General Chemistry 1 PDF

The Commission on Higher Education
in collaboration with the Philippine Normal

University
Teaching Guide for Senior High School
GENERAL
CHEMISTRY 1
SPECIALIZED SUBJECT | ACADEMIC STEM
This Teaching Guide was collaboratively developed and reviewed by

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encourage teachers and other education stakeholders to email their
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Senior High School Support Team at k12@ched.gov.ph.
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Table of Contents
DepEd Curriculum Guide i Lesson
18: Emission Spectrum of Hydrogen, and Dual 144
Lesson 1: Matter and Its Properties 1 Nature of

Matter
Lesson 2: Matter and Its Various Forms 14 Lesson

19: Flame Test (Laboratory) 158
Lesson 3: Measurements 19 Lesson

20: Electronic Structure of the Atom 16 2
Lesson 4: Measurements (Laboratory) 25 Lesson

21: Electron Configuration 175
Lesson 5: Atoms, Molecules, and Ions (Lecture) 30 Lesson

22: Periodic Relationships among the Elements 190
Lesson 6 : Atoms, Molecules, and Ions (Laboratory) 47 Lesson

23: Periodic Relationships of Main Group 203
Lesson 7: Atomic Mass 52 Elements

(Laboratory)
Lesson 8: The Mole Concept and Molar Mass (Lecture) 6 0 Lesson
24: Ionic Bonds 208
Lecture 9: The Mole Concept and Molar Mass (Laboratory) 70 Lesson

25: Covalent Bonds and Lewis Structures 220
Lesson 10: Percent Composition and Chemical Formulas 76  Lesson

26 : Geometry of Molecules and Polarity 236 
Lesson 11: Chemical Reactions and Chemical Equations (Lecture) 82 of

Compounds
Lesson 12: Chemical Reactions and Chemical Equations (Laboratory) 89 Lesson

27: Geometry of Molecules and Polarity 250
Lesson 13: Mass Relationships in Chemical Reactions (Lecture) 94 of

Molecules (Laboratory)
Lesson 14: Mass Relationships in Chemical Reactions (Laboratory) 105 Lesson
28: Carbon Compounds 254
Lesson 15: Gases (Lecture) 110 Lesson

29: Polymers 284
Lesson 16 : Gases (Laboratory) 128 Lesson
30: Biomolecules 297
Lesson 17: Electromagnetic Waves, Planck’s Quantum Theory, and 132

Biographical Notes 314
Photoelectric Effect
Additional Images 317
Introduction
As the Commission supports DepEd’s implementation of Senior High
School (SHS), it upholds the vision
and mission of the K to 12 program, stated in Section 2 of Republic
Act 10533, or the Enhanced Basic
Education Act of 2013, that “every graduate of basic education be
an empowered individual, through a
program rooted on...the competence to engage in work and be
productive, the ability to coexist in
fruitful harmony with local and global communities, the capability
to engage in creative and critical
thinking, and the capacity and willingness to transform others and
oneself.”
To accomplish this, the Commission partnered with the Philippine
Normal University (PNU), the National
Center for Teacher Education, to develop Teaching Guides for
Courses of SHS. Together with PNU, this
Teaching Guide was studied and reviewed by education and pedagogy
experts, and was enhanced with
appropriate methodologies and strategies.
Furthermore, the Commission believes that teachers are the most
important partners in attaining this
goal. Incorporated in this Teaching Guide is a framework that will
guide them in creating lessons and
assessment tools, support them in facilitating activities and
questions, and assist them towards deeper
content areas and competencies. Thus, the introduction of the SHS
for SHS Framework.
The SHS for SHS Framework, which stands for “Saysay-Husay-Sarili

for Senior High School,” is at the
SHS for SHS core of this book. The lessons, which combine high-quality content
with flexible elements to
Framework accommodate diversity of teachers and environments, promote these
three fundamental concepts:
SAYSAY: MEANING HUSAY: MASTERY

SARILI: OWNERSHIP
Why is this important? How will I deeply understand
this? What can I do with this?
Through this Teaching Guide, Given that developing mastery
When teachers empower
teachers will be able to facilitate goes beyond memorization,
learners to take ownership of
an understanding of the value teachers should also aim for
their learning, they develop
of the lessons, for each learner deep understanding of the
independence and self-
to fully engage in the content subject matter where they
lead direction, learning about both
on both the cognitive and learners to analyze and
the subject matter and
affective levels. synthesize knowledge.
themselves.
This Teaching Guide is mapped and aligned to the DepEd SHS
Curriculum, designed to be highly
Parts of the usable for teachers. It contains classroom activities and
pedagogical notes, and is integrated with
Teaching Guide innovative pedagogies. All of these elements are presented in
the following parts:
1. Introduction
• Highlight key concepts and identify the essential
questions
• Show the big picture
• Connect and/or review prerequisite knowledge
• Clearly communicate learning competencies and
objectives
• Motivate through applications and connections to
real-life
2. Motivation
• Give local examples and applications
• Engage in a game or movement activity
• Provide a hands-on/laboratory activity
• Connect to a real-life problem
3. Instruction/Delivery
• Give a demonstration/lecture/simulation/hands-on
activity
• Show step-by-step solutions to sample problems
• Give applications of the theory
• Connect to a real-life problem if applicable
4. Practice
• Discuss worked-out examples
• Provide easy-medium-hard questions
• Give time for hands-on unguided classroom work and
discovery
• Use formative assessment to give feedback
5. Enrichment
• Provide additional examples and applications
• Introduce extensions or generalisations of concepts
• Engage in reflection questions
• Encourage analysis through higher order thinking
prompts
6 . Evaluation
• Supply a diverse question bank for written work and
exercises
• Provide alternative formats for student work: written
homework, journal, portfolio, group
individual projects, student-directed research
project
iii
On DepEd Functional Skills and CHED College Readiness Standards
As Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) welcome the graduates of

On the other hand, the Commission declared the College
the Senior High School program, it is of paramount importance to
Readiness Standards that consist of the combination of knowledge,
align Functional Skills set by DepEd with the College Readiness
skills, and reflective thinking necessary to participate and succeed -
Standards stated by CHED.
without remediation - in entry-level undergraduate courses in
The DepEd articulated a set of 21st century skills that should be
college.
embedded in the SHS curriculum across various subjects and tracks.
The alignment of both standards, shown below, is also presented in
These skills are desired outcomes that K to 12 graduates should
this Teaching Guide - prepares Senior High School graduates to the
possess in order to proceed to either higher education,
revised college curriculum which will initially be implemented by AY
employment, entrepreneurship, or middle-level skills development.
2018-2019.
College Readiness Standards Foundational Skills

DepEd Functional Skills
Produce all forms of texts (written, oral, visual, digital) based on:
1. Solid grounding on Philippine experience and culture;
2. An understanding of the self, community, and nation;
Visual and information literacies, media literacy, critical thinking
3. Application of critical and creative thinking and doing processes;
and problem solving skills, creativity, initiative and self-direction
4. Competency in formulating ideas/arguments logically, scientifically, and
creatively; and
5. Clear appreciation of one’s responsibility as a citizen of a multicultural
Philippines and a
diverse world;
Global awareness, scientific and economic literacy, curiosity,

Systematically apply knowledge, understanding, theory, and skills for the
development of
critical thinking and problem solving skills, risk taking, flexibility

the self, local, and global communities using prior learning, inquiry, and
experimentation and adaptability, initiative and self-direction
Global awareness, media literacy, technological literacy,

Work comfortably with relevant technologies and develop adaptations and innovations
for
creativity, flexibility and adaptability, productivity and

significant use in local and global communities
accountability
Global awareness, multicultural literacy, collaboration and

Communicate with local and global communities with proficiency, orally, in writing,
and
interpersonal skills, social and cross-cultural skills, leadership
through new technologies of communication
and responsibility
Media literacy, multicultural literacy, global awareness,

Interact meaningfully in a social setting and contribute to the fulfilment of
individual and
collaboration and interpersonal skills, social and cross-cultural

shared goals, respecting the fundamental humanity of all persons and the diversity
of skills, leadership and responsibility, ethical, moral, and
spiritual
groups and communities
values
v
K to 12 BASIC EDUCATION
CURRICULUM
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL – SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, ENGINEERING
AND MATHEMATICS (STEM) SPECIALIZED SUBJECT
Grade: 11
Semester: 1st and 2nd
Subject Title: General Chemistry 1 & 2
No. of Hours/ Semester: 80 hours per semester
Subject Description: Composition, structure, and properties of matter; quantitative

principles, kinetics, and energetics of transformations of matter; and fundamental
concepts of organic chemistry
PERFORMANCE
CONTENT CONTENT STANDARD
LEARNING COMPETENCIES CODE
STANDARD
Quarter 1 – General Chemistry 1
Matter and its properties The learners The learners:
The learners:
1. the particulate nature of demonstrate an
1. recognize that substances are made up STEM_GC11MP-Ia-b-1
matter understanding of: design using
multimedia, of smaller particles
2. states of matter demonstrations,
or models, 2. describe and/or make a representation of
a. the macroscopic the properties of matter a representation
or the arrangement, relative spacing, and
STEM_GC11MP-Ia-b-2
b. microscopic view and its various forms simulation of any
of the relative motion of the particles in each of
3. Physical and chemical following:
the three phases of matter
properties a. atomic
structure 3. distinguish between physical and
4. Extensive and intensive b. gas
behavior STEM_GC11MP-
Ia-b-3
chemical properties and give examples

properties c. mass
relationships in 4. distinguish between extensive and
5. Ways of classifying matter d. reactions
STEM_GC11MP-Ia-b-4
intensive properties and give examples

a. pure substances and
5. use properties of matter to identify
mixtures
STEM_GC11MP-Ia-b-5
substances and to separate them

b. elements and
6 . differentiate between pure substances
compounds
STEM_GC11MP-Ia-b-6 
and mixtures
c. homogeneous and
7. differentiate between elements and
heterogeneous
STEM_GC11MP-Ia-b-7
compounds
mixtures
8. differentiate between homogenous and
6 . Methods of separating
STEM_GC11MP-Ia-b-8
heterogenous mixtures
mixtures into their
9. recognize the formulas of common
component substances
STEM_GC11MP-Ia-b-9
chemical substances
10. describe separation techniques for
STEM_GC11MP-Ia-b-10
mixtures and compounds
11. compare consumer products on the basis
of their components for use, safety, STEM_GC11MP-Ia-b-11
quality and cost
12. (LAB) apply simple separation techniques
STEM_GC11MP-Ia-b-12
such as distillation, chromatography

K to 12 Senior High School STEM Specialized Subject – General Chemistry 1 and 2
December 2013 Page 1 of
17
CURRICULUM
PERFORMANCE
STANDARD
Measurements 1. the difference
1. differentiate between precision and

1. Accuracy and precision between accuracy
STEM_GC11MT-Ib-13
accuracy
2. Significant figures in and precision
calculations 2. different sources of
3. Density measurement errors in
2. (LAB) Determine the density of liquids &
STEM_GC11MT-Ib-14
measurements
solids
Atoms, Molecules, and Ions 1. atomic structure

1. explain how the basic laws of matter (law
1. Dalton’s atomic theory 2. formulas and
of conservation of mass, law of constant
2. Basic laws of matter names of
composition, law of multiple proportion) STEM_GC11AM-Ic-e-15
3. Atomic structure compounds
led to the formulation of Dalton’s Atomic
4. Subatomic particles
Theory
(protons, electrons,
neutrons)
2. describe Dalton’s Atomic Theory STEM_GC11AM-Ic-e-16 
5. Molecules and Ions
6 . Chemical Formulas
3. differentiate among atomic number, mass
7. Naming Compounds
number, and isotopes, and which of these STEM_GC11AM-Ic-e-17
distinguishes one element from another
4. write isotopic symbols STEM_GC11AM-Ic-e-18
5. recognize common isotopes and their
STEM_GC11AM-Ic-e-19
uses.
6 . differentiate among atoms, molecules,
STEM_GC11AM-Ic-e-20
ions and give examples
7. represent compounds using chemical
STEM_GC11AM-Ic-e-21
formulas, structural formulas and models
8. give the similarities and differences
between the empirical formula and STEM_GC11AM-Ic-e-22
molecular formula of a compound

December 2013 Page 2 of 17
CURRICULUM
PERFORMANCE
STANDARD
9. name compounds given their formula and
write formula given the name of the STEM_GC11AM-Ic-e-23
compound
10. (LAB) Practice chemical nomenclature:
writing the chemical formulas of ionic
STEM_GC11AM-Ic-e-24
compounds; naming ionic compounds
from formulas
Stoichiometry 1. the mole concept in
1. explain relative atomic mass and average
1. Atomic mass relation to
STEM_GC11S-Ie-25
atomic mass
2. Avogadro’s number Avogadro’s number
3. The mole concept and mass
2. define a mole STEM_GC11S-Ie-26 
3. illustrate Avogadro’s number with
STEM_GC11S-Ie-27
examples
4. determine the molar mass of elements
STEM_GC11S-Ie-28
and compounds
5. calculate the mass of a given number of
moles of an element or compound or vice STEM_GC11S-Ie-29
versa
6 . calculate the mass of a given number of
particles of an element or compound or STEM_GC11S-Ie-30
vice versa
4. Percent composition and 2. the relationship of
chemical formulas percent composition
1. calculate the percent composition of a
STEM_GC11PC-If-31
and chemical
compound from its formula
formula
2. calculate the empirical formula from the
STEM_GC11PC-If-32
percent composition of a compound

K to 12 BASIC
EDUCATION CURRICULUM
PERFORMANCE
STANDARD
3. calculate molecular formula given molar
STEM_GC11PC-If-33
mass
5. Chemical reactions and 3. the use of chemical

chemical equations formulas to
4. write equations for chemical reactions and
STEM_GC11CR-If-g-34
6 . Types of chemical represent chemical
balance the equations
reactions in aqueous reactions
solutions
5. interpret the meaning of a balanced
STEM_GC11CR-If-g-35
chemical reaction in terms of the law of
conservation of mass
6 . describe evidences that a chemical STEM_GC11CR-If-g-36 
reaction has occurred
7. (LAB) Perform exercises on writing and
STEM_GC11CR-If-g-37
balancing chemical equations
7. Mass relationships in 4. the quantitative

1. construct mole or mass ratios for a
chemical reactions relationship of
reaction in order to calculate the amount
STEM_GC11MR-Ig-h-38
reactants and
of reactant needed or amount of product
products in a
formed in terms of moles or mass
chemical reaction
2. Calculate percent yield and theoretical
STEM_GC11MR-Ig-h-39
yield of the reaction
3. explain the concept of limiting reagent in
a chemical reaction; identify the excess STEM_GC11MR-Ig-h-40
reagent(s)
4. calculate reaction yield when a limiting
STEM_GC11MR-Ig-h-41
reagent is present
5. (LAB) Determine mass relationship in a
STEM_GC11MR-Ig-h-42
chemical reaction
Gases 5. the mathematical
1. define pressure and give the common
STEM_GC11G-Ih-i-43
1. Pressure of a gas relationship between
units of pressure
a. Units of pressure pressure, volume,
2. express the gas laws in equation form STEM_GC11G-Ih-i-44

2. The Gas laws and temperature of

CURRICULUM
PERFORMANCE
STANDARD
a. Boyle’s Law a gas
3. use the gas laws to determine pressure,
b. Charles’ Law
volume, or temperature of a gas under STEM_GC11G-Ih-i-45
c. Avogadro’s Law
certain conditions of change
3. Ideal Gas Equation
4. use the ideal gas equation to calculate
pressure, volume, temperature, or STEM_GC11G-Ih-i-46 
number of moles of a gas
5. use Dalton’s law of partial pressures to

4. Dalton’s Law of partial 6 . the partial pressures
relate mole fraction and partial pressure of STEM_GC11DL-Ii-47

pressures of gases in a mixture
gases in a mixture
7. quantitative
6 . apply the principles of stoichiometry to

relationships of
determine the amounts (volume, number

5. Gas stoichiometry reactants and
STEM_GC11GS-Ii-j-48
of moles, or mass) of gaseous reactants

products in a
and products
gaseous reaction
7. explain the gas laws in terms of the
STEM_GC11KMT-Ij-49
kinetic molecular theory of gases

8. the behavior and
6 . Kinetic molecular theory of properties of gases
8. relate the rate of gas effusion with molar
STEM_GC11KMT-Ij-50
gases at the molecular
mass
level
9. (LAB) Demonstrate Graham’s law of
STEM_GC11KMT-Ij-51
effusion in an experiment
Quarter 2 – General Chemistry 1
Electronic Structure of the quantum mechanical illustrate the
reactions at 1. describe the quantum mechanical model
STEM_GC11ES-IIa-b-52
Atoms description of the atom the molecular
level in any of the atom
1. Quantum mechanical and its electronic of the following:
2. describe the electronic structure of atoms
description of the atom structure 1. enzyme
action in terms of main energy levels, sublevels, STEM_GC11ES-IIa-
b-53
2. Schrodinger’s model of the 2. protein
denaturation and orbitals, and relate this to energy
hydrogen atom and wave 3. separation
of 3. use quantum numbers to describe an
functions components
in STEM_GC11ES-IIa-b-54
electron in an atom
3. Main energy levels, sublevels coconut
milk 4. (LAB) Perform exercises on quantum
and orbitals
numbers

17
CURRICULUM
PERFORMANCE
STANDARD
4. Quantum numbers
5. write the electronic configuration of atoms STEM_GC11ES-IIa-b-56 

5. Electron Configuration
a. Aufbau Principle
6 . determine the magnetic property of the
b. Pauli Exclusion Principle
atom based on its electronic configuration

c. Hund’s Rule
7. draw an orbital diagram to represent the
d. Diamagnetism and
electronic configuration of atoms

Paramagnetism
8. (LAB) Perform exercises on writing
e. Orbital diagrams
electronic configuration
Electronic Structure and the arrangement of
1. explain the periodic recurrence of similar
Periodicity elements in the periodic
properties among elements in the periodic STEM_GC11ESP-IIc-d-6 0
1. The Electron Configuration table and trends in the
table in terms of electronic structure
and the Periodic Table properties of the
2. relate the number of valence electrons of
2. Periodic Variation in Atomic elements in terms of
elements to their group number in the STEM_GC11ESP-IIc-d-6 1
Properties electronic structure
periodic table
a. Atomic Radius and
3. compare the properties of families of
effective nuclear charge;
STEM_GC11ESP-IIc-d-6 2
elements
the shielding effect in
4. predict the properties of individual
many-electron atoms
elements based on their position in the STEM_GC11ESP-IIc-d-6 3
b. Ionic radius
periodic table
c. Ionization energy
5. describe and explain the trends in atomic
d. Electron affinity
properties in the periodic table
6 . (LAB) Investigate reactions of ions and
apply these in qualitative analysis
7. (LAB) Determine periodic properties of
STEM_GC11ESP-IIc-d-6 6 
the main group elements

Chemical Bonding 1. ionic bond formation
1. relate the stability of noble gases to their
Ionic Bonds in terms of atomic
STEM_GC11CB-IId-g-6 7
electron configuration
1. The stability of noble gases properties
2. Forming ions 2. the properties of ionic
2. state the octet rule STEM_GC11CB-IId-g-6 8
3. Ionic bonding compounds in relation
3. determine the charge of the ions formed
4. Ionic compounds to their structure
by the representative elements and relate
5. Formulas
this to their ionization energy or electron STEM_GC11CB-IId-g-6 9
6 . Structure
affinity, valence electron configuration
7. Properties
and position in the periodic table
December 2013 Page 6  of
17
K to 12 BASIC
EDUCATION CURRICULUM
PERFORMANCE
STANDARD
4. draw the Lewis structure of ions STEM_GC11CB-IId-g-70
5. predict the formula of the ionic compound
formed by a metal and non-metal among STEM_GC11CB-IId-g-71
the representative elements
6 . Lewis structure of ionic compounds STEM_GC11CB-IId-g-72
7. list the properties of ionic compounds and
explain these properties in terms of their STEM_GC11CB-IId-g-73
structure
8. (LAB) Perform exercises on writing Lewis
structures of ions/ionic compounds and STEM_GC11CB-IId-g-74
molecules
Covalent Bonds 1. covalent bond
9. describe covalent bonding in terms of
STEM_GC11CB-IId-g-75
1. Formation of covalent bonds formation in terms of
electron sharing
2. Formulas of molecular atomic properties
10. apply the octet rule in the formation of
STEM_GC11CB-IId-g-76 
compounds 2. the properties of
molecular covalent compounds
3. Lewis structure of molecules molecular covalent
11. write the formula of molecular compounds
4. Molecules of elements compounds in
formed by the nonmetallic elements of the STEM_GC11CB-IId-g-77
5. Molecules of compounds relation to their
representative block
6 . Structure and properties of structure
12. draw Lewis structure of molecular
molecular compounds
covalent compounds
7. Strength of covalent bonds
13. explain the properties of covalent
8. Electronegativity and bond
molecular compounds in terms of their STEM_GC11CB-IId-g-79
polarity
structure.
9. Geometry of molecules
14. determine the polarity of a bond based on
10. Polarity of compounds
the electronegativities of the atoms STEM_GC11CB-IId-g-80
forming the bond
15. describe the geometry of simple
compounds
16 . determine the polarity of simple molecules STEM_GC11CB-IId-g-82
17. (LAB) Determine and/or observe
evidence of molecular polarity

CURRICULUM
PERFORMANCE
STANDARD
Organic compounds the properties of organic
1. The carbon atom compounds and
1. describe the special nature of carbon STEM_GC11OC-IIg-j-84
2. Bonding patterns in polymers in terms of
2. list general characteristics of organic

hydrocarbons their structure
STEM_GC11OC-IIg-j-85
compounds
3. Properties and reactivities
of common functional
3. describe the bonding in ethane,
groups
ethene(ethylene) and
4. Polymers
ethyne(acetylene) and explain their STEM_GC11OC-IIg-j-86 
5. Biomolecules
geometry in terms of hybridization and
σ and ¶ carbon-carbon bonds
4. describe the different functional
groups
5. cite uses of representative examples of
compounds bearing the different STEM_GC11OC-IIg-j-88
functional groups
6 . describe structural isomerism; give
examples
7. describe some simple reactions of
organic compounds: combustion of
organic fuels, addition, condensation,
and saponification of fats

8. describe the formation and structure of
polymers
9. give examples of polymers STEM_GC11OC-IIg-j-92
10. explain the properties of some
polymers in terms of their structure
11. describe some biomolecules: proteins,
nucleic acids, lipids, and carbohydrates
12. describe the structure of proteins,
nucleic acids, lipids, and
carbohydrates, and relate them to
their function

CURRICULUM
PERFORMANCE
STANDARD
13. (LAB) Perform exercises on the
structure of organic compounds using STEM_GC11OC-IIg-j-96 
of models
14. (LAB) Prepare selected organic
compound and describe their STEM_GC11OC-IIg-j-97
properties
15. (LAB) Perform laboratory activities on
enzyme action, protein denaturation,
separation of components in coconut
milk
Third Quarter – General Chemistry 2
Intermolecular Forces and 1. the properties of design a simple
1. use the kinetic molecular model to

Liquids and Solids liquids and solids to investigation to
determine STEM_GC11IMF-IIIa-c-
99
explain properties of liquids and solids

1. Kinetic molecular model of the nature of forces the effect on
boiling point
liquids and solids between particles or freezing point
when a 2. describe and differentiate the types of STEM_GC11IMF-IIIa-c-
2. Intermolecular Forces 2. phase changes in solid is
dissolved in water intermolecular forces 100
3. Dipole-dipole forces terms of the
4. Ion-dipole forces accompanying
3. predict the intermolecular forces STEM_GC11IMF-IIIa-c-
5. Dispersion forces changes in energy
possible for a molecule 101
6 . Hydrogen bonds and forces between
7. Properties of liquids and particles
4. describe the following properties of
IMF
liquids, and explain the effect of
8. Surface Tension
intermolecular forces on these STEM_GC11IMF-IIIa-c-
9. Viscosity
properties: surface tension, viscosity, 102
10. Vapour pressure, boiling
vapor pressure, boiling point, and
point
molar heat of vaporization
11. Molar heat of vaporization
5. explain the properties of water with its
STEM_GC11IMF-IIIa-c-
12. Structure and Properties of
molecular structure and intermolecular
103
Water
forces
13. Types and properties of
6 . describe the difference in structure of STEM_GC11IMF-IIIa-c-
solids
crystalline and amorphous solids 104
14. Crystalline and amorphous
solids
7. describe the different types of crystals
15. Types of Crystals – ionic,
and their properties: ionic, covalent,
105
molecular, and metallic.

17
CURRICULUM
PERFORMANCE
STANDARD
covalent, molecular,
8. describe the nature of the following
metallic
phase changes in terms of energy
16 . Phase Changes
change and the increase or decrease in
106 
- phase diagrams of water
molecular order: solid-liquid, liquid-
and carbon dioxide
vapor, and solid-vapor
9. interpret the phase diagram of water STEM_GC11IMF-IIIa-c-
and carbon dioxide 107
10. (LAB) Measure and explain the
difference in the viscosity of some
108
liquids
11. (LAB) Determine and explain the
heating and cooling curve of a
109
substance
Physical Properties of properties of solutions,
1. describe the different types of
Solutions solubility, and the
STEM_GC11PP-IIId-f-110
solutions
1. Types of Solutions stoichiometry of
2. use different ways of expressing

2. Energy of solution reactions in solutions
concentration of solutions: percent by
formation
mass, mole fraction, molarity, molality, STEM_GC11PP-IIId-f-111

3. Concentration Units and
percent by volume, percent by mass,

comparison of
ppm
concentration units
a. percent by mass, by
3. perform stoichiometric calculations for
volume
reactions in solution
b. mole fraction
4. explain the effect of temperature on

c. molality
the solubility of a solid and of a gas

d. molarity
e. percent by volume,
5. explain the effect of pressure on the
percent by mass, ppm
solubility of a gas
4. Solution stoichiometry
5. Factors affecting Solubility
6 . describe the effect of concentration on
6 . Colligative Properties of
the colligative properties of solutions
Nonelectrolyte and
7. differentiate the colligative properties
electrolyte solutions
of nonelectrolyte solutions and of STEM_GC11PP-IIId-f-116 
electrolyte solutions
17
CURRICULUM
PERFORMANCE
STANDARD
8. Calculate boiling point elevation and
freezing point depression from the STEM_GC11PP-IIId-f-117
concentration of a solute in a solution
9. calculate molar mass from colligative
property data
10. (LAB) Perform acid-base titration to
determine concentration of solutions
11. (LAB) Determine the solubility of a
solid in a given amount of water at STEM_GC11PP-IIId-f-120
different temperatures
12. (LAB) Determine the molar mass of a
solid from the change of melting point STEM_GC11PP-IIId-f-121
or boiling point of a solution

Thermochemistry energy changes in
1. explain the energy changes during
STEM_GC11TC-IIIg-i-122
1. Energy Changes in chemical reactions
chemical reactions
Chemical Reactions:
2. distinguish between exothermic and
exothermic and
endothermic processes
endothermic processes
3. explain the first law of
2. First Law of
thermodynamics
Thermodynamics
4. explain enthalpy of a reaction. STEM_GC11TC-IIIg-i-125

3. Enthalpy of a Chemical
Reaction
5. Write the thermochemical equation for
STEM_GC11TC-IIIg-i-126 
- thermochemical equations
a chemical reaction
4. Calorimetry
6 . Calculate the change in enthalpy of a
5. Standard Enthalpy of
given reaction using Hess Law
Formation and Reaction
7. (LAB) Do exercises on
Hess’ Law
thermochemical calculations
8. (LAB)Determine the heat of
neutralization of an acid
Chemical Kinetics 1. The rate of a
1. describe how various factors influence
STEM_GC11CK-IIIi-j-130
1. The Rate of a Reaction reaction and the
the rate of a reaction
2. Factors that influence various factors that
2. write the mathematical relationship
reaction rate influence it
between the rate of a reaction, rate STEM_GC11CK-IIIi-j-131
3. The Rate Law and its 2. the collision theory
constant, and concentration of the
17
CURRICULUM
PERFORMANCE
STANDARD
components
reactants
4. Collision theory
3. differentiate zero, first-, and second-
5. Catalysis
order reactions
4. write the rate law for first-order
reaction
5. discuss the effect of reactant
concentration on the half-time of a STEM_GC11CK-IIIi-j-134
first-order reaction
6 . explain the effect of temperature on
the rate of a reaction
7. explain reactions qualitatively in terms
STEM_GC11CK-IIIi-j-136 
of molecular collisions
8. explain activation energy and how a
catalyst affects the reaction rate
9. cite and differentiate the types of
catalysts
10. (LAB)Determine the effect of various
factors on the rate of a reaction
Fourth Quarter – General Chemistry 2
Chemical Thermodynamics spontaneous change, prepare a poster
on a 1. predict the spontaneity of a process based
1. Spontaneous processes entropy, and free energy specific
application of one
STEM_GC11CT-IVa-b-140
on entropy
2. Entropy of the following:
2. determine whether entropy increases or

3. The Second Law of a. Acid-base
decreases if the following are changed: STEM_GC11CT-IVa-b-141

Thermodynamics
equilibrium
temperature, phase, number of particles

4. Gibbs Free Energy and b.
Electrochemistry
Chemical Equilibrium
3. explain the second law of
Include in the
poster the thermodynamics and its significance
concepts,
principles, and 4. use Gibbs’ free energy to determine the
chemical
reactions involved,
direction of a reaction
and diagrams of
processes
Chemical Equilibrium Chemical equilibrium and other
relevant
1. The equilibrium condition and Le Chatelier’s
1. describe reversible reactions STEM_GC11CE-IVb-e-144
materials

December 2013 Page 12
of 17
CURRICULUM
PERFORMANCE
STANDARD
2. Writing the reaction Principle
2. explain chemical equilibrium in terms of
quotient/equilibrium
the reaction rates of the forward and the STEM_GC11CE-IVb-e-145
constant expression
reverse reaction
3. Predicting the direction of a
3. write expressions for the reaction
reaction
STEM_GC11CE-IVb-e-146 
quotient/equilibrium constants
4. Significance of the
equilibrium constant
4. explain the significance of the value of the
STEM_GC11CE-IVb-e-147
5. Le Chatelier’s Principle
equilibrium constant.
5. calculate equilibrium constant and the
pressure or concentration of reactants or STEM_GC11CE-IVb-e-148
products in an equilibrium mixture
6 . state the Le Chatelier’s principle and apply
it qualitatively to describe the effect of
changes in pressure, concentration and
temperature on a system at equilibrium
7. (LAB) Describe the behavior of reversible
reactions
8. (LAB) Describe the behavior of a reaction
mixture when the following takes place:
a. change in concentration of reactants STEM_GC11CE-IVb-e-151
or products
b. change in temperature
9. (LAB) Perform calculations involving
equilibrium of gaseous reactions

Acid-Base Equilibria and Salt 1. acid-base equilibrium
1. define Bronsted acids and bases STEM_GC11AB-IVf-g-153

Equilibria and its applications
1. Bronsted acids and bases to the pH of
2. discuss the acid-base property of water STEM_GC11AB-IVf-g-154
2. The acid-base properties of solutions and the
water use of buffer
3. define pH STEM_GC11AB-IVf-g-155
3. pH- a measure of acidity solutions
4. Strength of acids and bases 2. solubility equilibrium
4. calculate pH from the concentration of
5. Weak acids/weak bases and and its applications
hydrogen ion or hydroxide ions in STEM_GC11AB-IVf-g-156 
aqueous solutions

17
CURRICULUM
PERFORMANCE
STANDARD
ionization constants
5. determine the relative strength of an acid
6 . Relationship between the
or a base, from the value of the ionization STEM_GC11AB-IVf-g-157
ionization constants of acids
constant of a weak acid or base
and their conjugate bases
6 . determine the pH of a solution of weak
STEM_GC11AB-IVf-g-158
7. The Common Ion Effect
acid or weak base
8. Buffer solutions
7. explain the Common Ion Effect STEM_GC11AB-IVf-g-159

9. Solubility equilibria
8. describe how a buffer solution maintains
STEM_GC11AB-IVf-g-16 0
its pH
9. calculate the pH of a buffer solution using
the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation
10. explain and apply the solubility product
constant to predict the solubility of salts
11. describe the common ion effect on the
solubility of a precipitate
12. explain the effect of pH on the solubility
STEM_GC11AB-IVf-g-16 6 
of a precipitate
13. (LAB) Determine the pH of solutions of a

weak acid at different concentrations and STEM_GC11AB-IVf-g-16 7
in the presence of its salt
14. (LAB)Determine the behavior of the pH
of buffered solutions upon the addition of STEM_GC11AB-IVf-g-16 8
a small amount of acid and base

Electrochemistry Redox reactions as
1. define oxidation and reduction reactions
1. Redox reactions applied to galvanic and
2. Galvanic cells electrolytic cells
2. balance redox reactions using the change
3. Standard reduction
in oxidation number method STEM_GC11AB-IVf-g-170
potentials
4. Spontaneity of redox
3. draw the structure of a galvanic cell and
reactions
label the parts STEM_GC11AB-IVf-g-171
5. Batteries
6 . Corrosion
7. Electrolysis
4. identify the reaction occurring in the
different parts of the cell STEM_GC11AB-IVf-g-172

17
CURRICULUM
PERFORMANCE
STANDARD
5. write the half-equations for the reactions
occurring in the electrodes STEM_GC11AB-IVf-g-173
6 . write the balanced overall cell reaction
7. give different examples of galvanic cell
8. define reduction potential, oxidation
potential, and cell potential STEM_GC11AB-IVf-g-176 
9. describe the standard hydrogen electrode
10. calculate the standard cell potential
11. relate the value of the cell potential to the
feasibility of using the cell to generate an
electric current
12. describe the electrochemistry involved in
some common batteries:
a. leclanche dry cell
b. button batteries STEM_GC11AB-IVf-g-180
c. fuel cells
d. lead storage battery

13. apply electrochemical principles to explain
corrosion STEM_GC11AB-IVf-g-181
14. explain the electrode reactions during
electrolysis STEM_GC11AB-IVf-g-182
15. describe the reactions in some STEM_GC11AB-IVf-g-183

December 2013 Page 15
of 17
CURRICULUM
PERFORMANCE
STANDARD
commercial electrolytic processes
16 . (LAB) Determine the potential and
predict the cell reaction of some
assembled electrochemical cells
17. (LAB) Describe the reactions at the
electrodes during the electrolysis of
water; cite the evidence for your STEM_GC11AB-IVf-g-185
conclusion

December 2013 Page 16  of 17
CURRICULUM
Code Book Legend
Sample: STEM_GC11AB-IVf-g-183
DOMAIN/ COMPONENT CODE
Matter and Its Properties MP

LEGEND SAMPLE
Measurements MT
Atoms, Molecules and Ions AM

Learning Area and Science, Technology,
Strand/ Subject or Engineering and Mathematics
Stoichiometry S
Specialization General Chemistry
Percent Composition and Chemical Formulas PC
First Entry
Mass Relationships in Chemical Reactions MR

Grade Level Grade 11
STEM_GC11AB
Chemical reactions and chemical equations CR
Gases G
Uppercase Domain/Content/ Acid-Base Equilibria and Salt
Dalton’s Law of partial pressures DL
Letter/s Component/ Topic Equilibria
Gas stoichiometry GS
- Kinetic molecular theory of gases KMT

Roman Numeral
Electronic Structure of Atoms ES
*Zero if no specific Quarter Fourth Quarter
IV
Electronic Structure and Periodicity ESP

quarter
Lowercase
Chemical Bonding CB
Letter/s
Organic compounds OC
*Put a hyphen (-) in
between letters to
Week Weeks six to seven
f-g Intermolecular Forces and Liquids and Solids MF
indicate more than a
Physical Properties of Solutions PP

specific week
Thermochemistry TC
Chemical Kinetics CK
describe the reactions in
Arabic Number Competency some commercial electrolytic
183 Chemical Thermodynamics CT
processes
Chemical Equilibrium CE
Acid-Base Equilibria and Salt Equilibria AB

General Chemistry 1
120 MINS
Lesson 1: Matter and its properties

Content Standard
Lesson Outline
The learners demonstrate an understanding of the properties of
Introduction Presentation of Learning Objectives and
5
matter and its various forms.
Important Keywords
Performance Standards
Motivation Application of the Particulate State of Matter 15
The learners shall be able to:
through Syringe Test
1. Make a representation of the particulate nature of the three
Instruction Matter and its Properties 6 0
phases of matter;
2. Discuss the difference between:
Enrichment Demonstration on the Visualization of Matter 30
a. Pure substances and mixtures
Evaluation Written Task 10

b. Elements and compound
c. Homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures;
Materials
3. Classify the properties of matter as:
Projector, Computer, Flip charts
a. Physical or chemical
Resources
b. Intensive or extensive; and
(1)
Chang, R. & Goldsby, K. (2016 ). Chemistry. (12th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
4. Perform simple separation procedures.
Learning Competencies
At the end of the lesson, the learners: 6 .
Differentiate between pure substances and mixtures
1. Recognize that substances are made of smaller particles
(STEM_GGC11-MP-Ia-b-6 );
(STEM_GGC11-MP-Ia-b-1); 7.
Differentiate between elements and compounds
2. Describe and make a representation of the arrangements,
(STEM_GGC11-MP-Ia-b-7);
relative spacing, and relative motion of the particles in the three 8.
Differentiate between homogenous and heterogeneous
phases of matter (STEM_GGC11-MP-Ia-b-2);
mixtures (STEM_GGC11-MP-Ia-b-8);
3. Distinguish between physical and chemical properties and give 9.
Recognize the formula of common chemical substances
examples (STEM_GGC11-MP-Ia-b-3);
(STEM_GGC11-MP-Ia-b-9);
4. Distinguish between extensive and intensive properties and give 10.
Describe separation techniques for mixtures and compounds
examples (STEM_GGC11-MP-Ia-b-4);
(STEM_GGC11-MP-Ia-b-10); and
5. Use properties of matter to identify substances and to separate 11.
Compare consumer products on the basis of their components
them (STEM_GGC11-MP-Ia-b-5);
for use, safety, quality, and cost (STEM_GGC11-MP-Ia-b-11).
1
INTRODUCTION (5 minutes)
Teacher Tip
1. Introduce the learning objectives by using the suggested protocol (Read-aloud):
Display the objectives prominently on the
board, so that the learners can track the

a. I will be able to describe the particulate nature of the different forms of
matter
progress of their learning.

b. I will be able to classify the properties of matter
c. I will be able to differentiate pure substance and mixtures; elements and
compounds;
homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures
d. I will be able to recognize the formulas of some common substances
e. I will be able to discuss methods to separate the components of a mixtures
f. I will be able to recognize chemical substances present in some consumer
products
Teacher Tip
2. Present the keywords for the concepts to be learned:
List these keywords on the board or through

a. Atoms
PowerPoint slides. Alternatively, you can write
b. Chemical properties
them on flip charts. The learners will be asked
c. Compounds
to complete a concept map using words from
this list.
d. Distillation
e. Elements
Another approach is to write these keywords
f. Extensive properties
in meta cards of different colors.
g. Filtration
h. Gas
i. Heterogeneous mixtures
j. Homogeneous mixtures
k. Intensive properties
l. Ions
m. Liquid
n. Magnetic separation
o. Mixtures
p. Molecules
q. Physical properties
r. Pure substances
s. Solid
2
MOTIVATION (15 minutes)
Teacher Tip
1. Present two 6 0-mL plastic syringes with the needle removed and replaced by a
seal. One syringe This demonstration is meant to make them
realize the usefulness of visualizing matter

contains a small block of wood, while the other contains entrapped air. The
plunger is set to touch being made up of particles.
the wood block, as shown below:
It is likely that their answers will be based on
what they will recall from experience and from
what they learned from junior high school:
that the plunger can be moved more easily in
the syringe containing an entrapped gas than
in the other syringe containing a solid.
• A gas is made up of particles that are far

2. Ask them what will happen if the plunger will be pushed down the syringe.
apart from each other, which can be
pushed closer towards each other;

3. Make one learner push the plunger in the two syringes, and check if they have
predicted the • A solid is made up of particles which are
behavior of the plunger in the two syringes correctly.
compact, so that it is no longer possible
to push these particles closer to each

4. Ask them to answer the question: Why is it easier to compress the entrapped air
than the wood other.
block?
5. Highlight that a particulate model for matter is very useful in explaining the
properties of matter. Let them recognize that the keywords to be
encountered in the lesson are commonly used

Point out that some basic concepts on matter that have been introduced in junior
high school will to describe the things around them.
be reviewed in this lesson.
Teacher Tip
Make them take turns in filling up each box

INSTRUCTION (6 0 minutes)
with the correct keyword (or in placing the
1. Construct the following block diagram and make the learners fill it up using the
keywords listed in proper meta cards). The block diagram can
the board.
be presented through PowerPoint slides
projected on a white board. Alternatively, it
can be prepared on flip charts or on manila
paper.
Answer for Number 1
The keywords to be placed are: atoms; ions;
molecules.
Answer for Number 2
a. Atoms – the smallest particle
b. Molecules – composed of atoms

2. Ask them to answer the question: How do the following particles differ from each
other? c. Ions – particles with charges
a. Atoms
In case they fail to recall the differences, a

b. Molecules
short discussion might be necessary. Also,
c. Ions
refer them to read Chapter 1 of the resource
book (Chang, R. & Goldsby, K., Chemistry).
3
3. Construct the following block diagram and make them fill it up using the
keywords listed in the Answer for Number 3
board.
The block diagram can be presented through
PowerPoint slides projected on a white board.
Alternatively, it can be prepared on flip charts
or on manila paper.
The keywords to be placed are:
solid; liquid; gas
Answer for Number 4
The arrangement of the particles for solid,
liquid, and gas, respectively are:
4. For the bottom layer of boxes, ask them to illustrate how the particles are
distributed or arranged
in each state of matter using circles.
5. Ask them to answer the following questions:
Answer for Number 5
a. How separated are the particles in each state of matter?
• Solid: closely packed; restricted motion
b. How free are the particles to move in each state of matter?
• Liquid: far apart; free movement
• Gas: very far apart; very free (chaotic)
movement
6 . Ask them to classify the following substances according to the three states of
matter:
a. Iron nail
Answer for Number 6 
b. Sugar
a. Solid
c. Syrup
b. Solid
c. Liquid
d. Air
d. Gas
e. Ice
e. Solid
f. Alcohol
f. Liquid
4
keywords listed in the Answer for Number 7
board.
or on manila paper.
The keywords to be placed are: physical
properties and chemical properties (left
cluster); and extensive properties and
intensive properties (right cluster).
8. Ask them to answer the following questions:

Answer for Number 8
a. In physical properties, no change in

a. What is the difference between physical properties and chemical properties?
composition takes place during the
b. How do the extensive properties differ from the intensive properties?
determination or measurement of these
properties. On the other hand, in
chemical properties, a change in
composition occurs during the
determination or measurement of these
properties.
b. Extensive properties change their value
when the amount of matter or substance
is changed. Meanwhile, intensive
properties do not change their value
when the amount of matter is changed.

9. Ask them to classify the following examples as physical or chemical properties:
Answer for Number 9

a. Melting of ice
a. Physical property
b. Evaporation of water
b. Physical property
c. Chemical property
c. Rusting
d. Chemical property
d. Digestion
5
10. Ask them to classify the following examples as intensive or extensive
properties: Answer for Number 10
a. Boiling point
a. Intensive property
b. Extensive property
b. Weight
c. Extensive property
c. Volume
d. Intensive property
d. Density
Answer for Number 11

keywords listed in the The block diagram can be presented through
board.
or on manila paper.
The keywords to be placed are: pure
substances and mixtures (top cluster);
elements and compounds (bottom left
cluster); homogeneous mixtures and
heterogeneous mixture (bottom right
cluster).

12. Ask them to answer the question: How do pure substances differ from mixtures?
Pure substances are composed of only one
component, while mixtures are composed of
several components.

6 
13. Present the following substances (or pictures of these substances), and ask
them to answer the Answer for Number 13
question: Which of the following are pure substances and which are mixtures?
a. Pure substance
b. Pure substance
a. Table sugar
c. Mixture
b. Table salt
d. Mixture
e. Pure substance
c. Iodized salt
f. Mixture
d. Brown sugar
g. Pure substance
h. Mixture
e. Distilled water
f. Soft drinks
g. Oxygen gas (in tank)
h. Human breath

14. Ask them to answer the question: What is the difference between elements and
compounds?
• Elements are pure substances that are

Give examples of each.
made up of only one kind of atoms.
Possible examples: iron; gold; mercury
• Compounds are pure substances made
up of two or more kinds of atoms.
Possible examples: salt; sugar; water
• In case they fail to recall the differences, a
short discussion might be necessary.
Also, refer them to read Chapter 1 of the
resource book (Chang, R. & Goldsby, K.,
Chemistry).
15. Ask them to answer the question: What is the difference between homogeneous and
heterogeneous mixtures?
• A homogeneous mixture has a uniform
composition and exhibits the same
properties in different parts of the

mixture.
• A heterogeneous mixture has a non-
uniform composition and its properties
vary in different parts of the mixture.
• In case they fail to recall the differences, a
short discussion might be necessary.
Also, refer them to read Chapter 1 of the
Chemistry).
7
16 . Present the following mixtures (or pictures of these mixtures), and ask them
the question: Which of Answer for Number 16 
the following are homogeneous mixtures? Which are heterogeneous mixtures?
a. Homogeneous mixture
b. Heterogeneous mixture
a. Rubbing alcohol
c. Heterogeneous mixture
b. Mixture of water and oil
d. Homogeneous mixture
e. Homogeneous mixture
c. Mixture of salt and pepper
d. Carbonated soft drink
e. Human breath

keywords listed in the PowerPoint slides projected on a white board.
board.
or on manila paper.

18. Learner prompt: Look at this diagram. Give three common ways to separate the
components of
Some keywords that can placed are filtration;

a mixture?
distillation; magnetic separation;
decantation; sublimation.
• Filtration: to separate a solid from a liquid
in a heterogeneous mixture using a
filtering membrane, like paper or cloth
• Distillation: to separate a liquid in a
homogeneous mixture
• Magnetic separation: to separate a
magnetic solid from a heterogeneous
mixture
19. Ask them to answer the question: When can each method be used in separating the
components
• Decantation: to separate a solid from a

of a mixture?
liquid in a heterogeneous mixture based
on gravity
• Sublimation: to separate a volatile solid
from a non-volatile solid

20. Ask them to answer the question: How can the following components of the
following mixtures

be separated?
a. Heating to evaporate the water

a. Salt from salt water
b. By adding water to dissolve the salt, and
filter or decant to separate the iron.

b. Salt from a mixture of iron and salt
8
ENRICHMENT (30 minutes)
Teacher Tip
1. Present a demonstration for the visualization of matter. This will reinforce the
concept on the This activity can be done at the end of the
differences between pure substances, mixtures, elements, and compounds. See
attached sheet. lecture session.
2. Then conduct the learner’s activity on Visualization and Classification of

Matter. See the teacher’s
guide and learner’s worksheet.
EVALUATION (10 minutes)
Teacher Tip
1. Make them do an activity wherein they will apply the visualization of matter to
classify pure
This activity can be done at the end of the

substances, mixtures, elements, and compounds. See attached sheet.
lecture session. In case there is no longer
2. Written task (assignment): Classify some substances found in the kitchen and in
the bathroom as enough time, it can be done during the
laboratory session.
pure substances or mixtures; elements or compounds; and homogeneous or
heterogeneous
mixture.
EVALUATION
EXCEEDS EXPECTATIONS MEETS EXPECTATIONS
NEEDS IMPROVEMENT NOT VISIBLE
The learner classified six or more The learner classified four to five
The learner classified less than The learner did not do the
substances in Part 1 correctly, and substances in Part 1 correctly, and
four substances in Part 1 correctly, assigned tasks.
ten or more substances in their six to nine substances in their list
and less than five substances in
list in Part 2. for Part 2.
their list for Part 2.
9
VISUALIZATION AND CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER
Introduction
In this activity, physical models, such as balls or beads, will be used to
illustrate that matter is made up of particles. A ball or a bead will
represent an atom of an element, and a combination of balls or bead will represent
a compound. A collection of single balls and/or combined
balls will be used to show the difference between pure substances and mixtures.
This activity was adapted from Chemistry with Charisma, published by Terrific
Science Press.
Materials
a. A set of balls or beads of two or more colors
b. Zip lock bags
Procedure
1. Assemble the following sets of balls and place them in 4. Ask
them the following questions:
unlabelled zip lock bags. a.
Are the balls the same or different?
b.
Do the balls represent a pure substance of a mixture?
c.
Do the balls represent an element or a compound?
5.
Repeat Step 3 with the mixture set.
6 .
Repeat Step 3 with the compound set.
7.
Repeat Step 3 with the diatomic set. Highlight and discuss the
answer to the last question.

8.
Introduce the concept of formulas. Each ball of a certain color
will be assigned a letter (e.g. A for the white, B for the black,
2. Show the bags to the learners and tell them that their task is to and
C for another color).
find out if the bag contains a pure substance or a mixture. If the 9. Ask
them for a possible formula for:
content is a pure substance, they have to determine if it is a a.
the monoatomic element (Answer: A)
monoatomic element, a diatomic element, or a compound. b.
the diatomic element (Answer: A2)
3. Show them the bag with monoatomic elements, and ask them if c.
the compound (Answer: AB)
it is a pure substance or a mixture. Take out the contents from
the bag one by one, and show them to the learners.
10
LEARNER WORKSHEET
PURE SUBSTANCE or ELEMENT(S) or FORMULA FOR EACH
BAG LABEL
MIXTURE COMPOUND(S) SUBSTANCE IN THE BAG
11
LEARNER’S ACTIVITY: TEACHER’S GUIDE
Introduction
This activity was adapted from Chemistry with Charisma, published by Terrific
Science Press.
Materials
• A set of balls or beads of two or more colors
• Zip lock bags
Procedure
1. Assemble the following sets of balls and place them in zip lock 2.
Distribute the set of bags and ask the learners to fill up the
bags labeled only with the letters.
provided worksheet (see below) using the bags labeled A to H.
3. Ask
them to compare their results.
4. For
the bags containing models of compounds, ask them to
write the formula of the compound represented by the model.
12
LEARNER’S ACTIVITY: LEARNER WORKSHEET:
VISUALIZATION AND CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER
Introduction
This activity was adapted from Chemistry with Charisma,
published by Terrific Science Press.
Materials
1. A set of balls or beads of two or more colors
2. Zip lock bags
Procedure
1. Obtain a set of bags with physical models of the particles of different
substances from your teacher.
2. Examine the particles in each bag and classify them as pure substances or
mixtures, monoatomic elements, or diatomic elements. Fill up
the worksheet provided below using the bags labeled A to H.
3. For the bags with models of compounds, write the formula of the compound
represented by the model.
FORMULA FOR EACH SUBSTANCE

BAG LABEL PURE SUBSTANCE or MIXTURE ELEMENT(S) or
COMPOUND(S)
IN THE BAG
H
13
General Chemistry 1
120 MINS
Lesson 2: Matter and its Various Forms

Content Standard
Lesson Outline
The learners demonstrate an understanding of the properties of matter and its
Introduction Pre-Laboratory Work 10

various forms.
Motivation Inquiry 5
Performance Standard
The learners shall be able to
Instruction Experiment 90
1. Perform simple separation procedures.
Enrichment Discussion of Alternative Procedures for 15
the Separation
Learning Competency
Evaluation Submission of the Report on the

At the end of the lesson, the learners:
1. Apply simple separation techniques such as distillation, chromatography
Experiment
(STEM_GGC11-MP-Ia-b-12).
Materials
Laboratory glassware or alternative containers
Resources
(1)
Separation of a mixture [PDF file]. Retrieved from Princeton High
School web site: http://phs.princetonk12.org/teachers/jgiammanco/
Chem%201/Labs/C2-SepMixtureLab.pdf
(2)
Solar still challenge [PDF file]. Retrieved from American Chemical
Society web site: http://www.acs.org/content/dam/acsorg/global/
iyc2011/global-water-experiment-purification.pdf
14
Teacher Tip
1. This introduction can serve as a pre-laboratory discussion prior to the
experiment proper. A laboratory experiment sheet has to be prepared
and distributed to the learners.

2. Ask the learners to recall how to differentiate a pure substance from a mixture.
3. Point out that mixtures are common and that in some situations, it is necessary
to separate the The experiment described in Annex 1 could be
adopted or revised to suit the available facilities.

components or to isolate one component of a mixture.
4. State the objective of the experiment they will be performing.
Teacher Tip
This could be given as an assignment before the
1. Ask them how table salt is obtained from seawater.
laboratory session. They will be asked to search

2. As an alternative, you can ask how drinking water is obtained from seawater.
the internet on how these processes are actually
carried out.
Teacher Tip
INSTRUCTION (90 minutes)
Low-cost (or zero-cost materials) can be used in
1. Provide each group with a prepared mixture of salt, sand, and iron filings.
place of the materials described in the experiment
sheet:
2. Ask them to follow the procedure in the experiment sheet.
a. A vial can be used instead of the evaporating
dish, and the watch glass can be omitted. A
moistened filter paper can be used to cover
the vial.
b. A vial or a small bottle can be used in place of
a beaker.
c. A plastic funnel used at home can be a
substitute for the glass funnel.
They can be asked to make a flow diagram of the
procedure.
If desired, the experiment can be performed as a
quantitative procedure wherein the isolated
substances will be dried and weighed.
15
Teacher Tip
1. In the post-laboratory discussion, ask them what properties of the components
were used to The volatile nature of naphthalene enabled its
sublimation. Point out that the odor of

separate each from the other.
naphthalene is caused by the vapor it produces.
2. Discuss possible alternative procedures for the separation.
The difference in the solubility of sodium chloride

3. They can be asked to perform the Solar Still Challenge, as described in the
following internet and sand (or silicon dioxide) in water was used in
webpage: http://www.acs.org/content/dam/acsorg/global/iyc2011/global-water-
experiment- separating the two components.
purification.pdf
An alternative procedure could involve the
differences in the solubility of the components in
alcohol and in water.

