Experiment 4: Software Simulation of a Dipole Antenna

A dipole antenna also known as Hertz antenna was introduced by a German physicist named
Heinrich Hertz. This antenna is exactly half wavelength long and has gained its excellence and reputation
in the field of broadcasting and telecommunication both for audio and video reception. This experiment
will give the basic characteristics of a dipole antenna using a software.

Introduction

An antenna is a form of transducer through which electric current, moving at a high frequency, is
converted into an electromagnetic wave, or an intercepted electromagnetic wave is converted into a flow
of alternating current. An antenna can be used to radiate energy into space, or the same type of antenna
design can be used to receive energy from space.

The study of antenna is usually offered with extensive use of mathematical equations. In this experiment
and experiments to follow, a conceptual understanding of how antennas operate will be developed and
mathematics will be minimized.

The antenna can be thought of as a transducer, a device for converting electricity into radiating energy or
for converting received energy form space back into electricity. The antenna and its feed line, the
transmission line, serve as the coupling device between the electronics equipment and the atmosphere.
The antenna provides the match to the medium and the transmission line interfaces the antenna to the
equipment. The input to the transmission line must be impedance matched to the radio transmitter,
whereas the transmitting antenna must radiate or receive energy. Transmission line are designed to
transfer energy and to minimize radiation during the transfer process.

From the basic study of alternating current, it is known that DC current tends to flow through the center
of a conductor while alternating current flows along the surface or skin of the conductor. The higher the
alternating frequency, the greater the surface energy. It is also known that every flow of electrons is
accompanied by a surrounding magnetic field, which is perpendicular to the flow of electrons. If the
direction of the electron flow changes direction by 180O, the magnetic field will also change direction by
an equal number of degrees.

In the study of capacitors, it was found that an electric field (E) existed between the plates of the
capacitor. If the charge on the capacitor as reversed in polarity, the electric field would also revers, An
antenna acts very much like a capacitor and both a magnetic field (H) and an electric field (E) are present.
The two fields, E and H, constitute an electromagnetic wave that moves away from the antenna at the
speed of light.
The electrical and magnetic fields radiated by an antenna are responsible for transmission and reception
of energy through free-space. The term free-space means that no objects on Earth are nearby to interfere
with the energy's motion.

Energy travels through space at the speed of light (3 x 108 meters/second). The characteristics of radiating
energy can be described in terms of its operating frequency or its wavelength. Equation below shows the
relationship between wavelength and frequency.

Where

 = wavelengths in meters
f = frequency in Hertz

C = speed of light (3 x 108 meters/sec) or 186,000

miles/sec

The length of an antenna is usually expressed in meters; however, in the United States, its length may also
be expressed in yards, feet, and inches. It is not unusual for an amateur radio operator to say he is
working on 80 meters, 20 meters, or 6 meters. The term is used in lieu of the term frequency.

The Electric Field

The most common type of antenna is the dipole, and it will be used to analyze the characteristics of the
propagated electromagnetic field. When a radio frequency (RF) current is applied to an antenna, an
electric field is produced.

Two metal rods serving as conductors are used to form a capacitor consisting of an upper, negative plate
and a lower, positive plate; both plates are separated by air, the dielectric material.

It should be noted that an electrostatic field is formed between the two plates (wires). Another important
feature is that on the outer edges of the capacitor the electric-field lines form an angle between the
plates. If one slowly separates the two conductors, the electric field lines bend between the two plates.

The Magnetic Field

The RF current in an antenna produces not only an electric field, but a magnetic field is also generated.
(See Sketch A of figure 1). Known as an induction field, it is composed of the familiar magnetic lines of flux.
The induction filed varies directly with the varying RF current applied to the antenna. The magnetic lines
of flux travel in a direction defined by the left-hand rule of magnetism, which states that when the thumb
points in the direction of the current flow, the fingers placed around the conductor will indicate the
direction of the magnetic flux. (See Sketch B.)

