to ensure
that the correct recipe is used considering all of the existing
conditions and additive properties.
1.2.6.1 BASIC REQUIREMENTS
Apart from the cementing programme, providing the basic conditions

and requirements for the slurry design, samples of all ingredients
from the wellsite should be sent to the laboratory for the final
testing. This includes the cement and the mix water. The importance
of representative sampling and use in testing cannot be over-
emphasised. Cement, although satisfying all API requirements, will
207

still show variations between batches. The mix water may vary in its
chemical composition (such as tannins or chlorides) and this can
affect setting times.
1.2.6.2 SLURRY DESIGN
The quality and supply of mix water are of prime importance in the
design of the slurry and selection of additives. Presence of
contaminants in the water can have a significant, often adverse,
effect on slurry properties.
In general fresh water is the preferred quality for onshore operations.

In offshore operations where salt-intolerant additives need to be
used fresh or drill water has to be supplied from shore.
In offshore operations the mix water of choice obviously is sea water.

It has the advantage of (slightly) accelerating the setting of cement
(reducing WOC time) and improving compressive strength by as
much as 20%. A defoamer will be required to combat foaming.
For cementing operations through salt formations saturated brines

are required to mix slurries. Mimicking the composition of the
formation salts is recommended to avoid washouts and improve the
final cementation. This imposes restrictions on many additives,
particularly fluid loss controllers, which are salt-intolerant.
208

1.2.6.3 GRADIENT
One of the main criteria is maintenance of pressure control and to

avoid exceeding the formation fracture propagation pressure.
To achieve the desired gradient all API class cements can be used for
values between 17 and 20 kPa/m (0·75 to 0·88 psi/ft), varying the
water to cement ratio between 0·61 and 0·34 m 3/tonne (6·9 to 3·8
USgal/sack). It should be taken into account that adjusting slurry
gradient this way will have a significant effect on other properties as
well, notably rheology and compressive strength. For gradients above
and below the range above weighting material or fillers have to be
added.
Because of the high energy of the mixing devices there is a tendency

for slurries to be aerated. Therefore the slurry gradient should always
be measured with a pressurised mud-balance.
Figure 6.2.13: Pressurised Mud Balance

209

1.2.6.4 THICKENING/PUMPING TIME
The duration of the cement placement (job) is estimated by defining

the amount of slurry to be pumped and the expected pump rates to
be used. Both pressure and temperature accelerate the hydration
process. Of the two , temperature is the most effective. Therefore
testing must then be carried out, under simulated conditions, to
ensure that the cement slurry will remain in a liquid state during the
placement phase.
Hydration time is measured with a high pressure high temperature

consistometer, following API specification 10A: 'Testing of oil-well
cement'. For deep well testing special units are available
accommodating temperatures up to 316°C (600°F) and pressures as
high as 276 MPa (40,000 psi). For well-site use, a portable, single cell
consistometer is available. Measured thickening times compare well
with those obtained in the laboratory using full-size equipment.
The slurry is placed into the test cell and the temperature and
pressure are regulated to simulate the conditions to be encountered
during a cement job.
210

Figure 6.2.14: High Pressure High Temperature Consistometer and

Typical Hydration Time Test
The heating schedule is obtained from API Spec 10B. The viscosity of
the slurry is measured continuously and recorded as dimensionless
Bearden consistency units. The time during which the slurry viscosity
stays below 30 Bc units is defined as the pumpable time. The
thickening time is when the slurry achieves at 70 Bc units of
consistency.
Laboratory studies have shown that measuring the exothermic heat

generated is a more reliable method of determining the onset of
slurry set. Equipment using thermal methods is available but not
routinely used at present.
211

1.2.6.5 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
In most cases the compressive strength developed by oil-well

cements is more than adequate to satisfy requirements. A minimum
compressive strength of 3,450 kPa (500 psi) is generally considered
adequate for most operations.
The testing is performed by the unconfined crushing of prepared

cubes which have been cured for a set time, usually 24 hours.
Halliburton's Ultra-sonic Cement Analyser (UCA) has enhanced the

compressive strength measurement capability. The UCA makes a
continuous record of the bulk compressibility, under controlled
conditions, by measuring ultra-sonic velocity changes. The
measurement is also used to calibrate cement evaluation log
responses.
Figure 6.2.15:Ultra-sonic Cement Analyser
212

1.2.6.6 RHEOLOGY
Analysis of the rheology of a cement slurry is important for its

evaluating pumping and placement parameters. The Power Law
relationship is used as it most closely models the flow behaviour. The
rheological characteristics are largely determined by the water
cement ratio and the surface area of the cement particles. An
ordinary API oil-well cement slurry, with a water/cement ratio of 0·44
m3/tonne will have a higher viscosity than a Pozzolan cement with a
ratio of 0·95 m3/tonne.
The flow properties of a cement slurry are measured with the Fann
Model VG-35, as used for drilling fluids. The rheological properties
are entered into the software packages to model displacement
efficiency and equivalent circulation density (ECD) for pressure
control.
1.2.6.7 FREE WATER
Free water is defined in the clear liquid that appears on the cement
slurry when left to stand. As such it is a measure for the stability of
the formulation. Clearly a slurry with a high volume of free water is
undesirable as this water will collect on the high side in a deviated or
horizontal hole, greatly reducing zonal isolation and sealing
properties of the set cement. Therefore attention should be paid to
213

this phenomena in the slurry design, particularly in horizontal well

cementing.
Free water is measured by filling a glass cylinder with slurry and

allowing it to stand for a set period.
1.2.6.8 FLUID LOSS
Excessive loss of water from a slurry will adversely affect the

hydration and final strength of a cement. The fluid loss of a cement
slurry is measured in an API HPHT Fluid Loss Unit after conditioning
the sample at bottom-hole circulating temperature and a pressure of
6·9 MPa (1,000 psi). The fluid loss cell is fitted at the bottom end
with a 325 mesh screen (44 micron openings), supported by a 60
mesh one. The filtrate is collected for 30 minutes.
1.2.7 Cement placement