EVALUATION
a. Naphthalene dissolves in ethanol but not in

1. Ask them to submit a report on the experiment.
water.
2. They could be provided with a worksheet that they have to fill up, which could
include some b. Sodium chloride dissolves in water, but not in
questions.
alcohol.
c. Silica does not dissolve in alcohol and in
water.
This experiment was conducted as part of the
Global Experiment for the International Year of
Chemistry in 2011. It could be done to motivate
their innovative skills.
EVALUATION
The learner: The learner: The

learner: The learner:
i. performed the experiment i. performed the experiment i.
performed the experiment i. did not do the assigned
correctly; correctly;
correctly; task.
ii. described the results ii. described the results correctly; ii.
described the results correctly;
correctly; iii. discussed the results of the but
iii. discussed the results of the experiment well, but iii. did
not discuss the results of
experiment very well; and iv. did not perform the Solar Still the
experiment, and
iv. performed the Solar Still Challenge. iv. did
not perform the Solar Still
Challenge.
Challenge.
16 
SEPARATION OF THE COMPONENTS IN A MIXTURE
Introduction
Several components, which retain their identity and characteristic properties, are
present in a mixture. No chemical reactions occur between
the components of a mixture. Many of the materials surrounding us are mixtures,
such as soil, cement, soft drinks, and pharmaceuticals. In this
experiment, the components of a mixture will be separated from each other. The
techniques applied for this separation does not involve a
chemical reaction, so that the isolated components will retain their identity.
Materials
1. A mixture containing the following: 4.
Funnel
a. Sodium chloride, NaCl 5.
Watch glass
b. Naphthalene 6 .
Masking tape
c. Silicon dioxide, SiO2 (sand) 7.
Evaporating dish
2. Digital balance 8.
Filter paper
3. Beaker 9.
Hot plate
Procedure
1. Weigh 0.50 to 0.6 0 g of the mixture on the digital balance.
2. Place the mixture on an evaporating dish and cover it with the pre-weighed watch
glass.
3. Seal the sides with masking tape.
4. Place a moist tissue paper over the watch glass, and gently heat the evaporating
dish until white vapors are emitted.
5. Cool the setup and carefully remove the watch glass. Describe the solid adhering
to the watch glass.
6 . Pour distilled water into the mixture remaining in the evaporating dish and stir
it carefully.
7. Filter the mixture and collect the filtrate in the pre-weighed beaker. Wash the
residual solid in the filter paper with a small amount of water,
combining the washing with the filtrate.
8. Gently heat to evaporate the water in the filtrate.
9. Cool the beaker. Describe the solid remaining in it
10. Dry the filter paper with the sand in an oven at 100oC. Describe the solid
remaining in the filter paper.
17
Treatment of Results
1. Record the description of the substances isolated in the experiment. Tabulate
your data below:
DESCRIPTION
Solid adhering to the watch glass
Solid remaining in the beaker
Solid remaining in the filter paper
2. Knowing the substances present in the mixture, identify the isolated solids.
IDENTITY
Solid adhering to the watch glass
Solid remaining in the beaker
Solid remaining in the filter paper
3. Devise another procedure to separate the components of the mixture used in the
experiment.
18
General Chemistry 1
6 0 MINS
Lesson 3: Measurements
Content Standard
The learners demonstrate an understanding of measurement and the
Lesson Outline
difference between accuracy and precision.
Introduction Communicating Learning Objectives 3

Motivation Why is Measurement Important? 7
1. Discuss the need and describe the result of a measurement, in general;
Instruction Demonstration 30
2. Differentiate between the accuracy and precision of a measurement;

Enrichment Laboratory Experiment 15
3. Point out possible sources of errors in a measurement; and
Evaluation Take-home Activity 5

4. Carry out a measurement and report the results correctly.
Materials

Resources
(1)
Chang, R. & Goldsby, K. (2016 ). Chemistry. (12th ed.). New York:
1. Explain the need for measurements;
McGraw-Hill.
2. Describe how to carry out measurements of length, mass, and volume; and
3. Dfferentiate between precision and accuracy (STEM_GC11MT-Ib-13).
19
Teacher Tip
1. Introduce the following learning objectives using the suggested protocol (Read-
aloud): The lesson is essentially a review of some concepts
presented and used in junior high school.

a. I will be able to describe the need for measurement
b. I will be able to carry out simple measurements of length, volume, and mass
c. I will be able to differentiate the accuracy and the precision of a
measurement
Teacher Tip
a. Measurements
them on flip charts.

b. Units of measurement
c. Accuracy
d. Precision
e. Significant figures
f. Errors
Teacher Tip
1. Present to two plastic bottles containing different amounts of water, and ask
the learners to Alternatively, a small and a big ball of the same
describe and differentiate the two objects. Make them realize the need to use a
number (the color and material can be used. Another option is
volume of the water content or the weight of the bottles and their contents) to
describe the to use a small and a long plastic ruler.
objects more clearly and to differentiate them.
Sample Responses
2. Make them realize the need for a quantitative or a numerical description of some
properties of a. Measuring the ingredients during cooking (or
matter, and how this is applied in their daily lives. Ask them to cite some
situations in daily life baking)
where a measurement is important.
b. Measuring the weight of salt being purchased

Teacher Tip
1. After the motivation, they will see the importance of a quantitative description
of some It is expected that the learners will use the span of
parameters, such as length, mass, and volume.
their fingers, hands, or arms for the measurement.
2. Call two learners separately. Ask each one to measure the length of a table
without using a
ruler, meter stick, or tape measure. Make them write their measurements on the
board
(number, unit: e.g., 3 hand spans).
3. Ask the class to compare the results and explain for differences or
similarities. Ask them to
answer the question: Why is there a need to use a common unit for measurement?
20
4. Introduce the concept of unit of measurement, which is a means for a
quantitative description Teacher Tip
of a property. Highlight the need for a common or universally accepted unit of
measurement. The results of the measurements will be different
because of the difference in the length of their

5. Point out that for scientific measurements, a common system has been agreed upon
and is finger, hand, or arms.
used by all scientists anywhere and all the time. Ask them to answer the
question: What is the
measurement system adopted in scientific measurements?
Make them recall from their Science class in junior
high school that the International System (or SI) of

6 . Post this table on the board and ask them to supply the unit for each property.
Measurement is being used in measurements in
science.
PROPERTY SI Units
Teacher Tip
Length
The table can be presented through PowerPoint
slides projected on a white board. Alternatively, it

Mass
can be prepared on flip charts or on manila paper.
It is expected that they will be able to fill up the

Volume
table, recalling what they have learned from junior
high school.
Time
Temperature
PROPERTY SI Units
Length
7. Ask them to cite some examples where these units of measurements are used in
real life.
Mass
Sample responses:
Volume
• Length – in measuring the height of a person; distances; the size of cloths
Time
• Mass – in measuring the weight of a person; the amount of salt or sugar
being bought
Temperature
• Volume – in measuring the amount of a liquid (e.g. soft drinks)
• Time – in measuring the duration of an event (e.g. to run through a
distance) In case they fail to recall the correct units of
measurement, a short discussion might be
• Temperature – in measuring the body temperature of a person or of the
atmosphere. necessary. Also, refer them to read Chapter 1 of
the resource book (Chang, R. & Goldsby, K.,
Chemistry).
8. Ask them to group into pairs. Tell them to measure the length, width, and
thickness of a
book, and record their results on the following table (to be shown on the
board).
All pairs should measure the same book.
21
MEASUREMENTS TRIAL 1 TRIAL 2
TRIAL 3
Length
Mass
Volume
Teacher Tip
Time
The correct results will include two decimal units.
Temperature
The concept of significant figures has been
presented in junior high school, but it might not
have been fully understood. Therefore, reviewing

9. When the pairs have completed the measurements and recorded their results on the
table, it would be worthwhile. For the guidelines for
ask them to answer the question: How many significant figures did you use in
reporting your using significant figures, see Chapter 1 of the
measurements?
Chemistry).
10. Explain that based on the calibration of the ruler, the measurement is certain
until the first Let them examine the ruler they used.
decimal unit and that the result can include one insignificant or uncertain
figure.
At the end of this short activity, you should
address misconceptions that they have on the

!
concepts presented.
The concepts of accuracy and precision have been
presented in junior high school. It would be worth
reviewing these concepts.
Point out that the closeness of the results of a
measurement to each other is expressed by its

11. Ask them to examine the results of the three measurements that they made on the
length, precision.
width, and thickness of the book.
It is not suggested that they should be made to

quantify precision in terms of standard deviation.
Ask them to answer the following questions:
This will be done in their course on Mathematics
(or Statistics).
a. Are the results of each measurement (length, width or thickness) close to
each other?
b. Were the measurements accurate or precise?
12. Write the actual length, width, and thickness of the book on the board, and ask
them to
compare their results with this value.
22
Ask them to answer the following questions:
Answer Key
It is likely that:
a. Are the results of each measurement (length, width, or thickness) close to
the true value?
a. The results will be close to the true value;

b. Were the measurements accurate or precise?
b. The measurements were accurate
Point out that the closeness of the results of a

13. Let them recall the difference between accuracy and precision. Then, state the
definitions of measurement to the true value is expressed by its
accuracy and precision as used in measurement.
accuracy.
14. Evaluating the accuracy of a measurement will require the true value. However,
the true value
for the dimensions of the book is not available. Point out that if twenty or
more
measurements were done, the mean value can be taken as the true value. This is
an
assumption in statistics.
15. Draw the following dot plots on the board, and explain that each dot is the
result of a
measurement whose value is indicated in the horizontal (or x-) axis. Tell them
that the plot Teacher Tip
presents the results of six measurements of the weight of a pebble whose true
weight is 8.0 g. The dot plot can be drawn on a manila paper
before class, or presented through a PowerPoint

Ask them to determine whether each measurement is accurate or inaccurate, and
precise or
slide.
imprecise.
Answer Key
(A) Accurate and precise
(B) Accurate and imprecise
(C) Inaccurate and imprecise
(D) Inaccurate and precise

23
16 . Highlight that the measurement they made could have errors, which could:
I. Cause the result to be far from the true value (low accuracy). These errors
are known as
systematic errors.
II. Cause the results to be different from each other (low precision). These
errors are known
as random errors.
Teacher Tip
Point out that the errors could be due to the

Ask them to answer the question: What possible errors did the person who made the
measuring instrument or due to the person doing

measurements commit to lower the accuracy of the results? To lower the precision of
the results? the measurement

Teacher Tip
Make the learners perform a laboratory experiment on the determination of density.
This activity
Refer to the Teacher’s Guide for this laboratory

will reinforce the concept of measurements, the units used, and the concept of
significant figures. activity.
1. Assign them to read the labels of some canned or bottled goods in the kitchen,
and report
the mass or volume of the contents.
2. Let them classify the following measurement data as high precision or low
precision:
a. Volume of a liquid: 11.0 cm3, 11.3 cm3, 10.9 cm3, 11.1 cm3
b. Mass of a solid: 25.0 g, 23.0 g, 20.0 g, 28.0 g
24
General Chemistry 1
120 MINS
Lesson 4: Measurements (Laboratory)

Content Standard
The learners demonstrate understanding of basic measurement skills.
Lesson Outline
Introduction State the Objectives of the Experiment 5

Motivation Application of Density Data 5
1. Carry out a measurement and report correctly the results.
Instruction Experiment 90
Enrichment Discussion of the Interpretation of the 20

Learning Competency
Graph
Evaluation Report
1. determine the density of a liquid (STEM_GC11MT-Ib-14).
Materials
Simple
laboratory glassware or low-cost alternatives
Resources
(1)
Laboratory experiment in Annex 1
25
Teacher Tip
A laboratory experiment sheet has to be prepared
1. State the objective of the experiment that the learners will be performing.
and distributed to the learners. The experiment
2. Ask them to recall the definition of density and the formula for calculating it.
found in the Annex makes use of low-cost
3. Review the methods for measuring weight and volume.
materials.
Density is used as a means to obtain the
concentration of a solution.
1. Point out some application of density data in industry.
Each group should be provided with different

concentrations so that the relationship between
density and concentration can be shown. Sugar

1. Provide each group with a salt solution of a given concentration.
solution can be used instead of salt solution.
This relationship can be used as a means to

determine the concentration of a solution.
1. Discuss the interpretation of the graph between density and the concentration of
the solution.
Point out that this relationship is used in industry

2. Assign them internet research on the density of the following:
to monitor the concentration of some solutions.
a. Regular soda in can
The different drinks contain different

b. Light soda in can
concentrations of sugar, so their density will vary.

c. Soda with aspartame in can
3. Ask them to explain the difference in density of these soft drinks.
They could be provided with a worksheet that they
have to fill up. It could include some questions.

EVALUATION
1. Ask them to submit a report on the experiment.


correctly; task.
correctly; and and
but
iii. discussed the results of the iii. discussed the results of the iii.
did not discuss the results of
experiment very well. experiment well.
the experiment.
26 
DENSITY OF AN AQUEOUS SOLUTION
Introduction
Density is an important property of matter. It expresses the weight of a unit
volume of a substance, is used to characterize substances, and can
provide a means for the identification of a solid, a liquid, or a gas.
In this experiment, the density of an aqueous solution will be determined by

measuring the weight of different volumes of these solutions.
Several solutions containing different concentration of a solute will be assigned
to different groups, and the variation of the density of the
solutions with the solute concentration will be studied. The behavior that you will
observe has important applications in industrial and in health
monitoring.
Materials
1. NaCl solution, in 5%, 10%, 15%, and 20% concentrations
2. Digital balance
3. Syringe, 1 mL
4. Plastic mini tray
Procedure
1. Place the plastic mini tray on the stage of the digital balance and measure its
weight.
2. Measure 1 mL of the test solution into the syringe, making sure that no air
bubbles are trapped.
3. Slowly transfer the liquid in the syringe onto the mini tray. Measure the weight
of the tray with the solution in it.
4. Repeat Steps 1 to 3 to provide a duplicate measurement. This will be used to
check the repeatability of the results.
5. Repeat the whole procedure using 2 mL and 3 mL of the solution.
27
Treatment of results
1. Record the weight of the mini tray at the beginning of the experiment. Record
the weight after each addition of 1 mL, 2 mL, and 3 mL of
the sample solution.
MEASUREMENTS TRIAL 1
TRIAL 2
Weight of empty container
Weight of empty container + 1 mL solution
2. From the data above, calculate the weight of each of the different volumes that
you have added to the plastic mini tray by subtracting the
weight before the addition from the weight after the addition. Calculate the
average value of the measured weights.
MEASUREMENTS TRIAL 1
TRIAL 2
Weight of 1 mL solution
28
3. From the data in the previous table, calculate the density of the solution.
Calculate the average value of the density.
MEASUREMENTS
DENSITY OF SOLUTION
Based on 1 mL solution
AVERAGE
4. Obtain the results from the other groups who used different concentrations of
the solution. Tabulate the density of the various solutions
studied.
CONCENTRATION 5% 10%
15% 20%%
Density, g/mL
5. Plot the concentration of the solution (in the x-axis) against its density (in
the y-axis). Infer how the density varies based on the concentration
of the solution.
29
General Chemistry 1
16 0 MINS
Lesson 5: Atoms, Molecules, and Ions

(Lecture)
Content Standard
Lesson Outline
The learners demonstrate understanding of the structure of an atom and the
Introduction Presentation of Learning Objectives and 5

formula and the name of compounds.
Important Keywords
Motivation The Particles that Make Up an Atom 5
Instruction The Laws of Chemical Changes 120

1. Describe the structure of an atom of an element;
2. Recognize and differentiate atoms, molecules, and ions; and
Enrichment Laboratory Session 10
3. Write the formula and give the name of simple compounds.
Evaluation Check Up Quiz 20

Materials
1. Explain how the basic laws of matter (Law of Conservation of
Resources
Mass, Law of Constant Composition, and Law of Multiple
(1)
Chang, R. & Goldsby, K. (2016 ). Chemistry (12th ed.). New York:
Proportion) led to the formulation of Dalton’s Atomic Theory
McGraw-Hill.
(STEM_GC11AM-Ic-e-15);
2. Describe Dalton’s Atomic Theory (STEM_GC11AM-Ic-e-16 );
3. Differentiate among atomic number, mass number, and
isotopes, and which of these distinguishes one element from 7.
Represent compounds using chemical formulas, structural
another (STEM_GC11AM-Ic-e-17);
formulas, and models (STEM_GC11AM-Ic-e-21);
4. Write isotopic symbols (STEM_GC11AM-Ic-e-18); 8. Give
the similarities and differences between the empirical
5. Recognize common isotopes and their uses (STEM_GC11AM- formula
and molecular formula of a compound
Ic-e-19);
(STEM_GC11AM-Ic-e-22); and
6 . Differentiate among atoms, molecules, ions, and give examples 9. Name
compounds given their formula and write formulas given
(STEM_GC11AM-Ic-e-20); the
name of the compound (STEM_GC11AM-Ic-e-23).
30
Teacher Tip
Display the objectives prominently on the board,
1. Introduce the following learning objectives using the suggested protocol (Read-
aloud):
so that the learners can track the progress of their

a. I will be able to describe and discuss the basic laws of chemical change
learning.
b. I will be able to discuss how Dalton’s Atomic Theory could explain the basic
laws of
chemical changes
c. I will be able to give the information provided by the atomic number and mass
number of
an atom and its isotopes
d. I will be able to differentiate atoms, molecules, and ions
e. I will be able to write the chemical formula of some molecules
f. I will be able to differentiate a molecular formula and an empirical
formula
g. I will be able to give the name of a compound, given its chemical formula
Teacher Tip
List these keywords on the board. They will be

a. Law of Conservation of Matter
asked to complete a concept map based on words
on this list.
b. Law of Definite Proportion
c. Law of Multiple Proportion
d. Dalton’s Atomic Theory
e. Atomic number
f. Mass number
g. Isotope
h. Atom
i. Molecule
j. Ion
k. Chemical formula
l. Molecular formula
m. Empirical formula
31
Teacher Tip
The law might have been presented in the Science
1. Call one of the learners to the front and give him/her a piece of paper. Ask
him/her to cut the
course in junior high school. In this case, ask a

paper in half, and then cut one of the halves again in half, and again and
again. Let him/her learner to state the law.A PowerPoint slide can be
proceed as long as s/he can cut a piece into half.
prepared for this part.
2. Ask him/her the question: Can you go on cutting the paper into half?
3. Tell him/her that though the cutting can go on and on mentally, there is a
physical limit to this
process. It is impossible to cut the paper into half forever. There is a limit –
a point where the
piece can no longer be divided.
4. Highlight that the limit is an indivisible piece, which was called by the Greek
philosopher
Democritus as the atom.
5. However, beginning in the late 1800s, experiments have indicated that atoms are
made up of
smaller particles.
6 . Ask them the question: What are these particles that make up the atom?
7. Point out that the science of chemistry is based on the concept of the atom and
molecules.
Knowledge of the atoms and molecules in the environment and in biological
systems has
provided an understanding of the changes occurring in them. It has also allowed
the
prediction of their behavior and the solution to any problem observed in their
behavior.

1. Present the laws of chemical changes. These laws were inferred from several
experiments
conducted during the 18th century using a balance for the measurements:
a. Law of Conservation of Mass
c. Law of Multiple Proportion
2. Introduce the Law of Conservation of Mass: In a chemical reaction, no change in
mass takes
place. The total mass of the products is equal to the total mass of the
reactant.
3. Antoine Lavoisier, a brilliant French chemist, formulated this law by describing
one of his
experiments involving mercuric oxide. He placed a small amount of mercuric
oxide, a red
solid, inside a retort and sealed the vessel tightly.
32
He weighed the system, and then subjected it to high temperature. During the
heating, the red Teacher Tip
solid turned into a silvery liquid. This observation indicated that a chemical
reaction took place. The law might have been presented in the Science

After which, the setup was cooled and then weighed. The weight of the system was
found to be learner to state the law.A PowerPoint slide can be
the same as before heating.
prepared for this part.
Illustrate an application of this law through the following problems. Ask them to
solve the
problems in their seats, and ask one learner to write his/her solution on the
board:
a. How many grams of water will be formed if 1.00 g hydrogen gas reacts with
8.00 g
oxygen? The reaction can be represented by the following word equation:
hydrogen + oxygen ! water
b. 5.58 g iron reacted with 3.21 g sulfur. How many grams of iron (II) sulfide
were produced?
The reaction involved was:
iron + sulfur ! iron(II) sulfide
c. Magnesium burns in air to form magnesium oxide, as represented by the

following word
equation:
magnesium + oxygen ! magnesium oxide
When 2.43 g magnesium was burned, 4.03 g magnesium oxide was produced. How
many
grams of oxygen reacted with the magnesium?
d. Ammonia is produced by the reaction of nitrogen with hydrogen:
nitrogen + hydrogen ! ammonia
33
How many grams of nitrogen combined with 50.0 g hydrogen is needed to yield
283.3 g Teacher Tip
ammonia?
The law might have been presented in the Science
learner to state the law.

4. State the Law of Definite Proportion: A compound always contains the same
constituent
elements in a fixed or definite proportion by mass.
This experiment can be best described using a
PowerPoint slide. A picture of the burning
magnesium can be included in the slide.

If water samples coming from different sources are analyzed, all the samples
will contain the
same ratio by mass of hydrogen to oxygen.
5. Illustrate the application of this law using the previous example of magnesium
reacting with
oxygen:
a. Describe an experiment wherein different amounts of magnesium powder are
heated
in air.
b. Magnesium burns brightly in air and reacts with oxygen. During the
reaction, the gray
powder turns into a white substance. The reaction causes the weight of
the solid to
increase.
c. The following data were collected:
WEIGHT OF RATIO
OF MASS Magnesium Product Oxygen Ratio
WEIGHTS OF WEIGHT OF OXYGEN OF
OXYGEN TO 3.00 7.56  4.56  1.52
MAGNESIUM PRODUCT COMBINED WITH MASS
OF
MAGNESIUM
MAGNESIUM 5.00 12.6 0 7.6 0 1.52
7.00 17.6 4 10.6 4 1.52

Length
Mass
Volume
Time
Temperature
34
d. Ask them to complete the third column by applying the Law of Conservation
of Mass.
e. Ask them to fill up the fourth column by dividing the mass of oxygen
(third column) by
the mass of the magnesium (first column).
6 . Ask them to solve the following problems:

Teacher Tip
Ask them to solve the problem in their seats. Call

a. In the first problem given earlier, it was given that 1.00 g hydrogen
combines with 8.00 g one learner to write his/her solution on the board.
oxygen. How many grams of hydrogen will react with 10.00 g oxygen?
b. In the previous set of problem, it was seen that 5.58 g iron reacted with
3.21 g sulfur. Answer Key
Based on this information, calculate how many grams of iron will combine with
80.0 g 1. 1.25 g
Solution:
sulfur.
2. 139 g
Solution:
7. Present the Law of Multiple Proportions: If two elements can combine to form
more than
one compound, the masses of one element that will combine with a fixed mass of
the other
element are in a ratio of small whole numbers.
8. Illustrate the application of this law using the example of carbon which reacts
with oxygen to The law might have been presented in the Science
form carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide.
learner to state the law.

a. In carbon monoxide, 1.00 g carbon combines with 1.33 g oxygen; whereas, in
carbon
dioxide, 1.00 g carbon combines with 2.6 6  g oxygen.
Pictures or meta cards with chemical formulas may
be posted on the board and used to facilitate

b. It can be seen that the ratio is 1:2.
discussion. It is highly encouraged to use pictures
of actual substances.
9. Remind them that laws are derived from experimental results. A theory is
formulated to
provide an explanation to the laws.
35
Dalton’s Atomic Theory, proposed by John Dalton, can be used to explain the laws of
chemical Teacher Tip
change. This theory is based on the following set of postulates:
Draw atoms to clarify each postulate, particularly
Postulates 2, 3, and 4.
1. Elements are made up of very small particles known as atoms.
2. All the atoms of an element are identical in mass and size, and are different
from the atoms Drawing the Dalton symbols for the element will
facilitate the understanding of Postulates 2 and 3.

of another element. Dalton used the different shapes or figures to represent
different
elements, as follows:
•
Oxygen Hydrogen Carbon Nitrogen Sulfur
Phosphorus
3. Compounds are composed of atoms of more than one element, combined in definite
ratios
with whole number values.
Carbon Carbon Nitric

monoxide dioxide oxide
4. During a chemical reaction, atoms combine, separate, or rearrange. No atoms are

created
and no atoms disappear.
+""""2
Carbon Oxygen Carbon
dioxide
5. Ask them which postulate could provide an explanation for the:

Answer Key
a. Postulate 4
a. Law of Conservation of Mass
b. Postulate 3
6 . Remind them that during the time of Dalton, the atom was believed to be the
smallest
particle comprising substances. However, before the end of the 19th century,
experiments
provided proof of the existence of smaller particles within the atom.
36 
7. Ask them to recall the particles contained in an atom (or the subatomic
particles) and Teacher Tip
differentiate the particles in terms of location, charge, and relative mass by
filling up the This has been presented in the Science course in
junior high school.

following table:
PARTICLE LOCATION CHARGE RELATIVE

MASS PARTICLE LOCATION CHARGE
RELATIVE
MASS
PROTON Nucleus +1 1
Outside
ELECTRON -1 0.0006 
nucleus
NEUTRON Nucleus 0 1
Ask them to recall the information about the composition of an atom provided by
the
following:
As enrichment, assign them to read and make a
report on the discovery of the existence of the

a. Atomic number
electron, proton, and nucleus.

b. Mass number
The concepts of atomic number and mass number
have been presented in the Science course in

Confirm that the above numbers are defined by the following equations:
junior high school.
a. Atomic number = number of protons = number of electrons in a neutral atom
The table can be presented through PowerPoint

b. Mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons
slides projected on a white board. Alternatively, it
can be prepared on a flip chart or on manila paper.
8. To apply these concepts, ask them to fill up the following table:
ATOMIC MASS NUMBER OF NUMBER OF

NUMBER OF Atomic Mass Number of Number of Number of
Number number Protons electrons neutrons

NUMBER NUMBER PROTONS ELECTRONS
NEUTRON
4 9 4 4 5
4 9
14 28 14 14 14
14 28
8 7 8 8 9
8
9
11 23 11 11 12
11
12
24 52 24 24 28
52 24
19 39 19 19 20
19
20
37
9. Introduce the concept of isotopes – atoms of an element having the same atomic
number Teacher Tip
but different mass number. The existence of isotopes was shown by mass
spectroscopy For better understanding of the concept of
isotopes, they can be assigned to read about mass

experiments, wherein elements were found to be composed of several types of
atoms, each
spectroscopy. Make them refer to General

with different masses.
Chemistry books instead of the internet, because
a. The atomic number identifies an element. The atoms of isotopes of an
element have the latter might lead them to complicated
description of this technique.

the same number of protons and electrons.
b. The atoms of isotopes of an element differ in the number of neutrons.
Ask them to answer the following questions
afterwards:
1. What does a mass spectrometer do?

10. To apply the concept of isotopes, ask them to complete the following table
containing 2. How does the mass spectro-meter separate
information about the isotopes of hydrogen:
isotopes of different masses?
The table can be presented in PowerPoint slides

PROTIUM
projected on a white board. Alternatively, it can
ISOTOPE DEUTERIUM
TRITIUM
(Hydrogen)
be prepared in flip charts or on manila paper.
Atomic Number 1 1 1
ISOTOPE PROTIUM DEUTERIUM TRITIUM

Mass number 1 2 3
Atomic
1 1 1
Number
Number of protons
Mass
Number of electrons
1 2 3
number
Number of neutrons
Number of
1 1 0
protons
The common hydrogen atom is protium, while deuterium is found in heavy water.
Number of
1 1 1
electrons
Ask them to recall the difference between the following particles:
Number of
a. Atom
1 1 2
neutrons
b. Molecule
c. Ion
38
Let them complete the following concept map showing the relationship of these
particles: Assign them to find information from the internet
on useful isotopes. These concepts might have
been presented in the Science course in junior

Atoms
high school.
Gain of Loss of
Answer Key:
electrons electrons
? ?
11. Emphasize that each element has a characteristic atom.

The concepts of characteristic atoms and ions
a. Dalton differentiated the elements and their atoms through drawings.
might have been presented in the Science course
in junior high school.

b. However, in present day, elements are differentiated and represented through
symbols.
i. Many symbols are abbreviations derived from the name of the element.
Atoms
ii. Some symbols are derived from their Latin names.
Gain of Loss of
electrons electrons
Call five or more learners to write some elements and their names and symbol on
the board. CATIONS ANIONS
(Positive Ions) (Negative Ions)

Make them recall that the difference between an ion and an atom is the presence
of charges.
The simple ions are derived from atoms through the gain or loss of an electron.
Let them complete the following concept map showing the relationship of these
particles: An alternative diagram could be:
Ions can be made up of only one atom (monoatomic) or more than one type of atom
(polyatomic).
39
12. Monoatomic ions are named based on the element.
Teacher Tip
The naming of the compound or molecule will be

a. For cations, the name of the element is unchanged. If an element can form two
ions of discussed later.
different charges, the name, which is usually derived from its Latin name, is
modified by
the suffix –ic for the ion with the higher charge, and –ous for that with the
lower charge.
b. For anions, the name of the element is modified by the suffix –ide.
Answers for Number 13

13. Ask them to name the following cations:
a. Zn2+ – zinc ion
a. Zn2+
b. Mg2+ – magnesium ion
c. K+ – potassium ion
b. Mg2+
d. Fe2+ – ferrous ion or iron (II) ion
c. K+
e. Fe3+ – ferric ion or iron(III) ion
d. Fe2+
e. Fe3+
a. Br- – bromide ion
b. S2- – sulfide ion
c. O2- – oxide ion

14. Ask them to name the following anions:
d. I- – iodide
a. Br-
Teacher Tip
b. S2-
Provide them with a list of the common anions,
together with their names.

c. O2-
d. I-
Several anions are polyatomic and are named based on the atomic constituents and
the
suffix – ide.
15. The most common examples are:

a. OH- – hydroxide ion
b. CN- – cyanide ion
40
16 . A number of polyatomic anions containing oxygen atoms are named based on the
root word
of the central (or non-oxygen) atom and the suffix –ate for the one with more
oxygen atoms
and –ite for the one with less oxygen atom.
a. NO3- – nitrate ion
b. NO2- – nitrite ion
c. SO32- – sulfite ion
d. SO42- – sulfate ion
e. PO43- – phosphate ion
17. Some anions have common names ending with the suffix –ate.
a. C2H3O2- – acetate ion
b. C2O42- – oxalate ion
Teacher Tip
They might be able to recall some compounds that

Point out that the composition of a molecule or an ion can be represented by a
chemical have been presented in the Science course in
formula. The formula consists of the symbols of the atoms making up the
molecule. If there junior high school, such as sodium chloride and
is more than one atom present, a numerical subscript is used. Examples are the
following: carbon dioxide.
a. O2 – oxygen gas
b. H2O – water
c. NaOH – sodium hydroxide (liquid Sosa)
d. HCl – hydrochloric acid (muriatic acid)
18. Discuss that there are two types of chemical formulas:

a. Molecular formula – gives the composition of the molecule, in terms of the
actual
number of atoms present. Examples are the following:
i. C6 H12O6 
ii. K3PO4
iii. Na2C2O4
41
b. Empirical formula – gives the composition of the molecule, in terms of the
smallest ratio
of the number of atoms present. Examples are the following:
i. CH2O
ii. NaCO2
i. NaI – sodium iodide

19. The naming of compounds follows a set of rules.
ii. MgCl2 – magnesium chloride
Start the lesson with the rule of naming of binary compounds. Binary compounds –
made iii. FeS – iron (II) sulfide
up of two elements. Discuss the rules for naming in two groups of binary
compounds: iv. K2O – potassium oxide
a. Ionic compounds – made up of a cation and an anion. They are named by giving
the
name of the cation first, followed by the name of the anion. Ask them to name
the
following compounds:
i. NaI
ii. MgCl2
iii. FeS
iv. K2O

b. Molecular compounds – made up of two non-metals. They are named by giving the
i. HCl – hydrogen chloride
ii. CO2 – carbon dioxide

name of the first nonmetal and then that of the second nonmetal modified by
the ending - iii. SO3 – sulfur trioxide
ide. Molecular compounds are usually gases. Ask them to name the following
compounds:
i. HCl
ii. CO2
iii. SO3
20. After they have learned how to name binary compounds, discuss the rules for
naming
ternary compounds – made up of three elements. The naming of ternary compounds
follows the same rule as that of the binary ionic compound: the name of the
cation is given
first, followed by the name of the anion.
42
i. NaNO3 – sodium nitrate

Ask them to name the following compounds:
ii. BaCrO4 – barium chromate
i. NaNO3
iii. K2SO4 – potassium sulfate
ii. BaCrO4
iii. K2SO4
Answers for Number 21.a
i. HCl – hydrochloric acid

21. Discuss next the naming of acids. Acids – yield hydrogen ions in aqueous
solutions. ii. H2S – hydrosulfuric acid
iii. HI – hydroiodic acid

a. Binary acids – composed of hydrogen and another element, usually a nonmetal.
The first
part of the name starts with the prefix hydro- followed by the name of the
element,
modified by the ending –ic. The second part consists of the word ‘acid’. Name
= hydro-
(root name of element) -ic + acid
Ask them to name the following binary acids:

i. HCl
ii. H2S
iii. HI
Answers for Number 21.b
i. HNO3 – nitric acid

b. Ternary acids – made up of hydrogen and an anion, usually containing oxygen.
The first ii. HNO2 – nitrous acid
part of the name consists of the root word of the name of the element,
modified by the iii. H2SO4 – sulfuric acid
ending –ic. The second part consists of the word ‘acid’. If there is another
acid with the iv. H2SO3 – sulfurous acid
v. H3PO4 – phosphoric acid

same atoms, the suffix –ous is used to denote the one with less number of
atoms. Name =
(root name of element) -ic (or –ous) + acid
Ask them to name the following ternary acids:

i. HNO3
ii. HNO2
iii. H2SO4
iv. H2SO3
v. H3PO4
43
i. Silver nitrate – AgNO3

22. After they have become familiar with the naming of compounds, it would be easy
to write the ii. Potassium iodide – KI
formula of the compound. Emphasize that in writing the formula, the total
positive charges iii. Nitrogen dioxide – NO2
of the cations should be equal to the total of the negative charges of the
anion. The net iv. Barium chloride – BaCl2
charge should be zero.
v. Hydrobromic acid – HBr
Ask them to write the formula of the following compounds, given the name of the
compound:
i. Silver nitrate
ii. Potassium iodide
iii. Nitrogen dioxide
iv. Barium chloride
v. Hydrobromic acid
Teacher Tip
Refer to the laboratory teaching guide of this

ENRICHMENT
lesson as well as the Formula Writing and Naming
1. Conduct a laboratory session on the naming of compounds and on formula writing.
of Compounds data table.

Check-up Quiz
Choose the best answer from among the choices given:
1. In one experiment, 0.558 g element X was found to react with 0.320 g element Y
to form
only one product, compound Z. How many grams of compound Z were formed?
A. 0.238 g C. 0.558 g
B. 0.320 g D. 0.878 g
2. When 24.3 g magnesium reacts completely with 16 .0 g oxygen, exactly 40.3 g
magnesium
oxide is formed. Which of the following laws is illustrated by this observation?
A. Law of Definite Proportion C. Law of Conservation of Mass
B. Law of Multiple Proportion D. Law of Conservation of Energy
44
3. Which of the following statements is consistent with Dalton’s Atomic Theory?
A. The atoms of element A are identical with the atoms of another element D.
B. The atoms of element A have the same mass as the atoms of another element D.
C. The atoms of element A are different from the atoms of another element D.
D. The atoms of element A have the same properties as the atoms of another
element D.
4. According to Dalton’s atomic theory, which of the following is involved in a

chemical
reaction?
A. The conversion of one atom into another C. The formation of a new atom
B. The combination of atoms D. The disappearance of an atom
5. Which of the following subatomic particles has the smallest mass?

A. Electron C. Proton
B. Neutron D. Nucleus
6 . In which of the following quantities will two isotopes of an element have
different values?
A. Atomic number C. Number of protons
B. Mass number D. Number of electrons
7. Which of the following information on the number of protons (p), electrons (e)
and neutrons
(n) is correct for 92 U238?
A. 92 p, 92 n, 92 e C. 238 p, 146  n, 238 e
B. 92 p, 146  n, 92 e D. 146  p, 82 n, 92 e
8. What is the mass number of an atom which has 11 protons, 11 electrons, and 12
neutrons?
A. 11 C. 22
B. 12 D. 23
45
9. Which of the following data is correct for the Mg2+ ion (atomic number = 12)?
A. 12 protons and 13 electrons C. 14 protons and 12 electrons
B. 12 protons and 10 electrons D. 12 protons and 14 electron
10. Which of the following symbols corresponds to the element tin?

A. Ti C. Pb
B. Zn D. Sn
11. Which of the following takes place when a monovalent cation is formed from an
atom?
A. One electron is gained. C. Two electrons are gained.
B. One electron is lost. D. Two electrons are shared.
12. Which of the following anions is polyatomic?

A. Iodide C. Sulfide
B. Nitrite D. Bromide
13. Which of the following is the correct formula of copper (II) nitrate?
A. CuNO3 C. Cu(NO3)2
B. Cu2NO3 D. Cu2(NO3)2
14. Which of the following is a binary compound?

A. Sodium nitrate C. Sodium hydroxide
B. Sodium oxide D. Sodium carbonate
46 
General Chemistry 1
90 MINS
Lesson 6 : Atoms, Molecules,

and Ions (Laboratory)
Lesson Outline
Introduction Review 15
Content Standard
The learners demonstrate an understanding of the formula and the name of
Motivation Names and Formulas of Compounds 5
compounds.
Practice
Activity 70
Enrichment Discussion of Answers
Materials
1. Write the formula and give the name of simple compounds. Exercise
sheets
Learning Competency
Resources
(1)
McGraw-Hill.
1. Write the chemical formulas of ionic compounds and name ionic
compounds from their formulas (STEM_GC11AM-Ic-e-24).
47
Teacher Tip
Point out that the formula gives qualitative and
quantitative information about the composition of

a compound. It shows what elements make up the
1. Reiterate to the learners the importance of the names and formulas of compounds.
Make compound (qualitative information) and the mole
them recall the basic rules involved in formula writing and chemical
nomenclature. ratio of the elements (quantitative information).
2. Review the symbols of the common elements encountered in compound.

Call the learners one by one and ask him/her to
3. State the objective of the exercise that they will work on for the laboratory
period. give the symbol of an element which you will
name.
Teacher Tip
The exercise worksheet given in Annex 1 could be
1. Point out that the names and formulas of compounds will be needed in the
succeeding adopted or revised.
lessons, particularly in writing chemical equations.
Each learner will work independently. It might be
best to keep the exercise as a closed-book activity,

PRACTICE (70 minutes)
and discourage them from consulting one another.
1. Provide each of them a copy of the exercise worksheet, and ask them to answer
the exercise.
At the end of the exercise, let them check the
answers of their fellow learners who are seated
away from them.

ENRICHMENT
1. Ask them to identify where they committed mistakes. Discuss the correct answers.
EVALUATION
The learner answered more than The learner answered 70% to 89% The
learner answered less than The learner did not answer any
90% of the items correctly. of the items correctly. 70% of
the items correctly. item correctly.
48
FORMULA WRITING AND NAMING OF COMPOUNDS
Section 1: Ion names Section 2:

Ions from formulas
Complete the table by writing the name or formula of the ionic Complete the
chart by writing the formula of the ions and of the
species. compounds.
ION NAME COMPOUND

POSITIVE ION NEGATIVE ION
Na+ KCl
Ca2+ Ba(NO3)2
magnesium ion FeSO4
manganese (II) ion Li2CO3
Fe3+ Na2O
chromium (III) ion (NH4)2SO4
Ba2+ Al(OH)3
Cl-
NO3-
phosphate ion
OH-
chromate ion
C2O42-
permanganate ion
49
Section 3: Writing formulas from chemical names Section 4:
Chemical names from formulas
Write the formula of the ions expected from the following Write the
chemical name of the ions expected from the following
compounds. compounds.
POSITIVE NEGATIVE
POSITIVE NEGATIVE
COMPOUND FORMULA FORMULA
NAME
ION ION
ION ION
Calcium ZnCl2
sulfate
K3PO4
Potassium
Cu(NO3)2
chloride
Na2CrO4
Tin (IV) oxide
Ni(OH)2
Lead iodide BaO
Bismuth (NH4)2C2O4
nitrate
Sodium
carbonate
Strontium
chromate
50
Section 5: Binary covalent compounds Section 6 :
Acids and bases
Complete the table below by filling up the missing formula or Complete the
table below by filling up the missing formula or
chemical name. chemical name.
FORMULA NAME FORMULA

NAME
NO2
hydroiodic acid
phosphorus trichloride
potassium hydroxide
carbon monoxide HClO
SbBr5 H2S
sulfur tetraiodide
perchloric acid
hydrogen peroxide Zn(OH)2
P2O5 H3PO4
silicon dioxide
nickel(II) hydroxide
nitrogen trifluoride
sulfuric acid
CI4 HNO2
Mg(OH)2
carbonic acid
51
General Chemistry 1
6 0 MINS
Lesson 7: Atomic Mass

Content Standard
Lesson Outline
The learners demonstrate an understanding of the mole concept in relation to
Avogadro’s number and mass.
Motivation Activity: Counting by Weighing 10
The learners shall be able to design, using multimedia, demonstrations, or
Instruction Average Atomic Mass 35

models, a representation or simulation of any of the following:
1. Atomic structure
Enrichment Vitamins and Minerals
2. Mass relationships in reactions
Learning Competency
Resources
(1)
Burdge, J & Overby, J. (2012). Chemistry: Atoms first. New York:
McGraw-Hill.
1. Explain relative atomic mass and average atomic mass (STEM_GC11S- (2)
Chang, R. &Goldsby, K. (2016 ). Chemistry. (12th ed.). New York:
Ie-25).
McGraw-Hill.
(3)
Isotopes and atomic mass [Simulation]. Retrieved from Phet Interactive
Simulations website: https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/

Specific Learning Outcomes
isotopes-and-atomic-mass
At the end of the lesson, the learners shall be able to: (4)
Moore, J.W., Stanitski, C.L. &Jurs, P.C. (2012). Chemistry: The
molecular science (4th ed.). Belmont, CA: Brooks Cole/Cengage

1. Define atomic mass unit;
Learning.
2. Calculate the average atomic mass of elements; (5)
Zumdahl, SS. & Zumdahl, S.A. (2012). Chemistry: An atoms first
approach. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole Cengage Learning.

3. Determine the average molecular mass of molecules; and
4. Determine the average formula mass of ionic compounds.
52
1. Introduce the following learning objectives using any of the suggested protocol
(Verbatim,
Own Words, or Read-aloud):
a. Define atomic mass unit
b. Calculate the average atomic mass of elements
c. Determine the average molecular mass of molecules
d. Determine the average formula mass of ionic compounds
a. Atomic mass unit (amu)
b. Average atomic mass
c. Molecular mass
d. Formula mass
e. Avogadro’s number
f. Mole

3. Review isotopes
a. Isotopes are atoms that have the same
a. What are isotopes?
number of protons but different number of
neutrons.)
b. Give examples of isotopes.
b. Here are some examples of isotopes:
c. What is the similarity between Mg-24 and Mg-25? What is their difference?
i. U-235 and U-238
ii. O-17 and O-18
iii. Kr-80, Kr-82, Kr-83

c. Mg-24 and Mg-25 both have 12 protons.
However, Mg-24 has 12 neutrons while Mg-25

Activity: Counting by Weighing
has 13 neutrons.
1. Ask the learners if they can count objects by weighing them. Present to them
this situation:
Ms. Lilia sells shelled peanuts in a store. But she meets customers asking for
150 peanuts,
another for 750 peanuts, and another for 2,000 peanuts. Obviously, it will take
Ms. Lilia a very
long time to count the peanuts. What would be another way to count them?
53
Ms. Lilia takes 20 peanuts and weighs them. She finds out that 20 peanuts weigh 32
g. How Teacher Tip
much then will each peanut weigh?
Display the question clearly. Present the problem
to the class.
This activity can be done as a class or in groups.
Give them about five minutes to reflect on the
problem. Then, guide them to the process and

Hence the weight of 150 peanuts would be:
the answer using the example given.
Take note and emphasize that not all the peanuts
will have the same mass of 1.6  g. They are not all
identical. Some will be heavier while some will be
lighter. What was done was to get the average

It will be easier to weigh the peanuts than to count them.
mass of the peanut and 1.6  g is the average mass
of a peanut. However, for purposes of counting,

Now, 96 0 g is appropriately how many peanuts?
what is needed is only the average mass.
This method of counting by weighing is useful for
counting very small objects, e.g. small candies,
beans, etc.
Ask them to draw a conclusion. Is it possible to count objects by weighing?

Summarize the Answer Key
The procedure is as follows:

procedure done with the peanuts. This can be done with other objects like mongo
beans,
1. Count a given number of peanuts and weigh

marbles, etc.
them.
2. Get the average mass of a peanut. This
assumes that the objects are identical.
3. Divide the mass of a sample of peanuts by the
average mass to get the number of peanuts in

the sample.
54
Teacher Tip
Ask them to check the meaning of the word
relative when used as an adjective. Ask them to

What is the Atomic Mass and the Atomic Mass Unit?
provide their source of information. Then, let
them express the meaning in English and in
Filipino.
Relate the exercise on counting peanuts by weighing to counting atoms. Ask them if
it is possible
to use the same procedure to count atoms. Why or why not?
Briefly, relative, when used as an adjective, means
‘compared to something or to someone’.
Whether it is peanuts or mongo beans or candies or atoms, the

Emphasize that they should always use the
procedure should be the same. The problem, however, is
appropriate unit in calculations. For atomic mass,
atoms are very, very small and it is not possible to see them and
the unit is amu.
count them individually to get the average mass. We need to

look for another way to get the average mass of the atom.
Additional information:
A mass spectrometer is used to experimentally

Experiments have shown that atoms have different masses
compare and determine the masses of atoms to a
very high degree of accuracy.

relative to one another. For example, a Mg atom is
experimentally reported to be twice as heavy as a carbon atom;
Answer key
a silicon atom is twice the mass of a nitrogen atom. It is
6 .410 x 12 amu = 76 .92 amu
possible to make a relative scale if one atom is chosen as the
reference or standard atom against which the masses of the
other atoms are measured.
By international agreement, the reference atom chosen is the C-12 isotope which
contains six
protons and six neutrons. By definition, one atom of C-12 has a mass of exactly 12
atomic mass
units (amu). One amu, therefore, is one-twelfth (1/12) the mass of a C-12 atom.
The atomic mass of Cu-6 3 is 6 2.93 amu. This means that relative to C-12, one atom
of Cu-6 3 is
6 2.93/12 or 5.244 times the mass of a C-12 atom.
Ask them to answer this example:
One atom of Se-77 is 6 .410 times as heavy as an atom of C-12. What is the atomic
mass of
Se-77?
55
Average Atomic Mass
Teacher Tip
Now, ask them to look up the atomic mass for carbon in the periodic table. The
expected answer They should all have the same version of the
periodic table so that average atomic masses are

is 12.01 amu. Then, proceed to explaining the average atomic mass.
reported with the same number of significant
figures.
If C has six protons and six neutrons, why is the relative atomic mass of carbon
given as 12.01
amu and not 12 amu? There are no individual atoms of carbon with a mass of 12.01
amu.
Ask them to look up the atomic masses of other
elements to familiarize them with using the

The periodic table provides the average atomic mass which takes into account the
different periodic table.
isotopes of an element and their relative abundances. It is not a simple average
that is taken but
a weighted average.
Illustrate a weighted average using final grade calculation:
For the class in Chem 345, the teacher informs the class that the final grade will
be based on
Exam 1 (15%), Exam 2 (15%), Problem Sets (30%), and Final Exam (40%). To pass the
course, the
learner must get a final grade of 75% or higher. Calculate the final grade of
learner Ms. Julita if
she got the following scores:
You may want to show the difference between
SCORES OF
COMPONENTS OF FINAL GRADE WEIGHT
simple average and weighted average using the
MS. JULITA same values in the example given.
Exam 1 15.0%
83%
Always observe the use of significant figures in

Exam 2 15.0%
95% calculations.
Problem Sets 30.0%

6 5%
Final Exam 40.0%

88%
The final grade will be computed as follows:
(.150 x .83) + (.150 x .95%) + (.300 x .6 5) + (.400 x .88) = 81%
Therefore, Ms. Julita passes the course!

56 
Isotopes of elements occur in different abundances. Some are more abundant than
others. Teacher Tip
Chlorine has two isotopes. The natural abundance of Cl-35 is 75% while that of Cl-
37 is 25%. Note that the atomic mass of C-12 is exactly 12
This means that if you have 100 atoms of chlorine, 75 of them will be Cl-35 and 25
of them will be amu. In calculations, this is treated as an exact
number.
Cl-37. Magnesium, on the other hand, has three isotopes with varying abundances:
Mg-24,
Mg-25, and Mg-26 , 11.01 have 78.99%, 10.00%, and 11.01% abundance, respectively.
Review how exact numbers are treated in
calculations.
For carbon, the natural abundance of C-12 is 98.90% while that of C-13 is 1.10%.
The atomic Misconception
mass of C-13 has been determined to be 13.00335 amu while that of C-12 is exactly
12 amu. They may think that there is a carbon atom with a
Now, we calculate the average atomic mass of carbon:
mass of 12.01 amu. There is none. There are only
atoms of C-12 and C-13. The value 12.01 amu is
an average atomic mass.

= (atomic mass of C-12) (% abundance of C-12) + (atomic mass of C-13) (%
abundance of C-13)
= (12.0000 amu) (.9890) + (13.00335 amu) (.0110)
= 12.01 amu
Ask them to answer these practice exercises:

Answer Key
1. Co (58.93 amu), Be (9.012 amu), Al (26 .98

1. From the periodic table, look up the average atomic mass of the following
elements: Co, Be, amu), Zn (6 5.39 amu)
Al, Zn.
2. 6 3.55 amu
3. 10.81 amu; the element is boron

2. Copper has two stable isotopes with the following masses and % abundances: Cu-6 3
(6 2.93
amu, 6 9.09% abundance) and Cu-6 5 (6 4.9278 amu, 30.91% abundance). Calculate the
Ensure that they observe the proper use of
average atomic mass of copper.
significant figures in all their calculations.
3. An element consists of an isotope with mass of 10.0129 amu and 19.91% abundance,
and
another isotope with mass of 11.0093 amu and 80.09% abundance. Calculate the
average
atomic mass of this element. Refer to the periodic table and identify the
element.
57
Average Molecular Mass (also referred to as molecular mass)
Teacher Tip
The molecular mass is the sum of the average atomic masses of the atoms in the
molecule. Note the difference between molecular mass and
formula mass. Molecular mass is used for covalent

Ask them to answer the following examples:
compounds while formula mass is used for ionic
1. What is the molecular mass of carbon dioxide, CO2?
compounds.
2. Determine the molecular mass of the following molecules:

For brevity, many books refer to the average
a. Water, H2O
molecular mass as simply molecular mass.
b. Methane, CH4
Answer Key
1. Molecular mass of CO2
= atomic mass of C + 2 (atomic mass of O)
= 12.01 amu + 2 (16 .00 amu)
= 44.01 amu
2. a. molecular mass of water = 18.02 amu
b. molecular mass of methane
= 16 .04 amu
Teacher Tip
Average Formula Mass (also referred to as formula mass)
Keep the examples simple. It is the concept that

The formula mass is the sum of the atomic masses of the atoms in the ionic
compound. needs to be introduced. This will be taken up
again in the next lesson.
Answer key
1. Formula mass of NaCl

= atomic mass of Na + atomic mass of Cl)

1. What is the formula mass of sodium chloride, NaCl?
= 22.99 amu + 35.45 amu = 58.44 amu
2. Formula mass of MgCl2 = 95.21 amu

2. What is the formula mass of magnesium chloride, MgCl2?
58
Vitamins and minerals
Teacher Tip
1. Vitamins and minerals are nutrients for the body. An example of a vitamin is
Vitamin C. Look This can be given as an assignment.
up the molecular formula of Vitamin C and determine its average molecular mass.
What is
another common name for Vitamin C? Give at least one important use of Vitamin C
in the
body.
2. Minerals include potassium, calcium, iron, and zinc. Look up the average atomic
mass of
calcium, Ca. Give at least one important use of Ca in the body.

Answer Key
Check-up quiz
1. 79.90 amu
2. 6 .6 53 times heavier

Answer the following questions. Place the answers in the space provided. Show
calculations 3. Osmium, Os
where applicable. Observe the use of significant figures for calculations and
indicate the 4. 6 .94 amu
appropriate units. Learners can use the periodic table to answer the questions.
5. Lithium, Li
6 . Two elements; Carbon and Hydrogen
7. 106 .16  amu
______1. From the periodic table, look up the average atomic mass of bromine, Br.
8. 74.55 amu
______2. How much heavier is an atom of Br relative to an atom of carbon?

______3. Which element in the periodic table has an average atomic mass that is
about ten times
that of fluorine?
Element A consists of isotope A-6  with natural abundance of 7.5% and a mass of
6 .0151 amu, and
isotope A-7 with natural abundance 92.5% and mass of 7.016 0 amu.
______4. Calculate the average atomic mass of element A.

______5. Identify Element A.
Naphthalene has the molecular formula C8H10.

______6 . How many elements make up one molecule of naphthalene? What are they?
______7. What is the molecular mass of naphthalene?
______8. What is the formula mass of potassium chloride, KCl?
59
General Chemistry 1
120 MINS
Lesson 8: The Mole Concept and Molar

Mass (Lecture)
Content Standard
Lesson Outline
Instruction The Mole Concept and Molar Mass 75

1. Atomic structure
Enrichment Relating the Mole to Real Life Situations 15

Resources
(1) Burdge, J & Overby, J. (2012). Chemistry: Atoms first. New York:
1. Define a mole (STEM_GC11S-Ie-26 );
McGraw-Hill.
2. Illustrate Avogadro’s number with examples (STEM_GC11S-Ie-27);
(2) Chang, R. & Goldsby, K. (2016 ). Chemistry. (12th ed.). New York:
3. Determine the molar mass of elements and compounds (STEM_GC11S-
McGraw-Hill.
Ie-28);
(3) Moore, J.W., Stanitski, C.L. & Jurs, P.C. (2012). Chemistry: The
4. Calculate the mass of a given number of moles of an element or
compound, or vice versa (STEM_GC11S-Ie-29); and
Learning.
5. Calculate the mass of a given number of particles of an element or
(4) Zumdahl, SS. & Zumdahl, S.A. (2012). Chemistry: An atoms first

compound, or vice versa (STEM_GC11S-Ie-30).

At the end of the lesson, the learners shall be able to:
1. State the value of Avogadro’s number; 3.
Define molar mass;
2. Perform calculations converting moles to number of entities and 4.
Determine the molar mass of elements and compounds; and
vice versa; 5.
Perform calculations determining mass of a given number of
particles of an element or compound, or vice versa.

6 0
INTRODUCTION (12 minutes)!
(Verbatim,
a. State the value of Avogadro’s number
b. Perform calculations converting moles to number of entities and vice versa
c. Define molar mass
d. Determine the molar mass of elements and compounds
e. Perform calculations determining mass of a given number of particles of an
element or
compound, or vice versa
a. Avogadro’s number
b. Mole
c. Molar mass
3. Discuss the quiz given during the previous lesson. Show the answers with the
corresponding
calculations.
4. Discuss the enrichment assignment given during the last lecture.
1. What do chemists observe every October 23, from 6 :02 am to 6 :02 pm?
Teacher Tip
Ask the learners to wait until the end of the lesson
The Mole
to find the significance of the date and time.
What is a mole? What is Avogadro’s number?

Mole Day is observed by chemists every October
23, from 6 :02 am to 6 :02 pm.
Atoms have very small masses. We expect that macroscopic samples will contain a
very large
number of atoms. A special unit of measure, called the mole, is used to deal with
extremely large
numbers. In the SI system, the mole is the amount of substance that contains as
many entities as
there are in exactly 12 g of C-12.
6 1
Misconception
The number of atoms in 12 g of C-12 is experimentally determined to be 6 .022 x
1023. This is Avogadro’s number is not a defined value. It is an
called Avogadro’s number.
experimentally determined value. Mass
spectroscopy techniques are used to determine
the value of Avogadro’s number to a high degree

Illustrate the mole with different counting units:
of accuracy.
a. 1 dozen = 12 entities or units

b. 1 dozen eggs = 12 eggs
Teacher Tip
Ask the learners to write all the zeroes for

c. 1 dozen papayas = 12 papayas
Avogadro’s number.
d. 1 dozen cars = 12 cars
Emphasize that while a dozen always has 12

e. 1 dozen books = 12 books
entities, one dozen eggs will not have the same
f. 1 pair = 2 entities
mass as one dozen books, or one dozen oranges,
or one dozen cars.

g. 1 gross = 12 dozens = 144 entities
h. 1 ream = 500 entities
Teacher Tip
These are sample exercises showing conversion of

i. 1 mole = 6 .022 x 1023 entities = 6 .022 x 1023 of anything
moles to number of atoms or molecules and vice
versa.
Ask them to answer the following practice exercises:
Answer Key
1. How many eggs are there in one mole of eggs?
1. 6 .022 x 1023 eggs
2. 6 .022 x 1023 mongo beans

2. How many mongo beans are there in one mole of mongo beans?
3. 6 .022 x 1023 Na atoms

3. How many sodium atoms are there in 1 mole of Na atoms?
4. Calculate the number of atoms of argon in 0.500 moles Ar?
5. How many moles of Co are there in 4.96 0 x 1025 atoms of Co?

6 2
6 . How many molecules of H2O are there in 1 mole of water molecules?
Answer Key
7. How many molecules of carbon dioxide, CO2, are there in 2.6 48 moles CO2?
6 . 6 .022 x 1023 H2O molecules
Ask them to use the unit factor method (also called
dimensional analysis) in their calculations.
8. How many atoms of oxygen are there in 2.6 48 moles CO2?
="3.189"x"10"24"O"atoms"
9. Determine the number of moles of ammonia, NH3, in 8.254 x 1025 molecules of

ammonia.
="137.1"moles"NH3"
Molar Mass
Teacher Tip
Emphasize the use of the appropriate units in

Recall that the mole is the amount of substance that contains Avogadro’s number of
units or
calculations. For molar mass, the unit used is g/

entities. But how much will one mole of a substance weigh? The molar mass is the
mass in grams mol.
of one mole of a substance.
For brevity, atomic mass is often used instead of

One mole of C-12 has a mass of exactly 12 g and contains 6 .022 x 1023 C-12
atoms. This mass of average atomic mass. It is understood that the
value in the periodic table is the average atomic

C-12 is called the molar mass.
mass.
Notes:
1. The appropriate unit for molar mass is g/mol
2. The molar mass in grams is numerically equal to the atomic mass in amu. The
molar mass in
grams is numerically equal to the molecular mass or the formula mass in amu.
6 3
Teacher Tip
1. What is the average atomic mass of Ca? What is the molar mass of Ca?
Emphasize the use of the appropriate units in
calculations. For molar mass, the unit used is g/

2. The atomic mass of Br is 79.90 amu. What is its molar mass?
mol.
3. The molecular mass of water, H2O, is 18.02 amu. What is the molar mass of water,
H2O?
For brevity, atomic mass is often used instead of

4. The formula mass of NaCl is 58.44 amu. What is the molar mass of NaCl?
average atomic mass. It is understood that the
value in the periodic table is the average atomic
mass.
Illustrate the relationship of amu and grams:
Answer Key
1. 40.08 amu; 40.08 g/mol

One mole of C-12 has a mass of exactly 12 g and one mole of C-12 has Avogadro’s
number of 2. 79.90 g/mol
atoms. Calculate the mass of one atom of C-12 in grams.
3. 18.02 g/mol
4. 58.44 g/mol
Recall the previous lesson on how to get the
molecular mass and the formula mass.
Calculate the mass in grams of 1 amu.
Therefore, 1 amu = 1.6 6 1 x 10-24 g.
Illustrate Avogadro’s number and molar mass:
Teacher Tip
NUMBER OF ATOMS
Emphasize that while 1 mole Al, 1 mole Cu, 1 mole
SAMPLE MASS of 1
mole
in SAMPLE
Ag, and 1 mole Au will each contain the same
number of atoms, they will not weigh the same.

1 mole of aluminium 6 .022 x 1023 atoms 26 .98 g
Similarly, one dozen apples and one dozen cars
will each have 12 units but will not weigh the

1 mole of copper 6 .022 x 1023 atoms 6 3.55 g
same.
1 mole of silver 6 .022 x 1023 atoms 107.9 g
1 mole of gold 6 .022 x 1023 atoms 197.0 g

6 4
Illustrate how to get the molar mass of elements and compounds through the
following examples: Answer Key
1. Determine the molar mass of silicon, Si.
1. 28.09 g/mol
2. 6 5.39 g/mol
2. Get the molar mass of zinc, Zn.
3. Therefore, 0.250 mole of Pb has a higher mass
3. Which will have a higher mass: 0.500 mole zinc, Zn, or 0.250 mole lead, Pb?
than 0.500 mole of Zn.
4. 78.12 g/mol
5. 45.07 g/mol
6 . 73.89 g/mol
Therefore, 0.250 mole of Pb has a higher mass than 0.500 mole of Zn.
4. What is the molar mass of benzene, C6 H6  ?
Teacher Tip
5. Find the molar mass of ethanol which has the following structural formula:
Emphasize that they should give the answers with
the appropriate units.
6 . What is the molar mass of lithium carbonate, Li2CO3?
Using the above illustrations, ask them to do calculations involving moles, molar
masses, and Teacher Tip
Avogadro’s number.
Always observe the proper use of significant
figures in calculations. An Annex is included at the
end of this module for enrichment and review of

1. How many grams of silver, Ag, are there in 1.34 moles? (This example
illustrates the significant figures and rounding off in calculations.
conversion of moles ! grams)
Show how the proper use of units will facilitate the
solution of the problem through dimensional
analysis. The units cancel out, leaving the correct
unit required.
6 5
2. How many moles of copper, Cu, are there in 875 g Cu? (This example illustrates
the Teacher Tip
conversion of grams ! moles)
Allow them to analyze the way to solve the
problem using relationships before doing the
calculation. In Problem 3, for example, the grams
need to be converted to moles, then the moles
converted to number of atoms.
3. A bottle of calcium supplements in tablet form contains 26 8 g Ca. How many atoms
are present in 26 8 g calcium, Ca? (This example illustrates the conversion of
grams !
moles ! number of atoms)
4. What is the mass in grams of 2.06  x 1023 atoms of potassium, K? (This example
illustrates the conversion of number of atoms ! moles ! grams)
5. Which has more atoms? 3.6 8 g neon atoms or 1.10 g sodium atoms?
Therefore, 3.6 8 g Ne will have more atoms than 1.10 g Na.
6 6 
Teacher Tip
1. What do chemists observe every October 23 from 6 .02 am to 6 .02 pm?
Return to the motivation question and ask them
why October 23, from 6 :02 AM to 6 :02 PM, is the

2. Relate the mole to real life situations:
chosen date for Mole Day.
A. How many pesos are there in one mole of pesos? Do you think Manny Pacquiao
will have
This enrichment could be done for the more

one mole of pesos? Does Bill Gates have one mole of dollars?
advanced learners.
B. Ask them to check the Philippine national budget for one fiscal year. Does
the Philippine
national budget reach one mole of pesos?
Answer Key for Enrichment
B. The Philippine National Budget for 2016  is

C. Ask them to look for the approximate age of the earth. Does the age of the
earth PHP 3.002 trillion or 3,002,000,000,000 or
approximate one mole of years?
3.002 x 1012 pesos. The Philippine national
budget does not reach one mole of pesos.
C. Current data show the earth to be about 4.54

billion years old. It is 4,540,000,000 years old
Check-up quiz
or 4.54 x 109 years old. The age of the earth
calculations does not approximate one mole of years.
indicate the
Answer Key for Evaluation

appropriate units. Learners can use the periodic table to answer the questions
1. 20 x 1024 molecules
2. 41 x 1024 C atoms
_____1. How many molecules of acetylene, C2H4, are there in 2.00 moles acetylene?
_____2. How many atoms of carbon are there in 2.00 moles acetylene?
Complete the following table:
SUBSTANCE MOLES GRAMS

MOLECULES
NO 2.88 moles
CCl4 121.4 g
SO2
8.50 x 1024 molecules
6 7
Answer Key
SUBSTANCE MOLES
GRAMS MOLECULES
NO 2.88 moles
86 .4 g 1.73 x 1024 molecules
CCl4 0.7893 mole

121.4 g 4.753 x 1023 molecules
SO2 14.11 moles

904 g 8.50 x 1024 molecules
Guidelines for Using Significant Figures

(from Chang, R. & Goldsby, K. (2016 ). Chemistry. (12thed.). New York: McGraw-Hill,
Chapter 1, pp. 20-21)
In scientific work, significant figures are always to be observed. Here are the
rules on the use of significant figures:
1. Any digit that is not zero is significant. (Eg. 483 g has three significant
figures; 2,578 m has four significant figures)
2. Zeros between nonzero digits are significant. (Eg. 6 .06  kg has three significant
figures; 6 0,804 cm has five significant figures)
3. Zeros to the left of the first nonzero digit are not significant. (Eg. 0.078 L
has two significant figures; 0.004 kg has one significant figure)
4. A. If a number is greater than 1, the zeros after the decimal point are
significant. (Eg. 4.0 mg has two significant figures; 20.04 g has four
significant figures)
B. If a number is less than 1, only the zeros after the first nonzero digit are
significant. (Eg. 0.0750 m has three significant figures; 0.4006  g
has four significant figures.
5. For numbers without decimal points, the zeroes at the end of nonzero digits may
or may not be significant (ambiguous). For example, 6 00
g may have one or three significant figures. To avoid the ambiguity, we use
scientific notation. We can say 6 .00 g and this will have three
significant figures. Or we can say 6  x 102 and this will have only one
significant figure.
6 8
How do you handle significant figures in calculations?
1. In addition and subtraction, the answer cannot have more digits to the right of
the decimal point than either of the original numbers.
45.112 ! three digits after the decimal point

- 6 .02 ! two digits after the decimal point
39.092 ! round-off to 30.09 so the answer will have two digits

after the decimal point
2. For multiplication and division, the number of significant figures in the final
product or quotient is determined by the original number that
has the smallest number of significant figures.
6 .9 x 12.34 = 85.146  Round of the answer to 85, which has only two
significant figures.
26 .98/3.05 = 23.93 Round of the answer to 23.9, which has three

significant figures because the smallest number of significant
figures in the operation is 3.
3. Remember that exact numbers are considered to have infinite number of

significant figures.
Rules for Rounding Off:

1. To round off a number at a certain point, drop the digits that follow if the
first of them is less than 5.
8.143 rounded off to only two significant figures becomes 8.1.
2. To round off a number at a certain point, add 1 to the preceding digit if the
number that follows is 5 or greater than 5.
7.378 rounded off to three significant digits becomes 7.38.
8.46 5 rounded off to three significant digits becomes 8.47.
0.575 rounded off to two significant digits becomes 0.58.
6 9
General Chemistry 1
120 MINS
Lesson 9: The Mole Concept and Molar

Mass (Laboratory)
Lesson Outline
Content Standard
Introduction Can you count objects by weighing 10

them?
Instruction and Laboratory Work 80

Practice
Enrichment Post-laboratory Discussion 20
1. Atomic structure
Evaluation Checking of Accomplished Data Tables
Materials
Learning Competencies (1)
Balance (triple beam or electronic balance)
(2)
Paper cups
At the end of the lesson, the learners: (3)
Samples (kidney beans, mongo beans, rice, dried sago)
1. Define a mole (STEM_GC11S-Ie-26 ); (4)
Plastic spoons
2. Illustrate Avogadro’s number with examples (STEM_GC11S-Ie-27); (5)
Aluminium metal or foil
(6 )
Iron (nails or filings)
3. Determine the molar mass of elements and compounds (STEM_GC11S-
(7)
Sodium chloride (table salt, NaCl)
Ie-28); (8)
Sucrose (table sugar, C12H22O11)
4. Calculate the mass of a given number of moles of an element or
compound, or vice versa (STEM_GC11S-Ie-29); and
Resources
5. Calculate the mass of a given number of particles of an element or (1)
Allan, Andy. The mole [PowerPoint presentation]. Retrieved from
http://www.sciencegeek.net/APchemistry/FlashPPT/3_TheMole/
compound, or vice versa (STEM_GC11S-Ie-30).
index.html
(2)
Burdge, J. & Overby, J. (2012). Chemistry: Atoms first. New York:
McGraw-Hill.
At the end of the lesson, the learners shall be able to: (3)
McGraw-Hill.
1. Count the number of small objects by weighing; (4)
Moore, J. W. & Stanitski, C.L. (2015). Chemistry: The Molecular
2. Determine the number of moles in a given sample; and
Science (5th ed.). Belmont, CA: Brooks Cole/Cengage Learning.
(5)
Zumdahl, SS. &Zumdahl, S.A. (2012). Chemistry: An atoms first
3. Determine the number of atoms in a given sample
70
Teacher Tip
Can you count objects by weighing them?
1. Prepare the classroom or laboratory, the
materials, the laboratory sheets to be used.

Ask the learners if they can count objects by weighing them. Present to them the
following 2. Distribute the laboratory sheets at the start of
situations:
the lesson.
3. After the introduction and motivation, explain

1. Ms. Lilia sells shelled peanuts in a store. But she meets customers asking for
ten peanuts, the procedures of the activity.
another for 750 peanuts, and another for 2,000 peanuts. Obviously, it will take
Ms. Lilia a very 4. Explain the safety precautions.
long time to count the peanuts. What would be another way to count them?
2. Mr. Jose goes to a hardware store and asks for 400 pieces of nails. What is an
easier way to
approximate 400 pieces of nails without counting them one by one?
3. A candy factory sells chocolate chips in a bag. Each bag should have the same
number of
chips. How does the candy factory count the number of chocolate chips in each
bag?
INSTRUCTION and PRACTICE (80 minutes)

Safety Precautions
Teacher Tip
1. Never taste anything during a science activity.
The activity can be performed individually or in

2. Dispose of the samples as directed by your teacher.
groups. All materials are household materials.
Nevertheless, caution must be observed in

3. Wash your hands with soap and water after the science activity.
handling any material in the lab. Instruct them

4. Follow all laboratory instructions as directed by the teacher.
how to behave in the laboratory.
Part I. Counting by weighing: Relating mass to number
Take note and emphasize that not all the kidney

This method of counting by weighing is useful for counting very small objects, such
as small
beans will have the same mass since they are not
candies, beans, etc.
all identical. Some will be heavier and some will
be lighter. What was done was to obtain the
average mass of the kidney bean. However, for

Ask them to perform the activity on relating mass to number of entities. The
activity asks purposes of counting, what is needed is only the
them to determine the number of entities in a given sample by weighing a given
amount of average mass.
sample and knowing the average mass of one entity. The activity uses common
materials. Kidney
beans or other beans such as peanuts, squash seeds, or broad beans or patani may be
used for
Sample 1. Use smaller sized samples like mongo, peas, or dried sago for Sample 2.
Have them
answer the data tables and the questions. See the attached laboratory sheet.
71
Part II. Relating mass to moles
Teacher Tip
Place the samples in small paper cups prior to the

Ask them to perform the activity on relating mass to moles. The samples are common
class. There are four samples in this activity, and

household materials: Aluminium, iron, sodium chloride, and sucrose. Have them
answer the data make sure to prepare enough samples for the
tables and the questions. See the attached laboratory sheet.
class. Each group must work on all four samples.
Label the cups (e.g. Sample A1, A2, A3, A4 for
Group A, etc.).
Sample of Teacher’s Reference Table
You must also pre-determine the approximate

A1 11 g B1 14
g amount of sample to put in each cup and put
these in your notes. This will serve as a reference

A2 22 g B2 27
g for the masses measured by the learners. However,
they must measure the masses up to .01 g.

A3 16  g B3 18
g
The masses do not have to be identical. For

A4 25 g B4 30
g example, the mass of Al in one group may have a
different value than the mass of Al in the other

1. For the Aluminium sample, crumple a sheet of Aluminium foil into a loose ball
and place in group.
a small paper cup.
2. Be careful in using iron nails.
3. At the end of the activity, instruct them where to place the samples. Put
separate
containers for each sample.
4. The samples may be reused for another class.

Post-laboratory discussion
1. Relate counting by weighing to finding the number of atoms in a weighed sample
of material.
2. Give more exercises on calculating moles and molar masses of elements and
compounds.
EVALUATION
Check their accomplished data tables and worksheet for correct use of units and
significant
figures and the logical solutions.
72
LABORATORY ACTIVITY: THE MOLE CONCEPT AND MOLAR MASS
Introduction
Atoms have very small masses. Macroscopic samples contain a very large number of
atoms. The mole is used to deal with these extremely
large numbers of atoms in macroscopic samples. The mole is defined as the amount of
substance that contains as many entities as there are in
exactly 12 grams of C-12. This is experimentally determined to be 6 .022 x 1023 and
is referred to as Avogadro’s number. The molar mass is
the mass in grams of one mole of a substance. It is possible and practical to count
very small objects by determining an average mass then
weighing a given sample. You will be asked to determine the number of entities in a
given sample of material through this technique. You will
also determine the number of moles of different substances and the corresponding
number of atoms present in the sample.
Objectives
1. To determine the number of entities present in a given sample by weighing it and
identifying the average mass of a single entity of the
sample.
2. To determine the number of moles and the number of atoms present in given
samples of materials.
Materials
1. Balance – triple beam or electronic balance 5.
Aluminium metal or foil
2. Paper cups 6 . Iron
(e.g. iron nails or iron filings)
3. Samples – e.g. kidney beans, mongo beans, rice, dried sago 7.
Sodium chloride (NaCl)
4. Plastic spoons 8.
Sucrose (table sugar, C12H22O11)
Safety Precautions
2. Dispose of the samples as directed by your teacher.
3. Wash your hands with soap and water after the activity.
4. Follow all laboratory instructions as directed by your teacher.
73
Part I. Counting by weighing: Relating mass to number
Procedure
Sample 1 Sample 2
1. Count 20 beans (kidney, peanuts, patani, or other samples as 1. Count
20 mongo beans (rice, dried sago, peas, or any smaller
given by your teacher) and place them in a paper cup. bean
samples given by your teacher) and place them in a paper
2. Determine the mass of the 20 pieces of beans. Remember to cup.
subtract the mass of the container. If using an electronic 2.
Determine the mass of the 20 pieces of beans. Remember to
balance, tare or set the balance to zero.
subtract the mass of the container. If using an electronic
3. Determine the mass of one bean by dividing the mass of the
balance, tare or set the balance to zero.
sample by 20. 3.
Determine the mass of one bean by dividing the mass of the
sample by 20.
Data Table
SAMPLE 1
SAMPLE 2
Sample
Mass of 20 pieces of sample plus container
Mass of container
Mass of 20 pieces of sample
Mass of one piece of sample (Show calculation here)
Answer the following questions:

1. How much will 750 pieces of kidney beans weigh?
2. Calculate the mass of 5,500 mongo beans.
3. 158 grams of mongo beans is approximately how many pieces?
74
Part II. Relating mass to moles
Procedure:
Determine the masses of Samples 1 to 4. Record these in the data tables provided.
Calculate the number of moles in each sample. Show all
calculations and observe the correct use of units and significant figures.
Sample 1 Sample 2
Sample 3 Sample 4
ALUMINIUM IRON
SODIUM CHLORIDE SUCROSE
(Table salt, NaCl) (Table sugar, C12H22O11)
1. Mass of sample + container, g
2. Mass of container, g
3. Mass of sample, g
4. Molar mass of sample, g/mol
5. Number of moles in sample
6 . Number of atoms in sample
7. No. of atoms in 1.0 gram of

sample
75
General Chemistry 1
6 0 MINS
Lesson 10: Percent Composition and

Chemical Formulas
Content Standard
Lesson Outline
The learners demonstrate an understanding of percent composition and
chemical formulas.
Motivation College Projections 5

Instruction Percent Composition and Chemical 35

Formula
Enrichment Determine the Sodium Percent in Snack

1. Atomic structure
Food
Evaluation Short Quiz 15

Resources
(1) Burdge, J.& Overby, J. (2012). Chemistry: Atoms first. New York:
1. Calculate the percent composition of a compound from its formula
McGraw-Hill.
(STEM_GC11PC-If-31);
McGraw-Hill.
2. Calculate the empirical formula from the percent composition of a
(3) Moore, J.W., Stanitski, C.L. & Jurs, P.C. (2012). Chemistry: The
compound (STEM_GC11PC-If-32); and
Learning.
3. Calculate molecular formula given molar mass (STEM_GC11PC-If-33).
(4) Zumdahl, S.S. &Zumdahl, S.A. (2012). Chemistry: An atoms first

1. Interpret the information provided by the chemical formula; 3.
Explain the procedure used to determine the empirical formula
2. Explain the procedure used to determine the percent of
a compound given the percent composition; and
composition of a compound; 4.
Utilize molar mass data to obtain the molecular formula from the
empirical formula.
76 
Teacher Tip
1. Introduce the learning objectives using any of the suggested protocol (Verbatim,
Own Words, Give examples of empirical formulas and molecular
formulas such as
or Read-aloud)
a. Benzene, with molecular formula C6 H6  and
a. Interpret the information provided by the chemical formula
empirical formula CH
b. Acetylene, with molecular formula C2H2 and

b. Explain the procedure used to determine the percent composition of a compound
empirical formula CH
c. Explain the procedure used to determine the empirical formula of a compound
given the c. Ammonia, with molecular formula NH3 and
percent composition
empirical formula NH3.
d. Utilize molar mass data to obtain the molecular formula from the empirical
formula
2. Present the keyword for the concepts to be learned:
a. Percent composition mass
3. Review empirical formulas and molecular formulas and give examples.
Percentage of the class planning (as first choice) to go to the different strands
in STEM Teacher Tip
This will give an indication of the interest of the

1. Get total number of learners in class.
learners and their planned careers. This will also
2. Get the number of learners who would like to pursue engineering in college. Get
the review the concept of percentage and its
application in the real world.

percentage.
3. Get the number of learners who would like to pursue the sciences. Get the
percentage. Then, mention that the lesson will be about how
the concept of percentage is used in chemistry,

4. Get the number of learners who would like to pursue mathematics. Get the
percentage.
especially in chemical compounds.
1. Information from the chemical formula
What information can be obtained from a chemical formula? For example, what
information
can you get from the formula of carbon dioxide, CO2?
= CARBON = OXYGEN
77
a. The compound is made up of two elements, namely carbon and oxygen.
Teacher Tip
You should motivate the learners to provide the

b. One molecule of CO2 is made up of one atom of carbon and two atoms of oxygen.
answers instead of just stating them.

c. One mole of CO2 molecules will have one mole of C atoms and two moles of O
atoms.
It is important for them to understand the chemical

d. The ratio of the moles of C to the moles of O in CO2 is 1:2.
formula and all information that can be obtained

e. CO2 is composed of 27.29% carbon and 72.71% oxygen. The chemical formula
provides from it.
the percent composition of CO2.
2. Percent Composition by Mass
The percent composition by mass is the percent by mass of each element in a

compound.
Mathematically,
with n = the number of atoms of the element

For CO2,!
Answer Key
1. 39.34% Na, 6 0.6 6 % Cl
2. 39.99% C, 6 .727% H, 53.28% O

The answer indicates that CO2 is composed of 27.29% C atom and 72.71% O atom.
3. O; the composition is 41.6 8% Mg, 54.89% O,
and 3.46 % H
Teacher Tip
I. Calculate the percent composition of NaCl.
You may want to connect the lesson to some real
II. The chemical formula of glucose is C6 H12O6 . Determine its percent
composition. world examples. Magnesium hydroxide, Mg(OH)2,
is used as a medication to treat symptoms brought

III. Which element comprising Mg(OH)2 has the highest percentage by mass?
about by too much stomach acid such as heartburn
or indigestion.
78
3. Empirical Formula from Percent Composition
The empirical formula of a compound can be calculated from the percent

composition.
Because percentage is given, it is convenient to assume 100.00 grams of the
compound.
Illustrate using the following examples:
A. A compound is found to consist of 7.81% C and 92.19% Cl. What is the

empirical formula
of the compound?
Assume 100.00 grams of the compound. The sample will therefore contain 7.81 g
C and
92.19 g Cl. The grams are converted to moles to get the ratios of the moles
of the
elements in the compound:
The compound is C0.6 50Cl2.6 01. But chemical formulas are expressed in whole

numbers.
Empirical formulas are expressed as the lowest whole number ratio between the
atoms.
To convert to whole numbers, divide the number of moles by the smallest value
(that is
0.6 50).
The empirical formula is C1Cl4 or CCl4.
79
B. A compound is found to consist of 43.6 4% P and 56 .36 % O. The molar mass for the
compound is 283.88 g/mol. What is the empirical formula and molecular formula of
the
compound?
Assume 100.00 grams of the compound. What is the mass of each element in 100.00
grams of compound?
What are the moles of each element in 100.00 grams of compound?
Divide the mole values by the smallest value to get
The compound is PO2.5. But the subscripts are still not whole numbers. Multiply
the
subscripts by a factor to get the smallest whole number. When multiplied by 2,
the
empirical formula is P2O5.
What is the molecular formula?

Compare the mass of the empirical formula to the molar mass:
Mass of P2O5 = 141.94 g/mol
Molar mass = 283.88 g/mol
80
Answer Key
1. 39.34% Na, 6 0.6 6 % Cl
2. 39.99% C, 6 .727% H, 53.28% O
3. O; the composition is 41.6 8% Mg, 54.89% O,
and 3.46 % H
Therefore, the molecular formula is (P2O5)2 or P4O10.
Teacher Tip
You may want to connect the lesson to some real

ENRICHMENT
world examples. Magnesium hydroxide, Mg(OH)2,
Determine the % sodium in snack food
is used as a medication to treat symptoms brought

Look at the food labels of some snack food like potato chips, peanuts, popcorn,
etc. Fill up the about by too much stomach acid such as heartburn
table below.
or indigestion.
1. Identify your chosen snack food and brand.

2. Get the amount in grams of one serving of the snack food.
3. Get the amount of sodium in mg in one serving of the snack food.
4. Obtain the % sodium by mass in one serving of snack food.

Answer Key
1. 6 0.00%
calculations
2. 35.53%
indicate the 3. Cr2O7
appropriate units. Learners can use the periodic table to answer the questions.
4. N2O3
5. N2O3
Aspirin has the molecular formula C9H8O4.
_____1. What is the % C in aspirin by mass in aspirin?
_____2. What is the % O in aspirin by mass in aspirin?
_____3. An oxide of chromium is made up of 5.20 g chromium and 5.6 0 g oxygen What
is the
empirical formula of the oxide? (Note: An oxide of nitrogen contains 6 3.1% oxygen
and has a
molar mass of 76 .0 g/mol.)
_____4. What is the empirical formula for this compound?
_____5. What is the molecular formula of the compound?
81
General Chemistry 1
120 MINS
Lesson 11: Chemical Reactions and

Chemical Equations (Lecture)
Content Standard
The learners demonstrate an understanding of the use of chemical formulas to
Lesson Outline
represent chemical reactions.
Introduction Review and Communicating Learning 30
Objectives
Motivation Evidences of Chemical Change 3
Instruction Chemical Reactions and Chemical 85

1. Atomic structure
Equations
Enrichment Inquiry 2
Resources
(1)
1. Write equations for chemical reactions and balance the equations
McGraw-Hill.
(STEM_GC11CR-If-g-34); (2)
2. Interpret the meaning of a balanced chemical reaction in terms of the Law
McGraw-Hill.
of Conservations of Mass (STEM_GC11CR-If-g-35); (3)
Chemical equations [Online lecture]. Retrieved from CK-12 website:
https://www.ck12.org/physical-science/Chemical-Equations-in-
3. Describe evidences that a chemical reaction has occurred (STEM_GC11CR-
Physical-Science/
If-g-36 ); and (4)
Moore, J.W., Stanitski, C.L.& Jurs, P.C. (2012). Chemistry: The
4. Perform exercises on writing and balancing chemical equations
(STEM_GC11CR-If-g-37).
Learning.
(5)
Recognizing chemical reactions [Online lecture]. Retrieved from CK-12
website: https://www.ck12.org/physical-science/Recognizing-
Chemical-Reactions-in-Physical-Science/
At the end of the lesson, the learners shall be able to: (6 )
1. Write and balance chemical equations;
2. Derive pertinent information from a balanced chemical equation;
3. Determine whether a chemical reaction has occurred or not; and
4. Classify chemical reactions.
82
Teacher Tip
Review
Ask the learners to discuss what they found to be
the % sodium in their snack samples. Alternatively,

1. Discuss the enrichment assignment of last lesson (% sodium in snack food).
these can be written on the board.
2. Discuss the quiz on percent composition given in the last lesson.
Call on some of them to show their calculations on
the board. Have the class comment on the

Communicating Learning Objectives
calculations, including the proper use of significant
figures.
(Verbatim,
a. Write and balance chemical equations
Teacher Tip

b. Derive pertinent information from a balanced chemical equation
c. Determine whether a chemical reaction has occurred or not
d. Classify chemical reactions
2. Present the keywords for the concepts to be discussed:

a. Chemical equation
b. Reactant
c. Product
d. Aqueous
e. Decomposition reaction
f. Synthesis reaction
g. Single displacement reaction
h. Double displacement reaction
i. Combustion reaction
j. Hydrocarbon
Note
3. Review the Law of Conservation of Mass
Ask them to recall the Law of Conservation of
Mass and express their understanding of it.
83
Teacher Tip
Ask them what the following have in common:
You may bring some actual samples of rusty iron
nails, bleached and unbleached hair, or other

a. Rusty iron nail
materials to show to the class.
b. Change in color of leaves
These are evidences of chemical change.

c. Bleached hair

Writing and Balancing a Chemical Equation
In a chemical reaction, a substance (or substances) is converted to one or more
new
substances. Chemical reactions follow the law of conservation of mass. No atoms
are created
or destroyed; they are just rearranged. Chemists have a way of communicating
chemical
reactions. They represent chemical reactions through chemical equations.
Consider the reaction of hydrogen gas (H2) with chlorine gas (Cl2) to yield
hydrogen chloride.
The reaction is illustrated by the figure below.
Teacher Tip
Emphasize the Law of Conservation of Mass.
There must be the same type of atoms on both
sides of the arrow.

We can represent this reaction through a chemical equation. The reactants
(starting
substances) are placed on the left side. The products (substances produced) are
placed on
the right. An arrow points towards the direction of the reaction. The equation
has to be
balanced so that the same number and types of atoms appear on the left and right
side of the
equation. To balance, coefficients (numbers preceding the chemical formula) are
used. For
additional information, the physical states of the reactants and products (s, l,
g, for solid,
liquid, or gas, respectively)are indicated.
84
Hence, the balanced chemical equation is:
Teacher Tip
Show learners where to put the coefficients.

H2(g) + Cl2(g) ! 2 HCl(g)
Check if the equation is balanced:
Reactants Products
H (2) H (2)
Cl (2) Cl (2)
When a substance is placed in water, we indicate this with aq, meaning it is in an

aqueous
environment. For example, when KBr reacts with AgNO3 in an aqueous environment,
KNO3
and solid AgBr are produced. This reaction is represented as
KBr(aq) + AgNO3(aq) ! KNO3(aq) + AgBr(s)
Show them the procedure of balancing equations through this example:
Ethane (C2H6 ) reacts with oxygen gas (O2) to produce carbon dioxide and water.
Write the
balanced chemical equation for the reaction.
1. Identify reactants and products and write their correct formulas. Put reactants
on the left
side and products on the right.
C2H6  + O2 ! CO2 + H2O
85
2. Balance the equation by changing the coefficients of the reactants or products.
Do not Teacher Tip
change the subscripts or the chemical formula.
Show learners where to put the coefficients.
C2H6  + 7/2 O2 ! 2CO2 + 3 H2O
To use the smallest whole number coefficients, we multiply the equation by 2 to

give:
2C2H6  + 7O2 ! 4CO2 + 6 H2O
3. Check to make sure that the number of each type of atom is the same on each side
of the
equation.
Reactants Products
4 C 4 C
12 H 12 H
14 O 14 O
Ask them to answer these exercises:

State if the illustrated equation below is balanced or not. If not, explain why
it is not
balanced. Illustrate by a drawing how you would balance the equation.
1.
2.
3.
86 
Balance the following equations
Teacher Tip
Show them where to put the coefficients.

1. ____ C + ____ O2 ! ___ CO
Hint:
2. ____ Mg + ____ O2 ! ____ MgO
Start with elements that appear only once on each
side.
3. ____ H2O2 ! ____ H2O + ____ O2
4. ____ CH4 + O2 ! ____ CO2 + ____ H2O
Answer Key
1. 2, 1, 2
5. ____ N2O5 ! _____ N2O4 + _____ O2
2. 2, 1, 2
3. 2, 2, 1
Interpretation of a Chemical Equation
4. 1, 2, 1, 2
5. 2, 2, 1
How can a balanced chemical equation be interpreted? See the example:
H2 + Cl2 ! 2HCl
One molecule + One molecule ! Two molecules
One mole + One mole ! Two moles
2 (1.008 g) 2 (35.45g) 2 (1.008 g + 35.45 g)

= 2.016  g
+
= 70.90 g
! = 72.92 g
Ask them to answer 72.929

this exercise: 72.92 g
Interpret the balanced equation:
2C2H6  + 7O2 ! 4CO2 + 6 H2O
Show that the Law of Conservation of Mass is followed.
87
Types and Evidences that a Chemical Reaction has Occurred
Teacher Tip
Here are some evidences that a chemical reaction has occurred:
Ask them to give examples of evidences of
chemical changes they have observed around

a. Change in color
them. Some examples are bleach turning hair
b. Formation of a solid (a precipitate)
yellow, milk going sour, or apple slices becoming
brown.
c. Evolution of gas (bubble formation)
d. Change in temperature (heat is released or absorbed)
Chemical reactions can be classified in other ways
such as acid-base reactions and oxidation-
reduction reactions. However, these concepts will

Most chemical reactions can be classified into five types:
be introduced in later chapters.
1. Decomposition reaction – a reactant breaks down into two or more products
AB ! A + B
Li2CO3 ! Li2O + CO2
2. Synthesis reaction – two or more reactants form a single product

A + B ! AB!
2NO + O2 ! 2NO2!
3. Single displacement reaction – one element replaces another in a compound

A + BC ! AC + B
Cu(s) + 2AgNO3(aq) ! Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 2Ag(s)
4. Double displacement – two ionic compounds exchange ions

AB + CD ! AD + CB
2KI(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) ! 2KNO3(aq) + PbI2(s)
Teacher Tip
5. Combustion reaction – a hydrocarbon (a compound containing carbon and hydrogen)
reacts H2O2 breaks down into H2O and O2 aided by light.
with oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water.
This is a decomposition reaction. Write and
balance the equation.

Hydrocarbon + O2 ! CO2 + H2O
2C2H6  + 7O2 ! 4CO2 + 6 H2O
See Practice Exercise 3 on balancing equations
above.
1. Why do you need to store hydrogen peroxide away from light often in dark colored
bottles? Note
The Evaluation will be through the exercises in the

2. Learners may watch the videos in the sites given in the Resources section above.
These can laboratory session hour.
be given as assignments.
88
General Chemistry 1
120 MINS
Lesson 12: Chemical Reactions and

Chemical Equations (Laboratory)
Content Standard
The learners demonstrate an understanding of the use of chemical formulas to
Lesson Outline
represent chemical reactions.
Practice Laboratory Exercises 120

Resources
(1)
McGraw-Hill.
1. Atomic structure (2)
McGraw-Hill.
(3)
Chemical equations [Online lecture]. Retrieved from CK-12 website:
https://www.ck12.org/physical-science/Chemical-Equations-in-
Physical-Science/
At the end of the lesson, the learners: (4)
Moore, J.W., Stanitski, C.L.& Jurs, P.C. (2012). Chemistry: The
1. Write equations for chemical reactions and balance the equations
Learning.
(STEM_GC11CR-If-g-34);
(5)
Recognizing chemical reactions [Online lecture]. Retrieved from CK-12
2. Interpret the meaning of a balanced chemical reaction in terms of the Law
website: https://www.ck12.org/physical-science/Recognizing-
of Conservations of Mass (STEM_GC11CR-If-g-35);
Chemical-Reactions-in-Physical-Science/
3. Describe evidences that a chemical reaction has occurred (STEM_GC11CR- (6 )

If-g-36 ); and
4. Perform exercises on writing and balancing chemical equations
(STEM_GC11CR-If-g-37).

1. Write and balance chemical equations;
2. Derive pertinent information from a balanced chemical equation;
3. Determine whether a chemical reaction has occurred or not; and
4. Classify chemical reactions.
89
PRACTICE
Answer Key
Laboratory exercises (120 minutes)
1. B. 11. A.
2. B. 12. D.
Give the following exercises in a separate time slot like the laboratory session.
This provides 3. D. 13. A.
practice for the learners. Allow them 6 0 minutes to answer the exercises. Then go
over the 4. B. 14. B.
exercises together. Ask them to show their answers on the board and explain their
answers. 5. D. 15. A.
6 . E. 16 . D.
7. C. 17. C.
Alternatively, part of the exercises can be taken as a quiz or as an assignment for
evaluation. 8. A. 18. B.
9. A. 19. E.
10. E. 20. B.
LABORATORY ACTIVITY: CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
Directions: Choose the best answer. Encircle the letter corresponding to your
answer.
1. Balanced chemical equations imply which of the following? 3.

The catalytic conversion of ammonia to nitric oxide is the first
A. Numbers of molecules are conserved in chemical change.
step in a three-step process, which ultimately results in nitric
B. Numbers of atoms are conserved in chemical change.
acid. Balance the equation for the reaction.
C. Volume is conserved in chemical change.
D. A and B
a NH3(g) + b O2(g) ! c NO(g) + d H2O(g)
E. B and C
A. a = 2, b = 1, c = 2, d = 1
2. In balancing an equation, we change the __________ to make
B. a = 3, b = 2, c = 3, d = 3
the number of atoms on each side of the equation balance.
C. a = 4, b = 3, c = 2, d = 6 
A. formulas of compounds in the reactants
D. a = 4, b = 5, c = 4, d = 6 
B. coefficients of reactants and products
E. a = 6 , b = 15, c = 6 , d = 9
C. formulas of compounds in the products
D. subscripts of compounds
E. the reactants
90
4. In the reaction: a BaCl2 + b AgNO3 ! c Ba(NO3)2 + d AgCl 7. Which
of the following equations is not balanced?
What is the coefficient, d, of silver chloride in the balanced A. 4Al
+ 3O2 ! 2Al2O3
equation? B. C2H6 
+ O2 ! 2CO2 + 3H2O
A. 1
B. 2 C.
2KClO3 ! 2KCl + O2
C. 3 D. 4P4
+ 5S8 ! 4P4S10
D. 4 E. P4 +
5O2 ! P4O10
E. 5
5. Balance the following equation with the smallest set of whole 8. The
first step in the Ostwald process for making nitric acid is the
numbers.
formation of NO as follows:
C4H10 + O2 ! CO2 + H2O

4NH3 + 5O2 ! 4NO + 6 H2O
What is the coefficient for CO2 in the balanced equation?

According to the equation, 5 moles NH3 will react with ________
A. 1 moles
O2 to form _______ moles of NO.
B. 4 A. 5, 4
C. 6 
D. 8 B. 4, 5
E. 12 C. 25,
20
D. 5/4,
4/5
6 . Balance the following equations: E.
25/4, 5
_____ P4O10 + _______ H2O ! _______ H3PO4

9.
Potassium metal and chlorine gas (Cl2) react in a combination
What is the coefficient of H2O in the balanced equation?
reaction to produce potassium chloride. What is the correct
A. 1
balanced equation for this reaction?
B. 2 A. 2
K(s) + Cl2(g) !! 2 KCl(s)
C. 4
B. K(s)
+ Cl2(g) ! KCl(s)
D. 5
E. 6  C. K(s)
+ Cl(g) !! KCl(s)
D.
K2(s) + Cl2(g) ! 2 KCl(s)
E. K(s)
+ Cl2(g) !! KCl2(s)
91
10. In the reaction given below, how many grams of water are 13.
Balance the following equation:
consumed if 4.0 g hydrogen gas and 32.0 g oxygen gas are
a NaNO3 ! b NaNO2 + c O2
produced?
What
are the coefficients of the balanced equation for
2 H2O ! 2 H2 + O2
a, b,
and c?
A. 2.0 g A.
2, 2, 1
B. 4.0 g B.
1, 1, 2
C. 18.0 g C.
1, 2, 1
D. 20.0 g D.
2, 3, 1
E. 36 .0 g E.
3, 1, 1
11. In the reaction given below, for every two molecules of 14.
Balance the following chemical reaction:
hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) consumed, how many molecules of
a CO + b NO ! c CO2 + d N2
oxygen are produced?
2H2O2 ! 2H2O + O2 The
coefficients a, b, c, and d for the balanced chemical
equation are:
A. 1 A. 2,
2, 2, 3
B. 2
B. 2,
2, 2, 1
C. 3
D. 6  C. 1,
1, 1, 2
E. 9 D. 2,
1, 2, 1
E. 1,
2, 2, 1
12. Balance the following reaction:
a Al2O3 ! b Al + c O2 15.
Classify the following reaction:
2Na + Cl2 ! 2 NaCl

What is the sum of the coefficients of the reactant and products
(a + b + c) in the balanced equation using the smallest set of A.
Synthesis
whole numbers as coefficients? B.
Decomposition
A. 3 C.
Combustion
B. 5
D.
Single Displacement
C. 6 
E.
Double Displacement
D. 9
E. 10
92
16 . Classify the following reaction: 19. Classify the following reaction:
Zn + 2HCl ! ZnCl2 + H2 NaCl(aq) + AgF(aq) !
NaF(aq) + AgCl(s)
A. Synthesis A. Synthesis
B. Decomposition B. Decomposition
C. Combustion C. Combustion
D. Single Displacement D. Single Displacement
E. Double Displacement E. Double Displacement
17. Classify the following reaction:

H2SO3 ! H2O + SO2 20. Classify the following reaction:
CaCO3(s) ! CaO(s) +
CO2(g)
A. Synthesis
B. Decomposition A. Synthesis
C. Combustion B. Decomposition
D. Single Displacement C. Combustion
E. Double Displacement D. Single Displacement
E. Double Displacement
18. Classify the following reaction:
CH4 + 2O2 ! CO2 + 2H2O
A. Synthesis
B. Decomposition
C. Combustion
D. Single Displacement
E. Double Displacement
93
General Chemistry 1
180 MINS
Lesson 13: Mass Relationships in

Chemical Reactions
Lesson Outline
Content Standard
The learners demonstrate an understanding of quantitative relationship of
reactants and products in a chemical reaction.
Motivation Let us Make Sandwiches 5
Instruction, I. Reactants and Products 140
Delivery and II. Limiting Reagents
Practice III. Theoretical Yield, Actual Yield, and
1. Atomic structure
Percent Yield
Enrichment Animation Videos of Limiting Reagents 15

Evaluation Check up Quiz 15
Materials
1. Construct mole or mass ratios for a reaction in order to calculate the
amount of reactant needed or amount of product formed in terms of moles
Periodic table, calculator
or mass (STEM_GC11MR-Ig-h-38);
Resources
2. Calculate percent yield and theoretical yield of the reaction
(1) Allan, Andy. Stoichiometry [PowerPoint presentation]. Retrieved from
(STEM_GC11MR-Ig-h-39);
http://www.sciencegeek.net/APchemistry/FlashPPT/3_Stoichiometry/
index.html
3. Explain the concept of limiting reagent in a chemical reaction; identify the
(2) Burdge, J. & Overby, J. (2012). Chemistry: Atoms first. New York:
excess reagent (STEM_GC11MR-Ig-h-40); and
McGraw-Hill
4. Calculate reaction yield when a limiting reagent is present
(3) Chang, R. &Goldsby, K. (2016 ). Chemistry. (12th ed.). New York:
McGraw-Hill
(STEM_GC11MR-Ig-h-41).
(4) Limiting reagent [Vector animation]. Retrieved from McGraw Hill
Education web site: http://www.mhhe.com/physsci/chemistry/

essentialchemistry/flash/limitr15.swf
(5) Limiting reactant [Vector animation]. Retrieved from North Carolina

School of Medicine and Mathematics web site: http://
www.dlt.ncssm.edu/core/Chapter6 -Stoichiometry/Chapter6 -
1. Identify mole ratios of reactants and products from balanced chemical
Animations/LimitingReactant.html
equations;
(6 ) Moore, J.W., Stanitski, C.L. & Jurs, P.C. (2012). Chemistry: The
2. Perform stoichiometric calculations related to chemical equations;
Learning.
3. Define theoretical, actual, and percent yield of reactions;
(7) Reactants, products and leftovers [Simulation]. Retrieved from PhEt
Interactive Simulations web site: http://phet.colorado.edu/sims/html/

4. Calculate theoretical and percent yield of a reaction;
reactants-products-and-leftovers/latest/reactants-products-and-
5. Identify the limiting and excess reagent(s) of a reaction; and
leftovers_en.html
(8) Zumdahl, SS. &Zumdahl, S.A. (2012). Chemistry: An atoms first

6 . Calculate reaction yield in the presence of a limiting reagent.
94
Teacher Tip
1. Introduce the learning objectives using any of the suggested protocol (Verbatim,
Own Words, List these keywords on the board or through

or Read-aloud):
a. Identify mole ratios of reactants and products from balanced chemical
equations
b. Perform stoichiometric calculations related to chemical equations
c. Define theoretical, actual, and percent yield of reactions
d. Calculate theoretical and percent yield of a reaction
e. Identify the limiting and excess reagent(s) of a reaction
f. Calculate reaction yield in the presence of a limiting reagent

a. Stoichiometry
b. Limiting reagent
c. Theoretical yield
d. Actual yield
e. Percent yield
3. Review the Law of Conservation of Mass
Teacher Tip
Ask the learners to show the equation:

Let us make sandwiches!
Some learners are going on a road trip and they are to bring some food to eat along
the way. two slices of bread + one hamburger patty "
Karen was asked to bring hamburger sandwiches for which she will use two slices of
bread and one hamburger sandwich
one hamburger patty to make one sandwich. Show the equation.
This analogy will be used for mass relationships in
chemical equations.
INSTRUCTION/DELIVERY/PRACTICE(40 minutes)
Amounts of Reactants and Products
Stoichiometry is the study of the quantities of materials consumed and produced in
chemical
reactions. From the balanced chemical equation, we will be able to:
a. Determine how much products will be produced from a specific amount of
reactants
b. Determine the amount of reactants needed to produce a specific amount of
products
95
1. Illustrate stoichiometry using the following examples:
Teacher Tip
a. Let us make hamburger sandwiches again. The equation is
Illustrate stoichiometry with real life applications.
two$slices$of$bread$+$one$hamburger$patty$$!$$one$hamburger$sandwich$
Suppose Karen has 14 hamburger patties, how many slices of bread will she need
to consume
all the patties? The ratio of slices of bread to hamburger patty is 2: 1.
2. Suppose that instead of plain burgers, Karen is to make double cheeseburgers.

Show the
equation so Karen can shop for enough ingredients.
two$slices$of$bread$$+$one$hamburger$patty$$+$$two$slices$of$cheese$$$!$$
$one$double$cheeseburger$
How many slices of cheese, hamburger patties, and slices of bread will Karen
need to make 25
double cheeseburgers?
Karen will therefore have to buy 50 slices of cheese, 25 hamburger patties, and
50 slices of
bread.
96 
3. Ammonia, NH3, is a leading industrial chemical used in the production of
agricultural fertilizers Teacher Tip
and synthetic fibers. It is produced by the reaction of nitrogen and hydrogen
gases: Before doing any calculations involving chemical
reactions, make sure that the chemical equation is
balanced.
3 H2(g) + N2(g) ! 2 NH3(g)
Recall the interpretation of a balanced chemical
equation.
The balanced equation says that 3 moles H2 are stoichiometrically equivalent to
1 mole N2
and to 2 moles NH3. The ratio of moles H2 to moles NH3 is 3:2; the ratio of
moles N2 to moles Teacher Tip
Give these examples but ask them to supply the

NH3 is 1:2.
appropriate ratios or factors.
Before calculating, ask them the steps they will be

a. How many moles of NH3 will be produced if 10.4 moles H2 react completely with
N2?
taking to get the answer.

(moles H2 ! moles NH3)
b. How many moles of N2 are needed to produce 42.4 moles NH3? (moles NH3 ! moles
N2)
c. How many grams of NH3 will be produced from 25.7 moles N2

(moles N2 ! moles NH3 ! g NH3)
d. How many grams of NH3 will be produced if 122 g N2 reacts completely with H2?
(g N2 ! moles N2 ! moles NH3 ! g NH3)
97
4. Solid lithium hydroxide is used to remove carbon dioxide and is called a CO2
scrubber. This
technique has been used for space vehicles. The reaction is:
2 LiOH(s) + CO2(g) ! Li2CO3 (s) + H2O (l)
How many grams of CO2 can be absorbed by 785.0 g LiOH?
What are the steps of the solution?

a. Convert grams LiOH to moles LiOH.
b. Get the moles of CO2 stoichiometrically equivalent to moles LiOH
c. Convert moles CO2 to grams CO2.
(grams LiOH ! moles LiOH ! moles CO2 ! grams CO2)

Teacher Tip
Assign the exercises to different groups. Ask them
to show the calculations on the board. If there is

1. The combustion of carbon monoxide gas in oxygen gas is represented by the
following no longer enough time, this could be given as an
assignment.
balanced equation: 2 CO(g) + O2(g) ! 2CO2(g)
Alternatively, this can also be used as a quiz to

How many moles of carbon dioxide gas will be produced from the complete
combustion of
check on their understanding of the concept.

4.6 0 moles CO(g)?
Answer Key
1. 4.6 0 moles CO2

2. Consider the reaction: 2 KClO3 ! 2 KCl + 3 O2
2.a. 15.2 moles
2.b. 18.8 moles

a. How many moles of KClO3 are required to produce 22.8 moles oxygen gas, O2?
3.a. 388 g Fe2O3

b. How many moles of KCl will be produced from the total decomposition of 18.8
moles 3.b. 6 .43 x 103 g
KClO3?
4.a. 156 .0 g MgO
4.b. 135.0 g MG
98
3. Given the reaction 4 Fe + 3 O2 ! 2 Fe2O3
a. How many grams of Fe2O3 will be formed from 4.86  moles Fe reacting with
sufficient
oxygen gas?
b. How many grams of Fe are needed to react with sufficient oxygen to produce
28.8 moles
Fe2O3?
4. Consider the reaction 2Mg + O2 ! 2MgO

a. How many grams of MgO are produced from the complete reaction of 94.2 g Mg?
b. How many grams of Mg are needed to produce 224 g of MgO in the complete
reaction of
Mg with oxygen gas?
Limiting Reagents
The reactant used up first in the chemical reaction is called the limiting reagent.
Excess reagents
are reactants present in quantities greater than what is needed by the reaction.
Illustrate using the following examples:

1. Recall the example of the double cheeseburger. The equation is:
two$slices$of$bread$$+$$one$hamburger$patty$$+$$two$slices$of$cheese$$!$$
$one$double$cheeseburger$
When Karen went shopping, she was able to buy 50 slices of cheese, 20 hamburger
patties,
and 50 slices of bread. How many double cheeseburgers can she make? What is the
limiting
material or reagent? What are the excess reagents?
To find the limiting reagent, determine which reagent will give the smallest
amount of
product.
99
Therefore, the limiting reagent is the hamburger patty.
40$slices$of$bread$ 40$slices$of$cheese$
10$slices$in$excess
+ 20$patties +
10$slices$in$excess !
20$double$cheeseburger
Karen can only make 20 double cheeseburgers. The limiting reagent is the
hamburger patty.
There are ten slices of bread and ten cheese slices in excess. Karen cannot make
more than
20 sandwiches because all the hamburger patties have been used up.
2. Consider again the reaction:

3H2(g) + N2(g) ! 2NH3(g)
a. If 6 .6 0 moles H2 are made to react with 4.42 moles N2, what is the limiting
reagent? How
many moles NH3 will be produced? What reagent is in excess and by how much?
Determine which reagent will produce the smallest amount of product:
Therefore, the limiting reagent is H2.
100
The amount of limiting reagent present at the start of the reaction determines
the
theoretical yield. To determine the amount of NH3 produced, use the limiting
reagent.
The excess reagent is N2. If you have 6 .6 0 moles H2 then you will need
But you have 4.42 moles N2.

Therefore, the excess amount of N2 is 4.42 moles – 2.20 moles = 2.22 moles N2.
b. If 25.5 g H2 are made to react with 6 4.2 g N2, what is the limiting reagent?
What is the Teacher Tip
theoretical yield in g of NH3 that will be produced? How do you determine the
limiting This example shows that even though the mass of
N2 was greater than the mass of H2, the limiting

reagent?
reagent was still N2. This illustrates that the

i. Get the number of moles of each reactant.
limiting reagent is not determined by which
ii. Calculate the number of moles of product using each reagent.
reactant is present in greater amount. It is only by
considering the mole ratios and relationships in

iii. The one that yields the smallest number of moles of product is the limiting
reagent. the balanced chemical reaction that the limiting
reagent can be determined.
From 12.6  moles of H2, how many moles of NH3 do we expect to get?
101
From 2.29 moles of N2, how many moles of NH3 do we expect to get?
The limiting reagent is N2.
What amount of NH3 will be formed in this example?

The amount of product that can be produced is determined by the limiting
reagent. Once
the limiting reagent is consumed, there is no further reaction. Hence, to
calculate the
amount of NH3 produced, we use 2.29 moles N2, the limiting reagent.
Theoretical Yield, Actual Yield, and Percent Yield
Teacher Tip
The theoretical yield is the maximum amount of product that would result if the
limiting reagent
Explain why the theoretical yield is not obtained in

is completely consumed. It is the amount of product predicted by stoichiometry (as
shown in the actual work. Ask them for possible reasons.
above example).
The actual yield is the quantity of the desired product actually formed.
If in the example given above, only 54.0 g NH3 were produced, then the actual yield
is 54.0 g; the
theoretical yield is 78.0 g and the % yield is:
102
Ask them to answer this practice exercise:
Answer Key
1. Ag
1. Silver metal reacts with sulfur to form silver sulfide according to the
following reaction:
2. 57.5 g
2Ag (s) + S(s) ! Ag2S (s)
3. 2.57 g
4. 78.3 %
a. Identify the limiting reagent if 50.0 g Ag reacts with 10.0 g S.
b. What is the theoretical yield in g of Ag2S produced from the reaction?
c. What is the amount in g of the excess reactant expected to remain after the
reaction?
d. When the reaction occurred, the amount of Ag2S obtained was 45.0 g. What is
the
percent yield of the reaction?

Teacher Tip
Watch the animation videos of limiting reagent from the following sources:
If this cannot be shown in the classroom, learners
can be asked to view the animation at home or in

• Limiting reagent [Vector animation]. Retrieved from McGraw Hill Education web
site: the library.
http://www.mhhe.com/physsci/chemistry/essentialchemistry/flash/limitr15.swf
• Limiting reactant [Vector animation]. Retrieved from North Carolina School of
Medicine and
Mathematics web site:
http://www.dlt.ncssm.edu/core/Chapter6 -Stoichiometry/Chapter6 -Animations/
LimitingReactant.html
• Reactants, products and leftovers [Simulation]. Retrieved from PhEt Interactive
Simulations
web site: http://phet.colorado.edu/sims/html/reactants-products-and-
leftovers/latest/
reactants-products-and-leftovers_en.html

Encircle the letter of the best answer.
1. Stoichiometry deals with 2.
Given the reaction CH4 + 2O2 ! CO2 + 2H2O, what amount of
O2 is needed to completely react with 14.0 moles CH4?

A. Combustion reactions
A. 2.0 moles
B. Rates of chemical reactions
B. 28.0 moles
C. Heat evolved or absorbed during chemical reactions
C. 12.0 moles
D. The study of amounts of materials consumed and products
formed in chemical reactions
D. 6 .0 moles
E. Activation energy of chemical reactions
E. 1.0 mole
103
3. How much of SnF2 (stannous fluoride, active ingredient in 6 . The
reaction N2(g) + 2O2(g) ! N2O4(g) occurs in a closed
toothpaste) in g can be prepared from the reaction of 10.0 g
container. If 8.0 moles N2(g) are made to react with 12.0 moles
SnO with excess HF according to the following reaction? O2,
the limiting reagent and the theoretical yield of N2O4 are:
SnO + 2HF ! SnF2 + H2O A.
The limiting reagent is N2; the theoretical yield of N2O4 is 8.0
A. 11.6  g
moles
B. 10.0 g B.
The limiting reagent is N2; the theoretical yield of N2O4 is
C. 9.6 2 g
16 .0 moles
D. 26 .0 g C.
The limiting reagent is O2; the theoretical yield of N2O4 is
12.0 moles
E. 104.0 g
D.
6 .0 moles
4. What is a limiting reagent?
E.
A. The reactant that is used up last and prevents more product
8.0 moles
from being made
B. The reactant that is never used up
7. The
reaction of 5.0 g hydrogen with 5.0 g carbon monoxide
C. The reactant that is used up first and prevents more products
produced 4.5 g methanol. What is the percent yield for the
from being made
reaction 2H2 + CO ! CH3OH?
D. The reactant that is in excess and does not get used up in A.
11%
the reaction
B.
79%
E. The reactant that is always in greater quantity
C.
96 %
D.
24%
E.
6 3%
5. A mixture of 2.0 moles I2 and 4.0 moles Zn are reacted to
completion in a closed container according to the following
chemical equation: I2 + Zn ! ZnI2. What are the contents of 8. The
reaction of 5.0 g fluorine with excess chlorine produced 5.6 
the container after the reaction? g
ClF3 in the reaction Cl2 + 3F2 ! 2ClF3. What was the percent
yield of the reaction?