Placement of the cement i.e. the complete removal of the mud from
the annulus and its replacement by a homogeneous cement slurry is
a major requirement for a good cement job . Cement placement is a
function of a number of parameters such as drilling fluid condition,
the presence of a good spacer, pipe movement, displacement
velocity, slurry properties, pipe eccentricity and contact time. Good
214

cement placement can only be achieved when all parameters are

optimally fulfilled.
1.2.7.1 SPACER FORMULATION
The main functions of a spacer are to separate the cement slurry

from the mud, to assist in mud displacement and to condition the
walls of the bore hole for effective cement bonding.
When using a water based drilling fluid water is the preferred spacer
fluid. It has the lowest viscosity to promote turbulent flow which
gives the highest scouring action. When the spacer must be weighted
due for pressure control then some viscosity must be provided to
maintain the weighting material in suspension.
A mixture of some cement powder and mix water with a specific

gravity of some 1·50 kg/l provides an excellent cement spacer.
Termed a 'scavenger slurry' it has a very low viscosity with sufficient
abrasive cement grains to ensure a good filter cake removal.
When an oil base drilling fluid is used it is essential to ensure that the
borehole is water wet. The spacer system is usually base oil followed
by water containing water wetting surfactants.
215

1.2.7.2 CONTACT TIME
The contact time is defined as the time during which a certain point
of the formation is in contact with a flowing cement slurry or spacer
fluid. It is recommended to have at least 4 minutes of contact time.
1.2.7.3 DRILLING FLUID CONDITION
Complete displacement of the drilling fluid is essential for a good

cement job. To achieve this the fluid in the wellbore must easily
mobile. In most cases a well formulated and maintained drilling fluid
will be easily displaced, assuming reasonable stand-off.
The gel strength of the drilling fluid is the most important parameter
to monitor. In general the gels should be moderate and flat (10
minute < 2 x 10 second). The drilling fluid should be circulated prior
to pumping the cement and the annular velocity should be at least as
high as that used during drilling. Circulation should be continued for a
minimum of one hole volume or until returns are free of cuttings and
gas.
216

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Well Engineering Distance Learning Package (The DLP)

Petroleum Engineer: Mohd. Zouhry El-Helu.

E-Mail Address: peteng.mzhelu@gmail.com

1.1 Drilling Fluids

Petroleum Engineer: Mohd. Zouhry El-Helu.

E-Mail Address: peteng.mzhelu@gmail.com

Egyptians first started using boring machines. Today our industry is

 drilling to over 20 km depths

 drilling 2 km horizontally at 3 km depth, and turning at right

 extracting geothermal energy at 400°C

 drilling in 5 km water depths

 drilling square holes

Truly remarkable feats. One of the controlling factors in this

 withstand over 200°C

 carry 5kg pieces of metal vertically from depths over 1,000m

 transport gold ore vertically from 4,000m

but regrettably there is often a large discrepancy between what we

Petroleum Engineer: Mohd. Zouhry El-Helu.

E-Mail Address: peteng.mzhelu@gmail.com

The drilling fluid engineer's role is to ensure that the drilling

However, in some respects, the name has also developed somewhat

Petroleum Engineer: Mohd. Zouhry El-Helu.

E-Mail Address: peteng.mzhelu@gmail.com

want to challenge what is recommended for fear of appearing

1.1.1.2 THE ANATOMY OF A DRILLING FLUID

What is the difference between Mud and a Drilling Fluid? Mud is a

a Tool to Maximise Results and Minimise Costs

What are the Functions of a Drilling Fluid? Classically these have

 deliver sufficient energy to the bit to assist drilling.

 cool, clean and lubricate the bit.

Petroleum Engineer: Mohd. Zouhry El-Helu.

E-Mail Address: peteng.mzhelu@gmail.com

 drive any downhole motor or turbine.

 transport the cuttings out of the hole.

 suspend the cuttings during periods without circulation.

 stabilise the sides of the borehole.

 maintain an impermeable barrier on the borehole wall opposite

 provide hydrostatic head to avoid the influx of formation fluids

 release the carried cuttings before recirculating into the hole.

 to transmit data to surface.

Petroleum Engineer: Mohd. Zouhry El-Helu.

E-Mail Address: peteng.mzhelu@gmail.com

Figure 6.1.1: Functions of a drilling fluid

By analysing the functions of the drilling fluid in the context of the

Petroleum Engineer: Mohd. Zouhry El-Helu.

E-Mail Address: peteng.mzhelu@gmail.com

1.1.1.3 DRILLING FLUID PLANNING

All of a drilling fluid's functions are important, however the specific

 specifying and ranking the goals and expectations of the

 identifying the drilling fluid functions within the system

 matching the drilling fluid properties with the functions.

 profiling the performance under the varying condition for

Throughout it is essential that the planning engineer liaise with all

Petroleum Engineer: Mohd. Zouhry El-Helu.

E-Mail Address: peteng.mzhelu@gmail.com

Firstly a ranked set of objectives has to be defined and agreed. For

Secondly, the specific fluid properties required to achieve the goals

As well as satisfying the operational objectives materials chosen must

Once the potential components have been identified, on a

Petroleum Engineer: Mohd. Zouhry El-Helu.

E-Mail Address: peteng.mzhelu@gmail.com

balance must be always be sought between combating foreseeable

Our goal is to reduce the cost of the whole operation. We must be

For example, compare a reasonably quality bentonite based drilling