A. Zn and ZnI2
A.
58%
B. I2 and ZnI2
B.
6 9%
C. Zn and I2
C.
76 %
D. I2, Zn, and ZnI2
D.
86 %
E. ZnI2
E.
92%
104
General Chemistry 1
120 MINS
Lesson 14: Mass Relationships in

Chemical Reactions (Laboratory)
Content Standard
The learners demonstrate an understanding of the quantitative relationship of
Lesson Outline
reactants and products in a chemical reaction.
Motivation Why is Baking Soda Added to Cakes and 3
Cookies?
Introduction Introduction to Laboratory Activity 17

Instruction, Laboratory Activity 80
Delivery and
1. Atomic structure
Practice
Enrichment Post-laboratory Session 20

Evaluation Data Sheet and Activity Sheet
The learners determine the mass relationship in a chemical reaction
Materials
(STEM_GC11MR-Ig-h-42).
Evaporating dish, watch glass, balance (triple beam or electronic balance),
Sodium bicarbonate, spatula or small plastic knife, dilute hydrochloric acid

Specific Learning Outcomes (3
moles), beaker or glass container for the acid, long dropper, Bunsen
At the end of the lesson the learner will be able to:
burner, wire gauze or mesh, iron stand, iron ring, wash bottle, and distilled
water
1. Prepare NaCl from the reaction of sodium bicarbonate and hydrochloric
Resources
acid;
(1)
Burdge, J. & Overby, J. (2012). Chemistry: Atoms first. New York:
2. Determine the actual yield of the reaction;
McGraw-Hill.
(2)
3. Illustrate the mass relationship in a chemical reaction by calculating the
McGraw-Hill.
theoretical yield of the reaction; and (3)
Moore, J.W., Stanitski, C.L. & Jurs, P.C. (2012). Chemistry: The
4. Determine the percentage yield of the reaction.
molecular science (4th ed.). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole Cengage
Learning.
(4)
Zumdahl, SS. &Zumdahl, S.A. (2012). Chemistry: An atoms first
105
Teacher Tip
Why do we add baking soda, NaHCO3, in baking cookies and cakes?
Baking soda is used to make cakes and cookies
‘rise’. When a weak acid such as lemon juice,
vinegar, or buttermilk is added to baking soda,
bubbles of carbon dioxide are produced. The

release of gas is what causes the cake to ‘rise’.
Introduce the laboratory experiment as indicated in the Laboratory Sheet.
Teacher Tip
1. Prepare the classroom or laboratory, the

INSTRUCTION: Laboratory activity (80 minutes)
materials, the laboratory sheets to be used.
Safety Precautions:
2. Distribute the laboratory sheets at the start of
the lesson.
3. After the introduction and motivation, explain
2. Wear appropriate laboratory attire; goggles and apron must be worn throughout
the the procedures of the activity.
4. Explain the safety precautions.

experiment.
5. This activity can be performed individually or

3. Dispose of the materials as directed by your teacher.
in groups.
Teacher Tip
It is important to discuss the safety precautions
thoroughly before starting the experiment.
Procedure:
Note the precautions in handling the acid and in
lighting the burner.

1. Discuss the procedure of the experiment. Demonstrate the setup to be used.
2. During the activity, they should record the data in the activity sheets.
The product, NaCl, can be disposed in the sink
during washing.
3. After the activity, make sure that the learners clean the materials and
equipment and properly
dispose of the product.
106 
POST-LABORATORY SESSION
Give them enough time to accomplish the activity sheet of the experiment.
EVALUATION

The learner performed the The learner needed to improve his/ The
learner needed to improve his/ The learner did not observe
experiment using proper her use of laboratory techniques; her use
of laboratory techniques proper safety procedures for
laboratory techniques while but was able to observe safety and
observance of safety the experiment; did not use
observing safety precautions; and precautions; and was able to
measures; and was able to answer proper laboratory techniques;
was able to answer at least 75% of answer at least 6 0% of the at
least 50% of the calculations and and was able to answer less
the calculations and discussions in calculations and discussions in the
discussions in the activity sheet. than 25% of the items in the
the activity sheet. activity sheet.
activity sheet.
LABORATORY EXPERIMENT
MASS RELATIONSHIPS IN CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Introduction
A reaction is said to have been completed if one of the reactants is completely
consumed by the reaction. In this experiment, sodium
bicarbonate (baking soda) is made to react with hydrochloric acid to produce sodium
chloride according to the reaction:
NaHCO3 +HCl → NaCl + H2O + CO2(g)
You will use an accurately measured amount of NaHCO3 and add enough HCl until the
bicarbonate is completely used up. You will isolate the
product, NaCl, from the other products and determine its mass. This is the actual
yield of the reaction. The theoretical yield can be calculated
by using the mass relationships in the balanced chemical equation above. The
percentage yield can be determined from the ratio of the actual
yield to the theoretical yield.
Objectives
1. To perform a chemical reaction and measure the actual yield of sodium chloride
from the chemical reaction.
2. To determine the percent yield of the reaction.
107
Materials
a. Evaporating dish h.
Iron stand
b. Long dropper i.
Spatula or small plastic knife
c. Watch glass j.
Iron ring
d. Bunsen burner k.
Dilute hydrochloric acid (3 moles)
e. Balance (triple beam or electronic balance) l.
Wash bottle
f. Wire gauze or mesh m.
Beaker or glass container for the acid
g. Sodium bicarbonate n.
Distilled water (use commercially available distilled water)
Safety Precautions
2. Wear appropriate laboratory attire; goggles and apron must be worn throughout
the experiment.
3. Dispose of the materials as directed by your teacher.
Procedure:
1. Clean and dry an evaporating dish and a watch glass. The watch glass will be
used as the cover of the evaporating dish.
2. Weigh the combination of the evaporating dish and the watch glass to the
nearest 0.01 g. Record the mass in the data table.
3. Put about 2.00 grams of pure NaHCO3 into the dish. Weigh the dish, the contents,
and the cover watch glass to the nearest 0.01 g.
4. Set up the Bunsen burner, ring, and wire mesh, and set the evaporating dish on
the wire mesh. To cover the dish, place the curved side
down and the glass slightly off center so that the lip of the dish is uncovered.
Do not light the burner yet.
5. Add dilute hydrochloric acid drop wise down the lip of the dish to the
bicarbonate sample in the dish. Continue adding the acid dropwise
until no more reaction takes place when a drop of acid is added. Gently swirl
the contents of the dish so that all of the solid gets in contact
with the liquid. Do not add excess acid.
Caution: HCl acid is caustic and corrosive. Avoid contact with skin and eyes.
Avoid breathing the vapors. Wear safety goggles and apron.
Wipe away all spills. If any acid spills on you, immediately flush the area
with water and notify your teacher.
108
6 . Carefully rinse the bottom of the watch glass with distilled water, a few drops
at a time, and collect all the washings in the evaporating dish.
7. Gently heat the evaporating dish, contents, and cover with a low flame until the
salt is completely dry. Move the burner back and forth to
avoid spattering. If the contents of the dish spatter, reduce the flame.
8. Turn off the flame. Allow the dish to cool to room temperature. Weigh the dish,
contents, and cover watch glass to the nearest 0.01 g.
Caution: Before you light the burner, make sure that long hair and loose
clothing have been confined. Remember to allow all apparatus to
cool before you handle it again.
9. Repeat Steps 7 and 8 to be sure that constant weight has been obtained. Two
consecutive mass readings should agree within 0.02 g.
Calculations:
1. Calculate the theoretical yield of NaCl that should have been obtained from the
reaction. Show your calculations.
2. Determine the percentage yield.
Discussion:
1. What is the cause of the effervescence that you observed during the reaction?
2. How can you conclude that the reaction has gone to completion?
3. How do you know if the product was completely dry?
4. List possible sources of error which you think affected the yield of your
reaction. Did your error cause your result to be higher or lower than
the theoretical yield?
Additional Exercises - Practice:

1. Suppose you started with 6 .4 g NaHCO3 and added sufficient HCl for a complete
reaction, how much NaCl in g would you expect to
produce? Show your calculations.
2. If you wanted to produce 3.78 g NaCl, how much NaHCO3 in g would you start with,
assuming no loss of product occurs?
REPORT SHEET: MASS RELATIONSHIPS - LABORATORY

DATA TABLE
Mass of evaporating dish, watch glass, and NaHCO3
Mass of evaporating dish and watch glass
Mass of NaHCO3
Mass of evaporating dish, cover, and NaCl Trial

1 ________________
Trial
2 ________________
Trial
3 _________________(if needed)
Mass of NaCl obtained (experimental) 109

General Chemistry 1
240 MINS
Lesson 15: Gases (Lecture)

Content Standard
The learners demonstrate an understanding of:
Lesson Outline
1. The mathematical relationship between the pressure, volume, and
temperature of a gas;
Important Keywords
2. The partial pressures of a gas;
Motivation Relate the Presence of Gases in Daily Life 5
3. The quantitative relationships of the reactants and products in a gaseous
Instruction, I. Gas Laws 200

reaction; and
Delivery and II. Gas Mixtures

4. Behavior and properties of gases at the molecular level.
Practice III. Reaction Stoichiometry Involving Gases

IV. Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases
Enrichment Problem Solving

1. Determine the volume or pressure of gas at different conditions;
2. Determine the pressure of the components or of the whole gas mixture;
Evaluation Check-up Quiz 30
3. Calculate the amount of products or reactants involved in a gaseous

Materials
reaction; and
Projector, computer, flip charts
4. Explain the properties and behavior of a gas in terms of its molecular

Resources
composition.
(1) Brown, T. L., Bursten, B. E., LeMay Jr., H. E., Murphy, C., & Woodward,
Learning Competency
P. (2014). Chemistry: The central science. (13th ed.). Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

(2) Burdge, J. (2013).Chemistry. (3rd ed). New York: McGraw-Hill.
1. Define pressure and give the common units of pressure
(STEM_GC11G-Ih-i-43);
McGraw-Hill.
2. Express the gas laws in equation form (STEM_GC11G-Ih-i-44);
3. Use the gas laws to determine pressure, volume, or temperature
of a gas under certain conditions of change (STEM_GC11G-Ih- 6 .
Apply the principles of stoichiometry to determine the amounts
i-45);
(volume, number of moles, or mass) of gaseous reactants and
4. Use the Ideal Gas Equation to calculate pressure, volume,
products (STEM_GC11GS-Ii-j-48);
temperature, or number of moles of a gas (STEM_GC11G-Ih- 7.
Explain the gas laws in terms of the kinetic molecular theory of
i-46 );
gases (STEM_GC11KMT-Ij-49); and
5. Use Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures to relate mole fraction and 8.
Relate the rate of gas effusion with molar mass
partial pressure of gases in a mixture (STEM_GC11DL-Ii-47);
(STEM_GC11KMT-Ij-50).
110
Teacher Tip
1. Introduce the learning objectives using the suggested protocol (Read-aloud):
Display the objectives prominently on the board,
so that the learners can track the progress of their

a. I will be able to calculate the pressure or volume of a gas at different
conditions learning. List these keywords on the board.
b. I will be able to determine the pressure of a gas mixture or of its
components
c. I will be able to determine the amount of products or reactants involved in a
gas phase
reaction
d. I will be able to discuss the properties and behavior of gases in terms of
its molecular
composition

a. Boyle’s Law
b. Charles’s Law
c. Avogadro’s Law
d. Ideal Gas Equation
e. Partial pressure
f. Dalton’s Law
g. Gas reaction stoichiometry
h. Kinetic Molecular Theory
Teacher Tip
Point out the abundance of gases in their surroundings, such as in the environment,
at home, and The lesson is essentially a review of the basic
concepts presented and used in junior high school.

in other places. Ask them where gases are encountered or used in everyday life.
Some expected
responses are:
a. In the air, which supplies us with the gases we breathe
b. In the kitchen, wherein a gas (liquid petroleum gas) is used for heating or
cooking
c. In the hospital, wherein gases are used to aid the breathing of patients
d. In the automobile, wherein gases are burned in order to make the cars move
e. In carbonated drinks, wherein a gas (carbon dioxide) makes the drinks
refreshing
111
INSTRUCTION / DELIVERY / PRACTICE (200 minutes)
Teacher Tip
Note: The delivery will be done in four 50-minute sessions. It is best to summarize
the concepts Ask them how the balloon would look like if there
is no gas inside the balloon.

learned at the end of each session.
It would be helpful if a picture of an automobile
with tires is shown to them.An alternative example

PART ONE
is an air mattress.
Ask the learners to recall the definition of pressure – the amount of force exerted
per unit area.
Let them give the unit for pressure.
Showing a picture of a gasoline station air pump
may also be beneficial to the learners.
Show them a balloon and ask them to point out the role of the pressure of the gas
inside the
balloon.
Ask them to imagine the tire of a vehicle and the need to pump air into the tire up
to a given
pressure.
a. What will happen if the pressure is much lower than what it should be?
b. What will happen if the pressure is much greater than what it should be?
Ask them if they know how the air pressure of the tire is measured and expressed.
Point out the
various units used for pressure:
a. The old air pump in the gasoline stations used the unit pounds per square inch
(psi), which is
widely used especially in the United States, but usage of which is supposedly
discouraged.
b. Later on, the new air pumps used kilopascal (KPa) (or newton per square meter,
N/m2),
which is the SI unit for pressure.
c. In chemistry, a widely used unit for pressure is the atmosphere (atm), but the
International
Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry discourages its usage. However, it takes
some time for
usage of this unit to be discontinued.
d. Another old and popular unit for pressure is the Torr (or mmHg), yet the
International Union
of Pure and Applied Chemistry is also discouraging the usage of this unit.
112
Write on the board the relationship between the different units:
Teacher Tip
Ask them the origin of the unit Torr and the

1 atm = 76 0 Torr (mm Hg)
experiment of Torricelli. If they are not familiar

1 atm = 101.3 kPa
with this, assign them to read about this from the
internet and to write a report on what they read.

Point out to that aside from pressure, the other parameters (or variables) used to
describe gases
are volume and temperature.
The common unit for volume is the liter (L), but the SI unit for volume is m3. The
equivalence of
the liter in SI units is simple:
1 L = 1000 m3
1 L = 1 dm3
1 mL = 1 cm3
The common unit for temperature is degree Celsius (oC), but the SI unit is Kelvin
(K). The
relationship between the units is
K = oC + 273
Point out that the relationship between these three parameter are expressed by the
Gas Laws:
1. Boyle’s Law
2. Charles’s Law
3. Avogadro’s Law
Ask them to state Boyle’s Law and emphasize on expressing the law correctly: ‘The
volume of a Teacher Tip
They would be familiar with Boyle’s Law and

given amount of gas is inversely proportional to its pressure at constant
temperature.’
Charles’s Law from their Chemistry course in junior

• Highlight that Boyle’s Law is valid only if the amount of the gas and the
temperature is high school. A review and an enrichment could be
constant.
done for these topics.
• Write the mathematical expression for Boyle’s Law:

It would be helpful to demonstrate Boyle’s Law
through a 6 0-mL plastic syringe sealed at its inlet.

In terms of a proportion: V α 1/ P (at constant amount and temperature)
Show what happens to the volume of the trapped
gas once pressure of the gas is increased by

In terms of an equation: V = k/P (at constant amount and temperature)
pushing the plunger inwards.
PV = k or
P1 V1 = P2 V2
113
Teacher Tip
They should be familiar with the expressions, and

Draw the graph relating pressure and volume. Point out that the plot is called an
isotherm, since
they could be asked to write them on the board.

the relationship is exhibited only at constant temperature.
They might be familiar with the plot from junior
high school, and they could be asked to sketch it
on the board.
They might have learned how to solve this type of
problem from the Chemistry course in junior high
school. Let them recall how to solve the problem.
Answer key:
1. 3.75 L
2. 3.0 atm
A graph showing the relationship between
volume and pressure, as stated by Boyle’s Law
Ask them to solve the following problems:

1. A gas sample occupies a volume of 2.5 L at a pressure of 1.5 atm. What would be
the volume
of the gas if its pressure is reduced to 1 atm at the same temperature?
2. The gas inside a balloon has a volume of 15.0 L at a pressure of 2.0 atm.
Calculate the
pressure of the gas if its volume is compressed to 10.0 L at the same
temperature.
Teacher Tip
Ask them to state Charles’s Law and emphasize on expressing the law correctly: ‘The
volume of
They should be familiar with the expressions, and

a given amount of gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature at
constant pressure.’ they could be asked to write them on the board.
1. Highlight that Charles’s Law is valid only if the amount of the gas and the
pressure is constant.
Also, point out that the temperature should be expressed in the unit Kelvin (K).
114
Teacher Tip
Write the mathematical expression for Charles’s Law:
They might be familiar with the plot from junior
high school, and they could be asked to sketch it

In terms of a proportion: V α T (at constant amount and pressure)
on the board.
In terms of an equation: V = k T (at constant amount and pressure)
V/T=k or
V1 / T1 = V2 / T2
Draw the graph relating volume and temperature. Point out that the plot is called
an isobar,
since the relationship is exhibited only at constant pressure.
A graph showing the relationship between volume and pressure, as stated by

Charles’ Law
They might have learned how to solve this type of

problem from the Chemistry course in junior high
school. Let them recall how to solve the problem.

1. At 30oC, the volume of a sample of air was 5.8 L. What would be the volume of
the air sample
if it is heated to 6 0oC at the same pressure?
Answer key:
2. A given amount of oxygen gas has a volume of 25.0 L at a temperature of 37oC
and
a 1. 6 .37 L
2. 273 K
pressure of 1.0 atm. At what temperature would this gas occupy a volume of 22.0
L at a
pressure of 1.0 atm?
115
State Avogadro’s Law: ‘The volume of a gas at a given temperature pressure is
directly
proportional to the number of moles contained in the volume.
• Mention that this law is based on Avogadro’s hypothesis that ‘the same volume
of two gases
at the same temperature and pressure contain the same number of molecules’.
• Let them recall that the SI unit mole is related to the number of molecules in
a substance.
• Point out that experiments have shown that the volume of 1.0 mole of a gas at
0oC and 1 atm
is 22.4 L.
• Write the mathematical expression for Avogadro’s Law:
In terms of a proportion: V α n (at constant temperature and pressure)

In terms of an equation: V = kn (at constant temperature and pressure)
V/n = k or
V1 / n1 = V2 / n2
Answer Key
1. 16 8 L
2. 0.446  mol
1. 1.0 mole of a gas occupies a volume of 22.4 L gas at 0oC and 1 atm. What
would be the
volume of 7.5 mol of the gas at the same temperature and pressure?
2. The volume of a gas sample at 0oC and 1.0 atm is 10.0 L. How many moles of
gas are
contained in the sample?
The three gas laws can be combined into a single equation known as the Ideal Gas
Equation:
PV = nRT
116 
This equation can be rearranged into an equation known as the combined gas law,
which holds
true for a given amount of gas:
PV
= nR = k
T
P 1 V1 P2V2
=
T1 T2
The combined gas law reduces to Boyle’s Law, if temperature is kept constant (i.e.
T1#=#T2):
P1 V1 = P2V2
It also reduces to Charles’s Law, if pressure is kept constant (i.e. P1 = P2):
V1 V2
=
T1 T2
It will also show that pressure of a gas is directly proportional to its absolute
temperature, if the
volume is kept constant (i.e. V1 = V2):
P1 P2
=
T1 T2
The value of R can be calculated from the molar volume at 0oC and 1 atm
(V#=#22.4#L).
PV (1 atm) (22.4 L) atm L

R = = = 0.0821
nT (1 mol) (273 K) mol K
Point out the importance of R, which is known as the gas constant, and that it is
one of the few
universal constants, i.e. its value is the same anywhere and anytime.
117
Answer Key
1. 0.0347 mol
2. 8.90 L
1. A gas sample occupies a volume of 12.0 L at 50oC and 700 Torr. How many moles of
gas are 3. 1.07 atm
contained in the sample?
2. Calculate the volume that will be occupied by 20.0 g carbon dioxide at 25oC and
1.25 atm.
3. What would be the pressure of 6 .40 g oxygen gas in a vessel with a volume of 4.5
L at 20oC?
The ideal gas equation can be transformed into an expression involving density. The
number of
moles n can be expressed in terms of mass and molar mass (or weight and molecular
weight,
respectively):
n = w/M
Introducing this into the ideal gas equation gives:
P V = (w / M) R T
which can be rearranged into
P M = (w / V) R T
The term w / V is recognized as equal to density, d, so that the equation

becomes:
PM = dRT
Note that if the value of R as 0.0821 (atm L) / (mol K) is used, the unit for
density
in the equation should be g#/#L.
118
For a given gas (i.e. M = constant ) at a given pressure, the equation can be
reduced into
dT = K or
d1 T1 = d2 T2
This equation shows that the density of a gas is inversely proportional to its
temperature. This Teacher Tip
Assign them to read on ‘passive cooling’ from

means that hot air has a lower density than cold air.
internet resources. This reading will make them
realize the relevance of the gas laws in building
design.
The relationship between density and temperature can explain:
a. The principle of the hot air balloon
b. The principle behind passive cooling in building design
PART TWO
Highlight that many of the gases encountered in the surrounding are mixtures.
Point out that the Ideal Gas Equation can also be applied to not only to pure
gases, but also to
mixtures of gases.
Present a system composed of three gases contained in a vessel of volume V and kept
at a
temperature T. The number of moles of each gas is n1, n2 and n3, for gases 1, 2 and
3,
respectively, so that the total number of moles of gases is
n total = n1 + n2 + n3
The pressure of the mixture is given by the Ideal Gas Equation:
P mixture V = n total R T
119
Expressing ntotal in terms of the number of moles of each gas and solving for
Pmixture will result in Teacher Tip
The learners could be asked to write the resulting
expression for each step of the derivation.

( n 1 + n 2 + n 3 ) RT
P mixture =
V
If the right-hand side of the equation is expanded, the expression becomes
n 1 RT n 2 RT n 3 RT
P mixture + +
=
V V V
Let them realize that the term ni R T / V is equal to P and see that the previous
equation can be
written as
P mixture = P1 + P2 +P3
The pressures P1, P2, and P3, called partial pressure of each gas, corresponds to
the pressure that
the gas will exert in a volume equal to that of the mixture.
According to this expression, the total pressure of a gas mixture is equal to the
sum of the partial
pressure of each gas. This is known as Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure.

Answer Key
1. 2.4 atm
1. In a gas mixture composed of N2, Ne, and He, the partial pressure of N2 is 0.50
atm, that of 2. 726 .2 Torr
Ne is 1.1 atm, and that of He is 0.80 atm. What is the total pressure of the
mixture?
2. A sample of oxygen gas, which is saturated with water vapor, is kept in a 10-L
vessel at 30oC
and has a pressure of 758 Torr. If the pressure of the water vapor at this
temperature is 31.8
Torr, what would be the pressure of the dry oxygen?
120
The application of Dalton’s Law can also yield information about the composition of
the mixture, Teacher Tip
in terms of the mole fraction of each component. Let them write on the board the
expression for They could be asked to write the resulting
expression for each step of the derivation.

the pressure of gas 1 and that of the mixture:
n 1 RT n total RT
P1 = P mixture =
V V
Dividing P1 by Pmixture gives the following expression:
P1 n1
= = x1
P mixture n total
The term at the right-hand of the equation is actually a fraction, i.e. part
divided the whole, and is
known as mole fraction X1. Rearranging the expression leads to an important
relationship:
P1 = Pmixture X1

Teacher Tip
1. In a gas mixture composed of N2, Ne, and He, the partial pressure of N2 is 0.50
atm, that of 1. N2: X = 0.21; Ne: X = 0.46 ;
He: X = 0.33
Ne is 1.1 atm, and that of He is 0.80 atm. Calculate the mole fraction of each
gas.
2. A gas mixture contains 2.5 mol N2 and 9.7 mol CO2, and has a pressure of 2.3
atm. What is 2. N2: P = 0.47 atm;
the partial pressure of each gas?
CO2: P = 1.83 atm
PART THREE
As an introduction to this section, make the learners realize that reactions
involving gases are
common, such as the burning of fuel and the digestion of sugars:
2 C4H10 (g) + 13 O2 (g) g 8 CO2 (g) + 10 H2O (l)
C6 H12O6  (aq) + 6  O2 (g) g 3 CO2 (g) + 6  H2O (l)
121
Let them recall the basic principle of reaction stoichiometry, which is expressed
by the balanced Note
chemical equation.
Reaction stoichiometry – the relationship between
the moles of reactants and products in a reaction
Highlight the following principles learned in the previous discussion:

Answer Key
1. They can be guided in solving the problem by

1. The Ideal Gas Equation enables the calculation of the number of moles of a gas
from its asking them to solve first the number of moles
pressure, volume, and temperature:
of NaN3:
mol NaN3 = 2
PV
n =
Then, ask them to solve the number of moles
of N2 produced, using the balanced equation:

RT
mol N2 = 3
2. The volume of a gas at standard temperature (0oC) and standard pressure (1 atm)
can provide Finally, ask them to recall the molar volume at
information about the number of moles of the gas, through the known molar volume
under STP (22.4 L) and use it to solve for the final
the standard condition:
answer:
VN2 = 6 7.2 L
V STP
2. The mole of C2H2 is first calculated through

n =
the molar volume (22.4 L) at STP:
22.4
mol C2H2 = 0.446 
From this, the mole of CaC2 is calculated:

Point out that these principles are useful in calculating the amount of gases
involved in a mol CaC2 = 0.446 
reaction.
The weight of CaC2 is calculated from the
number of moles:
g CaC2 = 28.6  g
1. The airbag is a safety device used in cars to cushion the passenger during a
crash. It involves
the following chemical reaction which is triggered by an impact:
2 NaN3 (s) g 2 Na (s) + 3 N2 (g)

Calculate the volume of N2 gas (measured at STP) that can be produced from 130.0
g of NaN3
(molar mass = 6 5).
122
2. Acetylene is formed by the reaction of water with calcium carbide, according to
the following Answer Key
equation:
3. The mole of C2H2 is first calculated through
the molar volume (22.4 L) at STP:
mol of C2H2 = 2.23

CaC2 (s) + 2 H2O(l) g Ca(OH)2 (aq) + C2H2 (g)
From this, the mole of CO2 is calculated:
mol CO2 = 4.46 
How many grams of CaC2 would be needed to produce 10.0 L (measured at STP)
acetylene? The volume (measured at STP) of CO2 is
calculated from the number of moles:
V CO2 = 100.0 L
3. The reaction involved in the explosive combustion of acetylene is:
This answer can also be obtained through the
ratio of the mol CO2 to mol C2H2.

2 C2H2 (g) + 5 O2(g) g 4 CO2 (g) + 2 H2 (g)
Teacher Tip
They can be given a set of problems involving
reaction stoichiometry as homework.

How many L of CO2 gas (measured at STP) will be formed during the combustion of
50.0 L
C2H2 gas (measured at STP)?
PART FOUR
Emphasize to the learners that the gas laws summarize the general behavior of
gases. Through
these laws, the behavior of gases can be predicted. However, no explanation is
given for this
behavior.
Teacher Tip
Point out that the explanation is provided by the Kinetic Molecular Theory. The
theory assumes
To highlight each postulate, write the keyword for

a model which can be used to explain why gases behave the way they do. The model is
each statement on the board.
described through a set of postulates:
1. Gases are made up of very small molecules,which are separated by a very great
distance
between them. The dimension of the molecules is very much smaller than the
distance
between them.
2. Because of the very great distance between them, the force of attraction between
the
molecules is negligible. The molecules are independent of each other.
3. The molecules are in constant motion, moving in randomly in all directions.
4. Due to the great number of molecules and their random motion, it is unavoidable
that the
molecules will collide with each other and with the walls of the container.
123
5. During these collisions, there is no change in the momentum of the molecules.
6 . The average kinetic energy of the molecules is determined only by the absolute
temperature
of the gas.
Ask them to draw a representation of the model of the Kinetic Molecular Theory. The
model
should be:
Teacher Tip
The model would be familiar to them from the
Science course in junior high school. What might
not have been emphasized then is the motion of
the molecules.
Ask them to apply this model to explain some properties of gases:

a. Why can gases be compressed?
Make them see that because of the great distance between them, gases can be
forced to be
close to each other by compressing it.
b. Why does the volume of a gas decrease as the pressure is increased at constant
temperature?
This question asks for an explanation for the behavior described by Boyle’s Law.
The answer
would be similar to the previous question on the compressibility of gases. As
the molecules
become closer to each other, the volume of the gas becomes smaller.
c. Why do gases exert pressure?

Remind them that pressure is actually a force acting on a unit area. Help them
realize that the
collision of the molecules with the walls of the container produces a force
acting on the wall.
124
d. Why does the volume of a gas increase as it is heated at constant pressure?
This question asks for an explanation for the behavior described by Charles’s
Law. Help them
recognize that Postulate 5 expresses the effect of temperature on gases.
According to this
postulate, if the temperature is increased, the kinetic energy of the molecule
increases. The
increased kinetic energy makes the molecules to move faster and farther apart
from each
other, leading to a greater volume.
Point out that a mathematical treatment of the Kinetic Molecular Theory would
lead to an
equation for the root-mean-square velocity of the molecule:
This equation clearly shows that as the temperature increases, the velocity of
the molecule
increases.The gas molecules move faster at a higher temperature. It also shows
that as the
molar mass M of the molecule increases, the velocity of the molecule decreases.
If the velocity of two molecules of molar mass M1 and M2 are compared, the
result is Teacher Tip
The root-mean-square velocity is the square-
root of the mean of the square of the

2
velocities of the molecules:
1
The velocity of the molecules determines the rate of diffusion of the gases. The
relationship
between diffusion rate and molar mass has been verified by experiments, and is
known as
Graham’s Law of Diffusion.
Ask them to imagine that two bottles are placed at opposite ends of the room at
equal distance
from them. One bottle contains ammonia gas, NH3 (M = 17) which has a pungent odor,
and the
other contains hydrogen sulfide, H2S (M = 34) which has an odor like that of a
rotten egg. Which
odor will they sense first?
125
ENRICHMENT
1. As mentioned in the Delivery, at the end of each session, summarize the concepts
discussed in the session.
2. Conduct a session on problem solving to provide more exercises on the
application of the gas equations.
3. Conduct a laboratory activity on Graham’s Law of Diffusion.

Check-up quiz
1. Under which of the following volumes will 1.00 mol of an ideal gas exhibit the
greatest pressure at 300 K?
A. 0.01 L C. 1.00 L
B. 0.10 L D. 10.0 L
2. How will the volume of 0.50 mol of a gas behave if the temperature is raised
from 30oC to 6 0oC at constant pressure?
A. The volume will increase. C. The volume will be doubled.
B. The volume will decrease. D. The volume will be halved.
3. Which among the following systems will have the greatest volume at STP?
A. 1.00 g N2 gas (M = 28 g/mol)
B. 1.00 g NH3 gas (M = 17 g/mol)
C. 1.00 g CO2 gas (M = 44 g/mol)
D. 1.00 g He gas (M = 4 g/mol)
4. How will the density of a gas vary if its temperature is increased from 25oC to
50oC at constant pressure?
A. The density of the gas will not change! !
B. The density of the gas will increase
C. The density of the gas will decrease
D. The density of the gas will double
126 
5. Which of the following volumes of oxygen will contain the greatest number of
molecules at 300K and 1 atm pressure?
A. 0.01 L C. 1.00 L
B. 0.10 L D. 10.0 L!
6 .!In which of the following gas mixtures of N2(g) and He(g) is the partial
pressure of He(g) the greatest?
A. 2 moles N2(g) and 3 mole He(g)
B. 3 moles N2(g) and 1 mole He(g)
C. 4 moles N2(g) and 2 mole He(g)
D. 5 moles N2(g) and 5 mole He(g)
7. Hydrogen, H2(g),reacts with oxygen, O2(g), to form water H2O(l): !
2 H2(g) + O2(g) ##!###2 H2O(g)#

How many liters of oxygen gas, measured at STP, will be needed to react
completely with 10.0 L hydrogen gas, also measured at STP?
A. 5.00 L C. 20.0 L
B. 10.0 L D. 100.0 L
8. Which of the following postulates of the Kinetic Molecular Theory for gases can
explain why gases exhibit pressure?
A. The molecules are in constant random motion!
B. The molecules collide with the walls of the vessel!
C. The distance between the molecules is great!
D. The molecular kinetic energy depends on temperature!
9. How will the velocity of a gas molecule vary if its molecular weight is
increased from 32 g mol-1 to 6 4 g mol-1?
A. The velocity will increase !
B. The velocity will decrease
C. The velocity will double
D. The velocity will remain the same
127
General Chemistry 1
120 MINS
Lesson 16 : Gases (Laboratory)

Content Standard
Lesson Outline
The learners demonstrate the ability to explain experimental
observations using the laws and theories learned in the lecture course.
Instruction Pre-activity 6 0

The learners shall be able to compare the rates of diffusion of two gases
and explain the observed behavior.
Enrichment Problem solving 25
Evaluation Post-laboratory 25
Materials
1. Observe and measure the difference in the diffusion rate of two
Laboratory glassware
gases. (STEM_GC11KMT-Ij-51);
Resources
(1)
Laboratory experiments found in the internet, such as: Fasano, Janet.
Graham’s Law lab [PDF document]. Retrieved from Needham Public Schools:
http://fcw.needham.k12.ma.us/~Janet/FOV1-00108AC5/Graham's%20Law
%20Lab.pdf
128
Teacher Tip
1. State the objective of the experiment that the learner will be performing.
A laboratory experiment sheet has to be prepared
and distributed to the learners.

2. Ask them to recall the diffusion property of gases and explain in terms of the
kinetic molecular
theory.
The experiment found in the internet could be
revised or simplified to suit the available facilities

3. Point out safety measures to be observed.
in the laboratory.
Teacher Tip
An alternative experiential approach to the
Point out why we can smell the odor of a fruit (such as durian) or a flower (such
as sampaguita) motivation can be done using an open bottle of
from a distance.
perfume in front of the class.
Remind them to observe safety precautions during

INSTRUCTION (6 0 minutes)
the experiment.
1. Provide each group with the necessary materials.
Sample Problems
a. Gas X has a molar mass of 72 g/mol and Gas Y
Assign them to solve some problems involving Graham’s Law.
has a molar mass of 4 g/mol. How much faster
or slower does Gas Y effuse from a small
opening than Gas X if they are at the same
temperature?
b. If the density of hydrogen is 0.090 g/L and its
rate of diffusion is 5.93 times that of chlorine,
what is the density of chlorine?
Teacher Tip
Provide them with the worksheet that they have to
Ask them to submit a report on the experiment.
fill up. It could include some more questions.
129
DIFFUSION OF GASES
Introduction
One of the properties of gases is its ability to diffuse easily. This property can
be explained by the motion of the gas molecules and the
absence of intermolecular forces of attraction. As a result of this property, a gas
spreads easily in the air and fills up all available space.
In this experiment, the diffusion of two gases will be investigated and their
relative rates of diffusion will be measured. The gases will be
confined in a glass tube and will be introduced at the opposite ends of the
tube.The mixing of the two gases will be indicated by the formation
of a white solid in the tube.
Materials
a. Concentrated hydrochloric acid, HCl
b. Ammonia solution, NH3
c. Glass tube
d. Cotton buds (Q-tips)
Procedure
1. Set the glass tube against a black background and place markings on both ends to
indicate where the cotton tips will be introduced.
2. Place two drops of concentrated HCl in one cotton bud, and two drops of NH3
solution in the second cotton bud.
Caution: These solutions can irritate your skin. Use gloves, if possible.
3. Simultaneously insert the cotton buds in the opposite ends of the glass tube.
4. Note which part of the tube a white ring will form. Mark this part and measure
its distance from the HCl end and from the NH3 end.
5. Repeat Steps 1 to 4 to provide a duplicate measurement. This will be used to
check the repeatability of the results.
6 . Dispose the cotton buds in the designated waste container.
130
Treatment of results
1. Record the distance of the white ring formed in the tube from the ends where the
two gases were introduced. Calculate the ratio of these
two distances. This ratio is equal to the ratio of the rates of diffusion of the
two gases.
2. Obtain the molar mass of HCl and NH3, and calculate the ratio of the diffusion
rates of the two gases using Graham’s Law of Diffusion.
3. Compare the observed and predicted ratio of the diffusion rates.
TRIAL 1 TRIAL 2
TRIAL 1 TRIAL 2
Distance from the HCl end (dHCl)

Molar mass of HCl (MHCl)
Distance from the NH3 end (dNH3)

Molar mass of NH3 (MNH3)
Ratio of distances (dHCl) / dNH3)

Calculated ratio of diffusion rates (dHCl) / dNH3)
EVALUATION

correctly; task.
correctly; and and but
iii. discussed the results of the iii. discussed the results of the iii. did
not discuss the results of
experiment very well. experiment well. the
experiment.
131
General Chemistry 1
120 MINS
Lesson 17: Electromagnetic Waves, Planck’s

Quantum Theory, and Photoelectric Effect
Content Standard
The learners demonstrate an understanding of the quantum mechanical
description of the atom and its electronic structure.
Lesson Outline
Keywords
The learners can describe the dual nature of an electron.
Motivation Thermal Imaging Infrared Photography 10

Instruction, I. The Characteristics of a Wave 90

Delivery and II. Planck’s Quantum Theory
1. Describe the quantum mechanical model of the atom
Practice III. The Photoelectric Effect
(STEM_GC11CB-IIa-b-52)
IV. The Particle-Wave Duality of Light
a. Identify the inadequacies of the classical physics in explaining
experimental results that brought about the quantum theory
Enrichment Revisit Introductory Questions 10
b. Discuss Planck’s quantum theory
Evaluation Take Home Activity
c. Describe the particle-wave duality of light in relation to the
photoelectric effect
Materials
Calculator
d. Recognize the contribution of scientists to the development of the
Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
Resources
(1)
Chang, Raymond and Goldsby, Kenneth A. (2016 ). Chemistry (12th
Specific Learning Competencies
ed). New York: McGraw-Hill.
At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to: (2)
Petrucci, Herring, Madura, and Bissonnette (2011). General Chemistry
and Modern Applications, 10th Ed. Pearson Canada, Inc.

1. Describe the characteristics of a wave;
(3)
Zumdahl, S.S. and Zumdahl, S.A (2013).Chemistry, 8th ed. Cengage
2. Relate the order of the regions of the electromagnetic spectrum in
Learning
terms of their wavelength and frequency; (4)
Infrared Image Gallery: http://coolcosmos.ipac.caltech.edu/
3. State Planck’s equation;
image_galleries/
4. Solve problems related to electromagnetic radiation, its energy, (5)
PAGASA weather satellite maps: http://meteopilipinas.gov.ph/
wavelength, and frequency;
5. Describe the particle-wave duality of light; and
6 . Recognize technological applications of the photoelectric effect
132
At the end of Part I, I will be able to:
a. Describe the characteristics of a wave
b. Relate the order of the regions of the electromagnetic spectrum in terms of
their
wavelength and frequency
c. State Planck’s equation.
d. Solve problems related to electromagnetic radiation, its energy, wavelength,
and
frequency.
e. Describe the particle-wave duality of light
f. Recognize technological applications of the photoelectric effect

a. wave h. Hertz
b. frequency i. speed of light
c. wavelength j. blackbody radiation
d. amplitude k. quantum theory
e. crest l. photoelectric effect
f. trough m. particle-wave duality of
light
g. period
3. Certain experimental results observed at the beginning of the 20th century could
not be
explained by classical physics. These included the blackbody radiation,
photoelectric effect,
and the emission spectrum of hydrogen. The new age of physics began when the
German
physicist, Max Planck proposed his quantum theory of energy. The lesson will
discuss the
emergence of this new theory and the contributions of Max Planck and Albert
Einstein to the
development of the quantum theory.
133
4. Post on the board the following essential questions that will be answered after
the discussion Teacher Tip
a. What is a wave?
Check the Infrared Image Gallery site at http://
coolcosmos.ipac.caltech.edu/image_galleries/. If
b. What is a particle?
possible, print a few infrared pictures beforehand
c. Is the electron a wave or a particle?
and pass these to the students during class.
Alternatively, ask the students to visit the website
from their homes, their mobile phones, or from the

school library.
Engage the students in a discussion and ask them the following questions:
Ask the students to go to the PAGASA website at

1. What is a thermal imaging infrared photography?
http://meteopilipinas.gov.ph/ to see the IR
Thermal imaging infrared photography detects infrared light and converts
this to an weather satellite map.
electronic signal that is processed to produce a thermal image.
2. Give some uses of thermal imaging photography.
Examples of uses:
Military operations
Construction – check efficiency of insulation and detect where there are
heat leaks; check
electrical wirings in houses to see where there are overheating joints
Fire fighters use this to locate hotspots in a building or locate people
who are trapped.
PAGASA weather maps showing warm and cool areas of the ocean

I. THE CHARACTERISTICS OF A WAVE
It was in the early 1900’s that a new way of looking at energy and matter began. It
stemmed from
Max Planck’s idea about blackbody radiation and culminated in Schrodinger’s wave
equation
known also as the wave function, ψ (psi), which described the hydrogen atom.
1. First let us define a particle and a wave.

a. A particle is an object which has distinct chemical or physical properties
such as volume or
mass.
b. A wave is a disturbance that travels from one location to another location.
The highest
peak of the wave is called the crest and the lowest point is named as the
trough.
c. The wave has distinct characteristics that include amplitude, wavelength
and frequency.
134
The amplitude is defined as one-half the distance from crest to trough. The
wavelength Teacher Tip
(symbolized by the Greek letter lambda, λ) is the distance from crest to crest
or from Remind the learners that
i. A wave is characterized by its wavelength,

trough to trough.
frequency, and amplitude.

d. Frequency (symbolized by the Greek letter nu, ν) is defined as the number of
waves ii. The wavelength, λ , has units of length (i.e. m,
passing a fixed point in a specified period of time. Frequency has units of
waves per mm, nm, etc.)
iii. Frequency, v", has the units of Hz (1 Hz = 1cycle

second or cycles per second. Another unit for frequency is the Hertz
(abbreviated Hz)
per second). Sometimes it is also in terms of

where 1 Hz is equivalent to 1 cycle per second.
(1/time) for example sec-1.
e. The period of a wave is the time for a particle on a medium to make one complete
vibrational cycle.
135
The figures above show two waves travelling between two points at a constant speed.
Note
that the wave with longer wavelength has the lower frequency, and the wave with the
shorter
wavelength has higher frequency. Thus, wavelength, λ, and frequency, v, are
indirectly related
to one another. The wavelength of the wave multiplied by the frequency of the wave
corresponds to the speed, µ, of the wave. In an equation form,
λν = µ
Waves can be classified as mechanical or electromagnetic waves. A mechanical wave

requires
a medium for it to travel, i.e. the sound wave, water wave, etc. An electromagnetic
wave is a
wave that is capable of transmitting its energy through an empty space or vacuum.
Light is
considered to be a electromagnetic wave. In electromagnetic radiation, the
frequency of the
wave when multiplied by its wavelength corresponds to the speed of light, c, as
shown in the
equation
λν = c
where c = 3.00 x 108 m/s.
The figure on the right shows the various types of

electromagnetic radiation, which differ from one another in
terms of wavelength and frequency. The shortest waves
which have the highest frequency, like the gamma rays,
result from the changes within the nucleus of the atom. The
visible light waves, with wavelength that range from about
400-700 nm, are produced by the motions of electrons
within the atoms and molecules. The longest waves are
those emitted by the antennas of broadcasting stations.
ELECTROMAGNETIC
SPECTRUM. Retrieved (https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
thumb/f/f1/EM_spectrum.svg/2000px-EM_spectrum.svg.png) (07/02/2016  12:56  PM)
136 
Give the learners some practice exercises:
1. If the wavelength is decreased to half its original length, what happens to the
frequency?
Answer: The frequency is doubled.
2. A yellow light emitted by a sodium vapor lamp has a wavelength of 589 nm. What
is the frequency of the yellow light?
c# 3.00#x#10#8#m/s# 10#9#nm#
v## =
λ
=
589#nm
x
1#m
!
5.09"x"10"14"s"+1""or##5.09"x"10"14"Hz
3. A radio station broadcasts at a frequency of 590 KHz. What is the wavelength of

the radio waves?
c# 3.00#x#10#8#m/s# 1#kHz# 1#Hz#

λ## =
=##508#m##="""5.1"x"10"2"m
= x x
v 590#kHz 1,000#Hz 1#/#s
4. A particular electromagnetic radiation was found to have a frequency of 8.11 x

1014Hz. What is Note
the wavelength of this radiation in nm? To what region of the electromagnetic
spectrum would Give the practice exercises as a seatwork. Ask
you assign it?
some students to show their solutions on the
board and explain their answer.
II. PLANCK’S QUANTUM THEORY

When an object is heated, the electrons on the surface are thermally agitated and
begin to emit
radiation. Physics around the 1900s was concerned with the spectrum of the light
emitted by
heated bodies, particularly by black bodies. A blackbody is a material that absorbs
all radiation
that falls on it and is therefore a perfect absorber. When such a blackbody is
heated, it was
expected to emit at every wavelength of light that it is able to absorb. Classical
physics predicted
that the maximum wavelength emitted by the blackbody would be infinite. However,
results
proved otherwise and classical physics could not explain the resulting spectrum of
blackbody
radiation. Experimental results showed that while blackbodies emitted radiation at
various
wavelengths, they showed a maximum wavelength (not infinite) that shifted toward
lower
wavelengths as the temperature increased.
Planck made a radical proposal to explain the experimental results of the blackbody
radiation. He
proposed that the atoms on the surface of the heated solid could absorb energy only
in discrete
quantities or quanta, and not continuously as assumed by classical physics. The
energy absorbed
137
or released by any oscillator are in integer multiples, or quanta, of hν. This
became known as Teacher Tip
Planck’s equation.
Make sure the learner understands the meaning of
integral multiples and quanta. There is no need for

E"="hν"
the learner to memorize Planck’s constant, h. The
value should be given to the student during exams

Energy, E, is equal to frequency, ν, multiplied by Planck’s constant, h, with a
value of and quizzes.
6 .6 26  x 10-34 J s. According to quantum theory proposed by Planck, the amount of
energy
emitted or absorbed by a body can have values of hν, 2 hν, 3 hν, 10 hν, but never
4.8 hν
or 0.25 hν.
And because v=c/λ, the equation can also be expressed as
c#
E"="hν"="h""
λ
Ask the learners the following questions:

a. Which is a quantized way of getting from the 1st to the 2nd floor of a building
– using the stairs Answer Key
or using a ramp?
a. Using the stairs is quantized. One can take 1
step at a time or 2 steps at a time in going up

b. Give some examples from daily life that shows quantization.
to the second floor but never 1.6  steps at a
time.!
b. Some answers could be: The smallest

III. EINSTEIN’S EXPLANATION OF THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
denomination given by ATM machines; chairs
Another stumbling block for classical physics was the photoelectric effect
experiment. According around the table, etc.
to classical physics, when light hits a metal surface, the electrons in the metal
should slowly
absorb energy from the light until they have enough energy to be emitted to produce
a current.
It also predicted that as the intensity of the incident light increases, the
kinetic energy of the
emitted electrons should increase. However, the experiment did not support these
predictions
but provided the following observations:
a. When light is made to hit a metal surface, there is a threshold frequency

below which no
electrons can be ejected regardless of the intensity of the incident light.
b. Above the threshold frequency, the number of ejected electrons was

proportional to the
intensity (or brightness) of the incident light but their energies were not.
Source: Retrieved (https://upload.wikimedia.org/
c. Above the threshold frequency, the kinetic energy of the emitted electrons
increased wikipedia/commons/f/f5/Photoelectric_effect.svg)
linearly with the frequency of the incident light.
11/02/16 , 08:12 am
138
These results could not be explained by the wave theory of light. Waves can have
any amount of
energy - big waves have a lot of energy, small waves have very little. And if light
is a wave, then
the brightness of the light affects the amount of energy - the brighter the light,
the bigger the
wave, the more energy it has.
IV. THE PARTICLE-WAVE DUALITY OF LIGHT

Einstein proposed that the only way to explain the photoelectric effect was to say
that instead of
being a wave, as was generally accepted, light was actually made up of lots of
small packets of
energy called photons that behaved like particles. Each photon has energy given by
the equation
E#=#hν#
Where is the frequency of the light and h is Planck’s constant: h = 6 .6 26  x 10-34 J
s.
In explaining the results of the photoelectric effect experiment, the energy, hν,
of the incident
light is used to remove the electron from the surface of the metal. If the electron
is tightly held by
the metal and the energy of the incident light (corresponding to the threshold
frequency) is not
sufficient, no electron will be ejected. If the energy of the incident light is
sufficient, it will use the
energy to eject the electron; the rest will be given off as the kinetic energy of
the electron. In
equation form, this is given by
hν#=#W#+#K.E.#
where W is the work function (the energy needed to eject the electron) and K.E. is
the kinetic
energy.
K.E.="hν"+"W"
This explains the observation that the kinetic energy of the emitted electrons
varied linearly with
the frequency of the incident light.
139
Light is a wave as shown by different experiments like the diffraction of light by
a prism to yield Note
the visible spectrum. However, the photoelectric effect experiment showed that
light also The apparent mass of a photon of light with
behaves like a particle. Thus light has both wavelike and particlelike properties.
This concept is wavelength, λ, can be expressed from the
relationship of Einstein’s famous energy equation

called the particle-wave duality of light.
from the theory of relativity:
E"="mc"2"
And the energy equation by Planck:
hc"
Ephoton"="hv"=""
And is given by
E" λc/"λ" h"
m"=""""""""""""""=""""""""""""""""""""""="
c 2 c 2 λc
Note that the apparent mass of a photon depends
on its wavelength. However, a photon does not
have a mass in a classical sense.
Give the learners practice exercises:

1. The work function or the energy needed to eject an electron in cesium metal is
3.42 x 10-19 J. Teacher Tip
Discuss some problems in class. The rest may be

If an incident light of frequency 1.00 x 1015 s-1 is used to irradiate the
metal, will electrons be given as a seatwork. The problems may be
ejected? Show your calculations.
assigned individually or to groups. Then ask the
learners to show their work on the board for
discussion with the entire class. This may also be

The energy of the incident light can be calculated by
used for evaluation.
E""=""hv""=""(6 .6 26 "x"10"+34"Js)"(1.00"x"10"15"s"+1")""=""6 .6 26 "x"10+19"J"
This energy is greater than the work function of cesium metal. Therefore,
electrons will be
ejected from the metal.
2. What will be the kinetic energy of the ejected electron?
KE""=""hv"+"W"=""(6 .6 26 "x"10"+19"J"+"3.42"x"10"+19"J""=""3.21"x"10+19"J"
140
3. The blue color in fireworks is due to copper (I) chloride , (CuCl), is heated at
a temperature of 1200
oC. What is the energy emitted at 4.50 x 102 nm by CuCl?
Solution:))The)quantum)of)energy)can)be)calculated)from)Planck’s)equation)!
E"="hv."
a. The frequency can be calculated from the equation, c = λv ; rearranging the

terms, we have:
c" 3.00"x"10"8"m"/"s"
v"" = = =""6 .6 7"x"10"14"s"+1
λ 4.50"x"10"+7"m
b. Then, solve for the energy using Planck’s equation.
!"E"="hv"="(6 .6 26 "x"10"+34"Js")"("6 .6 7"x"10"14"s"+1")"="4.41"x"10"+19"J"
"
This means that, CuCl emitting a blue light at 450 nm can lose energy only in
the increments of
4.41 x 10-19 J, the size of the quantum in this case.
4. There are three types of UV radiation classified by wavelength: UVA (320 – 400
nm), UVB (290 – 320
nm), and UVC (180 – 280 nm). Which type of UV has the lowest energy?
5. A photon of ultraviolet (UV) light possesses enough energy to mutate a strand of

human DNA. What
is the energy of a single UV photon having a wavelength of 5.00 nm?
6 . Compare the energy (in joules) of (a) photon with a wavelength of 5.00 x 104 nm
and (b) photon with
a wavelength of 5.00 x 10-2 nm. At what regions in the spectrum do the samples
come from? Relate
the relationship of the wavelength of a radiation to the energy.
7. Chlorophyll absorbs light energies of 3.06  x 10-19J/photon and 4.41 x 10-

19J/photon. To what color
and frequency do these absorptions correspond?
141
8. The protective action of ozone in the atmosphere comes through ozone’s
absorption of UV radiation Answer Key
in the 230 to 290 nm wavelength range. What is the energy, in kJ/mol, associated
with radiation in 4. UVA
this wavelength range?
6 .a. E = 3.98 x 10 -21 J
6 .b. E = 3.98 x 10 -15 J from x-ray region
6 .c. Wavelength is inversely proportional

9. The work function of potassium metal is 3.6 8 x 10-19 J. Which of the following
will cause electrons to to energy.
be ejected from the surface of potassium metal?
a. Red light ( λ = 7.00 x 10 -7 m)
b. Green light ( λ = 5.51 x 10 -7 m)
c. Violet light ( λ = 4.00 x 10 -7 m)

1. Go back to the essential questions presented during the introduction and ask the
students to give
their answers to check their understanding of the lesson.
a. What is a wave?
b. What is a particle?
c. Is the electron a wave or a particle?
2. Return also to the motivation questions on thermal imaging infrared photography.

Relate these to
the lesson.
a. Which has longer wavelength, IR or visible radiation?
b. Which will have more energy, IR or visible radiation?
3. Discuss the modern uses of the photoelectric effect.

After a century, Einstein's work on the photoelectric effect gave way to new and
very useful
technologies
a. Photocell found in automatic door openers;
b. Ruby lasers, red light emitters used to read bar codes and night vision
devices
c. Medical and dental devices
d. Other image processing technologies.
142
TAKE HOME ACTIVITY: Scientists on Parade
Make a profile of each scientist and
Explain to the students the take home activity. This may be assigned to individual
students or to groups. explain their contributions to the
Ask the students to prepare a poster which illustrates or describes the role of the
scientists listed below behavior of the electron.
in the development of the quantum mechanical description of the atom. If an LCD
projector and laptop
are available, the students may present a 7-slide power point presentation.
Samples
1. Max Planck
Ask the students also to reflect on the lives of these scientists and relate what
they liked in the life story
of the scientists and what attributes did they possess that are worthy to emulate.
2. Albert Einstein
3. Niels Bohr
Give the students about 1 to 2 weeks to work on the project. They are to present
their work in class at 4. Louis de Broglie
the end of the lesson on the quantum mechanical description of the atom.
5. Werner Heisenberg
6 . Erwin Schrödinger
EVALUATION
CRITERIA EXCEEDS EXPECTATIONS MEETS

EXPECTATIONS NEEDS IMPROVEMENT NOT VISIBLE
Information 3-4 unique details or examples 2-3 details are

provided 1-2 details are provided; some Incomplete information;
provided; content is complete; information
clearly relates to information provided is not irrelevant ideas or
examples
all information clearly relates to topic; diagrams
(if present) relate closely related to topic included
topic to topic and
add to clarity
Organization Clear organizational method Information

generally organized; 2-3 gaps or out of sequence Information is
presented out of
chosen suits work; content the content
flows nicely; the information cause viewer or sequence
flows in a clear pattern; reader reader has no
difficulty following reader to re-read numerous times
is able to concentrate on the the information
despite a minor for clarity
information error or two
Presentation An occasional grammar or 3 or fewer

minor grammar or Many minor grammar or spelling Major and minor
errors in
spelling error may result from spelling
errors; mostly errors; messy; inconsistent care in grammar and
spelling;
risk-taking; materials are aesthetically
pleasing, some attaching materials or drawing or information attached
without
organized and glued down; messy parts;
evident care of writing care of the project is attention to
pleasing effect;
presenting a polished, pleasing project
inconsistent care of project not evident
result
(edges rolled, etc.)
Creativity Images or layout show original Images or

layouts use a common Images or layout reproduce Images or layout
copied from
ideas; reader is surprised, pattern which
get intended common patterns, and give others or standard or
so
interested and pleased audience
interested viewer/reader what he/she is sketchy that
intent can’t be
accustomed to determined
143
General Chemistry 1
120 MINS
Lesson 18: Emission Spectrum of Hydrogen,

and Dual Nature of Matter
Lesson Outline
Content Standard
description of the atom and its electronic structure.
Motivation Recall 3
Instruction I. The Emission Spectrum and the Bohr 85
Theory
1. Describe the quantum mechanical model of the atom (STEM_GC11CB-
II. Limitations of the Bohr Model
IIa-b-52)
III. The Dual Nature of the Electron; De
a. Identify the inadequacies of the classical physics in explaining the
Broglie Equation
emission spectrum of the hydrogen atom
IV. Calculating the De Broglie Wavelength
b. Discuss the use of quantum theory in explaining the emission spectrum
V. Experimental Evidence of De Broglie
of the hydrogen atom
Wavelength
c. Describe the Bohr model of the atom and the inadequacies of the Bohr
model
Enrichment Revisit Essential Question 5
d. Explain the wave-particle duality of matter.
Evaluation Quiz 15
Material
At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to:
Calculator
1. Explain the emission spectrum of hydrogen using the Bohr model of the
Resources
hydrogen atom; (a)
2. Calculate the energy, wavelength, and frequencies involved in the electron
transitions in the hydrogen atom; (b)
3. Relate the emission spectra to common occurrences like fireworks and
neon lights; (c)
Learning
4. Describe the Bohr model of the atom and the inadequacies of the Bohr
(d)
Roque, et al. laboratory Manual in General Chemistry (2008). Philippine
model;
Normal University.
5. Explain the wave-particle duality of matter and
6 . Perform calculations to determine wavelengths associated with moving
bodies.
144
(Verbatim, Own
Words, or Read-aloud):
At the end of Part II, I will be able to:
a. Explain the emission spectrum of hydrogen using the Bohr model of the
hydrogen atom
b. Calculate the energy, wavelength, and frequencies involved in the electron
transitions in the
hydrogen atom.
c. Relate the emission spectra to common occurrences like fireworks and neon
lights.
d. Describe the Bohr model of the atom and the inadequacies of the Bohr model
e. Explain the wave-particle duality of matter
f. Perform calculations to determine wavelengths associated with moving bodies

a. Emission spectrum
b. Rydberg’s constant
c. Ground state
d. Ground energy level
e. Excited state
f. Excited energy level
g. Travelling wave
h. Standing wave
i. De Broglie Equation
the discussion
Why do elements emit different colors when heated?
What is the wave-particle duality of matter?
4. Review Rutherford’s nuclear model of the atom
145
1. What causes the colors in fireworks displays? Ask the students to recall
fireworks displays and ask
them what they think give the colors in the fireworks?
2. What causes the colors in neon lights?

I. THE EMISSION SPECTRUM AND THE BOHR THEORY OF THE HYDROGEN ATOM
When elements are energized by heat or other means, they give off a characteristic
or distinctive
spectrum, called an emission spectrum, which can be used to differentiate one
element from another.
While scientists recognized the usefulness of emission spectra in identifying
elements, the origins of
these spectra were unknown.
From Rutherford’s theory, the atom was described to be mostly empty space having a
very tiny but Teacher Tip
Here is another occurrence that classical

dense nucleus that contained the protons. The electrons whirled around the nucleus
in circular orbits at
mechanics is unable to explain.

high velocities. Classical mechanics and electromagnetic theory explained that any
charged particle
moving on a curved path would emit electromagnetic radiation. This implies that
electrons would lose
energy and spiral into the nucleus. Why this is not observed had to be explained.
In 1913, Niels Bohr proposed his model of the hydrogen atom to explain how
electrons could stay in Note
Remember that the Bohr model is no

stable orbits around the nucleus. This model is no longer considered to be correct
in all its details.
longer considered correct. However,

However, it could explain the phenomenon of emission spectra. For his model of the
hydrogen atom, some of its features are still useful. One of
Bohr made the following postulates:
this is the explanation of the emission
spectrum. The limitations of the Bohr
model will be pointed out in a later

a. Electrons go around the nucleus in circular orbits. However, not all circular
orbits are allowed. section.
The electron is allowed to occupy only specific orbits with specific
energies. Therefore, the
energies of the electron are quantized.
b. If the electron stays in the allowed orbit, its energy is stable. It will not
emit radiation and it will
not spiral into the nucleus.
c. If an electron jumps from one orbit to another, it will absorb or emit energy
in quanta equal to
#E"="hv
146 
According to
Bohr, the energy of the electron in the H atom is given by:
n%=%3
n%=%2
n%=%1 The negative
sign is an arbitrary convention. A free electron is arbitrarily
considered to
have an energy of zero. A negative energy means that the
energy of the
electron is lower than the energy of a free electron.
RH is the
Rydberg constant for hydrogen equal to 2.18 x 10-18J. The number
n is an
integer equal to n = 1, 2, 3,…
Exercises
Teacher Tip
1. What is the energy of the electron when it is in the first orbit, n=1?
It is important for the learner to understand the negative values
for the energy. As the value gets more negative, the energy
gets lower. As the value of the energy gets less negative, the
energy gets higher. Comparing the energies for the first 3
energy levels, we see that E3 has the highest energy. It is less

E1 refers to the energy when the electron is in n=1.
negative. Therefore, as n increases, energy increases.
E1 = 2.18 x 10-18 J
E2 = 0.545 x 10-18 J
2. What is the energy of the electron in orbit n = 2?
E3 = 0.242 x 10-18 J
Do not make the learner memorise the value of RH. The value
should be given to the learner.
147
3. What is the energy of the electron in orbit n = 3?
4. Plot the energies of the electron in n=1, n=2, n=3.
5. In which orbit will the electron have the highest energy, n=1, n=2, or n=3?
Answer: n=3
6 . As the value of n increases, what happens to the energy value of the electron?
Answer: As n
increases, energy increases.
148
E1 is the lowest energy and, therefore, the most stable state. It is called the
ground state or the Teacher Tip
ground level. E2, E3, E4, etc. have higher energies and are less stable than E1.
They are called Note that this is the 3rd time that quantization of
energy is used to explain an experimental result.

excited states or excited levels. Note also that as the electron gets closer to the
nucleus, it
The first was the blackbody radiation; the second

becomes more stable.
was the photoelectric effect; and now the third is
When energy is absorbed by the atom, the electron gets excited and jumps from a
lower orbit to the emission spectrum of the hydrogen atom.
a higher orbit. When electrons go from a higher energy level to a lower energy
level, it emits
radiation. According to Bohr, if an electron jumps from one orbit to another, it
will absorb or emit
energy in quanta equal to:
c
∆Ε = hν = h
ν
The Bohr model can explain the experimental emission spectrum of hydrogen which
includes a
wide range of wavelengths from the infrared to the UV region. These are summarized
in the table
below:
Teacher Tip
SERIES n final n initial Spectrum Region
Do not ask the learners to memorize the H atom
emission spectrum series. This is only for

Lyman 1 2, 3, 4 Ultraviolet
illustration purposes only. We want them to
understand the concept and not memorize.

Balmer 2 3, 4, 5 Visible and
ultraviolet
Paschen 3 4, 5, 6  Infrared
Brackett 4 5, 6 , 7 Infrared
149
Exercises
1. The electron in the hydrogen atom undergoes a transition from n=3 to n=2.
a. Is energy absorbed or emitted? Answer: E is emitted because the electron goes
from a
higher energy level to a lower energy level.
b. What is the energy involved in the transition?
c. What is the wavelength (in nm) corresponding to this transition?
d. What region of the electromagnetic spectrum will this be?

Answer: This will be in the visible region.
2. Which transition of the electron in the hydrogen atom will involve the highest
frequency?
a. n = 5 to n = 3
b. n = 4 to n = 3
c. n = 5 to n = 2
150
Similarly, when substances like metal ions are subjected to heat, they
absorb energy. The
electrons jump from their ground state to an excited state. Once the
electrons return from the
excited state to the ground state, light is given off. The light emitted
corresponds to the
energy released.
Example: Potassium emitted a pinkish purple color (approx. 400 nm) while
lithium emitted a
dark red hue (approx. 700 nm) when heated.
a. What caused the color change during heating?
b. Which element required the greater energy absorption for the
electrons to be in the
excited state and produce the observed emissions? Why?
c. What is the relationship between wavelength and energy?
II. THE LIMITATIONS OF THE BOHR MODEL OF THE ATOM

Teacher Tip
In contrast to standing waves, travelling waves: are

Although the Bohr model could explain the emission spectrum of hydrogen and was an
important waves that travel in one-dimensional direction.
step in the development of atomic theory, it has several limitations:
Concrete examples of travelling waves can be
a. It cannot explain the spectrum of atoms with more than one electron.
seen from
• Skipping rope held on one end, moved up and

b. It cannot explain the relative intensities of spectral lines (why are some
lines more intense than down, forming waves, from one end to the
others)
other
• Ocean waves: the wind produces waves on the

c. It cannot explain why some lines are slit into several components in the
presence of a surface of water producing crests and troughs
magnetic field (called the Zeeman effect)
that travel great distances.
d. According to the Bohr model, when electrons go around the nucleus in certain
orbits, its
energy remains constant. But moving electrons would lose energy by emitting
electromagnetic waves and the electron is expected to spiral into the
nucleus.
e. It violates the Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle. The Bohr model considers
electrons to have
a known radius and orbit which is impossible according to Heisenberg. This
will be explained
later in the next lesson.
For an allowed orbit, the circumference of the
orbit must be equal to an integral number of
wavelengths (a); otherwise the wave will cancel

itself (b).
151
The derivation of the De Broglie equation is only
III. THE DUAL NATURE OF THE ELECTRON; DE BROGLIE’S EQUATION
for clarification for the teacher and need not be
In 1924, Louis de Broglie made a bold proposition based on Planck’s and Einstein’s
concepts. De included in the lesson. It is important that the
student understand the concept more than

Broglie reasoned that if light could have particle-like properties, then particles
like electrons could
knowing the derivation.

also have wavelike properties. Why are only certain orbits allowed in the Bohr
model? Following
De Broglie’s idea, if the electron going around the nucleus in a circular orbit
behaves as a wave, E%=%mc2%
then it should behave as a standing wave as shown in Figure 1. In a standing wave,
there are E%=%hv%
fixed points, or nodes, where the amplitude is zero. The length of the wave must
fit the mc2%=%hv%
circumference of orbit (see Figure 2). Otherwise the wave would cancel itself.
How did de Broglie arrive at his hypothesis? He
combined the energy relationship of Einstein’s
relativistic equation and Planck’s energy of a
photon.
p%=%mc%
The momentum, p, of a photon is the product of
the relativistic mass of the photon, m, and the
speed of light, c, or
hv%
p%=%
(b)
(c)
Substituting the relationship c = λv, the
momentum expression becomes

(a) For an allowed orbit, the circumference of the
orbit must equal to integral
multiple of wavelengths (b). Otherwise, the
wave will cancel itself (c).
h%
Standing Waves
p"="
λ
Mathematically, this means that the circumference of the allowed orbit (2r) must be
equal to an
integral multiple of the wavelength.
For a material particle, such as the electron, de
Broglie substituted for the momentum its
equivalent, the product of the mass of the particle,
m, and its velocity, u. Therefore,
h%
where n = 1, 2, 3…. Because n is an integer, the radius, r, can only have certain
values λ%de%Broglie%=
mu
corresponding to n. Therefore, only certain orbits with allowed r values are
permissible.
152
How are the particle and wave properties related according to De Broglie?
This is given by the De Broglie equation:
Where h is Planck’s constant, m is the mass of the particle, and u is the velocity.
Therefore, a
particle in motion can be treated as a wave and a wave can exhibit properties of a
particle. An
electron, for instance, has both particle and wavelike properties. This is referred
to as the dual
nature of matter.
IV. CALCULATING THE DE BROGLIE WAVELENGTH

1. What is the relationship between the De Broglie wavelength and the mass of the
moving Answer Key
particle? What happens to the wavelength as the mass increases?
1. λ and mass are inversely proportional. As the
mass of the particle increases, λ becomes

2. Without doing any calculations, compare the wavelength associated with a moving
airplane smaller.
and an electron moving at the same speed. Which will have the smaller De Broglie
2. The moving airplane will have the smaller
wavelength?
wavelength.
3. How will the wavelength vary if the velocity of the particles increases?
4. Calculate the wavelength of the following “particles”:
a. A 6 .00 x 10-2 kg tennis ball travelling at 6 8 m/s.
λ
b. An electron moving at the same speed (mass of electron is 9.1094 x 10-31 kg)
153
The wavelength of the tennis ball is exceedingly small considering that the
size of the
atom is in on the order of 1 x 10-10 m. This makes it difficult for a tennis
ball to be detected
by any existing measuring device. Meanwhile, the wavelength of the electron
is in the
infrared region. This shows that only small particles like the electrons and
other
submicroscopic particles have measurable wavelengths.
5. What must be the velocity, in m/s, of a beam of electrons if they are to display
a de Broglie
wavelength of 1µm?
6 . 2. What is the de Broglie wavelength, in nm, of a 2.4 g bird flying at 1.20 x
102 mph? (1 mile
= 1.6 1 km)
7. What is the wavelength, in nm, associated with 1000 kg automobile travelling at
a speed of 25
m/s. Comment on the experimental measurement of the wavelength associated with
the
moving automobile.
V. EXPERIMENTAL EVIDENCE OF DE BROGLIE WAVELENGTH

Teacher Tip
A video on diffraction and applications can be

Waves associated with material particles were called by de Broglie as “matter
waves”. If matter
seen at https://www.youtube.com/watch?
waves exist for small particles, then beams of particles, such as electrons, should
exhibit the v=F6 dZjuw1KUo (4 minutes)
properties of waves, like diffraction.
A 4-minute video on the Davisson and Germer
experiment can be seen at https://

Diffraction refers to various phenomena which occur when a wave encounters an
obstacle or a
www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ho7K27B_Uu8.
slit. In classical physics, the diffraction phenomenon is described as the
interference of waves. If
the distance between objects that the waves scatter from is about the same as the
wavelength of
the radiation, diffraction occurs and an interference pattern occurs.
Although De Broglie was credited for his hypothesis, he had no actual experimental
evidence for
his conjecture. In 1927, Clinton J. Davisson and Lester H. Germer, from the United
States, shot
electron particles onto a crystal of nickel. What they saw was the diffraction of
the electron similar
to waves diffraction against crystals (x-rays). In the same year, an English
physicist, George P.
Thomson, from Scotland, fired electrons towards thin metal foil providing him with
the same
results as Davisson and Germer. As a historical note, the father and son
demonstrated the wave-
particle duality of electrons. George P. Thomson is the son of J.J. Thomson, who
won the Nobel
Prize in 1906  for discovering the electron. The father, J.J. Thomson, showed that
the electron is a
particle and George P. Thomson, the son, showed that the electron is a wave.
154
Return to the question posted on the board during the introduction.
Ask the learners to answer the question based on the preceding lesson.
Why do elements emit different colors when heated?

Pyrotechnic materials such as flares and fireworks also follow the atomic
spectra concepts.
Inside a mortar are different chemicals.. These chemicals are ignited through a
time fuse,
causing the electrons in the chemicals to be excited during the reaction in the
atmosphere. As
the electrons go down a lower energy level, different colors are emitted from
these different
chemicals. The red glow is light with the least energy and the violet glow has
the most
energy.
What is the wave-particle duality of matter?

Ask the learners to answer this in their own words according to their
understanding.
EVALUATION
Answer Key
Put a circle around the letter corresponding to the best answer.
1. B
2. D
1. Waves are characterized by frequency and wavelength. Frequency
3. E
A. is the distance between two consecutive peaks or troughs in a wave.
4. C
5. D
B. is the number of cycles or complete oscillations that pass a given point per
second. 6 . C
C. the vertical distance from the midline of a wave to the peak or trough.
7. B
8. C
D. has units of J-s.
9. D
E. has units of cm/s.
10. D
2. What is the relationship between energy and wavelength of a photon?

A. direct relation D. inverse relation
B. logarithmic relation E. quadratic relation
C. cubic relation
155
3. Which of the following types of electromagnetic radiation will have the least
energy?
A. gamma rays D. x-rays
B. visible light E. radio waves
C. microwaves
4. What is the energy in joules of one photon of microwave radiation with a

wavelength 0.122
m?
A. 2.70 x 10-43 J D. 4.07 x 10-10 J
B. 5.43 x 10-33 J E. 2.46  x 109 J
C. 1.6 3 x 10-24 J
5. In the Bohr model of the H atom

A. The atom is a mass of positive charge with electrons embedded in it.
B. The electron energy increases as it gets closer to the nucleus.
C. The electron goes around the nucleus in certain allowed circular orbits.
D. Energy is absorbed when an electron goes from an orbit of high energy to an
orbit of low
energy
E. C and D
6 . Complete this sentence: Atoms emit visible and ultraviolet light __________.
A. As electrons jump from lower energy levels to higher levels.
B. As the atoms condense from a gas to a liquid.
C. As electrons jump from higher energy levels to lower levels.
D. As they are heated and the solid melts to form a liquid.
E. As the electrons move about the atom within an orbit.
156 
7. The line spectrum of hydrogen gives proof of the
A. Shape of the orbits of the electron
B. Quantized nature of the H energy levels
C. Uncertainty of the momentum of the electron
D. Continuous emission of energy
E. B and D
8. Calculate the energy, in joules, required to excite a hydrogen atom by causing

an electronic
transition from the n = 1 to the n = 4 principal energy level. Recall that the
energy levels of the
H atom are given by En = -2.18 10-18 J(1/n2)
A. 2.07 10-29 J
B. 2.19 105 J
C. 2.04 10-18 J
D. 3.27 10-17 J
E. 2.25 10-18 J
9. Suppose that a tennis ball, a neutron, an electron, and a pingpong ball are all
moving at the
same speed. The wavelengths associated with them will be of the order:
A. tennis ball > pingpong ball> electron> neutron
B. pingpong ball> tennis ball > electron > neutron
C. neutron > electron > pingpong ball > tennis ball
D. electron > neutron > pingpong ball > tennis ball
E. tennis ball > pingpong ball > neitron > electron
10. Calculate the wavelength of a neutron that has a velocity of 200. cm/s.
(The mass of a
neutron = 1.6 75 10-27 kg.)
A. 1.98 10-9 m
B. 216  nm
C. 1.8 1050 m
D. 198 nm
E. 5.05 mm
157
General Chemistry 1
120 MINS
Lesson 19: Flame Test (Laboratory)

Content Standard
Lesson Outline
description of the atom and its electronic structure
Introduction Explore Colorful Elements 5
Instruction Laboratory Activity; Flame Test 35

Performance Standards and
Practice
The learners can illustrate the dual nature of an electron.

Enrichment Post-Lab Activity 20
Materials
Cream of tartar (potassium hydrogen tartrate), table salt
(sodium chloride), moisture absorber (calcium chloride),
barium chloride, lithium chloride, copper sulphate or copper

1. Describe the quantum mechanical model of the atom (STEM_GC11CB-IIa-
chloride, boric acid (sodium tetraborate), distilled water, 50-

b-52)
mL
beaker or a clean glass container, popsicle sticks, large
a. Discuss quantum theory
receptacle for used popsicle sticks, alcohol lamp, lighter/
b. Discuss the use of quantum theory in explaining the emission spectrum
splinter
of the hydrogen atom
Resources
(1)
(2)

1. Demonstrate the flame tests for various metal ions. (3)
Learning
2. Calculate the energy, wavelength, and frequencies involved in the electron
(4)
Roque, et al. laboratory Manual in General Chemistry (2008). Philippine
transitions in the hydrogen atom.
Normal University.
3. Relate the emission spectra to common occurrences like fireworks and
neon lights.
158
Teacher Tip
Explore Colorful Elements
1. Prepare the classroom or laboratory,
When substances such as metal salts are heated to high temperatures, the electrons
of the metal the materials, the lab sheets to be
ions are excited to higher energy levels. When these electrons return to their
ground states, used.
energy is emitted in the form of light. Since each element emits a unique set of
wavelengths, the 2. Distribute the lab sheets at the start of
emission spectrum can be used as a tool to identify the elements.
the lesson.
3. After the introduction and motivation,

One method of demonstrating the emission spectrum of substances is through a
qualitative explain the procedures of the activity.
analysis called the flame test. In this technique, a small amount of substance is
heated. The heat 4. Explain the safety precautions.
of the flame excites the electrons of the metals ions, causing them to emit visible
light the color of
which is unique to the metal ion.
Objectives
a. To be able to conduct a flame test for metal ions
b. To observe the flame colors emitted by selected metal ions.
c. To explain the origin of the flame colors.
Teacher Tip

The activity can be performed individually
1. Safety Precautions
or in groups. Nevertheless, caution must
a. Do this activity with teacher supervision. Follow all laboratory instructions
as directed by be observed in handling any material in
the instructor.
the lab. Instruct the learners how to
behave in the laboratory.

b. Wear laboratory gown, goggles and mask.
Dispose the materials properly.

c. Consider all metal salts as harmful materials. Do not taste the chemicals.
Avoid skin
contact with the chemicals.
d. Do not eat or drink while doing the activity.
e. Dispose of all materials according to the instructions of your teacher.
159
PROCEDURE
Teacher Tip
1. Dip the popsicle stick in water.
The teacher should prepare the samples ahead of
time. Place the salt samples in different watch

2. Dip the wet popsicle stick into the solid sample.
glass or paper/plastic plates. Label the samples.
3. Heat over the flame. Observe the color change in the flame.
Guide to the flame colors

4. Repeat procedures 1-3 with the other samples.
Note: It is advisable to repeat the test to ensure that the right color of the
flame is observed. Metal Ion Flame Color
5. Dispose of used popsicle sticks in a receptacle.
Lithium Red
6 . Note your observation in the data table given.
Sodium Yellow
DATA TABLE
Potassium Lilac
Sample Material Metal Ion Flame Color
Calcium Orange / Yellow-red

Sodium chloride sodium
Strontium Red
Barium Pale green
Copper Blue green
There are many causes for the indicated color not to come out such as contaminants
in the Note
material, contaminants in the water or in the popsicle stick. Or the flame may not
be hot enough. Everyone sees and describes colors differently so
students may describe their colors as purple
instead of lilac or crimson instead of red.

The teacher should NOT mark as wrong any observation. Encourage the students to be
honest
with stating the result rather than getting the supposedly “correct” answer. The
purpose of the
experiment is to record observations and try to explain the observations as well as
possible
sources of error.

Post-Lab Activity
1. Have the students answer the following questions in their activity sheets. Then
discuss the class results
for the post-lab activity. Compare results of the different groups.
a. Why do you think the chemicals have to be heated in the flame first before
the colored light is
emitted?
16 0
b. Arrange the group of metals which produced the most easily identifiable
colors. Start with those
that emitted the most intense color and end with those metals with colors
that are least intense.
c. Colorful light emissions are observed in everyday life. Where else have
you observed light
emissions? Are these light emissions an evidence of excited electrons?
d. Cite at least 2 reasons why the flame test is sometimes inaccurate.
2. Write your conclusion and recommendations for the lab activity.
EVALUATION
Use the following rubric to rate the learner’s performance in the lab activity.
CONTENT PERFORMANCE
PRESENTATION TOTAL
Observations (10) Attendance and Lab Attire (10)

Lab Results are presented well (10)
Lab Technique and Observance of

Safety Procedures (20)
Answers to Questions on Housekeeping (5)

Participation in Oral Discussion / Oral
the Report (20)
Presentation (10)
Lab Requirements / Materials (5)
Conclusions (5)
Recommendations (5)
16 1
General Chemistry 1
120 MINS
Lesson 20: Electronic Structure

of the Atom
Lesson Outline
Content Standard
Introduction Review of the Quiz 12

description of the atom and its electronic structure
Motivation 3D Models of the Orbitals 3
Instruction I. Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle 80
The learners can illustrate the distribution of the electrons in an atom.
and Practice II. The Schrondinger Equation
III. The Quantum Mechanical Description of

the Hydrogen Atom
IV. The Quantum Numbers
V. The Atomic Orbitals

1. Describe the electronic structure of atoms in terms of main energy levels,
sublevels and orbitals and relate this to energy (STEM_GC11CB-IIa-b-53)
Evaluation Laboratory Activity 25
2. Use quantum numbers to describe an electron in an atom

Material
Calculator
3. (LAB) Perform exercises on quantum numbers (STEM_GC11CB-IIa-b-55)

Resources
(1) Chang, Raymond and Goldsby, Kenneth A. (2016 ). Chemistry (12th

(2) Petrucci, Herring, Madura, and Bissonnette (2011). General Chemistry

1. Explain Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle
(3) Zumdahl, S.S. and Zumdahl, S.A (2013).Chemistry, 8th ed. Cengage
Learning
2. Describe how atomic orbitals arise from the Schrodinger equation
(4) http://csi.chemie.tu-darmstadt.de/ak/immel/script/redirect.cgi?
3. Relate orbital shapes to electron density distribution
filename=http://csi.chemie.tu-darmstadt.de/ak/immel/tutorials/
orbitals/hydrogenic.html
4. Qualitatively sketch the orbital shapes
(5) http://winter.group.shef.ac.uk/orbitron/AOs/6 g/
5. Interpret the information obtained from a set of four quantum numbers
6 . Assign the correct set of quantum numbers for an electron
16 2
1. Review the quiz given in the last meeting
(Verbatim,
3. At the end of the lesson, I will be able to:
a. Explain Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle
b. Describe how atomic orbitals arise from the Schrodinger equation
c. Relate orbital shapes to electron density distribution
d. Qualitatively sketch the orbital shapes
e. Interpret the information obtained from a set of four quantum numbers
f. Assign the correct set of quantum numbers for an electron
a. Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle
b. Schrodinger Equation
c. Wave function
d. Electron probability density
e. Atomic orbital
f. Principal quantum number
g. Angular momentum quantum number
h. Magnetic quantum number
i. Spin quantum number
j. Shell
k. Subshell
If available, show 3-dimensional models of the orbitals (s, p, and d) to the
students to gain their
attention and curiosity. If 3-D models are not available, post large illustrations
on the board.
16 3
I. HEISENBERG’S UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE
With the discovery that particles like electrons are wavelike (shown by De Broglie,
Davisson and
Germer, and Thomson), how can the ‘position’ of a wave be specified? How can the
precise
location of a wave be defined when a wave extends in space?
Werner Heisenberg, a German physicist, formulated what is now known as Heisenberg’s

Uncertainty Principle which states that “the position of a particle and its
momentum cannot be
simultaneously measured with arbitrarily high precision.” In other words, it is not
possible to
measure the exact position and the exact momentum of a particle at the same time.
Mathematically, this is stated as
where "x is the uncertainty in position, "p is the uncertainty in momentum, and h
is Planck’s
constant.
To explain this equation, let us answer the following questions

1. What is the meaning of the ≥ (greater than or equal to) sign with respect to the
uncertainties?
When conducting experiments, especially if conditions are crude, the
uncertainties in position
and momentum can be large. The product of "x"p can be greater than h/4π.
However,
even when you want to make very precise measurements, h/4π. The product "x"p can
never be smaller h/4π. Hence, there will always be uncertainties even under good
conditions.
2. How are "x and "p related?

They are inversely related. Remember that the right side of the equation,
h/4π, is a constant.
If we want to make very precise measurement of the position (meaning "x is
very small), then
"p becomes large. Conversely, if we want a very small uncertainty in momentum,
"p
becomes small, but the uncertainty in position ("x) becomes large.
16 4
3. According to the Bohr model, the electron goes around the nucleus in well-
defined orbits, the
radius of which can be determined. How can you relate the Bohr model to
Heisenberg’s
Uncertainty Principle?
The Bohr model violates Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle. Electrons do not go
around
the nucleus in well-defined orbits. Otherwise, we will be able to determine the
exact position
and momentum of the electron in the atom at the same time. A better model is
needed to
fully describe the atom.
4. An electron is travelling at a speed of 2.05 x 106  m/s. Assuming that the

precision
(uncertainty) of this value is 1.5%, with what precision can the position of the
electron be
measured?
Uncertainty%in%velocity%=%u%=%(0.015)(%2.05%x%106 %m/s)%=%3.1%x%104%m/s%%
To compute for the uncertainty in momentum, "p, multiply "u by the mass of the
electron
"p%=%m(ru)%=%(9.109%x%10*31%kg)%(3.1%x%104%m/s)%=%2.8%x%10*26 %kg*m/s%%
The uncertainty in position, "x, will be
"x%=
This value shows that the electron’s position is about 10 atomic diameters.
Given the
uncertainty of the speed, there is no way to pin down the electron’s position
with any greater
accuracy.
16 5
Teacher Tip
5. Why is the uncertainty principle not significant when applied to large objects
such as a The solution of the Schrodinger equation
transportation vehicle?
involves advance calculus and differential
equations. The lesson will only deal with
the interpretation of the solution.

II. THE SCHRODINGER EQUATION
While the Bohr model of the atom could explain the emission spectrum of hydrogen,
it could not
account for many observations and could not provide a complete description of the
electronic The Schrodinger equation for the
behavior in atoms.
hydrogen atom looks like this:
In 1926 , Erwin Schrodinger, an Austrian physicist, formulated a mathematical

equation that
describes the behavior and energies of submicroscopic particles. The Schrodinger
equation
incorporates particle behavior and wave behavior, treating the electron as a
standing wave. The
solution to the Schrodinger equation is a wave function called ψ (psi). The wave
functions are
also called atomic orbitals (as distinguished from the Bohr orbits). Aside from the
wave
functions, energies are also obtained from solving the equation.
The wave function itself has no physical meaning. However, the probability of
finding the electron
in a particular volume element in space is proportional to ψ2. In wave theory, the
intensity of light
is proportional to the square of the amplitude of the wave or ψ2. Similarly, the
most likely place
to find the particle is where the value of ψ2 is greatest.
The Schrodinger equation began a new field in physics and chemistry referred to as
quantum
mechanics or wave mechanics. The Schrodinger equation can be solved exactly for the
hydrogen
atom but not for atoms with more than one electron. For many-electron atoms,
approximation
methods are used to solve the Schrodinger equation.
III. THE QUANTUM MECHANICAL DESCRIPTION OF THE HYDROGEN ATOM

It is not possible to pinpoint the exact location of the electron in an atom but ψ2
gives the region
where it can most probably be found. The electron density gives the probability
that the
electron will be found in a particular region of an atom. Figure (a) is a
representation of the
electron density distribution around the nucleus in the hydrogen atom. The darker
the shade, the
16 6 
higher the probability of finding the electron in that region. In this case, the
probability
distribution is spherical. The probability can also be plotted versus the distance
from the nucleus
as shown in Figure (b). It can be seen that there is a probability of finding the
electron even very
far from the nucleus, although this probability is small. The closer to the
nucleus, the higher the
probability.
Sources
(a) and (b) Probability of Finding the Electron in
the Ground State of the Hydrogen Atom at
Different Points in Space, “Atomic Orbitals and
Their Energies”, section 6 .5 from the book
Principles of General Chemistry (v. 1.0), Retrieved
from http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/
principles-of-general-chemistry-v1.0/s10-05-
atomic-orbitals-and-their-ener.html (2 Nov. 2016 ),
Creative Commons by-nc-sa 3.0 license.
(a) (b)
As mentioned earlier, ψ is the solution to the Schrodinger equation. It is also

referred to as an
atomic orbital. When we say that the electron is in an atomic orbital, we mean that
it is described
by a wave function, ψ, and that the probability of locating the electron is given
by the square of
the wave function associated with that orbital. Therefore, the atomic orbital has a
characteristic
energy as well as a characteristic electron density distribution. This electron
density distribution in
three-dimensions gives the shape of the atomic orbital.
16 7
IV. THE QUANTUM NUMBERS
In the mathematical solution of the Schrodinger equation, three quantum numbers are
obtained.
These are the principal quantum number (n), the angular quantum number, (ℓ) ,and
the
magnetic quantum number (ml). They describe the atomic orbitals. A fourth quantum
number,
the spin quantum number (ms) completes the description of the electrons in the
atoms.
The Principal Quantum Number (n)

a. Determines the energy of an orbital
b. Determines the orbital size
c. Is related to the average distance of the electron from the nucleus in a
particular orbital; the
larger the n value, the farther the average distance of the electron from the
nucleus
d. Can have the values: n = 1, 2, 3, …
e. Orbitals with the same n are said to be in the same shell.
The Angular Momentum Quantum Number (ℓ)

a. Describes the “shape” of the orbitals
b. Can have the following values: ℓ = 0, 1, 2, up to n-1.
Examples
n value ℓ value
1 0
2 0, 1
3 0, 1, 2
c. Orbitals with the same n and values belong to the same subshell.
d. It is usually designated by letters s, p, d, f, … which have a historical origin
from spectral lines.
The designations are as follows
Teacher Tip
The s, p, d, f designations of the orbitals refer to
sharp, principal, diffuse, and fundamental lines in

!!!s!!!!!!!!!!!p!!!!!!!!!!d!!!!!!!!!!f!!!!!!!!!!!!
g!!!!!!!!!!!h emission spectra.
16 8
The Magnetic Quantum Number (ml)
a. Describes the orientation of the orbital in space
b. Can have the values:
- ℓ, (-ℓ + 1), … 0, … (+ ℓ -1), + ℓ
The Electron Spin Quantum Number (ms)

a. The first three quantum numbers describe the energy, shape and orientation of
orbitals. The
4th quantum number refers to two different spin orientations of electrons in a
specified orbital.
b. When lines of the hydrogen spectrum are examined at very high resolution, they
are found to
be closely spaced doublets and called as the Zeeman effect. This splitting is
called fine
structure, and was one of the first experimental evidences for electron spin.
The direct
observation of the electron's intrinsic angular momentum was achieved in the
Stern–Gerlach
experiment.
c. Uhlenbeck, Goudsmit, and Kronig (1925) introduced the idea of the self-rotation
of the
electron. The spin orientations are called "spin-up" or "spin-down" and is
assigned the
number ms = ½ ms = -½, respectively.
d. The spin property of an electron would give rise to magnetic moment, which was a
requisite
for the fourth quantum number. The electrons are paired such that one spins
upward and one
downward, neutralizing the effect of their spin on the action of the atom as a
whole. But in the
valence shell of atoms where there is a single electron whose spin remains
unbalanced, the
unbalanced spin creates spin magnetic moment, making the electron act like a
very small
magnet. As the atoms pass through the in-homogeneous magnetic field, the force
moment in
the magnetic field influences the electron's dipole until its position matches
the direction of
the stronger field.
The four quantum numbers compose the numbers that describe the electron in an atom.
The
quantum numbers shall be in the order: energy level (n), sub-level or orbital type
(ℓ), the
orientation of the orbital specified in ℓ (mℓ), and the orientation of the spin of
the electron (ms). It
is written in the order (n, ℓ, mℓ, ms ).
16 9
For example
1. An electron is found in the first energy level. What is the allowed set of
quantum numbers for
this electron?
a. The energy level, n = 1.
b. The orbital type is only s, its designation is 0, thus, ℓ = 0
c. From ℓ, the orbital type is s. There is only one orientation of an s orbital,
designated as 0,
thus, mℓ = 0.m
d. An electron in the 1s orbital can have an up-spin or a down-spin. Therefore,
ms could be
+1/2 or -1/2.
So the allowed set of quantum numbers for 1s electron are:

(1,0,0,1/2) and (1,0,0,-1/2)
How does (1,0,0,1/2) differ from (1,0,0,-1/2)? The first set corresponds to the
electron with spin
up and the second set refers to the electron with spin down.
V. THE QUANTUM NUMBERS AND THE CORRESPONDING ATOMIC ORBITALS

The quantum numbers and corresponding atomic orbitals are given in the following
table.
Atomic Orbital
n ℓ mℓ
Number of Orbitals
Designation
1 0 0
1 1s
2 0 0
1 2s
2 1 -1, 0, 1
3 2px, 2py 2pz
3 0 0
1 3s
3 1 -1, 0, 1
3 3px, 3py 3pz
3 2 -2, -1, 0, 1,
2 5 3dxy, 3dyz, 3dxz, 3dx2-y2, 3dz2
170
Exercises
1. What is the total number of orbitals associated with the principal quantum
number n=1?
Answer: 1
What is the total number of orbitals associated with the principal quantum
number n=2?
Answer: 4
What is the total number of orbitals associated with the principal quantum
number n=3?
Answer: 9
We can therefore say that the total number of orbitals associated with a given
principal
quantum number n is n2.
2. List the values of n, ℓ , mℓ for an orbital in the 4d subshell.

Answer: n=4; ℓ =2; ml can have the values of -2, -1, 0, 1, 2
The Representations of the Shapes of Atomic Orbitals

Sources
(c) Circular boundary enclosing 90 percent of

What are the shapes of the atomic orbitals? Strictly speaking, an orbital does not
have a definite electron density in a hydrogen atom 1s orbital.
shape because the wave function extends to infinity. However, while the electron
can be found From Electron Waves in the Hydrogen Atom,
anywhere, there are regions where the probability of finding it is much higher.
Figure (a) shows Chemistry LibreTexts, National Science
Foundation. Retrieved from http://

the electron density distribution of a 1s electron around the nucleus. Note that it
does not have a chem.libretexts.org/Textbook_Maps/
well-defined boundary; the more dots, the darker the shade, the higher the
probability of finding General_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Map
the electron in that region. Also note that the probability distribution is
spherical. We can draw a %3A_ChemPRIME_(Moore_et_al.)/
boundary surface that will enclose 90% of the total electron density in the orbital
as shown in 05The_Electronic_Structure_of_Atoms/
5.06 %3A_Electron_Waves_in_the_Hydrogen_Atom
Figure (c). This will result in a boundary surface diagram of the 1s orbital as
shown in Figure (d). (3 November 2016 ), Creative Commons
Attribution-Noncommercial-Share Alike 3.0 United
States License.
(d) The 1s, 2s, and 3s orbitals. From High School
Chemistry/Shapes of Atomic Orbitals. Retrieved
from https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/
High_School_Chemistry/
Shapes_of_Atomic_Orbitals (3 November 2016 ),

Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0
License.
(c) (d)
171
Figure (d) shows that all the s orbitals are spherical in shape but differ in size,
which increases
as the value of n increases.
The p orbitals starts when n =2 for which ℓ has a value of 1 and mℓ has values -1,
0, +1.
Therefore, there are three 2p orbitals: 2px, 2py, 2pz indicating the axes along
which they are
oriented. For the p orbitals, the electron probability density is not spherically
symmetric but
has a double teardrop shape, or in some books, a dumbbell shape. The greatest
probability of
finding the electron is within the two lobes of the dumbbell region; it has zero
probability
along the nodal planes found in the axes. All three 2p orbitals are identical in
shape and
energy but differ in orientation as shown in Figure (e). The p orbitals of higher
principal
quantum numbers have similar shapes.
(e)
Figure (f) shows the d orbitals occur for the first time when n = 3. The angular
function in these
cases possesses two angular (or planar) nodes. Four of the orbitals have the same
basic shapes
except for the orientation with respect to the axes. The wave functions exhibit
positive and
negative lobes along the axes and shows zero probability of finding the electron at
the origin.
The fifth wave function, dx2 , has a similar shape with that of the p-orbital with
a donut-shape
region along the x-axis.
Sources
(e) The boundary surface diagrams of the 2p orbitals.
From Atomic Orbitals and Their Energies. Retrieved
from http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/
principles-of-general-chemistry-v1.0/s10-05-atomic-
orbitals-and-their-ener.html (3 November 2016 ), ),
Creative Commons by-nc-sa 3.0 license.
(f) The five 3d orbitals of the hydrogen atom. From
Atomic Orbitals and Their Energies. Retrieved from
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/principles-of-
general-chemistry-v1.0/s10-05-atomic-orbitals-and-
their-ener.html (3 November 2016 ), ), Creative

Commons by-nc-sa 3.0 license.
(f)
ASSESSMENT/LAB ACTIVITY (25 minutes)
Answer Key
QUANTUM NUMBERS Worksheet
1. Rearrange the letters
a. Principal
Rearrange the letters of the correct term that is described by the corresponding
statement. b. Orbital
1. Write your answer on the space provided.
c. Angular momentum
d. Electron
___________ a LAPNICRIP – It is the quantum number that represents the
e. Magnetic
energy level the electron is in.
f. Energy level
g. Sphere
___________ b LATOBRI – It is a representation of the wave function of a
h. Ground state
hydrogen-like atom.
2. Give the n and ℓ values

___________ c ALGANUR MUTMENMO – It is a quantum number that
a. n=1, l = 0
b. n=3, l =1
represents the shape of orbitals.
c. n= 5, l= 3
___________ d NOTRECLE – It is the particle that can be described by
d. n= 4, l=2
four quantum numbers

3. mℓ values
a. ml= 0
___________ e MEGATINC – It represents the quantum number that
b. ml= -1, 0,1
describes the orientation of an orbital.
c. ml= -2, -1, 0, 1, 2
d. ml= -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3

___________ f NEREGY EVELL – It is being represented by n.
4. Possible Orbitals
___________ g RHEPES – It is the shape of the s orbital.
a. 32 electrons
b. 50 electrons
___________ h ROGUND EATTS – It is the most stable state of the
electron in the hydrogen atom.
2. Give the n and ℓ values for the following orbitals

a. 1s _______________________________
b. 3p _______________________________
c. 5f _______________________________
d. 4d _______________________________
3. What is the mℓ values for the following types of orbitals?
a. s _______________________________
b. p _______________________________
c. d _______________________________
d. f _______________________________
173
4. How many possible orbitals and how many electrons can inhabit the energy level n
5. Number of possible electrons
a. 4 _______________________________
a. 2
b. 5 _______________________________
b. 6 
c. 2
d. not possible
5. State the number of possible electrons described by the following quantum
numbers
a. n = 3, l = 0 _______________________________
6 . Valid Set of Quantum Numbers
b. n = 3, l = 1 _______________________________
a. l =2 is not allowed, maximum is 1
b. possible
c. n = 3, l = 2, ml = -1 ________________________
c. ms should only be ½ or -1/2
d. n = 5, l = 0, mℓ =-2, ms =-1/2 _________________
d. mℓ should only be within the values of 2l+1;
mℓ should only be within the values of 2l+1

6 . Which of the following is not a valid set of quantum numbers? Explain your
answer.
a. n = 2, l = 2, ml = 0, and ms = -1/2
7. Maximum electron pairs
b. n = 2, l = 1, ml = -1, and ms = -1/2
a. 1
b. 3
c. n = 3, l = 0, ml = 0, and ms = 1
c. 5
d. n = 3, l = 2, ml = 3, and ms = ½
d. 7
e. 9
7. What is the maximum electron pairs that can occupy an:
a. s orbital _______________________________
8. “Do as directed”
b. the subshell of p orbitals _______________________________
a. Sphere
c. the subshell of d orbitals _______________________________
b. Any of the d orientations
c. f orbital
d. the subshell of f orbitals _______________________________
d. p orbitals
e. the subshell of g orbitals _______________________________
e. Answers:
i. (4, 2,0, ½)
8. Do as directed.
ii. (3,1,-1,-1/2)
a. Sketch the shape of the orbital with the quantum numbers n=3, l=0 and mℓ = 0
iii. (2,1,1,1/2)
b. The sketch of the shape of the subshell with the quantum numbers n=4, l=2 is
f. 3
c. The highest orbital possible in n = 4
g. 3p
d. Sketch the orientation of the allowed values of l= 1 for the shell n=2.
h. 2
e. Write the set of quantum numbers for the following
i. It is an up-spin 4d electron with an orbital orientation of 0.
ii. The electron is in the 3rd energy level, px-orbital, and down spin.
iii. When n=2, l is 1, mℓ = 1, ms = ½
f. What is the value of l for a 4f electron?
g. What is the orbital designation for an electron in the 3rd shell and p
sublevel?
h. How many electrons have the following quantum numbers: n =4, l = 2, mℓ = -2?
174
General Chemistry 1
120 MINS
Lesson 21: Electron Configuration

Content Standard
The learners demonstrate an understanding of the electronic distribution in an
Lesson Outline
atom.
Motivation Addresses and Zip Codes 3
The learners can illustrate the distribution of the electrons in an atom.
Instruction I. Energies of the Orbitals 80

and Practice II. Electron Configuration
III. Hand and Rule
1. Write the electronic configuration of atoms (STEM_GC11CB-IIa-b-56 )
IV. Aufbau Principle
V. The Quantum Numbers and the

2. Determine the magnetic property of the atom based on its electronic
Arrangement of Elements in the Periodic

structure (STEM_GC11CB-IIa-b-57)
Table
3. Draw an orbital diagram to represent the electronic configuration of atoms;
Evaluation Exercises and Activity 30

Materials
4. Perform exercises on writing electronic configuration (STEM_GC11CB-IIa-
Periodic Table
b-59)
Resources
(a) Chang, Raymond and Goldsby, Kenneth A. (2016 ).

Chemistry (12th ed). New York: McGraw-Hill.

1. Explain the unique electron distribution of the atom;
(b) Petrucci, Herring, Madura, and Bissonnette (2011).

2. Compare and contrast the orbital energies in a hydrogen atom
General Chemistry and Modern Applications, 10th Ed.

with that of the many-electron atom;
Pearson Canada, Inc.

3. Write the electron configuration of an atom using the
(c) Zumdahl, S.S. and Zumdahl, S.A (2013).Chemistry, 8th ed.

conventional method as well as the core noble gas
Cengage Learning
configurations;
4. Illustrate the electron distribution using orbital diagrams; 6 .
Determine valence configuration and valence electrons.
5. Determine magnetic properties of an atom based on its 7.
Relate valence configuration of elements with position of
electronic configuration; and
element in the periodic table.
175
INTRODUCTION/ REVIEW (7 minutes)
1. Review orbitals and their shapes.
(Verbatim,
At the end of the lesson, I will be able to:
a. Explain the unique electron distribution of the atom;
b. Compare and contrast the orbital energies in a hydrogen atom with that of the
many-
electron atom;
c. Write the electron configuration of an atom using the conventional method as
well as
the core noble gas configurations;
d. Illustrate the electron distribution using orbital diagrams;
e. Determine magnetic properties of an atom based on its electronic
configuration; and
f. Determine valence configuration and valence electrons.
g. Relate valence configuration of elements with position of element in the
periodic table.

a. Ground state
b. Excited state
c. Degenerate
d. Electron configuration
e. Orbital Diagram
f. Pauli Exclusion Principle
g. Paramagnetic
h. Diamagnetic
i. Hund’s Rule
j. Building-Up Principle (Aufbau Principle)
k. Noble gas
l. Transition metals
m. Valence configuration
n. Valence electrons
176 
1. Ask a few learners to give their home addresses.
2. What are zip codes? What is the zip code of the school?
3. What is the use of zip codes? Look for the zip code of a school outside your
city or province
and compare with yours.
INSTRUCTION/ DELIVERY/ PRACTICE (80 minutes)

I. ENERGIES OF THE ORBITALS
After understanding the shapes and sizes of atomic orbitals, it is imperative to
understand the
relative energies of the orbitals and how it affects the actual arrangement of
electrons in atoms.
1. Orbital energy levels in a hydrogen atom

The energy of an electron in a hydrogen atom depends solely on its principal
quantum number, n.
The energy of the electron in the hydrogen atom is given by:
where RH is equal to 2.18 x 10-18J. Therefore, the energies of the hydrogen atom
increase
according to the following (see Figure 1):
1s"<"2s"="2p"<"3s"="3p"="3d"<"4s"="4p"="4d"="4f"<"…"
Orbitals with the same principal quantum number, n, have the same energy. It means
that in a
hydrogen atom, the lowest energy is 1s. It is the most stable condition, or termed
as the ground
state. An electron in the ground state is most strongly held by the nucleus.
Orbital energy levels in a hydrogen atom

177
The 2s, and the three 2p-orbitals have the same energy. We refer to orbitals with
the same energy
as degenerate. When an external energy hits a hydrogen atom, the electron in the 1s
orbital,
can jump to the 2s, 2p or higher orbitals and this electron is said to be in the
excited state.
Similarly, the 3s, the three 3p-orbitals and the five 3d-orbitals are degenerate
and have higher
energy than the orbitals in the 2nd energy level.
2. Orbital energy levels for many-electron atoms

For atoms containing more than one electron (many-electron atoms), the energy
depends on
other factors. These include the potential energy of repulsion among the electrons,
the attraction
between the nucleus and the other electrons, and the kinetic energies of the many
electrons.
Thus the orbital energies of many-electron atoms depend not only on n but also on
ℓ. Note that
the 3s, 3p, and 3d orbitals are no longer degenerate to each other. The 3d orbital
energies are
even lower than those of the 4s orbitals.
Source
Generalized energy-level diagram for atomic
orbitals in an atom with two or more electrons (not
to scale). From Electronic Structure of Atoms
(Electron Configurations), Rice University.
Retrieved from https://opentextbc.ca/chemistry/
chapter/6 -4-electronic-structure-of-atoms-electron-
configurations/ (3 November 2016 ), Creative
Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Orbital energy levels for many-electron atoms
Teacher Tip
III. ELECTRON CONFIGURATION
There is an equal probability for the electron to
The four quantum numbers n, ℓ, ml, and ms are very useful in labelling an electron
in any orbital in have a spin up (ms = ½) or spin down (ms = -½}.
an atom much like giving the address of an electron in an atom.
In the case of hydrogen, there is only one electron. In the ground state, the one
electron of
hydrogen will occupy the 1s orbital, the one with the lowest energy. This electron
is represented
178
by the set of quantum numbers: n = 1, ℓ =0, ml = 0, and ms = ½ or -½. By
convention, the set of
quantum numbers is written as (1, 0, 0, ½) or (1, 0, 0, -½). The ms value does not
affect the
energy, orientation, or size of the orbital but is important in describing the
arrangement of
electrons in the atom.
It is possible to represent this arrangement of the electron in hydrogen in terms

of the electron
configuration or in terms of the orbital diagram. The electron configuration shows
how the
electrons of an atom are distributed among the atomic orbitals. The orbital diagram
shows the
spin of the electron. For the electron in the ground state of hydrogen, the
electron configuration
is given as
In an orbital diagram, a 1s orbital can be represented as a box with 1 arrow up

(up-spin) or arrow
down (down-spin)
In filling up the orbitals, the lower energy levels are filled up first before the
higher energy levels.
For many-electron atoms, the Pauli Exclusion Principle is used. This states that in
an atom or
molecule, no two electrons can have the same four electronic quantum numbers.
Consequently,
an orbital can contain a maximum of only two electrons, the two electrons must have
opposing
spins. This means if one is assigned an up-spin (+1/2), the other must be down-spin
(-1/2).
179
Consider the case of He with 2 electrons.
Teacher Tip
1. What are the sets of quantum numbers that
describe the first and second electrons in Cases
A, B, and C?
2. Why do Case A and Case B violate the Pauli
Exclusion Principle?
3. Why is the arrangement in Case C acceptable?
Exercises
Answer Key
1. What are the possible sets of quantum numbers that can describe a 2p electron in
an atom? 1. All six representations are possible.
Answer: For a 2p electron, n = 2; = 1; ml can be -1, 0, +1; and ms can be ½ or
-½. 2. 1s2 2s1
The outermost electron in Li can be described

(2, 1, -1, ½)
by the quantum numbers (2, 0, 0, ½)

(2, 1, -1, -½)
3. 1s2 2s2
(2, 1, 0, ½)
(2, 1, 0, -½)
(2, 1, 1, ½)
(2, 1, 1, -½)
4. 1s2 2s2 2p1

2. Give the electron configuration of Li. Give the set of quantum numbers that
describe the
outermost electron in lithium as shown in the orbital diagram below.
Note that the unpaired electron in boron can go to
2px, or 2py, or 2pz since they have equal energies.

3. Give the electron configuration of Be. Draw the orbital diagram.
4. Give the electron configuration of B. Draw the orbital diagram.
180
III. HUND’S RULE
For carbon, the electronic configuration is 1s2 2s2 2p2. But the orbital diagram
shows three ways
in which the last electron can be placed in the orbitals which do not violate the
Pauli’s exclusion
principle as shown in the following:
However, each arrangement provides a different energy value. The one with the
lowest energy
has the greatest stability. Hund’s rule is the guide in determining the most stable
distribution.
Hund’s rule: The most stable arrangement of electrons in the subshells is the one
with the
most number of parallel spins.
Based on Hund’s rule, the third option is the most favorable arrangement for the
electron to
attain the greatest stability. In the first option, the presence of two electrons
with opposing
spins in one orbital results in a greater mutual repulsion than when they occupy
separate
orbitals. Hund’s Rule is followed in d and f orbitals as well.
Pauli’s Exclusion Principle can be tested by simple observation. Measurements of

magnetic
properties provide the most direct evidence for specific electronic configurations
of elements.
Paramagnetic materials are those that contain unpaired electrons or spins and are
attracted by a
magnet. Diamagnetic materials are those with paired spins and are repelled by a
magnet.
Any atom with an odd number of electrons will contain one or more unpaired spins,
and are
therefore attracted by a magnet, thus, can be classified as paramagnetic. For an
even number
of electrons like helium, if the two electrons in the 1s orbitals had parallel
spins, their net
181
magnetic fields should strengthen each other. But experimental results showed that
the helium
atom in its ground state has no net magnetic field.
This observation supports the pairing of two electrons with opposite spins in the
1s orbital. Thus,
helium gas is diamagnetic. Lithium, on the other hand, has an unpaired electron and
is
paramagnetic. The orbital diagram provides information on the diamagnetic or
paramagnetic
characteristic of an element.
Exercises:
Fill in the following table:
Answer Key
NUMBER PARAMAGNETIC
No. of
ATOMIC ORBITAL ELECTRON
ELEMENT OF OR
UNPAIRED
NUMBER DIAGRAM CONFIGURATION
ELECTRONS DIAMAGNETIC
ELECTRONS
H 1
He 2
Li 3
Be 4
B 5
C 6 
N 7
O 8
F 9
Ne 10
Which of the 10 elements has the highest magnetic properties (most paramagnetic)?
182
IV. AUFBAU PRINCIPLE
The Aufbau principle dictates that as protons are added one by one to the nucleus
to
build up the elements, electrons are similarly added to the atomic orbitals. The
order of
filling up the atomic orbitals is from lowest energy to highest energy. Within the
same
principal quantum number, the order of energies of the atomic orbitals is
s"<"p"<"d"<"f"
For example, for n = 3, the order is E3s < E3p < E 3d.
For multi-electron atoms, the general order of filling up orbitals can be
diagrammed as
follows:
The electron configuration of elements higher than hydrogen and helium can be
represented using the noble gas core. In the periodic table, the noble gases are
found
in the last column named as Group 8A (or Group 18 in the IUPAC convention). These
are 2He, 10Ne, 18Ar, 36 Kr, 54Xe, 86 Rn.
183
The smallest noble element is helium, so the shortened electronic configuration can
be
written as follows for the given elements:
ATOMIC NO. OF ELECTRON NOBLE GAS

ELEMENT
NUMBER ELECTRONS CONFIGURATION
CONFIGURATION
He 2 2 1s2 [He]
Li 3 3 1s2 2s1 [He] 2s1
Be 4 4 1s2 2s2 [He] 2s2
B 5 5 1s2 2s2 2p1 [He]2s2 2p1
C 6  6  1s2 2s2 2p2 [He]2s2 2p2
N 7 7 1s2 2s2 2p3 [He]2s2 2p3
O 8 8 1s2 2s2 2p4 [He]2s2 2p4
F 9 9 1s2 2s2 2p5 [He]2s2 2p5
Ne 10 10 1s2 2s2 2p6  [Ne]
Na 11 11 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 [Ne]3s1
Mg 12 12 1s2 2s2 2p6  3s2 [Ne]3s2
K 19 19 1s2 2s2 2p6  3s2 3p6  4s1 [Ar] 4s1
The elements in the 4th period, starting from potassium will have argon as the
noble Teacher Tip
Please keep in mind that the electron configuration is a tool

gas core
used by chemists to explain various properties and phenomena.

19K: [Ar]4s1
Learners should not be made to recite electron configuration of
very large atoms as there are bound to be many cases when the
20Ca: [Ar] 4s2
general guide to filling up orbitals is not followed. It is better
to emphasize the concept rather than rote memorization.
184
The 4s orbital has lower energy than the 3d orbitals; it is first filled with
electrons
before the 3d orbitals.
Elements scandium to copper are transition metals. These elements will have
incompletely filled d subshells or readily gives electrons and form cations that
have
incomplete filled d subshells. There will be some irregularities in the electron
distribution of this series as seen in Cr and Cu.
21Sc: [Ar]4s23d1
22Ti: [Ar]4s23d2
24Cr: [Ar]4s13d5
29Cu: [Ar]4s13d10
30Zn: [Ar] 4s23d10
The irregularities in Cr and Cu are due to experimental results that show that
there is a
greater stability associated with the half-filled (3d5) and the completely filled
(3d10)
subshells. Similar observations are also found in the higher d and f-orbitals.
Gallium is the next element after Zn, its electronic configuration is:
31Ga: [Ar] 4s23d104p1
Important data that can be gathered from the shortened electronic configuration are
the following:
a. Valence configuration: The electronic configuration representing the outermost
subshells.
b. Valence electrons: the number of electrons in the outermost subshells.
Determining the valence electrons is important to understand the behavior of the

elements especially in their bonding patterns to be discussed in the next sessions.
185
NOBLE GAS VALENCE
Note
ELEMENT CONFIGURATION CONFIGURATION VALENCE
ELECTRONS
In the example on the left, there is no need to include the
completely filled 3d subshells in the valence configuration and

Li [He] 2s1 2s1 1
the inclusion of the 3d electrons in counting the valence
electrons.
Be [He] 2s2 2s2 2
B [He]2s2 2p1 2s2 2p1 3
N [He]2s2 2p3 2s2 2p3 5
Ne [Ne] [Ne] or 2s2 2p6  8
Sc [Ar]4s23d1 4s23d1 3
Cr [Ar]4s13d5 4s13d5 6 
Ga [Ar]4s23d104p1 4s24p1 3
V. THE QUANTUM NUMBERS AND THE ARRANGEMENTS OF ELEMENTS IN

Teacher Tip
THE PERIODIC TABLE
Recall that there are no elements with the same set of quantum
It was mentioned earlier that the complete set of quantum numbers specifies the
numbers. Similarly, in the periodic table, each known element
has its own corresponding place.

address of an electron in an atom. This can be seen in the arrangement of elements
in
the periodic table. The periodic table is designed such that elements with valence
configurations in the s orbitals are found in the first two columns on the left,
the ones
with p-orbitals are found on the right. The transition metals have d-orbitals and
are
found at the middle and the elements with f-orbitals as valence configurations are
found at the bottom.
Source
The periodic table showing the s, p, d, and f sublevel blocks.
From High School Chemistry/The Periodic Table and Electron
Configuration. Retrieved from https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/
High_School_Chemistry/
The_Periodic_Table_and_Electron_Configurations (3November
2016 ), Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 License.

186 
ENRICHMENT/EVALUATION (30 minutes)
1. Which of the four quantum numbers (n, l, ml , ms) determine (a)
8. The atomic number of an element is 73. Is this element
the energy of an electron in a hydrogen atom and in a many-
diamagnetic or paramagnetic?
electron atom, (b) the size of an orbital, (c) the shape of an
orbital, (d) the orientation of an orbital in space?
9. Indicate the number of unpaired electrons present in each of the
following atoms: B, Ne, P, Sc, Mn, Se, Kr, Fe, Cd, I, Pb.
Ans: (a) n (b) ms (c) l (d) ml
10. Draw the orbital diagrams for atoms with the following electron
2. Calculate the total number of electrons that can occupy (a) one s
configurations:
orbital, (b) three p orbital, (c) five d orbitals, (d) seven f orbitals.
(a) 1s22s22p5
Ans: (a) 2, (b) 6 , (c) 10, (d) 14
(b) 1s22s22p6 3s23p3
3. List the values of n, l, and ml for the orbital in the 4d subshell.
(c) 1s22s22p6 3s23p6 4s23d7
Ans: n = 4; l = 2; ml = -2, -1, 0, 1, 2
11. What is the maximum number of electrons in an atom that can

4. Write the four quantum numbers for an electron in a 3p orbital.
have the following quantum numbers? Specify the orbitals in
which the electrons would be found. (a) n= 2, ms = +½; (b)

Ans: (3, 1, -1, +½) (3, 1, 0, +½) (3, 1, 1, +½)
n= 4, ml = +1; (c) n= 3, l = 2; (d) n= 2, l = 0, ms = -½; (e) n= 4, l

(3, 1,-1, -½) (3, 1, 0, -½) (3, 1, 1, -½)
= 3, ml = -2
5. What is the total number of orbitals associated with the principal
12. Shown below are portions of orbital of diagrams representing
quantum number n = 3?
the ground-state electron configurations of certain elements.
Ans: 9
Which of them violate the Pauli Exclusion Principle? Hund’s rule?
6 . Indicate which of the following sets of quantum numbers in an

atom are acceptable and explain why:
(a) (1, 0, ½, ½), (b) (3, 0, 0, +½), (c) (2, 2, 1, +½), (d) (4, 3, -2,
+½), (e) (3, 2, 1, 1).
7. The ground-state electron configurations listed here are

incorrect. Explain what mistakes have been made in each and
write the correct electron configurations.
Al: 1s22s22p43s23p3
B: 1s22s22p5
F: 1s22s22p6 
187
Electron Configuration Worksheet
1. Complete the table below with the appropriate information as asked.
ORBITAL DIAGRAM OF
ELECTRONIC NOBLE GAS

ELEMENT ATOMIC NUMBER NO. OF ELECTRONS
VALENCE
CONFIGURATION CONFIGURATION
CONFIGURATION
Na
Al
Si
Cl
Ar
Ca
Ti
Mn
Fe
Cu
Ge
Os
Au
Cf
2. From A, List 5 elements that exhibit paramagnetism and 5 elements that exhibit
diamagnetism in its ground state.
3. Write the four quantum numbers of each electron in a nitrogen atom.
188
4. Determine the element whose outermost valence electron is 5. Write the
electron configurations for the elements in number 4.
represented by the following quantum numbers. Encircle
the valence configuration.
a. n=1, l= 0, ml= 0, ms=-1/2 6 . Plot the
elements in number 4 in the blank periodic table
b. n=2, l=1, ml= 0, ms= +1/2 provided
for.
c. n=3, l=1, ml= 0, ms= +1/2 7. Pick 3
elements from number 4. Give their sources and a
minimum of
three uses of the elements you picked.
d. n=4, l=2, ml= 0, ms= +1/2
e. n= 6 , l=0, ml= 0, ms= -1/2
f. n=3, l=1, ml = -1, ms= +1/2
g. n=5, l= 3, ml = 0, ms= +1/2
h. n=4, l=1, ml = -1, ms= -1/2
i. n=4, l=1, ml = 0, ms= -1/2
j. n=5, l=1,ml = 1, ms = ½
1A
8A
2A
3A 4A 5A 6 A 7A
189
General Chemistry 1
120 MINS
Lesson 22: Periodic Relationships

Among the Elements
Content Standard
Lesson Outline
The learners demonstrate an understanding of the arrangement of elements in
the periodic table and trends in the properties of the elements in terms of
Introduction Communicating Learning Objectives and 12
electronic structure.
Development of the Periodic Table
Motivation The Periodic Table 3
The learners can arrange elements and explain their properties through the
knowledge of electron structure.
Instruction I. Periodic Classification of Elements 90
and Practice II. Electron Configuration of Cations and
Anions
1. Explain the periodic recurrence of similar properties among elements to
III. Periodic Variation in Physical Properties
their group number in terms of electronic structure (STEM_GC11CB-IIc-
Evaluation Exercises and Activity 15
d-6 0)
2. Relate the number of valence electrons of elements to their group number
Materials
in the periodic table (STEM_GC11CB-IIc-d-6 1)
Periodic Table
3. Compare the properties of families of elements (STEM_GC11CB-IIc-d-6 2)
Resources
4. Predict the properties of individual elements based on their position in the
(1) Chang, Raymond and Goldsby, Kenneth A. (2016 ). Chemistry (12th ed).
periodic table (STEM_GC11CB-IIc-d-6 3)
New York: McGraw-Hill.
5. Describe and explain the trends in atomic properties in the periodic table
(STEM_GC11CB-IIc-d-6 4)
Learning
(4) Cox, P.A. Inorganic Chemistry Second Edition (2004). Inorganic
Chemistry Laboratory, New College, Oxford, UK
1. Sketch the periodic table showing the groups and periods.
(5) Roque, et al. Laboratory Manual in General Chemistry (2008).
Philippine Normal University.

2. Identify the metals, metalloids and nonmetals in the periodic
table.
3. Identify the representative elements, the transition metals, the 6 .
Describe and explain the trends in atomic properties in the
lanthanides and actinides in the periodic table.
periodic table
4. Give the electron configuration of cations and anions. 7.
Compare the properties of families of elements
5. Determine the trends in the physical properties of elements in a 8.
Predict the properties of individual elements based on their
group
position in the periodic table
9.
Perform exercises and collaborative work with peers.
190
1. Introduce the following learning objectives using any of the 2.
Present the keywords for the concepts to be learned:
suggested protocol (Verbatim, Own Words, or Read-aloud): a.
Periodic table
At the end of the lesson, I will be able to: b.
Metals
a. Sketch the periodic table showing the groups and periods. c.
Non-metals
b. Identify the metals, metalloids and nonmetals in the periodic d.
Metalloids
table. e.
Alkali metals
c. Identify the representative elements, the transition metals, f.
Alkaline earth metals
the lanthanides and actinides in the periodic table. g.
Halogens
d. Give the electron configuration of cations and anions. h.
Noble gases
e. Determine the trends in the physical properties of elements i.
Representative elements/main group elements
in a group j.
Transition elements
f. Describe and explain the trends in atomic properties in the k.
Lanthanides
periodic table l.
Actinides
g. Compare the properties of families of elements m.
Isoelectronic
h. Predict the properties of individual elements based on their n.
Effective nuclear charge
position in the periodic table o.
Shielding or screening
i. Perform exercises and collaborative work with peers. p.
Atomic radius
q.
Ionic radius
r.
Ionization Energy (First, Second, Third,…)
s.
Electron affinity
191
3. Development of the Periodic Table
The arrangement of elements in the modern periodic table was made possible
through the
efforts of several chemists, such as; Dobereiner, John Newlands, Dmitri
Mendeleev, and Henry
Moseley.
It started with Dobereiner’s “Law of Triads”. He found a relationship among

three elements
where the atomic weight of the middle element is nearly the same as average of
the atomic
weights of other two elements. John Newlands arranged the elements in what is
known as the
“law of octaves”. He noted that the eighth element has similar chemical
properties with the first
element.
Mendeleev prepared a tabulation of elements based on equivalent weights (atomic

mass) and
the regular recurrence of properties of the elements. In a few cases, the mass
and the
properties did not go the same directions. But Mendeleev rationalized that the
properties were
more accurate than the masses since technology used to determine the mass was
still
improving. Henry Moseley discovered that each element in Mendeleev’s table was
arranged in
an order such that their integral positive charge (atomic number) increased
numerically from
left to right and top to bottom.
The present periodic table is arranged according to increasing atomic number

which also equals
the number of electrons. The electron configuration helps to predict and explain
the recurrence
of chemical and physical properties.
1. Show the learners some periodic tables. Ask them what they know about the
periodic table.
2. Ask them to identify a few of the elements in the table.
192
INSTRUCTION/DELIVERY/PRACTICE (90 minutes)
Majority of the elements are metals (shown in light gray shade
I. PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS
in the figure). Metals are good conductors of electricity. The
non-metals are shown as boxes with no shade. The metalloids
(shown in boxes with dark grey shade) have properties that are
intermediate between metals and nonmetals.
Some groups have been given collective names. Group 1A
elements are called alkali metals; Group 2A elements are
referred to as alkaline earth metals; Group 7A elements are
called halogens; Group 8A elements are known as noble
gases.
The Group A elements are classified as representative
elements or main group elements. These elements have
unfilled or filled s and p orbitals in the highest principal
quantum number. The Group B elements are called the
transition elements where the d subshells are being filled up.

The Periodic Table: Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids
This, however, is not the universal convention. In Europe, the
convention is to use B for representative elements and A for

The periodic table is a chart in which elements having similar chemical and
transition elements; the opposite of the American convention.
physical properties are grouped together. The elements are arranged
However, in this lesson, the American convention will be
according to increasing atomic number. The rows are called periods. The
followed.
vertical columns are called groups or families according to the similarities in
their properties. At present, it contains 118 elements; however, elements
The two separate rows at the bottom of the periodic table are
113 to 118 have just recently been synthesized and naming is not yet fully
lanthanides and the actinides. Sometimes, they are referred to
complete.
as the f-block elements.
There are 18 groups or families. There are two conventions in designating

the groups. The Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) refers to the
columns are Groups 1-18. Many books, however, continue to refer to the
columns as Groups 1A, 2A, 3B, and so on as shown in the figure above. This
teaching guide will use the Groups A and B convention.
193
Exercises
1. Write the electron configuration (using noble gas notation)
of the elements in Group 1A.
2. Comment on the outermost electron configuration of
Group 1A elements.
3. How many valence electrons do Group 1A elements have?
4. Write the electron configuration (using noble gas notation)
of the halogens.
5. Comment on the outermost electron configuration of the
halogens.
6 . How many valence electrons do the halogens have?
7. Comment on the arrangement of the representative
elements in the periodic table with respect to their electron
configuration.
The Periodic
Table: Representative, Transition, and f-block Elements
Exercises
1.
Give the electron configuration of Na and Na+.
II. ELECTRON CONFIGURATION OF CATIONS AND ANIONS
Na: [Ne] 3s1 Na atom has 11 protons and 11 electrons.
Ions derived from representative elements
Na+: [Ne] Na+ ion has 11 protons and 10 electrons. Na+ is
isoelectronic with Ne.

In the formation of cations from representative elements, the
electrons are removed from the outermost shell to achieve a noble 2.
Give the electron configuration of Ca and Ca2+
gas configuration. In the formation of anions, electrons are added
Ca: [Ar] 4s2
Ca2+: [Ar]
to the highest partially filled n shell so that they become
isoelectronic (same number of electrons) with the noble gas. 3.
Give the electron configuration of F and F
F:
1s2 2s2 2p5
F : 1s2 2s2 2p6  or [Ne] F is isoelectronic with Ne.
4.
Give the electron configuration of O and O2
O:
1s2 2s2 2p4
O2
: 1s2 2s2 2p6  or [Ne] O2 is isoelectronic with Ne.
194
Ions derived from transition elements
1. Give the electron configuration of Mn and Mn2+.
Mn: [Ar]4s2 3d5
Mn2+ [Ar] 3d5
Note that for transition elements, the ns electrons are removed first. In
filling up the orbitals,
the ns orbitals are filled first before the (n-1)d orbitals because the ns
orbitals are more stable
and lower energy. However, the electron-electron interactions are different in a
neutral atom
from that in an ion. For transition metal ions the 3d orbital is more stable.
Hence, the 4s
electrons are removed first before the 3d electrons.
III. PERIODIC VARIATION IN PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Teacher Tip
1. The Effective Nuclear Charge
The shielding constant, σ , can be calculated using
In many-electron atoms, the inner or core electrons shield the outer electrons from
the nucleus some specified rules. In 1930, J. C. Slater devised a
reducing the electrostatic attractions between the nucleus and the outer electron.
The effective simple set of guidelines to determine shielding or
nuclear charge, Zeff, is given by Zeff = Z - σ where Z is the nuclear charge and σ
is the shielding screening constants. However, this will not be done
in this lesson. Shielding will be treated qualitatively.

constant. Screening or shielding refers to how an outer electron is blocked from
the nuclear charge
Suffice it to say that core electrons shield the outer

by the inner electrons. It means that the attraction of the outer electron to the
nucleus is not felt electrons and lessen the force of attraction felt by
100% because of the effect of the inner electrons. Electrons in the inner shells
are very effective in the electron for the nucleus. Electrons in the same
shielding the nucleus. Electrons in the same shell as the electron of interest
provide a relatively shell as the electron of interest provide a relatively
smaller screening effect. To see how the effective nuclear charge varies across a
period, answer the smaller screening effect. Guide the learners with
following questions.
the questions on Zeff for them to reason out the
trend.
a. Approximate the Zeff for the outermost electron of Li.

Li (electron configuration [He] 2s1) has 2 inner core electrons to shield the
valence electrons.
Qualitatively, the +3 charge of the Li nucleus will be neutralized by the 2
inner electrons; the
outer electron of Li will feel an effective nuclear charge of about +1.
b. Approximate the Zeff for boron (Z=5).

Boron (electron configuration [He] 2s2 2p1) also has 2 inner core electrons
to shield the 3
valence electrons. The +5 charge of the boron nucleus is neutralized by the
2 inner
electrons leaving a net of +3. However, there are 3 valence electrons that
also provide a
lesser amount of shielding to one another. One of these outer electrons will
feel the
shielding effect of the 2 other valence electrons. Therefore, the Zeff for
boron is expected to
be below 3.
195
c. Approximate the Zeff for F (Z=9).
F (electron configuration [He] 2s2 2p5) also has 2 inner core electrons to
shield the 7 valence
electrons. The +9 charge of the F nucleus is neutralized by the 2 core
electrons leaving a net
charge of +7. However, there are 7 valence electrons. A valence electron
will also feel the
shielding effect of the other 6  valence electrons. Therefore, the Zeff is
expected to be less
than 7 but larger than the Zeff of the outer electron in boron because there
are more valence
electrons to provide shielding.
d. From the above analysis, how will Zeff vary across a period?
Zeff increases as you go from left to right across a period.
e. To validate the approximations made, values of Zeff for Li to Ne are given

below:
3Li 4Be 5B 6 C 7N 8O

9F 10Ne
Z 3 4 5 6  7
8 9 10
Zeff 1.28 1.91 2.42 3.14 3.83

4.45 5.10 5.76 
Teacher Tip
2. Atomic Radius
There are various types of radii used in inorganic
Atomic size is difficult to define because there is no distinct outer boundary to
an atom. The chemistry. However, the lesson focuses only on
general trends in the sizes of atoms. There is no

probability of finding the electron decreases with increasing distance from the
nucleus but the
need to further distinguish among these types of

probability does not fall to zero. Thus, it is safe to describe the effective
atomic radius which is the radii.
distance of the electron from the nucleus within which 95% of the electron charge
density is found.
A more specific way to get atomic radius values is to get one-half the distance
between two nuclei
in adjacent atoms (the internuclear distance) in a metal solid or in a diatomic
molecule.
The covalent radius is one-half the distance between two identical

atoms joined together by a single bond.
196 
The metallic radius: it is one-half the distance between the nuclei
of
the two atoms in contact in the crystalline solid metal.
How does the atomic radius vary within a period for representative elements?
Explain.
The atomic radius decreases from left to right through a period of elements for
representative
elements. This corresponds to the increase in Zeff across a period. With the
increase in Zeff, the
outer electrons are pulled in and attracted towards the nucleus resulting in a
decrease in the size of
the atoms.
Teacher Tip
For additional information, atomic size does not

How does the atomic radius vary down a group for representative elements? Explain.
change very much for a transition series within a
period. Additional electrons in a transition series

The more electronic shells (n) in an atom, the larger is the atom. Atomic radius
increases from top
go into an inner electron shell where they

to bottom through a group of elements.
participate in shielding the outer shell-electrons
from the nucleus. The number of electrons in the

Exercises
outer shell remains constant; they experience a
comparable force of attraction to the nucleus

Using the periodic table, arrange the following atoms in order of increasing atomic
radius. Explain
throughout the transition series.

your reasoning.
a. C, Li, Be
For example, for Fe (Z=25), Co (Z=26 ) and Ni (Z =
27), Zeff for the 4s electrons of the first transition

b. As, I, S
series is approximately constant, thus the atomic
c. P, Si, N
radii do not change very much for this series of
three elements, Fe (124 pm), Co (125 pm) and Ni
(125 pm).
3. Ionic Radius
Ionic radii are very difficult to measure with certainty because they are affected
by their immediate environment. They can be measured by x-ray diffraction.
The sizes vary depending on the environment. However, we are going to
discuss the general trends and relative sizes.
197
Atomic radius versus ionic radius
Cations are smaller than the atoms from which they are formed. When a metal atom
loses one or
more electrons to form a positive ion, the positive nuclear charge exceeds the
negative charge of
the electrons in the resulting cation. For isoelectronic cations, the more positive
the ionic charge,
the smaller the ionic charge.
Anions are larger than the atoms from which they are formed
When a non-metal gains one or more electrons, it forms a negative ion termed as
anion. The
nuclear charge remains constant, but Zeff is reduced because of the additional
electrons. The
additional electrons results in increase repulsions among the electrons in the
outer shell. This results
to the tendency of the electrons to spread out more, thus increasing the size of
the anion.
For isoelectronic anions, the more negative charge, the larger is the ionic radius.
a. Compare the size of a neutral atom of Na and a Na+ ion. Which is larger.
Explain.
The Na atom has 11 protons attracting 11 electrons. Its electron configuration
is [Ne] 3s1. This
outer electron is lost when it forms the Na+ ion.
The Na+ ion has 11 protons attracting only 10 electrons. Therefore the electrons
are pulled
closer to the nucleus.
The Na atom is larger than the Na+ ion: Na > Na+
b. Compare the size of a Mg atom and a Mg2+ ion. Which is larger?
The Mg atom has 12 protons attracting 12 electrons.
The Mg2+ ion has 12 protons attracting 10 electrons. The electrons feel a larger
attractive force
towards the nucleus.
The Mg atom is larger than the Mg2+ ion: Mg > Mg2+
c. Compare the sizes of Na+, Mg2+, and Al3+. Arrange according to increasing size.
Na+, Mg2+, and Al3+ are isoelectronic; that is, they all have the same number of
electrons. They
have 10 electrons outside the nucleus. But for Al3+, the 10 electrons are pulled
by 13 protons;
for Mg2+, the 10 electrons are attracted by 12 protons; and for Na+, the 10
electrons are pulled
by only 11 protons.
198
Therefore, the sizes of the ions increase according to: Al3+ < Mg2+ < Na+.
d. Compare the size of a F atom and a F– ion. Which is larger?

F has 9 protons attracting 9 electrons. A fluoride ion, F– ion has 9 protons
attracting 10
electrons. Zeff decreases for the fluoride ion.
The fluoride ion, F–, is larger than the F atom: F– > F
e. Which is larger, the O atom or the O2– ion? Which is larger?

The O atom has 8 protons attracting 8 electrons. The oxide ion, O2–, has 8
protons attracting
10 electrons resulting in a decrease of Zeff for the outer electrons.
Therefore, the oxide ion, O2–,
is larger than the O atom: O2– > O
f. Compare the sizes of F–, O2–, and N3–. Arrange according to increasing size.
F–, O2–, and N3– are isoelectronic. All have 10 electrons. However, only 7
protons are attracting
the 10 electrons in the nitride ion; 8 protons are pulling in the 10 electrons
in the oxide ion;
while 9 protons are attracting the 10 electrons in the fluoride ion.
Therefore, the ionic sizes
increase according to F– > O2– > N3–. .
Exercises
Arrange the following set of ions and atoms in increasing size and explain your
answer
a. K+, Cl-, S2-, Ca2+
b. N, Cs, As, Mg2+, Br-
Ionization Energy
Ionization energy (IE) is the minimum amount of energy (in kJ/mol) required to
remove an electron
from a gaseous atom in its ground state.
Energy + X(g) —> X+ (g) + e–
The energy required to remove the first electron is called the first ionization
energy. The first
ionization energy, IE1, has the lowest value. The second ionization energy, IE2, is
the energy
199
required to strip the second electron from the atom; it has higher energy value,
and so on.
IE1 < IE2 < IE3 < …
Examples of ionization energies:

Al(g) —> Al+(g) + e– IE1 = 577.9 kJ/mol
Al+(g) —> Al2+(g) + e– IE2 = 1,820 kJ/mol
Al2+(g) —> Al3+(g) + e– IE3 = 2,750 kJ/mol
Al3+(g) —> Al4+(g) + e– IE4 = 11,6 00 kJ/mol
Ask the learners to:

a. Explain why IE for Al increases from IE1 to IE2 to IE3 to IE4.
b. Why is there a drastic increase in energy from IE3 to IE4 for Al?
Teacher Tip
When electrons are removed from the same shell, the main effect is that with each
successive
There are various irregularities seen in the trends.

ionization there is one less electron left to repel the others. The electrons are
more attracted to the These can be further discussed if time permits.
nucleus and are harder to remove. The fourth IE of Al is very much higher because
now the outer They are contained in the enrichment section.
shell is exhausted and the tightly bound inner shell, 2p, is being ionized.
Ionization energies decrease as atomic radii increases. The farther an electron is

from the nucleus,
the easier it is to be released. Down a group, as n increases and atomic size
increases, electrons
are easily released. Thus, ionization energy decreases from top to bottom of a
group. Across a
period, as Zeff increases and size decreases, ionization energy increases.
The following tables provide some first ionization energies for representative
elements.
IE1 Li Be B C N O F
Ne
kJ/ 520 899 801 1,086  1,400 1,314

1,6 80 2,080
mol
IE1 Li Na K Rb
Cs
kJ/mol 520 495.9 418.7 403.0

375.7
200
Electron Affinity
Teacher Tip
The electron affinity of an atom may be defined as the negative of the energy
change that The teacher should be very careful in explaining
electron affinity because the sign conventions may

occurs when a gaseous atom accepts an electron. For example, for the F atom,
vary in different textbooks. The convention used
here is from Chang and Goldsby.

F(g) + e–—> F– (g) Energy involved = -328 kJ/mol
Note that there are many irregularities in the trends

The electron affinity is
for electron affinities. Teachers need only to focus
on the general trends at this level.

F– (g) —> F(g) + e– Electron Affinity = EA = +328 kJ/mol
Electronegativity will be discussed in relation to

This is the reason why electron affinity is sometimes defined as the ionization
energy of a covalent bonding as is not included in this section.
negative ion. The more positive the electron affinity, the greater the tendency to
accept an
electron and form an ion.Generally, the electron affinity increases across a period
from left to
tight. The electron affinity generally decreases going down a group.
ENRICHMENT
Some applications of metal ions
1. Knowledge of atomic and ionic radii is used to vary physical properties of
materials. For
example:
a. Strengthening Glass. Normal glass windows that contain Na+ and Ca2+ ions are
brittle and
shatters easily. Replacing the Na+ ions with bigger K + ions results in
surfaces where
surface sites are being filled up leaving less opportunity for cracking.
b. Colors in gemstones. Pure Al2O3 is colorless. Substituting Al3+ with a little
amount of Cr3+
in Al2O3 gives a red color in ruby.
2. Explanation for the irregularities in the ionization potential trends for
beryllium and boron
(This is optional topic)
a. Boron has lower ionization energy than Be. The ionization energy of B is
slightly less than
that of Be because boron removes an electron from a 2p orbital, which is
less tightly
bound than the 2s involved in lithium and beryllium.
b. Hund’s rule play an important role in explaining the ionization energies of
nitrogen and
oxygen. Remember, there are three 2p electrons that can be accommodated in
different
orbitals with parallel spin so as to minimize their mutual repulsion. For O
(2p)4 and
subsequent elements in the period some electrons are paired and repel more
strongly,
leading to IE values less than would be predicted by extrapolation from the
previous
three elements.
201
EVALUATION
Directions: Fill up the blank periodic table with the Element as described by each
statement below:
1. Element A is the biggest in Group 1A.
2. Element B forms the biggest anion in period 2.
3. Element C has complete d electrons in period 4.
4. Element D is the most electronegative in period 2.
5. Element E will be isoelectronic with the noble gas in period 3 when it loses two
electrons.
6 . Element F has the highest ionization energy in period 4.
7. Element G has the least electron affinity in group 6 .
8. Element H has the 4f14 configuration
9. Element I is the first member of the actinide series
1A
8A
2A
3A 4A 5A 6 A 7A
B D
E
C J F
A
G
202
General Chemistry 1
6 0 MINS
Lesson 23: Periodic

Relationships of Main
Lesson Outline
Group Elements (Lab)

Activity 1 Properties of Group 2A Elements: Reactions
of their Ions
30
Content Standard
Activity 2 Electron Configuration and Periodicity 30

The learners demonstrate an understanding of the arrangement of elements in
Materials
the periodic table and trends in the properties of the elements in terms of
Materials for Activity No. 1
electronic structure. A.
Reagents: 0.5 M magnesium nitrate, 0.5 M calcium nitrate, 0.5 M
strontium nitrate, 0.2 M barium nitrate, 1.0 M sodium hydroxide, 0.5 M
sodium fluoride, 0.5 M sodium chloride, 0.2 M potassium bromide, 0.2 M

The learners can arrange elements and explain their properties through the
potassium iodide, 0.5 M sodium sulfate, 0.5 M sodium carbonate.
knowledge in electronic structure. B.
Equipment: spot plate (use plastic film like that used for overhead
transparencies or plastic wrap in the absence of a spot plate or wax paper),

respective droppers and small beakers for each solution
Materials for Activity No. 2

1. Compare the properties of families of elements (STEM_GC11CB-IIc-d-6 2)
Giant Periodic table posted on the board, flash cards of elements with
2. (LAB) Investigate reactions of ions and apply these in qualitative analysis
atomic number, whiteboard markers, manila paper
(STEM_GC11CB-IIc-d-6 5)
Resources
3. (LAB) Determine periodic properties of the main group elements
(1) Chang, Raymond and Goldsby, Kenneth A. (2016 ). Chemistry (12th

(STEM_GC11CB-IIc-d-6 6 )

Learning
1. Explain the periodic properties of the main group elements;
(4) Silberberg (2006 ). Chemistry. The Molecular Nature of Matter and
Change. McGraw-Hill:
2. Investigate qualitatively the trends in chemical reactivity of metallic
(5) Roque, et al. Laboratory Manual in General Chemistry (2008).

elements;
Philippine Normal University.
3. Analyze patterns in data and draw conclusions that are consistent with
(6 ) Periodic Trends Laboratory. classrooms.tacoma.k12.wa.us/Wilson/
krichardson/documents/ ptrendlab.pdf, July4, 2007

evidence;
(7) http://www.rsc.org/learn-chemistry/resource/res00000513/the-
4. Compare and contrast the properties of main group elements; and
periodic-table-properties-of-group-2-elements?cmpid=CMP00000583
5. Perform exercises and collaborative work with peers.
(8) http://www.oresomeresources.com/resources_view/resource/
experiment_metal_reactivity
203
ACTIVITY NO. 1
Teacher Tip
PROPERTIES OF GROUP 2A ELEMENTS – REACTIONS OF THEIR IONS
Prior to the activity, the instructor needs to:
1. Prepare the room for the laboratory activity. Ensure that it

Arrangements of elements in the periodic table have been painstakingly thought of
by is equipped with safety equipment especially eyewash and
scientists. We learned that elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic
number. shower stations, fire extinguisher, sand buckets, first aid
Elements are grouped in s, p, d, f blocks with the same valence electrons in a
group. kits, running water.
2. Place posters on safety measures around the room as

We found out that elements in the same group have similar physical properties. Is
there reminders.
periodicity of chemical reactivity? It’s time for you to find out.
3. Prepare the reagents, equipment, and materials.
4. Prepare the waste receptacles.
5. At the start of the activity, explain the activity. Go through

Pre-Activity
the entire procedure. Identify the reagents and equipment.
1. Recall
6 . Clearly discuss the safety precautions to be strictly
followed by the students. All students need to wear safety

In the periodic table, elements that are found in the left are metals and in the
far right goggles and lab gowns. No open footwear. Long hair
are the non-metals. The elements found in the boundary of the two are called
should be tied back.
metalloids.
2. Materials
Reagents: 0.5 M magnesium nitrate, 0.5 M calcium nitrate, 0.5 M strontium nitrate,
0.2
M barium nitrate, 1.0 M sodium hydroxide, 0.5 M sodium fluoride, 0.5 M sodium
chloride, 0.2 M potassium bromide, 0.2 M potassium iodide, 0.5 M sodium sulfate,
0.5
M sodium carbonate.
Equipment: spot plate (or use plastic film like that used for overhead
transparencies or
plastic wrap in the absence of a spot plate or wax paper), respective droppers and
small beakers for each solution
3. Precautions
a. Always wear your laboratory gown and safety goggles.
b. Do not contaminate the reagents. Use respective droppers for each solution.
c. Avoid skin contact with the reagents
d. Dispose all solutions in the containers provided by your teacher. Wash your
hands
before leaving the laboratory.
204
Instruction / Activity
Teacher Tip
Procedure
Ask the learners:
1. What group of elements is being investigated?

1. Place the spot plate or OHP film at the center of an 8 x 11 paper. Label the
rows 2. What particular property of this group is investigated?
and columns as indicated below:
F– Cl– Br – I– CO32-
SO42-
Mg2+
Ca2+
Sr+
Ba2+
2. Following the grid on the first row of the spot plate put two drops of magnesium
nitrate solution on the six holes (or boxes drawn on the OHP film). Then add two
drops of fluoride, chloride, bromide, iodide, carbonate, and sulfate
solutions to each of the holes or boxes as shown on the grid.
3. Repeat with calcium nitrate on the second row, then strontium nitrate on
the third row, and barium nitrate on the fourth row.
4. Record your observations in the data table.
F– Cl– Br –
I– CO32- SO42-
Mg2+
Ca2+
Sr+
Ba2+
Additional Questions
5. What are the indications that a chemical reaction took place?
6 . List the group IIA elements in order of increasing chemical reactivity
205
ACTIVITY NO. 2
Teacher Tip
ELECTRON CONFIGURATION AND PERIODICITY
The teacher will need to prepare:
Rules for Task 1
1. Colored flash cards where element symbols and atomic
numbers are present (preferably laminated flashcards).

1. Each group earns 5 points for each correct answer.
2. Use the following colors for the elements:
2. An additional 5 point will be given to the group which finishes within 10
minutes. a. On yellow paper: Na, K, Cs, Cr, Mn, Fe
b. On blue paper: Mg, Ca, Ba, Mo, Tc, Ru

3. A group which finishes the task will raise the group flag. Time started and time
c. On green paper: B, Al, Ga, Cu, Ag, Au
done should be recorded.
d. On red paper: C, Si, Sn ,U, Am, Cf
e. On white paper: F, Cl, Br, Nd, Eu, Dy
f. On orange paper: Ne, Ar, Kr, Ni, Pd, Pt

Task 1
3. Prepare group flags corresponding to the color of the
flashcards.
1. The teacher will distribute flash cards of different colors randomly in the
class. 4. Response Sheets enough for all the groups
2. Ask the learners to form groups according to the colors of the paper of the
5. A big giant periodic table can be posted on the board
flashcards.
3. Let the students write the long configuration and noble gas configuration of the
given elements on a response sheet.
NAMES: SCORE:
TIME STARTED: TIME DONE:
Atomic Long Noble Valence

Element
number Configuration Configuration
Configuration
206 
Task 2
Teacher Tip
1. Ask the students to write the valence configuration of elements in the flash
cards. (if There are two types of valence configurations in the group of
elements:
the flash cards are not laminated, let students write the configuration on
separate 1. (ns) (np) elements
strips of paper)
2. (ns) (n-1) d elements or (ns) (n-2) f elements
2. Ask the students what they observe about the valence configuration of the
elements in their group. Study what are the similarities and differences?
3. Ask the students to arrange the elements in the periodic table on the board.
What
is the relationship of the configuration with their arrangement in the periodic
table?
• Elements found in the same family have the same number of valence
electrons
but different period/energy level.
• Elements with ns np configurations are called representative elements and
the
(ns) (n-1)d elements are called transition elements, and the ones with (n-
2)f
configurations are in the lanthanide or actinide series.
Answer Key
Exercises
A.
1. 4s23d3 , 5, d-block, 5B, 4

A. Determine the valence configuration, the valence electrons, the block, the
family, 2. 6 s26 p1 , 3, p-block, 3A, 6 
and the period to which the following elements belong.
3. 4s24p3, 5, p block, 5A, 4
4. 4s2 , 2, s-block, 2A, 4

1. [Ar]4s23d3
5. 4d10 5s1, 11, d-block, 1B, 4

2. [Xe]4f145d106 s26 p1
6 . 7s25f3, 5, f-block, Actinide series, 7
3. [Ar]4s23d104p3
B.
4. 1s22s22p6 3s23p6 4s2
1. V
2. Tl
5. [Kr]4d105s1
3. As
6 . [Rn]7s25f3
4. Ca
5. Ag
B. Identify the following elements and indicate their position in a blank periodic
table.
To the teacher, provide a blank periodic table.
1. [Ar]4s23d3
2. [Xe]4f145d106 s26 p1
3. [Ar]4s23d104p3
4. 1s22s22p6 3s23p6 4s2
5. [Kr]4d105s1
207
General Chemistry 1
120 MINS
Lesson 24: Ionic Bonds

Lesson Outline
Content Standard
The learners demonstrate an understanding of ionic bond formation
in terms of atomic properties.
Instruction I. Octet Rule and Lewis Dot Symbol 85

II. Ions formed from Representative Elements

The learners shall be able to identify ionic compounds used in daily
III. Ionic Bond Formation
life.
IV. Lattice Energy of Ionic Compounds
V. Properties of Ionic Compounds

Enrichment Ions in the Human Body 5

1. Relate the stability of noble gases to their electron configuration
Evaluation Worksheet 20
(STEM_GC11CB-IId-g-6 7);
Resources
2. State the Octet Rule (STEM_GC11CB-IId-g-6 8); (1)
3. Determine the charge of ions formed by the representative (2)
Joesten, M., Castellion, M. & Hogg, J. (2007). The World of Chemistry:
Essentials. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole Cengage Learning

elements and relate this to their ionization energy or electron (3)
Petrucci, Herring, Madura, and Bissonnette (2011). General Chemistry and
affinity, valence electron configuration, and position in the
Modern Applications, 10th Ed. Pearson Canada, Inc.
periodic table. (STEM_GC11CB-IId-g-6 9); (4)
Zumdahl, S.S. and Zumdahl, S.A (2013).Chemistry, 8th ed. Cengage Learning
4. Draw the Lewis structure of ions (STEM_GC11CB-IId-g-70);

5. Predict the formula of the ionic compound formed by a metal and
At
the end of the lesson, the learners shall be able to:
non-metal among the representative elements. (STEM_GC11CB-
IId-g-71); 1.
State the Octet Rule.
6 . Draw the Lewis structure of ionic compounds. (STEM_GC11CB- 2.
Draw the Lewis dot symbols of atoms and ions.
IId-g-72); 3.
Identify elements that easily form cations and anions based on
7. List the properties of ionic compounds and explain these
ionization energies and electron affinities
properties in terms of their structure (STEM_GC11CB-IId-g-73); 4.
Explain the formation of ionic bonds using electron configuration
and
and the Lewis dot symbols.
8. Perform exercises on writing Lewis structures of ions/ionic 5.
Relate lattice energy with physical properties of ionic compounds
compounds and molecules. (STEM_GC11CB-IId-g-74).
such as melting point.
208
a. I will be able to state the Octet Rule.
b. I will be able to draw the Lewis dot symbols of atoms and ions.
c. I will be able to identify elements that easily form cations and anions based
on ionization
energies and electron affinities
d. I will be able to explain the formation of ionic bonds using electron
configuration and the Lewis
dot symbols.
e. I will be able to relate lattice energy with physical properties of ionic
compounds such as melting
point.

a. Octet Rule
b. Lewis dot symbol
c. Ionic bond
d. Lattice energy
Teacher Tip
3. Connecting and reviewing essential knowledge
The group number of the element is equal to

a. Briefly review the electron configuration of the elements found in Group 1A
to Group 8A the number of valence electrons using the old
(representative elements).
system of group numbering. Using the IUPAC
system of group numbering, the number of

b. Ask learners to identify the valence electron of these elements.
valence electrons is equal to (Group number
c. Ask the learners what are valence electrons and why is their importance.
-10). For example, chlorine is in Group 17, so
its valence electrons are (17-10 =7). Chlorine
has seven valence electrons.

1. Let them deliver the following statement using the read-aloud protocol: “A
chemist named
Gilbert Lewis noticed something interesting about elements that were very
stable.”
209
2. Show them the following table and ask them to answer the following questions:
Answer Key
a. Group 8A
Atomic Group
Group Number Period b. Historically, they are called noble because
Element Electron Configuration
they generally do not react with other
Number Number
(Old) (IUPAC) Number elements and are stable.
He 2 1s2
c. In light bulbs, current is passed through a
8A
18 1
wire to heat it up until it emits light. Ar is

Ne 10 1s2 2s2 2p6  8A
18 2 used for its inert atmosphere. If oxygen
gas were to be used, it would react and

Ar 18 1s2 2s2 2p6  3s2 3p6  8A
18 3 explode.
d. 8
Kr 36  1s2 2s2 2p6  3s2 3p6  3d10 4s2 4p6  8A
18 4
Xe 54 1s2 2s2 2p6  3s2 3p6  3d10 4s2 4p6 
8A
18 5
4d10 4f145s2 5p6 
Ra 86  1s2 2s2 2p6  3s2 3p6  3d10 4s2 4p6 
8A
18 6 
4d10 4f145s2 5p6  5d10 6 s2 6 p6 
a. To what group in the periodic table do these elements belong?
Teacher Tips
b. These elements are called the noble gases. Why? What is the common
characteristic of In the past, noble gases were thought to be
these gases?
inert and unreactive. But recently, many
compounds of noble gases have been

c. Light bulbs are filled with Ar gas rather than oxygen gas. Why?
synthesized. Stress that the word stable is
d. From the electron configuration, how many valence electrons do noble
gases have? related to why elements combine with
another element. Mention that this will be

e. Can we relate the number of valence electrons with the stability of the
element? discussed later on.
This is what the lesson will be about.
INSTRUCTION/PRACTICE/DELIVERY (85 minutes)

I. OCTET RULE AND LEWIS DOT STRUCTURE
According to Lewis, atoms combine in order to achieve a more stable electron
configuration. And Teacher Tip
this maximum stability is attained when an atom is isoelectronic with a noble
gas. Except for He, Ask the learners to recall the meaning of
the noble gases have eight outer electrons or an octet of electrons. The
Octet Rule states that isoelectronic (means having the same number
of electrons).
when atoms of elements combine to form compounds, they tend to lose, gain, or
share electrons
to achieve the same electron arrangement as the noble gas nearest them in the
periodic table.
210
In combining with other atoms, only outer electrons, the valence electrons, are
involved. To keep Teacher Tip
track of these valence electrons, the Lewis dot symbol is used. The Lewis dot
symbol consists of Ask the learners to give the Lewis dot symbols
of some of the elements in the table shown at

the symbol of an element and one dot for each valence electron in an atom of the
element. See the left..
examples below.
Number of
Element Electron Configuration
Lewis Dot Symbol
valence electrons
H 1s1 1
H
Li 1s22s1 1
Li
Mg 1s2 2s2 2p6  3s2 2

Mg
B 1s2 2s2 2p1 3
C 1s2 2s2 2p2 4

C
N 1s2 2s2 2p3 5

N
O 1s2 2s2 2p4 6 

O
F 1s2 2s2 2p5 7

F
211
The Lewis dot symbols of the representative elements are shown in the table
below. Teacher Tip
The teacher can prepare a power point slide
or a poster to show the Lewis dot symbols of
the representative elements as shown in the
figure on the left.
2. Ask the learners what common features exist for the dot symbols of the elements.
All elements belonging to the same group have the same number of valence
electrons. They
have the same number of dots around the element symbol. For example, all Group
1A elements
have only one valence electron represented by one dot. All Group 7A elements
have 7 valence
electrons represented by 7 dots.
II. IONS FORMED FROM REPRESENTATIVE ELEMENTS

Ionization energy and electron affinity have been discussed in earlier lessons.
Review the learners
on these concepts.
212
Ionization energy (IE) is the minimum amount of energy (in kJ/mol) required to
remove an electron Teacher Tip
from a gaseous atom in its ground state.
Briefly discuss ionization energy and electron
affinity for the learners to recall the concepts.
Energy + X(g) —> X+ (g) + e–
Ionization energy increases from left to right across a period. It increases from
bottom to top in a
group as shown in the figure below. Ask the learners the reason for the trend.
Increasing ionization energy
Examples
Increasing ionization energy
Li Li+ + e–
1s22s1 1s2
[He] 2s1 [He]
Na → Na+ + e–
1s22s22p6 3s1 1s22s22p6 
[Ne] 3s1 [Ne]
Ca → Ca2+ + 2 e–
[Ar] 4s2 [Ar]
Ionization energy trend based on the periodic table
Elements with small ionization energies tend to easily give up electrons to form
positive ions or
cations. From the positions in the periodic table, these elements would be the
metals particularly
those in Groups 1A and 2A. The larger the metal atom, the easier it is to lose
valence electrons
and the more reactive the metal.
The electron affinity of an atom may be defined as the negative of the energy
change that
occurs when a gaseous atom accepts an electron, or the ionization energy of a
negative ion. The
more positive the electron affinity, the greater the tendency to accept an electron
and form an ion.
Generally, the electron affinity increases across a period from left to right. The
electron affinity
generally decreases going down a group.
213
Increasing tendency to accept electrons
Examples
:F + e– → :F:
1s22s22p5 1s22s22p6 
Increasing tendency to accept
[He] 2s22p5 [Ne]
:O + 2e → : F :2
electrons
1s22s22p4 1s22s22p6 
[He] 2s22p4 [Ne]
Electron affinity trends
Therefore, the elements on the right hand side of the periodic table,
the non-metals, have a high
tendency to accept electrons and form negative ions, or anions. The
smaller the nonmetal atom,
the greater the tendency to attract electrons, and the higher the
reactivity of the nonmetal. Using
dot symbols and their electron configuration, the formation of the
anions are shown in the
equations below.
Exercises
1. Give the charge and draw the Lewis dot symbol
a. of the anion formed when a sulphur atom accepts electrons.
b. of the cation formed when a Rb atom loses an electron
c. of the anion formed when a nitrogen atom accepts electrons
d. of the anion formed when an iodine atom accepts an electron
214
III. IONIC BOND FORMATION
Teacher Tip
Remember that the Bohr model is incorrect

From the previous section we saw that atoms with low ionization energies tend to
form cations and should no longer be used to show the
while atoms with high electron affinities tend to form anions. These cations and
anions combine to formation of ionic bonds. Do not use
form ionic compounds.
electrons orbiting around the nucleus where
one is transferred to another atom also with
electrons orbiting the nucleus. This model is

An ionic bond is “the electrostatic force that holds ions together in an ionic
bond.” The not the true picture of the formation of the
formation of the ionic compound, LiF, can be represented using the Lewis dot
symbols. ionic bond.
Ionic bonds are formed by the strong

Li + :F → Li+ :F :-
interaction of ions.
The two ions, Li+ and F-, now attract each other to form Li+F- or LiF.
Exercises
1. Using the Lewis dot symbol, show the ionic bond formation for Ca2+O2- or CaO.
Ca + :O → Ca2+ : O :2-
[Ar]2s2 1s22s22p4 [Ar] [Ne]
2. Using the Lewis dot symbol, show the ionic bond formation for Na2O.
2 Na + :O → 2 Na+ : O : 2-
[Ne]3s1 1s22s22p4 [Ne] [Ne]
IV. LATTICE ENERGY OF IONIC COMPOUNDS

The stability of the ionic compound depends on the strength of the interaction
among all the ions
in an ionic solid. This stability is measured by the lattice energy of the
compound. The lattice
energy is defined as the amount of energy required to completely separate one
mole of a
solid ionic compound into gaseous ions.
215
Therefore, the stronger the interaction among the ions in the ionic compound,
the harder to Teacher Tip
separate them, the larger the lattice energy, the stronger the ionic bond.
The lattice energy can be calculated using the
Born-Haber cycle. However, this is beyond
the scope of the lesson. Nevertheless, it is

The lattice energy is proportional to the product of the charges of the ions and
inversely important to emphasize the meaning of lattice
energy and its relationship to the strength of

proportional to r, the distance of separation between the ions (Coulomb’s law).
In the case of LiF, the ionic bond.
for example, the lattice energy is proportional to
Relate lattice energy to the melting points of
ionic compounds.
where QLi+ and QF%!are charges of Li+ and F, k is the proportionality constant.
Therefore, the higher
the ion charges, the stronger the bond; the shorter the distance between ions,
the stronger the
bond.
The lattice energy is correlated to the physical properties of ionic compounds

such as the melting
points. The larger the lattice energy, the harder to separate the ions, the
higher the melting point.
Exercises
1. Which is expected to have a higher melting point? LiF or NaF?
Both ions have +1 and -1 charges but the distances between ions are different.
Na+ is larger than
Li+. Therefore the internuclear distance in LiF is shorter; hence, LiF will have
the higher melting
point.
2. Arrange the melting points of the following ionic compounds in decreasing order:
LiF, LiBr, LiI,
and LiCl.
Because all ions have +1 and -1 charges, the internuclear distance will affect
the melting point.
The order of melting points will be: LiF > LiCl > LiBr > LiI.
3. Which will have the higher melting point, NaCl or MgO? Explain.
Answer: MgO
216 
V. PROPERTIES OF IONIC COMPOUNDS
Ionic compounds have the following general properties:
Ionic substances form crystalline solids. In the solid state, the ions are in
rigid formation in
relatively fixed positions in a crystal lattice. This makes them immobile and
poor conductors of
electricity and heat. However, when they melt or are dissolved in solution, they
become good
electrical conductors. Note, however, that not all ionic solids are soluble in
water.
Because of the strong electrostatic force of attraction among ions in the solid,
they have high
melting points and high boiling points. (See discussion on lattice energy).
Ionic solids are hard and brittle. The electrostatic forces have to be overcome
to move the ions
and shift them away from one another.
Ions in the human body
Ions play an important role in the body. Calcium, potassium, sodium, chloride, and
copper ions are
some key ions involved in the electrical events inside the body. Potassium is the
major positive ion
inside the cell, while sodium is the major positive ion found in the fluid outside
the cell. Ionic chlorine
is the most abundant negative ion.
What will happen to our body if there is an imbalance of any of these ions or
certain trace ions
in the body?
Imbalances of any of these ions, certain traces of ions in the body, or inhibition
of sodium ion
transport across the cell membranes can lead to dysfunction in the conduction of
electrical messages.
This dysfunction quickly leads to a general body disturbance and loss of ability to
maintain somewhat
stable internal conditions.
EVALUATION/ACTIVITY (20 Minutes)

Evaluation will be based on the activity provided. See attached sheet.
217
ACTIVITY
Drawing Lewis Dot Symbols
Name: ___________________________________ Section:

_______________________________ Date: ____________________________________
I. Using a simple periodic table, accomplish the following table. Write the
atomic number, electron configuration (long form), number of
valence electrons, and Lewis dot symbol for each of the elements listed below.
Element Atomic Number Electron Configuration Number

of Valence Electrons Lewis Dot Symbol
1. Fluorine
2. Phosphorus
3. Magnesium
4. Iodine
5. Carbon
6 . Barium
7. Selenium
8. Silicon
9. Bromine
10. Aluminum
218
II. Complete the following table.
Number of Number of
Number of
Sample Element
Ion Name of Ion
electrons lost electrons gained
electrons in the ion
1
2
3
4
5
6 
7
III. Draw the Lewis dot symbol for the ions in Part II.
Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3 Sample 4

Sample 5 Sample 6  Sample 7
219
General Chemistry 1
180 MINS
Lesson 25: Covalent Bonds and Lewis Structures

Content Standard
The learners demonstrate an understanding of covalent bond formation in
Lesson Outline
terms of atomic properties.
Motivation Samples of Covalent Bonds 5

The learners can identify covalent compounds and describe their general
properties.
Instruction I. Formation of the Covalent Bond 130
Learning Competencies and
Practice II. Electronegativity
III. Writing Lewis Structures

IV. Lewis Structure and Resonance

1. Describe covalent bonding in terms of electron sharing (STEM_GC11CB-
V. Exceptions to the Octet Rule
IId-g-75)
VI. Naming Covalent Compounds: A Review
2. Apply the octet rule in the formation of molecular covalent compounds
(STEM_GC11CB-IId-g-76 )
Enrichment Assignment 5
3. Write the formula of molecular compounds formed by the nonmetallic
Evaluation Multiple Choice 30
elements of the representative block (STEM_GC11CB-IId-g-77)
Resources
4. Draw Lewis structure of molecular covalent compounds (STEM_GC11CB- (1)
IId-g-78)
McGraw-Hill.
5. Determine the polarity of a bond based on the electronegativities of the (2)

atoms forming the bond (STEM_GC11CB-IId-g-80)
(3)
Zumdahl, S.S. and Zumdahl, S.A (2013). Chemistry, 8th ed. Cengage
Learning
At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to: (4)
Chemical Education Digital Library http://www.chemeddl.org/
resources/models36 0/models.php?pubchem
1. Illustrate the formation of covalent bonds in terms of electron
sharing;
7. Draw
the resonance structures of covalent compounds;
2. Apply the octet rule in forming covalent compounds;
8.
Determine the polarity of a bond based on the
3. Define electronegativity;
electronegativities of the bonding atoms;
4. Describe the electronegativity trends in the periodic table;
9.
Determine whether a bond is ionic, polar covalent, or covalent
5. Draw Lewis structure of covalent compounds; based
on the differences in electronegativities of the bonding
6 . Identify lone pairs and bond pairs;
atoms; and
220
(Verbatim, Own
a. Illustrate the formation of covalent bonds in terms of electron sharing.
b. Apply the octet rule in forming covalent compounds.
c. Define electronegativity.
d. Describe the electronegativity trends in the periodic table.
e. Draw Lewis structure of covalent compounds.
f. Identify lone pairs and bond pairs
g. Draw the resonance structures of covalent compounds
h. Determine the polarity of a bond based on the electronegativities of the
bonding atoms
i. Determine whether a bond is ionic, polar covalent, or covalent based on the
differences in
electronegativities of the bonding atoms.

a. Lewis structure
b. Covalent bond
c. Lone pair
d. Bond pair
e. Single bond
f. Double bond
g. Triple bond
h. Nonpolar covalent bond
i. Polar covalent bond
j. Electronegativity
k. Percent ionic character
l. Resonance
m. Incomplete octet
n. Expanded octet
221
the discussion Teacher Tip
a. How are covalent bonds formed?
Clearly illustrate for the learners the formation of
the covalent bond through electron sharing.

b. Why are the electrons often unequally shared by the atoms in a covalent
bond?
c. How do we represent covalent compounds?
d. How do we name covalent compounds?
1. Bring to the class samples of covalent compounds. Tell the learners that they
will be finding out
about how the atoms in these compounds are linked. This will be related to the
assignment
activity at the end of the class.
Samples could be: water, naphthalene balls, sugar, acetone, ethyl alcohol,
ammonia.

I. FORMATION OF THE COVALENT BOND
It was Gilbert Lewis who suggested that the chemical bond is formed by sharing
of electrons in
atoms. For the hydrogen molecule, this is depicted by
The two electrons are shared equally between the two atoms forming a covalent
bond. The
bond is typically depicted by a single line, H - H. The electrons are
attracted to the nuclei of
both atoms keeping the atoms together to form a molecule. Show the formation
of the covalent
bond for the F2 molecule
222
The representation of the covalent compound above is called the Lewis structure. In
the Lewis
structure, shared electrons that form a bond is represented by a line or a pair of
dots; lone pairs
are represented by dots above the atom. Only valence electrons are included in
Lewis
structures.
a. From the Lewis structure of F2, how many electrons are around each fluorine atom
in F2?
Answer: There are eight electrons fulfilling the octet rule. By sharing the
electrons, each
fluorine atom fulfils the octet rule.
Note: The octet rule works mainly for elements in the second period (2s and 2p
subshells
can hold 8 electrons). For hydrogen, only two electrons are needed to fulfill
the noble gas
configuration.
b. How many bond pairs are there in the F2 molecule? Answer: One
c. How many lone pairs are there in the F2 molecule? Answer: Six lone pairs
d. Further illustrate the formation of the covalent bond in Cl2. How many bond
pairs are there?
How many lone pairs?
e. Illustrate the formation of the covalent bond in HCl.
223
Exercises
1. Draw the Lewis structure for H2O, CH4 (methane), and for NH3.
2. Which of the three molecules has the largest number of bond pairs (covalent
bonds)?
Answer: CH4 has four bond pairs, NH3 has three, and H2O has two.
3. Draw the Lewis structure for carbon dioxide, CO2.
The unpaired electrons of O Note that there are 8 The

unpaired electrons of N
and C will pair up. electrons around each of the
will pair up.
atoms of C and O fulfilling the
octet rule.
The examples of CO2 and N2 show that there are different types of covalent bonds
that are formed. Single bonds are formed when two atoms
are held together by one pair of electrons. Multiple bonds can be formed. A double
bond is from the sharing of two pairs of electrons such as
in the case of O and C in CO2. A triple bond exists in N2 where the two N atoms are
held by three pairs of electrons.
II. ELECTRONEGATIVITY
Teacher Tip
Consider the covalent bond in the molecule
Ask the learners what they understand with the
word “polar”. What is the meaning of “polarized”?
Ask them to give examples of daily situations that

Experimental evidence has shown that electrons are not equally shared between H and
F; the illustrate polarity. It is important that the learners
electrons spend more time near F rather than H. Therefore the electron density is
shifted more understand the meaning of the word rather than
just memorizing it.

towards F rather than H. This leaves the F end of the molecule partially negative,
δ - , and the
H end of the molecule partially positive, δ+. Such a bond is referred to as a polar
covalent Note that the F end of the H—F bond is partially
bond. The polar covalent bond is somewhere between a purely covalent (nonpolar)
bond and an negative. Why not totally negative? What would it
ionic bond (where there is almost complete transfer of electrons).
mean if the F end is totally negative? Likewise, the
H end of the H—F bond is partially positive. There
are other electronegativity scales used in inorganic
chemistry such as the Muliken scale and the Allred-
Rochow scale. What is important to note is that
224
A property that distinguishes the polarity of bonds is electronegativity, the
tendency of an atom Teacher Tip
in a chemical bond to attract electrons toward itself. Electronegativity is a
theoretical concept Note that the F end of the H—F bond is
partially
negative. Why not totally negative? What would it

and devised as a relative scale. That is, it can be estimated relative to, or in
comparison to,
mean if the F end is totally negative? Likewise, the

other elements in chemical bonds. Linus Pauling developed a relative scale of
H end of the H—F bond is partially positive. There
electronegativities which is widely used in General Chemistry textbooks. In
contrast, ionization are other electronegativity scales used in
inorganic
energies and electron affinities are physically measurable properties of elements.
chemistry such as the Muliken scale and the Allred-
Rochow scale. What is important to note is that
unlike ionization energy or electron affinity,

In general, electronegativity increases from left to right across a period. It
increases as atomic
electronegativity is a theoretical concept where a

radius decreases. The most electronegative elements are those in the upper right
hand side of “ranking” of elements in chemical bonds is
the periodic table with fluorine as the most electronegative. Metals especially the
ones with established in terms of their ability to attract
large atomic radii are the least electronegative.
electrons. This is why different scales have been
used. The most commonly used scale in General

The difference in the electronegativity values (!EN) of two bonded atoms determines
the Chemistry is that devised by Linus Pauling.
percent ionic character of the bond. If the bond is between two identical elements,
for
example F—F, then the bond is purely covalent with 0 percent ionic character. The
difference in
electronegativity is 0.
Increasing electronegativity
1A
8A
2.1 2A
3A 4A 5A 6 A 7A
Increasing electronegativity
1.0 1.5
2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
0.9 1.2
1.5 1.8 2.1 2.5 3.0
0.8 1.0 1.3 1.5 1.6  1.6  1.5 1.8
1.9 1.9 1.9 1.6  1.6  1.8 2.0 2.4 2.8 3.0
0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6  1.8 1.9 2.2
2.2 2.2 1.9 1.7 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.1 2.5 2.6 
0.7 0.9
2.0 2.2
0.7 0.9
Electronegativities of
selected elements and electronegativity trend
225
Teacher Tip
For the molecule H—Cl, the difference in electronegativity is 0.9 showing that the
bond is a polar Different textbooks use different cutoffs for
covalent bond. A 50% ionic character corresponds to EN=1.7. While there is no bond
that is 100% classifying a bond to be ionic. Chemistry by
Chang and Goldsby uses the cutoff at 2.0 while

ionic, an electronegativity difference of 2.0 or greater is usually classified to
be predominantly ionic.
other textbooks use a value of EN greater than
1.7 to classify a bond to be ionic. This lesson

When !EN ≥ 2.0, the bond is predominantly ionic.
has chosen the cutoff value of 2.0.
Even without electronegativity values, it is possible to predict the polarity of a

bond by examining It is important to emphasize that there is no
the position of the bonded elements in the periodic table.
bond that is 100% ionic.
Exercises
1. Classify the following bonds as ionic, polar covalent, or covalent. Explain your
answers.
A. The C-C bond in H3CCH3
B. The K-I bond in KI
C. The C-F bond in CF4
D. The N-H bond in NH3
2. Arrange the flowing bonds according to increasing bond polarity: Cs to F, Cl to

Cl, Br to Cl, Si to
C.
III. WRITING LEWIS STRUCTURES

1. The following guidelines are used in writing the Lewis structure of covalent
molecules:
a. Draw a skeletal structure of the molecule putting bonded atoms next to each
other. In
general, the least electronegative atom occupies the central position. H and
F usually
occupy terminal (end) positions.
b. Count the total number of valence electrons from all the atoms in the
structure. Add
electrons corresponding to the charge for negative ions; subtract electrons
corresponding to
the charge for positive ions.
c. Distribute the valence electrons to the non-central atoms such that these
atoms fulfill the
octet rule. Remaining electrons are assigned to the central atom. Remember
that bonds are
equivalent to 2 electrons.
d. If the valence electrons are not enough, multiple bonds may be formed.
226 
Exercises:
1. Write the Lewis structure for NCl3.
a. Skeleton structure is
!Cl!
Cl!!!!!!!!!!!!!N!!!!!!!!!!!Cl!
b. Count valence electrons:

N=5
3 Cl = 3 (7) = 21
Total = 26 
c. Distribute the 26  electrons to the atoms such that they fulfill the octet
rule. Bonds are
equivalent to 2 electrons. Check if all atoms have 8 electrons around them.
2. Write the Lewis structure of OCS. C is the central atom.

a. Skeleton structure is: O!!!!!!!!!!!C!!!!!!!!!!!S!
b. Valence electrons: 6  for oxygen, 4 for carbon, and 6  for sulfur = 16  electron
c. Distribute the 16  electrons such that all atoms obey octet rule.
d. The Lewis structure is
227
3. Write the Lewis structure of CN–.
a. Skeleton structure is C!!!!!!!!!!N
b. Valence electrons: 4 for carbon, 5 for nitrogen, and 1 for the negative
charge = 10
c. Distribute the 10 electrons to the skeleton structure. The Lewis structure
is:
4. Write the Lewis structure of the following molecules:

a. Ethylene, C2H4
b. Acetylene, C2H2
c. Carbon tetrachloride, CCl4
d. COBr2 (for the skeletal structure, C is bonded to O and Br atoms)
IV. LEWIS STRUCTURE AND RESONANCE

Teacher Tip
The octet rule works best for second period

1. Write the Lewis structure for the ozone molecule, O3.
elements. Be cautious in giving exercises. Limit
a. The skeletal structure is O!!!!!!!!!!!!O!!!!!!!!!!O
them to simple examples since there are too
many exceptions. Avoid elements beyond the

b. Valence electrons: 3 (6 ) = 18
second period. Keep in mind that the Lewis
c. Lewis structure is:
structure is a tool to use for understanding
bonding and properties.
For a more accurate Lewis structure, we need to
determine the formal charges of the atoms in

d. The Lewis structure can also be written as:
the structure. Formal charges are not actual
charges. They are assigned following rules. The
best Lewis structure is chosen from structures
that comply with formal charge assignments.
Note that the discussion on formal charges is
not included in the learning objectives and not

Note that the Lewis structure above has one double bond between oxygen atoms and
one single included in the lesson. For this reason, keep the
examples simple.
bond also with oxygen atoms. The double bonds are expected to be shorter than a
single bond.
When measuring the bond lengths, we expect two values: one for the shorter double
bond and one
for the longer single bond.
228
However, experimental results show that there is only one bond length obtained for
ozone. The
bond length is between that of a single bond and a double bond. This means the
above Lewis
structure is not an accurate representation of ozone. In fact, we are unable to
write the accurate
representation using either the first or second Lewis structure shown above.
Misconception
To resolve this discrepancy, we represent the ozone molecule using the two
structures presented as The molecule does not oscillate between the
follows:
two structures. We use the resonance structures
as a way to resolve the inability to represent
accurately the structure of a molecule. In the
case of ozone, the accurate picture is the
combination of the two structures.
Each of the above structures is called a resonance structure. The double sided
arrow shows that
the structures are resonance structures. A resonance structure is one of two or
more Lewis
structures for a molecule that cannot be represented accurately by only one Lewis
structure.
What is the correct representation for ozone? The two resonance structures shown
with the double
arrow.
2. Draw the resonance structures for the carbonate ion, CO32–. Practice with this
ion. The correct
resonance structures are:
How many resonance structures will the NO3– have? Draw them.
229
V. EXCEPTIONS TO THE OCTET RULE
Misconception
1. The octet rule works best for second-period elements. Hence there are many
exceptions. They The molecule does not oscillate between the
two structures. We use the resonance structures

fall into three categories:
as a way to resolve the inability to represent
a. Incomplete octet
accurately the structure of a molecule. In the
case of ozone, the accurate picture is the

b. Odd number of electrons
combination of the two structures.
c. Expanded Octet
Incomplete octet
An example of a molecule with incomplete octet is BeH2, beryllium hydride. Its
structure is
There are only 4 electrons around Be and not 8. Boron and aluminum also form
molecules with
incomplete octets.
Exercise
Draw the Lewis structure of aluminum triiodide, AlI3, showing the incomplete
octet.
Molecules with Odd Number of Electrons

Examples are nitric oxide, NO, and dinitrogen dioxide, N2O. Their Lewis structures
are shown
below. Because they have an odd number of electrons, the octet rule cannot be
followed.
The odd numbered molecules are sometimes referred to as radicals. They are
generally highly
reactive.
Expanded Octets
Atoms belonging to the second period cannot have more than eight valence electrons
around the
central atom because they only have the 2s and 2p subshells. This is different for
atoms of
elements in the 3rd period and beyond.
230
These elements have 3d orbitals that can participate in the bonding. Hence they can
have more Teacher Tip
than eight valence electrons around the central atom. An example is SF6 , sulfur
hexafluoride, with For Lewis structures and 3-D representations of
the Lewis structure shown below. SF6  has 12 electrons around the central atom.
molecules, please see Chemical Education
Digital Library http://www.chemeddl.org/
resources/models36 0/models.php?pubchem
Sources
From Lewis Symbols and Structures, Rice
University. Retrieved from https://
opentextbc.ca/chemistry/chapter/7-3-lewis-
symbols-and-structures/ (3 November 2016 ),
Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International
License
Another example is phosphorus pentafluoride, PF5, where the central atom has 10
electrons
around it.
VI. NAMING COVALENT COMPOUNDS: A REVIEW

1. Here are some guidelines for naming covalent compounds and for writing their
formulas. For
binary compounds, state the name of the first element. The name of the second
element ends
in –ide.
HF Hydrogen fluoride
HI Hydrogen iodide
SiC Silicon carbide
231
2. Prefixes (as shown in the table below) are used to denote the number of atoms in
the formula.
The prefix “mono” usually omitted for the first element in the formula.
No. Prefix No. Prefix

1 mono - 6  hexa -
2 di - 7 hepta -
3 tri - 8 octa -
4 tetra - 9 nona -
5 penta - 10 deca -
Samples
CO carbon monoxide
CO2 carbon dioxide
NO2 nitrogen dioxide
N2O4 dinitrogen tetroxide
CCl4 carbon tetrachloride
SF6  sulfur hexafluoride
Teacher Tip
This can be given as an assignment at the end of
1. This is an assignment to be submitted the following meeting.
the first meeting on covalent compounds. This

2. Learners will look for at least 2 examples of covalent compounds that can be
found in nature or can be discussed in class the following meeting
used in everyday life. They must include the following information:
so the learners can all participate.
a. Brief information about the use of the covalent compound

b. Chemical formula and chemical name of the covalent compound
c. Structure of the compound
232
Multiple Choice: Encircle the letter corresponding to the best 4. The
electron pair in a C - F bond could be considered…
answer. You will be provided a simple periodic table. a.
Closer to C because Carbon has a larger radius and thus
exerts greater control over the shared electron pair

1. Which element will have 5 electrons in its Lewis dot symbol? b.
Closer to F because Fluorine has a higher electronegativity
a. Argon
than Carbon
b. Boron c.
Closer to C because Carbon has a lower electronegativity
than Fluorine
c. Carbon
d.
An inadequate model since the bond is ionic
d. Phosphorus
e.
Centrally located directly between the C and F
e. Sulfur
5.
Considering the position of the elements in the periodic table
2. Which of the following elements can only form one bond in a
and
their relative electronegativities and bond polarities, which
Lewis structure?
bond is longest?
a. O
a.
carbon - Oxygen triple bond
b. C
b.
carbon - Oxygen single bond
c. N
c.
carbon - Carbon single bond
d. Al
d.
carbon - Carbon double bond
e. H
e.
carbon - Nitrogen triple bond
3. Write the correct Lewis dot structure for O2. Which statement 6 .
Which bond is the strongest?
correctly describes the structure of the whole molecule?
a.
carbon - Nitrogen triple bond
a. There is a double bond and four lone pairs.
b.
carbon - Nitrogen double bond
b. There is a double bond and six lone pairs.
c.
carbon - Hydrogen bond
c. There is a single bond and four lone pairs.
d.
carbon - Carbon triple bond
d. There is a single bond and six lone pairs.
e.
carbon - Carbon single bond
e. There is a single bond, a double bond, and six lone pairs.
233
7. Predict qualitatively the relative bond lengths of the four single 10.
Which element is the least electronegative?
bonds given below and arrange them from shortest to longest: a.
Calcium
b.
Cesium
C-N N-O N-Si O-O c.
Iron
d.
Barium
a. O-O < N-SI < C-N < N-O e.
Potassium
b. O-O < N-O < C-N < N-Si
c. O-O < C-N < N-O < N-Si 11.
Which of the following statements about resonance is true?
d. N-O < O-O < C-N < N-Si
Resonance hybrids occur because a compound changes back
e. N-Si < C-N < N-O < O-O
and forth between two or more resonance structures.
I.
Resonance structures differ in the arrangement of electrons
but not in the arrangement of atoms.

8. Which of the following represents a non-polar covalent bond?
II. Resonance hybrids contain delocalized electrons.

a. H-O
III. Resonance structures for a given compound always

b. C-N
contribute equally to the resonance hybrid.

c. C-C
IV. Resonance structures occur when there are two or more valid
d. Li-F
Lewis structures for a given compound.

e. S-O
V.
Resonance hybrids are a composite of resonance structures.
9. Based on electronegativities, which of the following would you
a. I, II, V, VI
expect to be most ionic?
b. I, II, V, VI
a. N2
c. II, III, IV, VI

b. CaF2
d. II, III, V, VI
c. CO2
e. II, IV, V, VI
d. CH4
e. CF4
234
12. How many resonance forms will nitrate ion (NO3-) have? Answer
Key
a. -1 1. D
8. C
2. E
9. B
b. 0 3. A
10. B
c. 1 4. B
11. D
5. C
12. E
d. 2 6 . A
13. B
e. 3 7. B
14. B
13. A list of non-metals is given below. Which elements cannot

exceed the octet rule? B Si N P O S F Cl
a. Si, P, S, Cl
b. B, N, O, F
c. O, S, F, Cl
d. B, Si, N, P
e. All eight elements can exceed the octet rule.
14. Write the singly bonded Lewis dot structure for BF3. Which of
the following statements best describes this structure?
a. It obeys the octet rule on all atoms.
b. It has less than an octet on at least one atom.
c. It has a lone pair of electrons on the boron atom.
d. It has less than an octet of electrons on all atoms.
e. It exceeds the octet rule.
235
General Chemistry 1
120 MINS
Lesson 26 : Geometry of Molecules and

Polarity of Compounds Lesson Outline
Content Standard
The learners demonstrate an understanding of the properties of molecular

Motivation Models of Solid Geometrics 5
covalent compounds in relation to their structure.
Instruction I. Molecular Geometry 90
Performance Standard and
Practice II. Molecular Geometry of Sample
The learners can demonstrate the properties of molecular compounds resulting
Molecules
from their structure.
III. Summary of Molecular Geometrics
Evaluation Quiz 20
Materials
Periodic Table of Elements

1. Explain the properties of covalent molecular compounds in terms of their
structure (STEM_GC11CB-IId-g-79)
Resources
(1)
2. Describe the geometry of simple compounds (STEM_GC11CB-IId-g-81)
McGraw-Hill.
3. Determine the polarity of simple molecules (STEM_GC11CB-IId-g-82) (2)

(3)
Zumdahl, S.S. and Zumdahl, S.A (2013). Chemistry, 8th ed. Cengage
Learning
(4)
Chemical Education Digital Library at http://www.chemeddl.org/
1. Apply the Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Theory to predict the
resources/models36 0/models.php?pubchem!
geometry of simple molecules.
2. Define dipole moment.
3. Predict the polarity of molecules.
236 
(Verbatim, Own
a. Apply the Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Theory to predict the
geometry of simple
molecules.
b. Define dipole moment.
c. Predict the polarity of molecules

a. Molecular geometry
b. Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Theory
c. Bond angle
d. linear
e. trigonal planar
f. tetrahedral
g. trigonal bipyramidal
h. octahedral
i. dipole moment
j. polar bond
k. polar molecule
1. Bring to the class models of different solid geometries such as a tetrahedron, a
trigonal
bipyramid, and an octahedron. If models are unavailable, show drawings of these
geometries
to the learners. Ask the learners if they know the names of these geometries.
2. There are some fruit juices being sold in tetrahedral packs in the supermarket.
The learners can
be shown some of these.
237
I. MOLECULAR GEOMETRY
What is molecular geometry? Why do we need to know about the geometry of molecules?
Molecular geometry pertains to the three-dimensional arrangement of atoms in a
molecule.
Geometry affects the physical and chemical properties of molecules and their
reactivity towards
other molecules.
How can we know the geometry of a molecule?

Molecular geometry can be determined by experiment such as x-ray diffraction.
However, the
geometry of simple molecules can be predicted even without experimentation. While
the results of
the prediction is only qualitative and not as accurate as experiment, they still
help in explaining the
properties of chemical substances.
What is the basis of the prediction?

The prediction rests on the assumption that all electron pairs in the valence shell
around a
central atom repel one another. They want to be as far apart from one another as
possible. These
valence shell electron pairs are the ones involved in bonding. They assume a
geometry or
orientation that will minimize the repulsions. This is the stable orientation and
the one with lowest
energy. This approach in predicting molecular geometry is called the Valence Shell
Electron Pair
Repulsion Theory (VSEPR).
How do we apply the VSEPR theory to predict molecular geometry?

The key ideas of the VSEPR theory are:
1. Electron pairs stay as far apart from each other as possible to minimize
repulsions.
2. Molecular shape is determined by the number of bond pairs and lone pairs around
the central
atom.
3. Treat multiple bonds as if they were single bonds (in making the prediction).
4. Lone pairs occupy more volume than bond pairs. Lone pair-lone pair repulsions
are greater than
lone pair-bond pair repulsions which in turn are greater than bond pair-bond
pair repulsions
5. Molecular geometry is a very important concept. Ask the learners to explain the
VSEPR theory
in their own words or even in Filipino. Make sure they are not memorizing the
theory but can
explain it.
238
What are the common orientations of electrons pairs (bond pairs and lone pairs)
that minimize
repulsions?
Number of
Orientation of Electron Pairs
Electron Pairs
2 Linear
3 Trigonal Planar
4 Tetrahedal
5 Trigonal bipyramidal
6  Octahedral
Is the orientation of the electron pair the same as molecular geometry?

They are not necessarily the same. The molecular geometry is determined by the
position of the
nuclei of the atoms. We do not “see” lone pairs.
II. MOLECULAR GEOMETRY OF SAMPLE MOLECULES

Teacher Tip
To be able to visualize the molecular geometries, it

For this lesson, the following notation is adopted: A refers to the central atom
and X refers to is highly recommended that models be used.
another atom bonded to it. If there are lone pairs attached to the central atom,
this is indicated by There are several commercial models that can be
the letter E. Hence, AX2E2 means that A has two atoms of X bonded to it and A also
has two lone purchased. However, in their absence, other
modelling materials can be used. These include

pairs of electrons.
sticks for the bonds and modelling clay that can be
1. Predict the molecular geometry of the molecule BeCl2. This is of the type AX2.
shaped into balls to represent atoms. Small
Styrofoam balls can also be used.

a. The first thing to do before we can predict the molecular geometry is to draw
the Lewis
structure of the molecule. This is shown below:
An activity using balloons as electron pairs can
easily illustrate molecular geometry.
Also refer to websites showing three-dimensional
models of molecules such as the Chemical
Education Digital Library http://www.chemeddl.org/

b. How many bond pairs surround the central atom of Be? Two bond pairs surround
Be. resources/models36 0/models.php?pubchem
c. How will two electron pairs orient themselves such that they will be as far
apart from one
another as possible? Remember VSEPR Theory says they repel one another. To
minimize
repulsion, the two electron pairs will be arranged in a linear arrangement as
shown above.
239
d. What is the molecular geometry?
The molecular geometry is determined by the arrangement of the nuclei of the
atoms in the
molecule. The molecular geometry of BeCl2 is linear.
e. What is the Cl-Be-Cl bond angle? It will be 180o.
2. Predict the molecular geometry of CO2. This is also of the type AX2 but with
double bonds.
a. In determining molecular geometry, always start with the Lewis structure.
b. How many electron pairs are around the central atom of carbon? We have
indicated earlier
that in applying the VSEPR theory, we will treat multiple bonds to be like
single bonds.
Therefore, there will be two pairs around carbon.
c. What will be the orientation of the electron pairs: Answer: Linear
d. What will be the molecular geometry of CO2? Answer: Linear
e. What will be the O – C – O bond angle? Answer: 180o.
3. Predict the molecular geometry of the molecule BCl3. This is of the type AX3.
a. Again, the first step is to get the Lewis structure.
trigonal planar
240
b. How many bond pairs surround the central atom of boron? Three bond pairs
surround B.
c. How will three electron pairs orient themselves such that they will be as far
apart from one
another as possible?
To minimize repulsion, the two electron pairs will be arranged in a trigonal
planar
arrangement as shown above.
d. What is the molecular geometry?
The molecular geometry of BCl3 is trigonal planar. This is a flat molecule
as shown in the
figure on the right above.
e. What is the Cl – B – Cl bond angle? The bond angle is 120o.
4. Predict the molecular geometry of ozone, O3. This molecule is of the type AX2E.
Teacher Tip
You may relate the significance of ozone. Briefly

a. Lewis structure
ask the learners what they know about ozone. What
is its role in the environment? Do they know its
chemical formula? Do they know its structure?
For predicting geometry, we may use only one of the resonance structures.
b. Number of electron pairs around central oxygen atom (treat multiple bonds as
single
bonds): three electron pairs
c. Orientation of three electron pairs: trigonal planar
d. Molecular geometry: bent
We only use the positions of the nuclei of the atoms. We are unable to “see”
the lone pair.
Therefore, the molecular geometry is bent.!!
The lone pair occupies more volume and pushes the bond pair closer.
Therefore, the bond
angle is slightly less than 120o.
241
5. Predict the molecular geometry of the molecule methane, CH4. This is of the type
AX4. Teacher Tip
a. Draw the Lewis structure of methane.
Ask the students if they are familiar with a
tetrahedral shape. The teacher can bring some

b. Methane has four bonding pairs of electrons around C.
samples of tetrahedra to class. There are some fruit
c. The four bonding pairs will arrange themselves to be as far apart from one
another as juices being sold in tetrahedral packs in the
supermarket. The learners can be shown some of

possible. This is achieved through a tetrahedral arrangement where the four H
atoms are at these. Show the bond angles using models.
the corners of a tetrahedron.
d. The molecular geometry is tetrahedral.
Source
The tetrahedral methane molecule. From
Introduction to Chemistry: General, Organic, and
Biological. Retrieved from http://
2012books.lardbucket.org/books/introduction-to-
chemistry-general-organic-and-biological/s15-
organic-chemistry-alkanes-and-.html (3 November
2016 ), Creative Commons by-nc-sa 3.0 license.
e. The H-C-H bond angle is 109.5o.
6 . Predict the geometry and bond angles in ammonia, NH3. This molecule is of the
type AX3E. Teacher Tip
a. Draw the Lewis structure.
There are many other types of geometries.
However, at this level, it is important for the learner

b. NH3 has three bond pairs and one lone pair around nitrogen.
to understand the geometries of the simple
c. The electron pairs are arranged in a tetrahedral orientation.
molecules such as methane, water, ammonia and
relate their properties to structure. These will be

d. Since the lone pair is not considered, the molecular geometry is pyramid.
taken up in the next lessons.
Source
Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion, University of
Liverpool. Retrieved from http://

www.chemtube3d.com/VSEPRShapeNH3.html (3
November 2016 , Creative Commons Attribution-
Noncommercial ShareAlike 2.0, UK.
e. Again, since the lone pair occupies more volume, it will push the bond pair
in and the
resulting H-N-H bond angle is slightly less than 109.5. Experimental results
show it is 107o.
242
7. Predict the molecular geometry of water, H2O. This is of the type AX2E2.
Source
a. Draw the Lewis structure of water.
Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion, Water,
University of Liverpool. Retrieved from http://

b. There are four electron pairs around the central atom: two bond pairs and two
lone pairs. www.chemtube3d.com/VSEPRShapeH2O.html (7
c. The electron pairs are tetrahedrally oriented.
November 2016 , Creative Commons Attribution-
Noncommercial ShareAlike 2.0, UK.

d. The molecular geometry is bent.
e. Because there are two lone pairs occupying more volume and pushing in the
bond pairs,
the H-O-H bond angle is less than 1200. Experiment shows this to be 104.5o.
This is
smaller than the bond angle in NH3. Remember that lone pair-lone pair
repulsions > lone
pair-bond pair repulsions > bond pair-bond pair repulsions.
Source
8. Predict the molecular geometry of PF5. This is of the type AX5.
Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion, Water,
a. Draw the Lewis structure of PF5.
phosphorus pentafluoride, University of Liverpool.
Retrieved from http://www.chemtube3d.com/

b. There are five electron pairs around phosphorus.
VSEPRShapePF5.html (7 November 2016 , Creative
c. The orientation of the five electron pairs is trigonal bipyramidal.
Commons Attribution-Noncommercial ShareAlike
2.0, UK.
d. The molecular geometry is trigonal bipyramidal.
e. The bond angles are 90o and 120o.
243
9. Predict the molecular geometry of SF6 . This is of the type AX6 .
Source
a. Draw the Lewis structure of SF6 .
Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion, Water, sulfur
hexaflouride, University of Liverpool. Retrieved

b. There are six electron pairs around S.
from http://www.chemtube3d.com/
c. The electrons pairs are oriented in an octahedral manner.
VSEPRShapeSF6 .html (7 November 2016 , Creative
Commons Attribution-Noncommercial ShareAlike

d. The molecular geometry is octahedral.
2.0, UK.
e. The bond angles are 90o and 180o.
III. SUMMARY OF MOLECULAR GEOMETRICS
SUMMARY TABLE OF MOLECULAR GEOMETRY

No. of Electron Pairs
Orientation of Molecular
VSEPR Type No. of Bond Pairs No, of Lone Pairs
Examples
Around Central Atom
Electron Pairs Geometry
AX2 2 2 0
linear linear BeCl2
AX3 3 3 0
trigonal planar trigonal planar BF3
AX2E 3 2 1
trigonal planar bent O3
AX4 4 4 0
tetrahedral tetrahedral CH4
AX3E 4 3 1
tetrahedral pyramidal NH3
AX2E2 4 2 2
tetrahedral bent H2O
AX5 5 5 0
trigonal bipyramidal trigonal bipyramidal PCl5
AX4E 5 4 1
trigonal bipyramidal seesaw SF4
AX3E2 5 3 2
trigonal bipyramidal T-shaped ClF3
AX2E3 5 2 3
trigonal bipyramidal linear I3
AX6  6  6  0
octahedral octahedral SF6 
AX5E 6  5 1
octahedral square pyramidal BrF5
AX4E2 6  4 2
octahedral square planar XeF4
244
Exercises
1. Using the VSEPR theory, give the electron pair orientation and predict the
geometry of the
following:
a. CH3I
b. SiH4
c. NF3
d. SCN– (C is the middle atom)
e. H2S
2. Give the bond angles for the molecules given in #1.
3. The molecule, acetone, has the following Lewis structure.

a. What is the geometry of the first carbon?
b. What are the bond angles around the first carbon?
c. What is the geometry of the middle carbon?
d. What are the bond angles around the middle carbon?
245
Dipole Moments and Polarity of Molecules
As earlier discussed in polar covalent bonds, the electrons are not equally shared
by the bonding
atoms. Instead, there is a shift in electron density towards the move
electronegative atom. Such is
the case with the bond in HF. This shift is symbolized by a crossed arrow ( )
with the arrow
pointing toward the direction of the shift.
H#——#F or
The polarity of the bond can be experimentally measured in terms of the dipole
moment, .
By definition, the dipole moment is the product of the charge, Q, and the distance
between the
charges, r. To maintain neutrality, the charges on the ends of the molecule must be
equal in
magnitude but opposite in sign.
Polar molecules exhibit dipole moments. In the presence of an electric field, the
positive end of
the molecules orient themselves towards the negative plate. Nonpolar molecules have
no dipole
moments. Remember to distinguish between polar bonds versus polar molecules. Some
molecules have polar bonds but are not polar. The molecular geometry determines
whether the
molecule is polar or not.
The unit of the dipole moment is in terms of the Debye¸D¸"where 1 D = 3.336  x 10-30
C m.
Examples
1. Is carbon dioxide a polar molecule or not?
To answer this, first determine the Lewis structure followed by the molecular
geometry. Then
determine the net dipole moment for the molecule.
246 
2. Is ammonia a polar molecule? Is so, which is the partially negative end?
Note
Again draw the Lewis structure and determine the molecular geometry. The
molecular Dipole moments are vector quantities; they have
magnitude and direction. CO2 Has a linear

geometry of ammonia is pyramidal. Because N is more electronegative than H, the
N H geometry. The C O bond is polar with the oxygen
bond is polar with the N end as the more negative end. The three dipole moment
vectors end as the - end. But the dipole moment vectors
point towards N. There is a resultant dipole moment. The nitrogen end is the -
end. are equal in magnitude but point to opposite
Therefore, NH3 is a polar molecule; the N end is the - end.
directions. Hence, they cancel out each other. The
resultant dipole moment is zero. Therefore, CO2 is
a nonpolar molecule. This is an example where

3. Is NF3 polar? If so, which end is partially negative?
you have a polar bond but the resulting molecule is
nonpolar.
The molecular geometry os NF3 is pyramidal like NH3. However, in NF3 the F atoms
are more
electronegative than N; therefore, the dipole moment vectors point towards the F
atoms.
NF3 is a polar molecule; the F end is partially negative while the N end is
partially positive.
Answer
The space-filling model for NH3 and its resultant

4. Is water, H2O polar? Which is the partially negative end?
dipole moment equal to 1.9113 Debye pointing

The molecular geometry of water is bent. The oxygen is more electronegative than
towards the nitrogen end.
hydrogen; the dipole moment vectors point toward oxygen. Water is a polar
molecule; the
oxygen end is the partially negative end. for H2O = 2.096 7 D
5. Is carbon tetrachloride, CCl4, polar? What is the partially negative end?

CCl4 is nonpolar. The dipole moment vectors cancel each other out. for CCl4 = 0.
6 . Determine the polarity of the following molecules. If polar, determine the
partially negative
end.
a. CH4
b. H2CCl2
c. BF3
d. H2S
7. Arrange the following molecules according to increasing polarity: HF, HCl, HBr,
HI.
247
ENRICHMENT
There is a laboratory activity to illustrate bond polarity. This serves as
enrichment.

1. Which statement correctly describes the Valence Shell Electron 3.
If there are four (4) electron pairs around the central atom of a
Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Theory?
molecule, these electron pairs are in a _________________
A. The valence shell electrons are given by the group number
arrangement.
in the periodic table.
A. linear
B. The valence shell electrons are the outermost electrons of
B. trigonal planar
the atom that are involved in bonding.
C. trigonal pyramidal
C. The valence shell electron pairs repel one another and tend
D. octahedral
to stay as far apart as possible.
E. tetrahedral
D. The valence shell electron pairs are the lone pairs of the
atom.
4.
The geometry of the molecule NF3 is
E. A and B
A. linear
B. tetrahedral
2. It is important to know the geometry of a molecule because the
C. pyramidal
geometry _________________.
D. trigonal planar
A. will give the Lewis structure of the molecule
E. bent
B. affects the physical and chemical properties of the substance
C. will determine whether the molecule is ionic or covalent 5.
The molecule boron trifluoride, BF3, assumes a trigonal planar
D. B and C
geometry with boron as the central atom. Which statement
E. A, B, and C
correctly describes the polarity of the B-F bond and the polarity of
the
molecule?
A. The B-F bond is polar; the BF3 molecule is nonpolar.
B. The B-F bond is nonpolar; the BF3 molecule is nonpolar.
C. The B-F bond is nonpolar; the BF3 molecule is polar.
D. The B-F bond is polar; the BF3 molecule is polar.

E. The polarity cannot be determined.
248
6 . The H - SH bond angle in H2S is approximately 9. If
a compound has a polar bonds, then
A. 90o
I. It is polar overall.
B. 180o
II. There is an electronegativity difference between the
C. 109.5o
bonded atoms.
D. 120o
III. It is ionic.
E. 36 0o
IV. It doesn't have resonance.
7. Which of the following species will exhibit tetrahedral geometry? A.

II only
A. CCl4 B.
II, IV
B. CO32 - C.
I, II, IV
C. O3 D.
I, III
D. PCl5 E.
All of the above statements are correct.
E. SF6 
10.
Predict the geometry and polarity of the CS2 molecule.
A.
linear, nonpolar
8. Which of the following types of molecules always has a dipole
B.
linear, nonpolar
moment?
C.
tetrahedral, polar
A. Linear molecules with two identical bonds.
D.
bent, polar
B. Tetrahedral molecules (four identical bonds equally spaced).
E.
bent, nonpolar
C. Trigonal planar molecules (three identical bonds equally
spaced).
D. A and B
E. None will have a dipole moment
249
General Chemistry 1
6 0 MINS
Lesson 27: Geometry of Molecules and Polarity of

Molecules (Laboratory)
Content Standard
Lesson Outline
The learners demonstrate an understanding of the properties of molecular

covalent compounds in relation to their structure.
Instruction Part I: Demonstration of Polarity of Water 45
and
Practice Part II: Construction of Paper Models
The learners can demonstrate the properties of molecular compounds resulting
from their structure.
Evaluation 15
Learning Competency
Materials
Plastic cup with a hole at the bottom

PVC
Pipe, Ball pen, Comb
1. Determine and/or observe evidence of molecular polarity (LAB) Paper
(STEM_GC11CB-IId-g-83)
Resources
Specific Learning Competencies (1)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VhWQ-r1LYXY#t=39.
(2)
https://mail.google.com/mail/u/0/#inbox/155df1bb449aae6 6 ?
compose=155dd6 4396 ef0842&projector=1
1. Demonstrate the polarity of water. (3)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=phhVl-N9M4Y
2. Construct paper molecular models
250
Teacher Tip
Prepare the laboratory materials needed before the
1. Introduce the activity to the class citing the objectives.
class.
Molecular geometry affects physical and chemical properties of molecules, one of
which is the
If learners need to bring some materials, assign

polarity. For this reason, it is important to determine the geometry of
molecules. these to them before the day of the activity.
Prepare the activity sheets for the learners.

Always stress laboratory safety rules and proper conduct in the laboratory
including proper
disposal of waste.
2. Safety Precautions
a. Never taste anything during a science activity.
b. Dispose of the samples and materials as directed by your instructor.
c. Wash your hands with soap and water after the activity.
d. Follow all laboratory instructions as directed by your instructor.

The activity has two parts:
PART I. DEMONSTRATION ON THE POLARITY OF WATER
Materials
1. Plastic cup with a small hole at the bottom or a plastic bottle of water with a
hole at the bottom
2. PVC pipe
3. Comb
4. Ballpen or balloon
5. Receptacle to catch the water
Procedure
1. Assemble the plastic cup on a ring stand or holder about 12 inches above the
table. Place a
receptacle beneath the cup to catch the flowing water.
2. Pour water into the plastic cup with a hole at the bottom.
251
3. Rub the PVC pipe or any of the given objects against your hair or any surface so
that it becomes
charged.
4. Bring the charged pipe near the stream of water. Observe what happens to the
stream of water.
5. Repeat the process by using other objects (ballpen, balloon and comb) and
observe also what
happens to the stream of water.
Answer the following questions

1. What happens to the stream of water as the charged object comes near it?
2. Why is water attracted to a charged object?
After the learners perform the experiment and answer the questions, they may watch
the video on
static electricity and water at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VhWQ-r1LYXY#t=39.
PART II. MODEL MAKING USING ORIGAMI

Teacher Tip
1. Watch the video on You Tube “How to Make Paper Tetrahedron –Origami Tutorial” at
https:// Prepare data and observation tables for the activity.
mail.google.com/mail/u/0/#inbox/155df1bb449aae6 6 ?
compose=155dd6 4396 ef0842&projector=1
2. Watch the video on You Tube “Seamless Octahedron” at
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=phhVl-N9M4Y
3. Make at least 2 tetrahedra and one octahedron.
4. Make models of tetrahedrally shaped molecules like CH4, CHCl3, SiH4 by labeling
the ends of
the tetrahedral with toothpick wrapped in colored paper or cellophane. Different
colors
represent different atoms attached to the central atom. Learners can use their
imagination in
labeling the atoms.
5. Make a model of an octahedrally shaped molecule like SF6  using the paper
octahedron.
6 . If time permits, make models of ethane, H3CCH3 where two tetrahedral are joined
at one end.
252
1. Ask the students to accomplish the data and observation tables for the polarity
of water.
2. Discuss the results in class. Ask the learners their observations and their
conclusions.
3. Ask the students to submit all paper models. Show all the paper models to the
class. Learners
may make models of other molecules.
4. Each learner should have constructed at least one paper model.
253
General Chemistry 1
180 MINS
Lesson 28: Carbon Compounds

Content Standard
Lesson Outline
The learners demonstrate an understanding of the properties of

organic compounds.
Motivation Organic Compounds and Smells 5

The learners can illustrate the properties and uses of organic
Instruction I. The Valence Bond Theory 16 5
compounds.
II. Hybridization of Atomic Orbitals
III. The Special Nature of Carbon

IV. Organic Compounds: Hydrocarbons
V. Organic Compounds: Functional Groups
1. Describe the special nature of carbon (STEM_GC11OC-IIg-j-84)
Enrichment Identifying the Functional Groups 5

2. List general characteristics of organic compounds
Evaluation Organic Compound Report 20

(STEM_GC11OC-IIg-j-85)
3. Describe the bonding of ethane, ethene, and ethyne and
Resources
explain their geometry in terms of hybridization and and (1)
(2)
Burdge, J. and Overby, J. (2012). Chemistry: Atoms First. New York: McGraw-
carbon-carbon bonds (STEM_GC11OC-IIg-j-86 ) Hill.
4. Describe the different functional groups (STEM_GC11OC-IIg-j-87) (3)
Zumdahl, S.S. and Zumdahl, S.A (2013). Chemistry, 8th ed. Cengage Learning
(4)
http://www.chemeddl.org/resources/models36 0/models.php?pubchem=222.
5. Cite uses of representative examples of compounds bearing the
different functional groups (STEM_GC11OC-IIg-j-88)
6 . Describe structural isomerism; give examples (STEM_GC11OC- Specific
Learning Outcomes
IIg-j-89) The
Specific Learning Outcomes are detailed in the Introduction
7. Describe some simple reactions of organic compounds; Part of
this lesson.
combustion of organic fuels, addition, condensation,
saponification of fats (STEM_GC11OC-IIg-j-90)
254
a. Use the Valence Bond Theory to explain the hybridization of atomic orbitals
and bonding in
covalent compounds.
b. Relate the molecular geometries and bond angles to the hybridization of
atomic orbitals used
in bonding.
c. Describe the formation of sigma bonds and pi bonds.
d. Describe the bonding in ethane, ethene, and ethyne and other covalent
compounds
containing single, double, and triple bonds.
e. Discuss the special nature of carbon and its ability to form compounds.
f. Describe hydrocarbons, its properties and reactions.
g. Identify structural and geometric isomers.
h. Identify basic functional groups in organic compounds.
i. Describe simple reactions of organic compounds.
Teacher Tip
There are many terms that the learner will

a. Hybridization
encounter in the lesson. To save time, place
b. sp3 hybrid orbitals
the terms on the board, on a flip chart, on
posters, or on power point slides. Check the

c. sp2 hybrid orbitals
terms as you encounter them in the lesson.
d. sp hybrid orbitals
The learner will only be introduced to many of

e. Sigma bonds
the terms.
f. Pi bonds
g. Organic chemistry
h. Hydrocarbons
i. Alkanes
j. Alkenes
k. Alkynes
l. Cycloalkanes
255
m. Aliphatic hydrocarbons
n. Aromatic hydrocarbons
o. Saturated hydrocarbons
p. Unsaturated hydrocarbons
q. Straight chain hydrocarbons
r. Branched hydrocarbons
s. Structural isomers
t. Geometric isomers
u. Cis and trans
v. Functional groups
w. Alcohols
x. Aldehydes
y. Carboxylic acids
z. Esters
aa. Amines
bb. Amides
cc. Hydrogenation
dd. Condensation reaction
ee. Saponification reaction
1. Introduce the learners to some organic compounds through their odor. Some
organic
compounds have foul smell while others have a sweet or fresh smell. Ask the
learners if they are
familiar with the scents of the compounds below. While these molecules are meant
to motivate
the learners, their structures and bonding will be discussed in the lesson.
256 
Organic Compounds and Smells
Putrescine (butane-1,4-diamine) and cadaverine (pentane-1,5-diamine) are foul-
smelling organic
compounds found in decaying animals.
Putrescine Cadaverine
NH2(CH2)4NH2 NH2(CH2)5NH2
Limonene is the source of the scent of lemons; vanillin gives the distinctive scent
of vanilla;
cinnamaldehyde is the scent of cinnamon; and methyl salicylate is responsible for
the smell of oil of
wintergreen
Limonene Vanillin
C10H16  C8H8O3
Cinnamaldehyde Methyl Salicylate

C9H8O C8H8257
O3
INSTRUCTION/DELIVERY/PRACTICE (16 5 minutes)
I. THE VALENCE BOND THEORY
Lewis structures and VSEPR theory provide simple descriptions of bonding in
molecules. They treat
all bonding to be due to the pairing up of electrons which, if accurate, should
provide similar
properties for bonds of the same type (e.g. all single bonds). However,
experimental results show
that properties (such as bond energies, bond lengths, etc.) vary. These cannot be
explained by the
simple Lewis structure.
A more accurate description of bonding comes from quantum mechanics. There are two
quantum
mechanical theories of bonding: the valence bond (VB) theory and the molecular
orbital theory. This
lesson will briefly touch on the valence bond theory and its application to bonding
for the carbon
atom.
According to the VB theory, when two single atoms of hydrogen approach each other,
there will be an
optimum distance between them where the attractive forces of the nuclei will be
greatest and
repulsion will be least. In this state, the energy of the system is at a minimum
(lowest). Therefore the
system is most stable in this state and we say that a bond has been formed, the H—H
bond. VB
theory says that the bond is formed from the overlap of the s orbitals of the H
atoms. Here, overlap
means that the electrons occupy a common region in space.
For the F2 molecule, the overlap is between the 2p orbitals of the F atoms.
Remember that the
electron configuration of F is 1s2 2s2 2p5. A p orbital of F is partially filled.
This will overlap with the
partially filled orbital of the second F atom.
258
For the HF molecule, the overlap is between the s orbital of hydrogen and the p
orbital of fluorine.
Because different orbitals overlap, the differences in the properties of these

bonds (e.g. bond length
and bond strength) can be explained by VB theory unlike the Lewis structures that
treat all bonds
alike.
II. HYBRIDIZATION OF ATOMIC ORBITALS

sp3 hybridization
Consider the molecule CH4 where C is bonded to four H atoms in a tetrahedral
geometry. The
valence electron configuration of C is
How can carbon form four bonds with hydrogen in CH4 when it only has two unpaired
electrons?
Because the energy gap between the 2s and the 2p orbitals is small, one of the
electrons in the 2s
orbital can be promoted to the 2p orbital as shown below.
Now the four unpaired electrons can form four bonds of different types: one bond
will be the overlap Teacher Tip
Ask the learners to look up the meaning of

of the 1s orbital of hydrogen and the 2s orbital of carbon; the other three will be
from the overlap of
the term “hybrid”. Give examples of hybrids.

the 1s orbital of H and the 2p orbitals of C. The 2p orbitals are 90o from one
another. However,
experimental results show only one type of CH bond at angles of 109.5o and not 90o.
To explain the
bonding in CH4, valence bond theory uses a theoretical concept of hybrid orbitals.
Hybrid orbitals
are obtained from the combination or mixing of two or more nonequivalent orbitals
of the same
atom. Hybridization produces hybrid orbitals which have the same energies.
259
When one s orbital and three p orbitals are combined through hybridization, four
equivalent sp3
hybrid orbitals result. These sp3 hybrid orbitals are tetrahedrally oriented. The
shape of an sp3
orbital is not symmetrical; it has a larger probability on one side of the nucleus
compared to the
other.
Source
sp3 hybridization from Electronic structure.
Retrieved from https://
jahschem.wikispaces.com/electronic+structure
(5 November 2016 ), Creative Commons
Attribution Share-Alike 3.0 License.
The formation of CH4 with the overlap of the 1s orbital of hydrogen with the four
sp3 hybrid orbitals
of carbon are shown in the figure below.
Source
The CH4 molecule. From Hybridization.
Retrieved from http://
mrstinechemistry.wikispaces.com/covalent
+bonding (5 November 2016 ), Creative
Commons Attribution Share-Alike 3.0 License.
The CH4 molecule

The four sp3 orbitals are oriented towards the corners of a tetrahedron. The CH4
molecule is
tetrahedral with bond angles of 109.5o.
26 0
Note that other atoms also exhibit hybridization. NH3 is pyramidal and the N atom
is sp3 hybridized.
The lone pair occupies an sp3 orbital. H2O is bent with bond angles close to 109.5.
The O atom is
sp3 hybridized.
sp2 hybridization
Consider the bonding in BF3. What is the electron configuration of boron? Answer:
1s2 2s2 2p1.
How can boron form three bonds with fluorine in BF3 when it only has only one
unpaired electrons?
Because the energy gap between the 2s and the 2p orbitals is small, one of the
electrons in the 2s
orbital can be promoted to the 2p orbital as shown below.
The 2s and two 20 orbitals can be mixed to form three hybrid orbitals called the
sp2 hybrid orbitals. Source
sp2 hybridization. from Electronic structure.

The sp2 hybrid orbitals have a trigonal planar orientation. Therefore, all are on a
plane with
Retrieved from https://

angles of 120o.
jahschem.wikispaces.com/electronic+structure
(5 November 2016 ), Creative Commons
Attribution Share-Alike 3.0 License.
The three sp2 hybrid orbitals

26 1
Ask the learners to draw the bonding in BF3 showing the overlap of the 2p orbitals
of fluorine and the
sp2 orbitals in boron.
Describe the bonding in ethylene, C2H4.

From the Lewis structure we deduce that the geometry around each carbon atom in
ethylene is
trigonal planar.
The valence electron configuration of carbon is
For trigonal planar planar, the hybridization used is sp2 as shown in the example
for BF3. One electron Source
https://www.utdallas.edu/~scortes/ochem/
from the 2s orbital of carbon is promoted to the 2p. One 2s orbital and two 2p
orbitals are mixed to OChem1_Lecture/Class_Materials/
form the three sp2 orbitals leaving one unpaired electron in a 2p orbital.
05_orbitals_hybrid_geom.pdf
Teacher Tip
Some textbooks refer to the end-to-end
overlap as head-to-head overlap or head-on
overlap.
There are hybridizations involving d orbitals.
However, they will no be discussed in this
lesson.
Side view of sp2 hybridized C atom showing the unhybridized p orbital
26 2
We now make a distinction between two types of covalent bonds in C2H4: the sigma
(σ) bonds and
the pi (π) bonds.
Sigma bonds are formed by end-to-end overlap of the atomic orbitals with electron
density
concentrated between the nuclei of the bonding atoms. Pi bonds, on the other hand,
are formed by
the sideways overlap of orbitals with the electron density concentrated above and
below the plane
of the nuclei of the bonding atoms. An end-to-end overlap is the most efficient way
to bond
compared to a sideways overlap. Hence, sigma bonds are relatively stronger than pi
bonds.
Source
Bonding orbitals in Ethene (ethylene) sp2.
Retrieved from http://www.chemtube3d.com/
orbitalsethene.htm (5 November 2016 ), by
Nick Greeves, Creative Commons Attribution-
Noncommercial-Share Alike 2.0 UK: England
& Wales License.
Formation of sigma and pi bonds in ethylene
How many sigma bonds are there in C2H4? Name them.

Answer: There are five sigma bonds in C2H4. These are the C-C bond and the four
C-H bonds.
How many pi bonds are there in C2H4? There is only one pi bond. Note that a pi
bond consists of
two lobes – one above the plane and another below the plane.
26 3
sp hybridization
Describe the bonding in ethyne (also called acetylene, C2H2).
From the Lewis structure we deduce that the geometry around each carbon atom in
acetylene is
linear. The valence electron configuration about each carbon atom is
One electron from the 2s orbital of carbon is promoted to the 2p. One 2s orbital
and one 2p orbital
are mixed to form the two sp orbitals leaving unpaired electrons in two 2p
orbitals. The unhybridized
p orbitals are perpendicular to each other.
Source
http://cnx.org/contents/Vd4OhCxi@2/
Multiple-Bonds
The sp hybridized carbon showing the two unhybridized p orbitals
26 4
The hybridized sp orbitals of each carbon atom overlap end-to-end forming a σ bond.
The Source
unhybridized p orbitals of each carbon atom overlap sideways forming two π bonds.
The bonding in C2H2 showing the formation of
sigma and pi bonds. From Multiple Bonds,
Advanced Theories of Covalent Bonding.
Retrieved from https://opentextbc.ca/
chemistry/chapter/8-3-multiple-bonds/ (5
November 2016 ), Creative Commons
Attribution 4.0 International License.
The bonding in C2H2 howing the formation of the σ and π bonds)
The table shows the geometrical arrangements of hybrid orbitals.
Atomic Orbitals Hybrid Orbitals Geometry

Bond Angle
s, p sp linear
180o
s, p, p sp2 trigonal planar

120o
s, p, p, p sp3 tetrahedral
109.5o
s, p sp linear
180o
Exercises
1. Determine the hybridization of each carbon atom (going left to right) in the
following molecules:
a. H3C — CH3
Ask the learners to draw the Lewis structure.
Deduce the geometry around the carbon atoms.
From the geometry, determine the hybridization.
Answer: Both carbons have tetrahedral geometry. Therefore the hybridization

of both carbon
atoms is sp3. All the bond angles are 109.5o.
26 5
b. H3C — CHCH2
Answer Key
c. H3C — C C — CH3
1.
b. C1 is sp3 hybridized
d. H3C — CH = O
C2 is sp2 hybridized.
e. H2C = C = CH2
c. C1 is sp3 hybridized.
2. How many sigma bonds and pi bonds are in each of the molecules in #1?
C2 is sp hybridized.
3. What is the hybridization of N in NH3?
From the Lewis structure, we find that the geometry of NH3 is pyramidal with
bond angles close to
d. C1 is sp3 hybridized
109.5o. Therefore, the hybridization of N in NH3 is sp3.
4. What orbitals overlap in the formation of the O — H bond in H2O?
e. C1 is sp2 hybridized.
5. What orbitals overlap in the formation of the C — Cl bond in CH3Cl?
III. THE SPECIAL NATURE OF CARBON
About 200 year ago, organic chemistry was defined as the study of compounds
produced by living 2.
things like plants and animals. Organic compounds needed a ‘life force’ to be
produced. Compounds a. 7 sigma bonds; 0 pi bonds
b. 8 sigma bonds; 1 pi bond

that were from nonliving things like rocks were referred to as inorganic. All these
changed in 1828 c. 9 sigma bonds; 2 pi bonds
with the experiment of Friedrich Wöhler. In his laboratory, Wöhler synthesized urea
(an organic d. 6  sigma bonds; 1 pi bond
compound) from ammonium cyanate (an inorganic compound). This marked a turning
point in e. 6  sigma bonds; 2 pi bonds
organic chemistry. It dispelled the belief that organic compounds could only be
formed by nature.
3. sp3
4. 1s of H and sp3 of O
5. sp3 of C and 3p of Cl
From the discussion on the bonding properties of carbon in the previous sections,
it can be seen that
carbon has a unique nature
The electron configuration of carbon is 1s2 2s2 2p2. Carbon completes its octet by
sharing electrons
and not by forming ions. It shares its electrons with other carbon atoms forming
single, double, and
triple bonds. It also shares its electrons and readily forms bonds with atoms of
other elements like O,
H, N, and the halogens.
26 6 
The small radius of carbon allows it to approach another carbon atom closely,
giving rise to short and
strong covalent bonds and stable compounds. Because the sp or sp2 hybridized
orbitals can
approach each other closely, the unhybridized p orbitals containing unpaired
electrons can form pi
bonds resulting in stronger bonds.
Carbon can form four covalent bonds. This allows it to form chains (straight,
branched or cyclic) in
endless arrays.
Carbon can form millions of different compounds. To date, over 20 million organic
compounds, both
synthetic and natural, are known compared with only about 100,000 inorganic
compounds. Carbon
can form more compounds than any other element in the periodic table.
IV. ORGANIC COMPUNDS: HYDROCARBONS

Teacher Tip
A major group of organic compounds is the hydrocarbons. Hydrocarbons are made up of
only This section on organic compounds is meant
as an overview. Only the general concepts

carbon and hydrogen atoms. Hydrocarbons are further classified into aliphatic
hydrocarbons (those are presented. Note that the time allotment
that do not contain a benzene ring) and aromatic hydrocarbons (those that contain a
benzene ring). for this section in the learning competencies is
very short.
26 7
1. Alkanes
Teacher Tip
Alkanes have the general formula CnH2n+2 where n=1, 2, 3…. Alkanes only have
single bonds. It is not the objective of the lesson to learn
naming of organic compounds. Leave the

They are also known as saturated hydrocarbons. They are referred to as saturated
hydrocarbons examples to the ten hydrocarbons
because they contain the maximum number of hydrogen atoms that can bond to the
carbon
atoms present; that is, they are saturated with hydrogen atoms. In naming
alkanes, the –ane suffix Only the first ten alkanes are named here to
(ending) is used. The name of the parent compound is determined by the number of
carbon show the use of prefixes. Ask the learners the
meaning of the prefixes and how they denote

atoms in the longest chain. Examples are ethane, propane, butane.
the number of carbon atoms,
Tell the learners to note the ability of carbon

Prefixes Used in Naming Hydrocarbons
to from chains.
Number of Atoms Prefix Number of Atoms

Prefix If you have a ball and stick model, show the
structures to the learners. Alternatively, the

1 Meth- 6 
Hex- learners can view the ball and stick models at
http://www.chemeddl.org/resources/
2 Eth- 7
Hept- models36 0/models.php?pubchem=222.
3 Prop- 8
Oct-
Ask the learners if they are familiar with any of

4 But- 9
Non- the 10 hydrocarbons. In what way?
5 Pent- 10
Dec-
The table below shows the first ten straight-chain hydrocarbons. Ask the
learners the following:
a. Fill in the molecular formula and the structural formula of straight chain
pentane up to decane.
b. How many bonds does each carbon atom have in the compounds?
c. What is the geometry of each carbon atom?
d. What is the bond angle around each carbon atom?
e. What is the hybridization of each carbon atom in hydrocarbons?
f. Describe the boiling points of the hydrocarbons as the number of carbon
atoms increases and
the chain gets longer.
g. Which of the hydrocarbons will be gases at room temperature (Room Temperature
= 25oC)?
Answer: methane, ethane, propane, butane
26 8
Number of Atoms Prefix Number of Atoms Boiling Point
methane CH4 -16 1.6 oC
ethane C2H6  -88.6 oC
propane C3H8 -42.1oC
butane C4H10 -0.5oC
pentane 36 .1oC
hexane 6 8.7oC
heptane 98.4oC
octane 125.7oC
nonane 150.8oC
decane 174.0oC
26 9
Structural Isomers
Teacher Tips
Isomers are different compounds that have the same chemical formula. There are two
ways of writing Ask the learners what is the meaning of “iso”.
In what lesson did they first meet this prefix?

the structure of butane: n-butane (where n stands for normal) and isobutene. These
are called (Iso comes from the Greek word meaning
structural isomers. Structural isomers are molecules that have the same molecular
formula but “equal” or same.)
different structures. Alkanes are described as having straight chains (such as n-
butane) or branched
chains (such as isobutane).
Some books refer to structural isomers as
constitutional isomers.
n-butane isobutane
straight chain branched chain
Boiling Point = -42.1oC Boiling Point = -11.7oC
For alkanes, the number of isomers increases as the number of carbon atoms
increases. While butane Teacher Tip
Alkanes also exhibit stereoisomerism.

has only 2 isomers, decane has 75 isomers and the alkane C30H6 2 has over 400
million possible
However, this lesson will not deal with this

isomers. While many of these do not exist in nature, this illustrates how carbon
forms more topic given the time limit and scope.
compounds than any other element.
Exercise: Pentane has three structural isomers. Can you draw them?
270
Cycloalkanes
Teacher Tip
Alkanes whose carbon atoms are joined in rings are called cycloalkanes. They have
the general Cycloalkanes exhibit different geometries
(called conformations) such as “chair” or

formula CnH2n. The simplest cycloalkane is cyclopropane.
“boat”. However, these are outside the scope
of the lesson.
cyclopropane cyclobutane cyclopentane

cyclohexane
Reactions of Alkanes
a. Under suitable conditions, alkanes undergo combustion reactions to produce
carbon dioxide
and water.
CH4(g) + 2 O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2 H2O(l)

2 C2H6 (g) + 7 O2(g) → 4 CO2(g) + 6  H2O(l)
b. Alkanes undergo halogenation reaction where one or more hydrogen atoms are
replaced by
halogen atoms.
CH4(g) + Cl2(g) → CH3Cl(g) + HCl(g)

methyl chloride
Under excess chlorine, the reaction proceeds further:

CH3Cl(g) + Cl2(g) → CH2Cl2(g) + HCl(g)
methylene chloride
271
CH2Cl2(g) + Cl2(g) → CHCl3(g) + HCl(g)
chloroform
CHCl3(g) + Cl2(g) → CCl4(g) + HCl(g)

carbon tetrachloride
2. Alkenes
Alkenes are hydrocarbons that contain at least one carbon-carbon double bond. They
are also
called olefins. Their formula is CnH2n where n = 2, 3…. Alkenes are classified as
unsaturated
hydrocarbons as opposed to the alkanes which are saturated hydrocarbons. In naming
alkenes, the –
ene suffix (ending) is used. The name of the parent compound is determined by the
number of
carbon atoms in the longest chain. Examples are ethene, propene, butene.
Molecular
Name
Boiling Point
Formula
Ethene (ethylene) C2H4.
-102.4oC
Propene (propylene) C3H6 

-48oC
1-butene C4H8
-6 .47oC
cis-2-butene C4H8
4oC
Trans-2-butene C4H8
1oC
272
Note that in butene, there are two molecules: one with the double bond in the first
carbon, and the
other with the double bond in the second carbon. The numbers in the names refer to
the lowest
numbered carbon atoms in the chain that is part of the CC double bond.
Geometric Isomers of Alkenes

Alkanes have single bonds. The CC single bonds are free to rotate with relatively
small energies.
However, this is not true for CC double bonds which are restricted and cannot
rotate without breaking
the bonds. Therefore, the placement of substituents is crucial to the properties of
the molecules and
alkenes exhibit geometric isomers. In the cis isomer, two particular atoms or group
of atoms are
adjacent to each other (same side of the double bond). In the trans isomer, the two
groups are
across from each other. The cis and trans isomers exhibit distinctly different
chemical and physical
properties.
Reactions of Alkenes
Alkenes are classified as unsaturated hydrocarbons which are compounds that have
double or
triple bonds that enable them to add hydrogen atoms.
273
a. Addition Reactions: Unsaturated hydrocarbons commonly undergo addition reactions
where
one molecule adds to another to form a single product.
Hydrogenation is an example of an addition reaction where hydrogen is added to

compounds containing double bonds usually in the presence of a catalyst.
Hydrogenation is very important in the food industry particularly for vegetable

oils.
Alkenes also undergo addition reactions involving hydrogen halide, HX (where X

is a halogen).
C2H4(g) + HX(g) → H3CCH2X(g)

C2H4(g) + X2 (g) → CH2XCH2X(g)
274
3. Alkynes
Teacher Tip
Alkynes contain at least one CC triple bond. They have the general formula CnH2n-2
where n = 2, 3,… Ask the learners to give common uses of
acetylene.
In naming alkenes, the –yne suffix (ending) is used. The name of the parent
compound is determined
by the number of carbon atoms in the longest chain. Like the alkenes, the names of
alkynes indicate
the position of the carbon-carbon triple bond. Examples are ethyne, propyne,
butyne.
Molecular
Name
Boiling Point
Formula
Ethyne (acetylene) C2H2 H C C H

-84.7oC
propyne C3H6  HC C CH3

-23oC
1-butyne C4H6  HC CCH2CH3

8oC
2-butyne C4H6  H3C C C CH3

27oC
Reactions of alkynes
a. Combustion
2C2H2(g) + 5 O2(g) → 4CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
This reaction gives off a large amount of heat; thus its use in oxyacetylene
torches for welding
metals.
b. Addition reaction
Hydrogenation: C2H2(g) + H2(g) → C2H4(g)
Reaction with halogens and hydrogen halides:

C2H2(g) + HX(g) → C2H2CHX(g)
C2H2(g) + H2 (g) → CHXCHX(g)
275
4. Aromatic Hydrocarbons
Aromatic hydrocarbons are a class of hydrocarbons whose molecules contain a ring
of six carbon
atoms (benzyl ring) attached.
Its simplest member is benzene, C6 H6 , with the following resonance structures:
The benzene structure is often written as:
! or!
The group containing benzene less one hydrogen atom (C6 H5) is called a phenyl
ring. Other
examples of aromatic hydrocarbons are shown below.
Toluene or
Methylbenzene 2-phenylpropane naphthalene
276 
Simple Reactions of aromatic hydrocarbons
a. Substitution reactions – an atom or group of atoms replaces an atom or group
of atoms in
another molecule
V. ORGANIC COMPOUNDS: FUNCTIONAL GROUPS

Teacher Tip
Organic compounds may also be classified according to the functional groups they
contain. A These functional groups should not be
memorized by the learners. The purpose is

functional group is a group of atoms that is largely responsible for the chemical
behavior of the for them to be aware of the functional groups
parent molecule. Compounds containing the same functional groups undergo similar
reactions. in relation to common substances.
The teacher should provide the students a
copy of the table. In answering the exercises,

277
the students can be guided by the handout.
Common Functional Groups
General
Class Functional Group
Formula
Alcohol ROH —O—H Hydroxyl group
Carboxylic acid RCOOH Carboxyl group
Ester
RCOOR’ Ester group
(R’=hydrocarbon)
Aldehyde RCHO Carbonyl group
Ketone
RCOR’ Carbonyl group
(R’=hydrocarbon)
Amine Amino group

RNR’R”
(R’, R” = H or hydrocarbon)
Amide
RCONR’R” Amide group
(R’, R” = H or hydrocarbon)
278
Alcohols
Some common alcohols are shown below.
Methanol is the simplest alcohol. It is highly toxic and causes blindness. Ethyl
alcohol is a common
solvent and starting material for various commercial uses. It is produced
commercially by the addition
reaction of ethylene with water at high pressure and temperature. It is also
produced from the
fermentation of sugar. An isomer, isopropyl alcohol, is commonly called rubbing
alcohol. Ethylene
glycol is used as an antifreeze.
Ethyl alcohol can be oxidized by inorganic oxidizing agents to acetaldehyde and

acetic acid.
279
Ethers
Ethers are usually prepared by a condensation reaction. A condensation reaction is

characterized by
the joining of two molecules and the elimination of a small molecule, usually
water.
Aldehydes and Ketones

The functional group in aldehydes and ketones is the carbonyl group. A common
aldehyde is
formaldehyde. An aqueous solution of formaldehyde is used in the laboratory to
preserve animal
specimens. A common ketone is acetone, which is mainly used as solvent for organic
compounds
and as nail polish remover. Alcohols can be oxidized to produce aldehydes and
ketones:
280
Carboxylic Acids
The functional group in carboxylic acids is the carboxyl group, -COOH. Among the
common
carboxylic acids are formic acid, acetic acid, and butyric acid.
Carboxylic acids can be produced by the oxidation of alcohols and aldehydes.
Carboxylic acids also react with alcohols to produce esters.
CH3COOH + HOCH2CH2 — CH3COCH2CH3 + H2O

Acetic acid ethanol ethyl acetate
Esters
Esters are sued in flavoring and perfumery owing to their characteristic smells.
The smell of many
fruits come from esters such as those given in the motivation section.
A common reaction of esters is saponification. In this reaction, an ester reacts

with aqueous NaOH
solution to produce back the carboxylic acid and the alcohol. This reaction
originates from
soapmaking. Soap (Latin “sapo”) was originally produced by the hydrolysis of fats.
281
Go back to the molecules in the motivation section.
1. Using the table provided, identify if any the functional groups present in:
a. Putrescine
b. Cadaverine
c. Cinnemaldehyde
d. Limonene
e. Vanillin
f. Methyl salicylate
2. Which of the above molecules is a hydrocarbon?
Teacher Tips
EVALUATION
Materials that will students use can be colored
Organic Compound Report: This may be assigned by groups or individually.
paper, bond paper and magazines.
1. Choose an organic compound and present it as a poster. You must indicate the
following: Encourage students to be creative in
presenting their work.

a. Chemical name and chemical formula of the organic compound
Post the outputs on the walls around the room
b. Structure of the organic compound (identify the functional group/s if any)
or corridor for all students to read and learn.
c. Properties of the organic compound (physical and chemical)

d. Use of the organic compound in everyday life
e. Effects to humans and other living things
f. Precautions in using the compound (if any)
2. A rubric will be used to evaluate the learners’ work.
282
2 (NEEDS
4 (EXCEEDS
CRITERIA 1 (NOT VISIBLE) 3
(MEETS EXPECTATIONS)
IMPROVEMENT)
EXPECTATIONS)
Few of the required
Most of the required All of the required elements

REQUIRED Missing most or all of the elements are clearly visible,
elements are clearly visible, are clearly visible, organized

ELEMENTS required elements. organized and well placed.
organized and well placed. and well placed.

May be missing elements.
The project has an excellent

The project needs The project needs The
project has a nice
VISUAL CLARITY
design and layout. It is neat
significant improvement in improvement in design,
design and layout. It is neat
AND APPEAL
and easy to understand the
design, layout and neatness. layout or neatness. and
easy to read.
content.
Few of the drawings and
DRAWINGS/ The student’s drawings are
Most drawings and graphics Drawings and graphics are
graphics are clear and
GRAPHICS not clear or relevant. are
clear and relevant. clear and relevant.
relevant.
Almost no grammatical,
Many grammatical, spelling A few grammatical, spelling
No grammatical, spelling or
MECHANICS
spelling or punctuation
or punctuation errors. or punctuation errors.
punctuation errors.
errors.
283
General Chemistry 1
6 0 MINS
Lesson 29: Polymers

Lesson Outline
Content Standard
The learners demonstrate an understanding of the properties of polymers in

Motivation Polymers Used in Everyday Life 5
terms of their structure.
Instruction I. What are Polymers? 40
II. Making Polymers
The learners can illustrate the reactions at the molecular level in enzyme action,
III. Polymer Arrangements and Structures
protein denaturation and separation of components in coconut milk.
IV. Plastics and Polymers
Evaluation Recycling and Universal Recycling Codes 10
Resources
1. Describe the formation and structure of polymers. (STEM_GC11OC-IIg-
McGraw-Hill.
j-91)
(2) Zumdahl, S.S. and Zumdahl, S.A (2013). Chemistry, 8th ed. Cengage
2. Give examples of polymers (STEM_GC11OC-IIg-j-92)
Learning
(3) Joesten, Melvin & Hogg, John. The World of Chemistry. 2012.
3. Explain the properties of some polymers in terms of their structure.
Cengage Learning
(STEM_GC11OC-IIg-j-93)
(4) http://pslc.ws/macrog/maindir.htm
(5) https://www.nobelprize.org/educational/chemistry/plastics/
readmore.html
(6 ) http://www.cmu.edu/gelfand/k12-teachers/polymers/natural-synthetic-
polymers/
1. Define polymers;
2. Give the basic classification of polymers;
3. Distinguish between addition polymerization and condensation
polymerization;
4. Describe the arrangement of polymers;
5. Relate the arrangement of polymers to their properties; and!
6 . Illustrate the appropriate uses of polymers.
284
(Verbatim, Own
a. Define polymers.
b. Give the basic classification of polymers.
c. Distinguish between addition polymerization and condensation polymerization.
d. Describe the arrangement of polymers.
e. Relate the arrangement of polymers to their properties.
f. Illustrate the appropriate uses of polymers.

a. Polymers
b. Natural polymers
c. Synthetic polymers
d. Monomers
e. Macromolecules
f. Addition polymerization
g. Condensation polymerization
h. Homopolymer
i. Copolymer
j. Isotactic
k. Syndiotactic
l. Atactic
m. Plastic
n. Thermoplastic
o. Thermoset
285
Notes
Connect to a real life situations. Ask the learners to give at least five (5)
objects or materials that The site is developed and maintained by the
polymer department of the University of Southern

they think are made of polymers. Ask the learners a brief description of polymers
to check on prior
Mississippi. It uses the store of a modern shopping

knowledge.
mall to illustrate the variety of polymers and their
practical uses before allowing you to explore the
chemistry of the polymers, including structure,

The following website called The Macrogalleria (http://pslc.ws/macrog/maindir.htm)
is devoted properties, and synthesis, in as much detail as you
solely to polymers. This website is useful in studying polymers. The teacher may
assign the wish.
learners to visit the Macrogalleria website before the lesson. The website has
several levels of
discussion. The learners can view the introduction, Level 1.

I. WHAT ARE POLYMERS?
Polymers are large molecular compounds made up of many repeating units called
monomers.
They can be natural or synthetic. They are sometimes called macromolecules because
of their high
molar masses. The word polymer comes from the Greek “poly” (meaning many) and
“mer” (meaning part or segment). Therefore a polymer means many parts. Polymers are
generally
classified as synthetic or natural. Natural polymers occur in nature. Synthetic
polymers are man-
made and synthesized in the laboratory.
286 
II. MAKING POLYMERS
How are polymers made? The chemical reaction by which the monomers are linked
together to
form polymers is called polymerization. There are several types of polymerization
reactions. The
basic types are the addition polymerization and the condensation polymerization
reactions.
1. Addition polymerization
In addition polymerization, the entire monomer becomes part of the polymer. They
involve
molecules with double bonds or triple bonds. Consider the formation of
polyethylene, a stable
polymer used widely as packaging wrap. The polymerization reaction consists of
three steps:
Step 1: Initiation
An initiator molecule is heated to produce free radicals. These free radicals have
one unpaired
electron each and are therefore very reactive seeking other electrons from other
molecules to pair
up with. The free radicals react with the ethylene molecule monomer breaking the
double bond
and forming a new radical.
Step 2: Propagation
The radical will react with another ethylene molecule monomer. This is repeated
many times over
and a long chain is formed.
Step 3: Termination
The process gets terminated when two long-chained radicals combine to form the
polyethylene
polymer.
where (CH2 — CH2)n is a shorthand convention that represents n repeating units.
287
Polyethylene is an example of a homopolymer. This is a type of polymer where there
is only one
type of monomer. Other examples of monomers used to produce polymers are shown in
the table
below:
MONOMER POLYMER
Tetrafluoroethylene Polytetrafluoroethylene
(Teflon)
Vinyl Chloride Polyvinylchloride (PVC)
Polystyrene
Propene Polypropene (or polypropylene)
In the examples given above, ethylene (CH2 = CH2) and tetrafluoroethylene (CF2 =
CF2) are
symmetric monomers (the carbons have the same substituents) while vinyl chloride,
styrene, and
propene are asymmetric monomers (the carbons in the monomer have different
substituents).
The examples (polyethylene, polystyrene, polypropylene, and Teflon) are synthetic
polymers.
288
Practice. Ask the learners the following:
Answer Key
1. Write the structure of the polymer, tetrafluoroethylene (up to 10 carbons in
length).
2. Write the structure of polyvinylchloride (up to 10 carbons in length)
3. Write the structure of polystyrene (up to 10 carbons in length)
2. Condensation Polymerization
Teacher Tip
Emphasize that this type of chemical reaction

Condensation polymers are those formed through a condensation reaction; that is,
where does not depend on the presence of carbon-
monomers join together at the same time losing a small molecule like water as by-
product. carbon double bond in the reacting molecules.
Instead, it requires the presence of two different
kinds of functional groups on two different

Recall that when a carboxylic acid reacts with an alcohol, an ester is formed. Now
when a molecules.
monomer which has two carboxylic acid groups, one at each end, is made to react
with a second
monomer containing two –OH groups, one at each end, then many ester linkages are
formed
resulting in a polyester.
The reaction of a dicarboxylic acid and a dialcohol to produce a polyester
For example, the polymer polyethylene terephthalate (PET or sometimes called PETE)
is formed by
the reaction of terephthalic acid and ethylene glycol. PET is a polyester.
Polyethylene terephthalate
(PET)
289
If the dicarboxylic acid is made to react with a diammine (instead of a dialcohol),
then a
polyamide is formed such as nylon.
The reaction of a dicarboxylic acid and a diamine to produce a polyamide.
nylon
III. Polymer Arrangements and Structures

Polymers can be arranged in a number of ways. The arrangement of the polymer
chains affects their properties such as whether they are stiff or rigid,
crystalline or
amorphous.. For asymmetric monomers.
A linear polymer is a one where the arrangement of atoms is like that of a long
chain.
This long chain is often referred to as the backbone. Atoms or small groups of
atoms
attached to the long chain are called pendant atoms.
290
Teacher Tip
The polymer chains are very long. They can get
entangled with each other just like strands of
spaghetti pasta get entangled in a bowl of
pasta. These molecular level features are
manifested in the bulk properties of the
polymers.
The long chains are not stiff; they are flexible. They twist and bend and wrap
around one another .
They become entangled like strands of spaghetti especially in the solid state. This
makes the
polymer strong. When polymers are dissolved in solvents, the chains move very
slowly compared to
small molecules. This is due to the entanglement of the long chain strands. Thus,
polymers
dissolved in solvents can be more viscous than the pure solven.
The arrangement of the pendant atoms or pendant groups attached to the backbone
gives different
properties to the polymer. Three distinct arrangements are observed: syndiotactic,
isotactic, or
atactic.
The isotactic arrangement is where all the pendant groups or substituents

(represented by R — ) are
on the same side of the polymer chain. They pack efficiently resulting in polymers
with high melting
point, high crystallinity, and superior mechanical strength. A syndiotactic polymer
chain is one
where the substituent group alternates from left to right of the asymmetric
carbons. They pack less
efficiently than isotactic chains. In atactic polymers, the substituents occur
randomly. Therefore,
they do not pack well. These polymers are rubbery, not crystalline, and relatively
weak.
Industrial synthesis is capable of producing pure syndiotactic or only isotactic

polymers through the
use of special catalysts.
Depending on synthesis conditions, the chains can also be branched. Branched chain
polymers are
more flexible and less dense than straight chained polymers. For example, high
density
polyethylene (HDPE) polymers are used for firm plastic bottles and containers while
low density
polyethylene (LDPE) are used for plastic food bags and plastic wraps.
291
Syndiotactic
Atactic
Sometimes, the polymer chains are cross-linked as in the case of vulcanized rubber.
Rubber is a
natural organic polymer formed by the addition of the monomer isoprene. In
vulcanized rubber, the
polymer strands of isoprene are crossed linked or bridged by short sulfur chains.
The cross-linked
polymers can be visualized by the following diagram:
292
The crosslinks tie or bind the polymer strands together. Therefore, when these
crosslinked polymers
are heated, the strands cannot flow past each other. They do not melt or break
apart.
Sometimes, there are two or more different monomers that are joined together to
form a polymer.
Such is called a copolymer. Let us say that the two monomers are monomer A and
monomer B.
These two monomers may be arranged in several ways in a polymer giving different
physical
properties to the polymer:
-A-B-A-B-A-B-A-B- Alternating copolymer
-A-A-B-A-B-B-A-B-A Random copolymer
-A-A-A-A-A-B-B-B-B-B- Block copolymer
Examples of copolymers are Saran wrap, styrene butadiene rubber (used for soles of
shoes)
III. PLASTICS AND POLYMERS

What is the meaning of plastic? Are all polymers plastic? Are all plastic polymers?
The word ‘plastic’ comes from the Greek ‘plastikos’ meaning ‘to mold’. Generally,
plastics refer to
synthetic polymers. Plastics are polymers but not all polymers are plastic.
Plastics are classified into two types: thermoplastics and thermosets.

Thermoplastics are those
that keep their plastic properties: they melt when heated and harden when cooled.
On the other
hand, thermosets are permanently “set” once they are formed. They cannot be melted
or
293
reshaped; if enough heat is added, they will crack or become charred. Thermoplastic
materials are
made of long linear polymer chains that are weakly bonded to each other. When
heated, the bonds
are easily broken and the polymer chains easily glide past each other. Therefore,
they are readily
remolded. On the other hand, thermosets are made up of linear chains that are
cross-linked to one
another preventing the material from being melted and reformed.
ENRICHMENT
Teacher Tip
Show the universal recycling codes to the learners. Or hang a poster of the codes
in the classroom This may be a class activity where the students
discuss the different polymer materials in class.

for the learners to examine. Ask the learners to bring a plastic product with any
of the recycling
code listed below. Ask them to describe the material:
Alternatively, learners may submit a brief
1. What is the sample polymer material used for?
written report describing the material. The
teacher may add a few other items to be

2. What recycling code is printed on the sample?
included in the report.
3. Describe the material in terms of hardness and/or flexibility.
4. Why are recycling codes used in the plastic materials?
Source
From Recycling codes. Retrieved from https://
is.muni.cz/el/1431/podzim2013/C7935/
Recycling_codes_WIKI_ENG.pdf (5 November
2016 ), Creative Commons Attribution-Share
Alike 3.0.
294
Multiple Choice: Choose the best answer. Encircle the letter corresponding to your
chosen answer.
1. A large molecule that consists of many repeating units is called a 5. In

a ____________ reaction for the synthesis of a polymer, a small
A. Monomer
molecule is removed from the reacting materials and produced
B. Polymer as
a by product.
C. Polypeptide
A. Elimination
D. Polyethylene
B. Substitution
E. Polystyrene
C. Addition
D. Condensation
2. Each unit that comes together to form a polymer is called a ___.
E. Oxidation
A. Monomer
B. Copolymer 6 . An
example of a natural polymer is
C. Thermoset
A. Nylon
D. Amino acid
B. Dacron
E. Ethylene
C. Polyethylene
3. The reactions in which polymers are produced are called _____
D. Rubber
reactions.
E. Lucite
A. Synthesis
B. Polymerization 7.
When asymmetric alkenes polymerize (such as chloroethene to
C. Decomposition
produce PVC), the pendant group like chlorine can be arranged
D. Single displacement in
different ways. An arrangement in which the –Cl groups are
E. Oxidation
arranged on the same side of the polymer chain is called a(n)
___________ arrangement.
4. Which of the following is a requirement for monomers to be
A. Atactic
able to undergo addition polymerization?
B. Isotactic
A. The presence of an oxygen atom
C. Syndiotactic
B. The presence of a lone pair
D. Sporadic
C. The presence of a carbon to carbon double bond
E. Random
D. The presence of a nitrogen atom
E. The presence of an electronegative atom
295
8. Kevlar is a type of polymer which has a great resistance to tear. 10.
This is one of the coding symbols adopted by the plastics
Its application includes its use in making bulletproof vests and
industry for packaging materials. What is the purpose of these
radial tires. The two monomers used to make Kevlar are the
coding symbols?
following:
A. To make recycling easier by making the identification of
the plastics easier
B. To create a code that shows how the polymer ranks in
tons produced per year

When these two monomers join
C. To indicate the hardness of the polymer.
A. A molecule of CO2 will be eliminated and an ester
D. To indicate the solvent to use for the degradation
linkage will form
process.
B. Nothing will be eliminated and the two monomers will
E. C and D
be linked through a hydrogen to hydrogen bond.
C. A water molecule will be eliminated and a peptide 11. A
polyester can be formed from the reaction of
linkage will be formed.
A. Dicarboxylic acids and dialcohols
D. Nothing will be eliminated. The two monomers will be
B. Dicarboxylic acids and diammes
linked by a carbon-carbon bond.
C. Dialcohols and diammines
E. The two monomers cannot be joined.
D. Alkenes
E. Alkynes
9. Polymers that can be heated easily to form other shapes are 12.
All units in a polymer need to be from the same monomer.
known as _______.
A. True
A. Thermoplastics
B. False
B. Malleables
C. Foams 13.
Thermoplastics can only be melted once.
D. Gels
A. True
E. Rubber
B. False
14.
All polymers are considered as plastics.
A. True
B. False
296 
General Chemistry 1
120 MINS
Lesson 30: Biomolecules
Lesson Outline
Content Standard

The learners demonstrate an understanding of the properties of organic
compounds and polymers in terms of their structure.
Motivation The Food Pyramid 5
Instruction I. Carbohydrates 90
II. Proteins
The learners can illustrate the reactions at the molecular level in protein
III. Nucleic Acids
denaturation.
IV. Lipids
Enrichment Additional Information 5
Evaluation Quiz 15
1. Describe some biomolecules: proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, and
Resources
carbohydrates. (STEM_GC11OC-IIg-j-94)
McGraw-Hill.
2. Describe the structure of proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, and carbohydrates,
(2) Zumdahl, S.S. and Zumdahl, S.A (2013). Chemistry, 8th ed. Cengage
and relate them to their function (STEM_GC11OC-IIg-j-95)
Learning
(3) Joesten, Melvin & Hogg, John. The World of Chemistry. 2012.
Cengage Learning
(4) http://pslc.ws/macrog/maindir.htm
(5) http://www.cnpp.usda.gov/sites/default/files/archived_projects/
1. Distinguish the biomolecules of proteins, carbohydrates, nucleic
FGPPamphlet.pdf
acids, and lipids;
2. Give the monomers involved in the formation of the 7.
Describe the basic general features of the different levels of
biopolymers of carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids;
protein structure;
3. Give examples of common monosaccharides, disaccharides, and 8.
Explain the denaturation of proteins in terms of protein
polysaccharides used in daily life;
structure;
4. Distinguish the properties of starch, glycogen and cellulose; 9.
Describe the general features of DNA and RNA;
5. Define an amino acid and give the functional groups present in 10.
Differentiate between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids; and
the molecule; 11.
Give the general features of a triglyceride.
6 . Describe the formation of the peptide linkage;
297
1. Introduce the following learning objectives using any of the 2.
Present the keywords for the concepts to be learned:
suggested protocol (Verbatim, Own Words, or Read-aloud): a.
Carbohydrates
At the end of the lesson, I will be able to: b.
Monosaccharides
a. Distinguish the biomolecules of proteins, carbohydrates, c.
Disaccharides
nucleic acids, and lipids. d.
Polysaccharides
e.
Glucose
b. Give the monomers involved in the formation of the
f.
Fructose
biopolymers of carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids.
g.
Galactose
c. Give examples of common monosaccharides, disaccharides,
h.
Hexoses
and polysaccharides used in daily life.
i.
Sucrose
d. Distinguish the properties of starch, glycogen and cellulose. j.
Starch
e. Define an amino acid and give the functional groups present k.
Glycogen
in the molecule. l.
Cellulose
f. Describe the formation of the peptide linkage. m.
Amino acid
n.
Glycine
g. Describe the basic general features of the different levels of
o.
Peptide bond
protein structure.
p.
Dipeptide
h. Explain the denaturation of proteins in terms of protein
q.
Primary protein structure
structure.
r.
Secondary protein structure
i. Describe the general features of DNA and RNA. s.
Tertiary protein structure
j. Differentiate between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids. t.
Quaternary protein structure
k. Give the general features of a triglyceride. u.
Denaturation
v.
Nucleic acids
w.
DNA
x.
RNA
y.
Nucleotides
z.
Lipids
aa.
Fatty acids
bb.
Unsaturated fatty acid
cc.
Saturated fatty acid
dd.
Triglycerides
298
1. Ask the learners if they are familiar with the food pyramid.
2. Show the food pyramid to the class and label the food pyramid. Discuss the food
pyramid.
3. Which group will predominantly be carbohydrates?
4. Which group will predominantly be proteins?
5. Which group will predominantly provide triglycerides?
Source
USDA Food Pyramid. Retrieved from https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:USDA_Food_Pyramid.gif (5 November 2016 ), Creative Commons Attribution-
ShareAlike License.
Mention to the learners that the lesson will be on biomolecules: carbohydrates,

proteins, nucleic
acids, and lipids which are all found in the food pyramid.
299
Teacher Tip
The lesson will not dwell on the different
I. CARBOHYDRATES
forms of glucose (α-glucose and
β-glucose) as well as on the different ways

What are carbohydrates?
of representing sugars (linear and ring
Carbohydrates are compounds made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They are also
known as forms). These are beyond the scope of the
lesson. The purpose of the lesson is to

saccharides. They have the general formula Cx (H2O)y. Carbohydrates function as the
energy source of
serve as an introduction to different types

the body.
of biomolecules.
The learners can be shown the structures

A simple general classification of carbohydrates is according to the number of
sugar units (saccharides) of the carbohydrates to see commonalities
present in the molecule: monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.
and differences. However, please do not
require them to draw the structures.
Learners are also not expected to
memorize the formulas of the
carbohydrates. The learners are only
expected to understand that
carbohydrates are natural polymers
formed by linkages of monomers. They
should be familiar with the general
features of the carbohydrate molecule.
Classification of carbohydrates
300
Monosaccharides: their formula, structure and sources
MONOSACCHARIDE FORMULA STRUCTURE

SOURCES
Glucose C6 H12O6 
Fruits
Fruits
Fructose C6 H12O6 
Honey
Not naturally
Galactose C6 H12O6 
occurring
Ask the learners to look at the table above and answer the following questions:
1. What is the formula of glucose? What is the formula of fructose? What is the
formula of galactose?
2. What do you call compounds with the same formula but different structures?
3. What is the difference between the structure of glucose and the structure of
fructose?
4. How many carbon atoms do glucose, fructose, and galactose have?
Answer: They have 6  carbon atoms. Hence they are called hexoses.
5. What functional groups are present in glucose, fructose, and galactose? Ask the
learners to point
them out.
Answer: Alcohol groups and ether group.
301
When two monosaccharides join together through a condensation reaction, a
disaccharide is produced
along with a molecule of water. For instance, when two glucose units react via
condensation reaction,
the disaccharide, maltose, is formed.
Glu$+$Glu$$!$$$Glu$—$O$—$Glu$$$$+$$$$H2O$
$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$maltose$
When glucose and fructose are joined, sucrose (table sugar) is formed.
Glu$+$Fru$$$!$$$$Glu$—$O$—$Fru$$$$+$$$$H2O$
$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$Sucrose$$
When glucose and galactose are joined, lactose (milk sugar) is formed.
Glu$+$Gal$$$!$$$$Glu$—$O$—$Gal$$$$+$$$$H2O$
$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$lactose!
The reactions are condensation (dehydration) reactions shown below:
Source
Maltose formation and sucrose formation.
Retrieved rom https://
commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Maltose_formation_and_sucrose_form
Creative
ation.png (5 November 2016 ),
Commons Attribution-ShareAlike
License.
Disaccharides: their formula, structure and sources
DISACCHARIDE FORMULA STRUCTURE

SOURCES
Sugar cane
Sucrose C12H22O11 Glu - O - Fru
sugar beet
Lactose C12H22O11 Glu - O - Gal

Milk
Maltose C12H22O11 Glu - O - Glu

Germinating grain
Polysaccharides are polymers of monosaccharides. Examples of polysaccharides are

starch, glycogen,
and cellulose which are all polymers of glucose. Their general properties are given
in the table below.
Ask the learners what they notice about the names of carbohydrates?
Answer: They end with –ose.
Starch is found in plants and used as source of energy. Starch consists of two
types of glucose polymers: Source
amylose and amylopectin which differ from each other in structure. Amylose which
consists of about From A Closer Look at Carbohydrates, An
Introduction to Nutrition. Retrieved from

20% of all starch polymers has the simpler structure.
http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/
an-introduction-to-nutrition/s08-01-a-
closer-look-at-carbohydrates.html (5
November 2016 ),
Creative
Commons by-nc-sa 3.0 license.
303
The structure shown may be represented more simply by
Glu$$4$$(OGlu)n$$4$$OH$
where n is very large (about 1000 glucose units linked together by oxygen bridges).
The long chains of
starch are tightly wound in a coil. When amylose reacts with water through
hydrolysis, these oxygen
bridges break releasing glucose units.
Most of starch is made up of amylopectin, the molecules of which are even larger
than amylose. Unlike
the more linear amylose, the amylopectin molecule consists of amylose molecules
that are linked by
oxygen bridges from the end of one amylose unit to a site in another amylose chain.
Starch is not found in animals. Instead, animals use glycogen for energy storage.
Glycogen has shorter
chains than starch and is more highly branched. Because of the shorter chains and
branching, glycogen
is more readily hydrolyzed than starch
Like amylose, cellulose is a straight chain polymer consisting of glucose units.

However. In cellulose. The
glycosidic links between the glucose units in cellulose alternate in direction.
This produces a long,
straight and rigid molecule. There is no branching in cellulose. Cellulose the
major structural material
which plants are made of. Wood is largely cellulose. Humans cannot digest cellulose
but animals can.
304
II. PROTEINS
Teacher Tip
Proteins are natural polymers. They are very large molecules that are critical for
the functions of the There is no need at this point for the learners
to memorize the 20 amino acids. However, it

human body. They are made from the linkage of monomers called amino acids. Amino
acids have the is important for them to realize that because
following structure:
there are 20 amino acids, there will be
millions of different ways to connect them to
form peptides.
Notice that amino acids have two functional groups. What are they?
a. Carboxylic group (—COOH)
b. Amine group (—NH2)
There are 20 kinds of amino acids depending on the —R group. The simplest amino
acid is glycine
where R is a hydrogen atom. The body cannot make all the amino acids required by
the body and is
dependent on protein taken through food.
Two amino acids can link together through a condensation reaction with the removal
of a water
molecule. The linkage is called a peptide bond. Take the case of two amino acids
reacting to form a
dipeptide.
When many amino acids are linked together through peptide bonds, the resulting
molecule is called a Teacher Tip
polypeptide. A very large number of amino acids linked together results in a
protein. Some proteins There is no need at this point for the learners
are made up of only one polypeptide while most proteins involve assemblies of two
or more to memorize the 20 amino acids. However, it
is important for them to realize that because

polypeptides. The term polypeptide is usually used for shorter, unstructured chains
while proteins fold there are 20 amino acids, there will be
into fixed structures.
millions of different ways to connect them to
form peptides.
It is therefore possible to think of a protein as a strong of beads strung together

where each bead is an
amino acid.
Different Levels of Protein Structure

The sequence and the structure of proteins are important in determining their
functions. There are
four levels of protein structures: the primary structure, secondary structure,
tertiary structure, and
quaternary structure.
306 
The primary structure refers to the linear sequence of amino acids joined by
peptide bonds such as Teacher Tip
the sequence of amino acids below.
In the diagrams, the amino acids are
abbreviated as follows: Gly (glycine), Ile
(isoleucine), Val (valine), Glu (glutamic acid),

Gly Ile Val Glu Gln Cys Gly Cys Ala Ser Val
Cys Ser Leu Gln (glutamine), Cys (cysteine), Ala (alanine),
Ser (serine), Leu (leucine). Again, the
learners should not memorize these amino

The single bonds in the polypeptide chain allow rotation. Therefore, the
polypeptide chain can twist acids. The enumeration is given only to
and fold in a variety of ways. These folded structures are referred to as secondary
protein structures. clarify the diagram.
The two essential secondary structures are the alpha helix and the beta pleated
sheets. The
structures are stabilized by hydrogen bonds between amino acids. In the alpha-helix
structure, the
chain twists like a corkscrew while the chain takes the form of a folded sheet in
the beta pleated
structure. Several secondary structures come together forming tertiary structures.
When several
tertiary structures come together, a quaternary protein structure is formed. For
example, the protein
hemoglobin is a quaternary structure formed by four tertiary structures.
Protein Functions
Proteins are important molecules in cell. Each protein in the body has a specific
function. Some of the
types of proteins and their functions are :
a. Antibodies - proteins involved in defending the body against antigens. They are
the molecules of
the immune system.
b. Contractile proteins – responsible for body movement such as muscle contraction
c. Enzymes – proteins that catalyze (speed up) or facilitate biochemical reactions
d. Hormonal proteins – serve as messenger proteins to help coordinate some body
functions. An
example is insulin (which controls blood sugar concentration).
e. Structural proteins – are fibrous and provide support. An example is collagen
which provides
support to connective tissues.
f. Storage proteins – store amino acids like casein in milk.
g. Transport proteins – are carrier proteins which move molecules from one place to
another in the
body. An example is hemoglobin which transports oxygen.
Protein Denaturation
Denaturation is a process in which a protein loses its secondary, tertiary, or
quaternary structures. This
may be caused by physical or chemical agents like strong acid, base, inorganic
salt, heat, or solvent
which disrupt the bonds that hold the protein structures together. Denaturation
does not cause the
cleavage of the peptide bond (the primary structure). Note that a protein will lose
its biological activity
if it loses its 3-dimensional shape.
Examples of Protein Denaturation

DENATURING AGENT EXAMPLES
Heat Cooking food (boiling egg, frying an egg)
Acids and Bases Acid denatures milk proteins in the preparation
of cheese
Heavy metal ions like Ag+,
Mercury and lead poisoning
Pb2+, Hg2+
Organic compounds Chemicals used in hairstyling or hair
straightening or hair
curling
Mechanical agitation Preparation of whipped cream or meringue from egg
whites
308
III. NUCLEIC ACIDS
Nucleic acids are natural polymers with very large molar masses. The two main types
of nucleic acids
are deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). DNA and RNA are
polymers made up
of monomers in the form of nucleotides. When these nucleotides combine, they form
polynucleotides. DNA carries the genetic information passed on from parents to
children. RNA plays
an important role in protein synthesis.
Each nucleotide is made up of three parts:

1. A nitrogen base
a. Purines - adenine (A), and guanine (G)
b. Pyrimidines - cytosine (C) , thymine (T), uracil (U)
2. A five-carbon sugar
a. Deoxyribose
b. Ribose
3. Phosphate
Features of DNA and RNA
DNA RNA
Function Repository of genetic information Involved in protein
synthesis
Structure Double helix Usually single-
strands
Sugar used deoxyribose Ribose
Bases used C,T,A,G C, U, A, G
IV. LIPIDS
Lipids are a class of naturally occurring organic compounds distinguished by their
solubility in an
organic solvent (and not in water). Lipids are hydrophobic, nonpolar, and made up
mostly of
hydrocarbon chains. Some of the more important lipids are: triglycerides (fats),
saturated and
unsaturated fatty acids, waxes, phospholipids, and steroids. Some of these are
further discussed
below.
309
1. Fatty Acids
a. Fatty acids consist of a long hydrocarbon chain (typically about 12 – 18
carbons) attached to a
carboxyl group.
i. Saturated fatty acid – contains only single C-C bonds because the carbon
atoms are saturated
or filled up with hydrogens. Because their structure is straight, they can
pack well and are solid
at room temperature (e.g. fat in butter).
ii. Unsaturated fatty acids – contain carbon-carbon double bonds. When there is
only one C-C
double bond, it is called monounsaturated; if there are several C-C double
bonds, they are
called polyunsaturated. Remember that when there are double bonds, there
will be
geometric isomers (cis and trans). Because of the double bonds, they do not
pack as tightly as
saturated fatty acids. They are usually liquids at room temperature. An
example of an
unsaturated fatty acid is olive oil.
b. Fats and Oils

Fat molecules have two parts: a glycerol backbone and three fatty acid chains.
The resulting
molecule is called a triglyceride.
Glycerol 3 fatty acids Triglyceride
310
ENRICHMENT
The process of denaturation is used as an antidote to lead or mercury poisoning.
Egg whites can be
given to the person who has ingested a heavy metal. The egg whites are denatured by
the heavy
metals and a precipitate is formed. Then, vomiting is induced to eliminate the
metal-protein
precipitate.

1. What elements make up a carbohydrate? 4.
__________ is a carbohydrate that cannot be digested by
A. hydrogen, calcium, oxygen
humans.
B. hydrogen, carbon, oxygen A.
Cellulose
C. carbon, potassium, oxygen B.
Starch
D. carbon, magnesium, hydrogen C.
Glucose
E. nitrogen, carbon, oxygen D.
Fructose
E.
Maltose
2. _________ is known as “animal starch”.
A. Glucose
B. Cellulose 5. Long
chains of sugars are called _________.
C. Fructose A.
Polypeptides
D. Glycogen B.
Polysaccharides
E. Lactose C.
Polynucleotides
D.
Polyunsaturated
3. ____________ is the monosaccharide found in starch. E.
Dipeptide
A. Glucose
B. Fructose 6 . One
function of a carbohydrate is _______________.
C. Maltose A. To
provide the body with immediate energy
D. Lactose B. To
keep the heart functioning smoothly
E. Amylose C. To
store and transport genetic material
D. To
control the rate of the biochemical reactions
E. To
regulate the body’s metabolism
311
7. The carbohydrate that provides support in plants is called 11.
Biopolymers formed from the linkage of monomers in the form
__________. of
nucleotides are called
A. Chitin A.
nucleic acids
B. Dextrose B.
carbohydrates
C. Lipids C.
rubber
D. Cellulose D.
lipids
E. Amylose E.
proteins
8. Glucose, galactose and fructose are __________. 12. Enzymes

are _______
A. Disaccharides A.
monosaccharides
B. Isotopes B.
lipids
C. Polymers C.
proteins
D. Isomers D.
nucleic Acids
E. Amines E.
polysaccharides
9. The small repeating units that make up proteins are called 13. Fats and
oils are composed of what two groups of molecules?
__________. A.
glucose and fructose
A. Fatty acids B.
starch and sugar
B. Amino acids C.
water and cellulose
C. Monosaccharides D.
glycerol and fatty acids
D. Ethylene E. RNA
and DNA
E. Styrene
14. Which of
the following is a polymer of glucose?
10. The sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide is called the A.
starch
protein’s __________. B.
glycogen
A. primary structure C.
cellulose
B. secondary structure D. A nd B
C. tertiary structure E. A, B,
and C
D. ouarternary structure
E. crystal structure
312
15. What kind of molecule is represented by the structure below? 19.
The structure on the left is a(n) __________ and the structure on
CH3CH2CH2CH2CHCHCH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2COOH
the right is a(n) ________.
A. A sugar
B. A disaccharide
C. A dipeptide
D. A saturated fatty acid
E. An unsaturated fatty acid
A.
Lipid, polypeptide
16 . Table sugar is a form of B.
Carbohydrate, lipid
A. protein C.
Carbohydrate, amino acid
B. lipid D.
Nucleotide, amino acid
C. carbohydrate E.
Nucleotide, carbohydrate
D. nucleic acid
E. steroid 20.
DNA is a ________
A.
Carbohydrate
17. When a protein is boiled, it loses all levels of organization B.
Lipid
except the primary level. When this happens, the protein is said C.
Fatty Acid
to be: D.
Nucleic Acid
A. hydrolyzed E.
Protein
B. dehydrated
C. denatured
D. plasmolyzed
Answer
Key
E. folded
1. B
11. A
2. D
12. C
18. The group of biologically important organic compounds 3. A
13. D
responsible for storage and transfer of information is 4. A
14. E
5. B
15. E
A. carbohydrates 6 . A
16 . C
B. phospholipids 7. D
17. C
8. D
18. D
C. polypeptides
9. B
19. A
D. nucleic acids 10. A
20. D
E. polysaccharides
313
Biographical Notes
WYONA C. PATALINGHUG, PH.D. VIC MARIE I.
CAMACHO
Team Leader Writer
Dr. Wyona C. Patalinghug served as a Professor of Chemistry at Prof. Vic
Marie I. Camacho is currently finishing her doctoral
the De La Salle University for 26  years. She finished her doctoral degree in
Science Education at the Philippine Normal University,
and master’s degrees in Chemistry at the University of Hawaii; and finished
her master’s degree in Chemistry from the De La
and her bachelor’s degree in Chemistry at the College of the Salle
University under a DOST ESEP Scholarship Grant. Prof.
Holy School, Manila where she finished Cum Laude. She is a Camacho is
currently an Associate Professor 1 at the Philippine
member of the ASEAN University Network Quality Assurance Normal
University, where she served as the Head of the Centre of
Council (2013-2016 ) ; Lead Assessor of the ASEAN University Science for
the Mathematics and Technology. She served as an
Network Quality Assurance in Education (2007-2016 ); Director of Author and
Technical Contributor for Sci-Tech Magazine, LET
the International Quality Assurance Office DLSU (2013-2015); Reviewers, and
of various Learning Resource Materials for
Director of the Institutional Assessment and Accreditation, DLSU Advanced
Physical Sciences. She has actively participated in
(2009-2013); Vice Chancellor for Research DLSU (2007-2008); and Institutional,
National, and International conferences and
Chair of the Chemistry Department DLSU (2001-2005). workshops.
Dr. Patalinghug held consultancy work at the ASEAN University FORTUNATO B.

SEVILLA III, PH.D.
Network and Asian Development Bank (2014-2016 ); Department Writer
of Education (2015-2016 ); and Quality Assurance and Dr. Fortunato
Sevilla III is a professor in the chemistry department
Accreditation (2015-2016 ). at the
University of Santo Tomas. Dr. Sevilla’s research specializes
on
instrumentation and analytical science including the
development of
optical chemical sensors and biosensors,
She received the Award for Continuing Excellence and Service
piezoelectric
chemical sensors based on molecularly imprinted
from the Metrobank Foundation (2009), the Juan Medrano
polymers and
conducting polymers, and low-cost designs of
Service Award (2008). the National Research Council of the
chemical
equipment and instruments for chemical education. Dr.
Philippines Lifetime Achievement Award in Chemistry (1998),
Sevilla
received his master’s and doctoral degree in
Metrobank Foundation’s Outstanding Teacher (1994), British
Instrumentation and Analytical Science from the University of

Council Exchange Scientist from the University of Southampton
Manchester
Institute of Technology. He received the G.F.
UK (1995), and a JSPS Exchange Scientist at Waseda University,
Kirkbright
Award from the University of Manchester and the
Sophia University, and Tokyo University. She has a wide
Gregorio Zara
for Applied Science Philippine Association for the
experience in materials production, teaching, assessment, quality
Advancement of
Science Award in 1996 .
assurance, and a deep appreciation of Chemistry.
MARIA CRISTINA D. SINGSON program. She
was appointed as one of the Curriculum Program
Writer Leaders for of
the Assessment, Curriculum, and Technology
Ms. Maria Cristina D. Singson has been teaching Chemistry at Research
Centre, a a partnership between the University of
Pasay City West High School since 2007. She graduated with a Melbourne and
the University of the Philippines, supported by
degree in Bachelor in Secondary Education, Major in Chemistry the Australian
government.
from the Philippine Normal University Manila, and a degree in
Master of Arts in Science Education, specializing in Chemistry JANETH M.
FUENTES, PH.D.
from the same institution. She received various awards in the Technical
Editor
production of materials and in Science Teaching, including the Dr. Janeth
Morata-Fuentes is a Special Science Teacher IV and
1st Place Winner for Strategic Intervention Material for 3rd Year the Curriculum
Development Coordinator of the Philippine
High School Science (Division Level). She has attended Science High
School System - Department of Science and
workshops on developing metacognitive readers across levels, Technology.
Dr. Fuentes graduated as doctoral degree in
investigatory project making, and robotics. Chemistry
Education from the University of the Philippines Open
University,
and with a master’s degree in Education (Teaching and
MARLENE B. FERIDO, PH.D. Curriculum
Studies) from the University of Sydney, New South
Technical Editor Wales,
Australia.
Dr. Marlene B. Ferido is a Science Education Specialist V and the
She was
recognised as an Outstanding Educator by the Ministry
Chair of the Chemistry Group of the University of the Philippines
of Education,
Singapore, and a 2002 Australian Development
National Institute for Science and Mathematics Education
Scholarship
Awardee of the Australian Agency for International
Development (UP NISMED). She served as Deputy Director for
Development.
She also received the Metrobank Outstanding
Research and Extension of UP NISMED for six years and as
Teacher Award
in 2010, and the 2011 Presidential Lingkod Bayan
Deputy Director for Administration for three years.
Award from the
Civil Service Commission Honor Awards
Program.
She served as UP NISMED’s coordinator in the development of
the Curriculum Guide of Science for K to 10, in collaboration with
She has
authored and edited books for Integrated Science for
the Department of Education. She is one of the writers of
Grade 7, and
served as a resource person and speaker to various
DepEd’s Grade 7 and Grade 8 Learner’s Modules and Teacher’s
local,
national, and international teacher and student training
Guides in Science.
seminars and
workshops.
She was one of the curriculum developers for Physical Science for
the Senior High School curriculum and for the Chemistry portion
of the Grades 11 & 12 Senior High School Science, Technology,
Engineering & Mathematics (STEM) strand of the K to 12
PATRICIA MARIE W. BAUN She also
served as a contributing illustrator for The Fat Kid
Copyreader Inside,
Wordplay, FringeMNL, Tripda, and Woman, Create. She
Ms. Patricia Marie W. Baun graduated with a degree in Bachelor finished her
Bachelor of Fine Arts, Major in Information Design;
of Arts in Communication Arts from the De La Salle University and Bachelor
of Science, Minor in Management at the Ateneo de
(Cum Laude), and received the Gawad Magaaral Service Merit Manila
University.
Award. She worked as a Project Manager of the Clark
International Motor Show 2015, Creative Director of Breakfast DANIELLE
CHRISTINE QUING
Magazine, and Production Trainee of Star Cinema. She is highly Illustrator
interested in photojournalism, media communication, whole Ms. Danielle
Christine Quing graduated with a degree in
brain self mastery, and on Philippine media. Bachelor of
Arts in Multimedia Arts at the De La Salle College of
Saint Benilde.
She served as the illustrator and developer for e-
JUAN MIGUEL M. RAZON learning of
Green Jakobsen and Rakso CT. She also participated
Illustrator in the
Philippine Centre for Creative Imaging Workshop in 2016 ,
Mr. Juan Miguel M. Razon graduated with a degree in Bachelor and the Icon
Manila Workshop in 2015. She won the Successful
of Science in Management and Bachelor of Science in Coffee Table
Book Design: Case Studies on Award-Winning Book
Information Technology Entrepreneurship, Minor in Literature Design at the
Fiera de Manila 18th Graphic Expo in 2013.
from the Ateneo de Manila University. He worked at IBM
Philippines and contributed in the ideation and implementation
of the intranet-based “knowledge hub” for the employees of RENAN U. ORTIZ
IBM. He also served as the Finance Commissioner of the Ateneo Illustrator
Commission on Elections and the Vice President for Public Mr. Renan U.
Ortiz is a teacher and visual artist who has
Relations for Ateneo Kaingin. He intends to pursue a long-term collaborated
in local and international art exhibitions such as the
career in business intelligence, corporate finance, and graphic SENSORIUM at
the Ayala Museum, Populus in Singapore,
design.
Censorship_2013 Move On Asia in South Korea, and the Triumph
of Philippine
Art in New Jersey, USA. Mr. Ortiz’s solo exhibitions
RACHELLE ANN J. BANTAYAN include
versereverse at the Republikha Art Gallery. He first
Illustrator completed his
bachelor’s degree in Political Science at the
Ms. Rachelle Ann J. Bantayan is a full time graphic designer at University of
the Philippines Manila before finishing his bachelor’s
Kalibrr and in charge of designing company collaterals, online degree in Fine
Arts major in Painting at the University of the
and offline ads, infographics and graphics. She also served as the Philippines
Diliman. Mr. Ortiz is an awardee of the Cultural
Graphic Artist at Edlir Pharma where she did the layout for the Center of the
Philippines’ CCP Thirteen Artists Awards in 2012.
employee handbook, design and layout for advertisements.
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The Commission on Higher Education

in collaboration with the Philippine Normal

Teaching Guide for Senior High School

This Teaching Guide was collaboratively developed and reviewed by

Illustrator: Juan Miguel M. Razon, Rachelle Ann J. material in any

under the following terms:

appropriate credit, provide a link to

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Lesson 1: Matter and Its Properties 1 Nature of

Lesson 2: Matter and Its Various Forms 14 Lesson

Lesson 3: Measurements 19 Lesson

Lesson 4: Measurements (Laboratory) 25 Lesson

Lesson 5: Atoms, Molecules, and Ions (Lecture) 30 Lesson

Lesson 6 : Atoms, Molecules, and Ions (Laboratory) 47 Lesson

Lesson 7: Atomic Mass 52 Elements

Lecture 9: The Mole Concept and Molar Mass (Laboratory) 70 Lesson

Lesson 10: Percent Composition and Chemical Formulas 76 Lesson

Lesson 11: Chemical Reactions and Chemical Equations (Lecture) 82 of

Lesson 12: Chemical Reactions and Chemical Equations (Laboratory) 89 Lesson

Lesson 13: Mass Relationships in Chemical Reactions (Lecture) 94 of

Lesson 15: Gases (Lecture) 110 Lesson

Lesson 17: Electromagnetic Waves, Planck’s Quantum Theory, and 132

The SHS for SHS Framework, which stands for “Saysay-Husay-Sarili

SAYSAY: MEANING HUSAY: MASTERY

As Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) welcome the graduates of

College Readiness Standards Foundational Skills

Global awareness, scientific and economic literacy, curiosity,

critical thinking and problem solving skills, risk taking, flexibility

Global awareness, media literacy, technological literacy,

creativity, flexibility and adaptability, productivity and

Global awareness, multicultural literacy, collaboration and

Media literacy, multicultural literacy, global awareness,

collaboration and interpersonal skills, social and cross-cultural

Subject Description: Composition, structure, and properties of matter; quantitative

chemical properties and give examples

intensive properties and give examples

substances and to separate them

10. describe separation techniques for

mixtures and compounds

11. compare consumer products on the basis

of their components for use, safety, STEM_GC11MP-Ia-b-11

quality and cost

12. (LAB) apply simple separation techniques

such as distillation, chromatography

1. differentiate between precision and

Atoms, Molecules, and Ions 1. atomic structure

distinguishes one element from another

4. write isotopic symbols STEM_GC11AM-Ic-e-18

5. recognize common isotopes and their

ions and give examples

7. represent compounds using chemical

formulas, structural formulas and models

8. give the similarities and differences

between the empirical formula and STEM_GC11AM-Ic-e-22

molecular formula of a compound

9. name compounds given their formula and

write formula given the name of the STEM_GC11AM-Ic-e-23

10. (LAB) Practice chemical nomenclature:

writing the chemical formulas of ionic

compounds; naming ionic compounds

2. define a mole STEM_GC11S-Ie-26

Lesson 6 : Atoms, Molecules, and Ions (Laboratory) 47 Lesson

Lesson 10: Percent Composition and Chemical Formulas 76  Lesson

2. define a mole STEM_GC11S-Ie-26 

6 . describe evidences that a chemical STEM_GC11CR-If-g-36 

pressure, volume, temperature, or STEM_GC11G-Ih-i-46 

6 . apply the principles of stoichiometry to

5. write the electronic configuration of atoms STEM_GC11ES-IIa-b-56 

6 . (LAB) Investigate reactions of ions and

6 . Lewis structure of ionic compounds STEM_GC11CB-IId-g-72

16 . determine the polarity of simple molecules STEM_GC11CB-IId-g-82

6 . describe structural isomerism; give