When current flows through antenna wires, as shown in Figure 2, two electric properties are generated:
an inductance with an associated magnetic field (H) and a capacitance with an electric field (E). The
antenna may be considered as a series resonant circuit, which is shown in Figure 2C.
The E and H components of an RF wave are in phase with respect to time, but 90O out-of-phase with
respect to space. The wavefront is propagated at the speed of light, and the distance between any two
corresponding points on the wavefront is equal to the wavelength. The direction of the E component
determines the polarization of the wave Figure 3 shows a vertically polarized wave. If the E and H
components are rotated 90O, it can be said that the wave is horizontally polarized. The intensity of the
wave is determined by measuring the intensity of its electric field E component.

The dipole can be oriented so that its two rods are parallel to the Earth's surface, in which case it is
referred to as a horizontal dipole. With this polarization it is also referred to as a hertz-type antenna.
Figure 4A shows the orientation of the dipole with its major power (major lobe) being in the horizontal
plane. Note that the power is concentrated into the shape of a figure-eight with little or no radiation
emanating from the ends of the dipole. Figure 4B shows a three-dimensional view of the dipole, looking at
it from its end view.

The dipole can be made out of aluminum or brass rod or tubing, or a length of copper wire. Figure 5 shoes
a half-wave dipole made from two lengths of wire strung between three insulators. Each section is
approximately a quarter wavelength.

The actual length of an antenna is slightly less than the computed length. The computed length is based
on free-space transmission form an antenna of infinitesimal diameter. Since the wire has a physical radius,
its physical length is approximately 95% of its theoretical length.
A dipole cut to a full wavelength would produce a pattern as shown in Figure 6. Note that four lobes are
produced. When the antenna is cut to a half wavelength, the radiation pattern appears as shown in Figure
6B.
The voltage and current distribution across a half-wave antenna is shown in Figure 7. It should be noted
that at the center of the dipole, the current is at maximum (meaning resistance is at minimum) and
voltage is at a maximum at the ends of the dipole (when resistance is at its maximum). A one-quarter
wavelength section has a high-voltage, high-resistance at one end and a high-current, low-resistance at
the other end.

Antenna Resistance

The resistance at the feed point (called radiation resistance) of a dipole is approximately 73 ohms. the
radiation resistance of an antenna is actually a fictitious unit. Resistance converts electrical energy into
heat and there is very little heat produced by an antenna. The radiation resistance of an antenna is shown
in the equation below.
where:

P is the power of the electromagnetic waves (radiated power)

I is the antenna current (RMS value)

R is the antenna resistance

The input resistance of an antenna is sometimes stated as an impedance (Zi). The impedance is equal to
the input resistance plus the resistance due to heat loss Since the heat loss is minimal, the input
impedance approximates the input resistance,

The input impedance of an antenna depends on several factors, such as the antenna's height, the location
of the feed point, and the type of antenna design. An antenna acts like a tuned circuit whose input
impedance at the resonant frequency of the antenna is purely resistive. Above the resonant frequency, i.e,
where the antenna is physically too long, there is an inductive reactance component present. Below the
resonance frequency, the antenna appears to be physically short and a capacitive reactance component is
present. The input impedance of the dipole (Z) is dependent upon the operating frequency and the length
of the antenna. The input impedance, therefore, may not be exactly known, and the center impedance of
the dipole may be in the range of 73 to 800, depending on the operating frequency.

Antenna Reciprocity

An antenna follows the principle of reciprocity. This implies that the transmitted radiation pattern
matches the sensitivity pattern when the antenna is used for reception.

Objective

In this experiment we will investigate a dipole antenna by using a simulation software.

Introduction to a Dipole

Just about the simplest form of antenna is called a dipole. This is a conductor that is divided in the middle
and is connected at this point to a feeder (or feed line). This feeder then connects to antenna to the
receiver, or transmitter. Feeders come in many forms. Probably, the most commonly used is coaxial cable.

Software Simulation

Run the software 4nec2 on the desktop. Open the file Laboratory.nec and two windows will pop up,
labeled Main and Geometry. Click on Edit > Input (.nec) file this will open a 3rd window with six tabs. You
are going to enter details of a dipole that has the dimensions shown in Figure 14.
1. Setting up the Dipole Dimensions

The table requires dimensions in all of the three directions. The 'y' direction we will take as being along
the direction of the wire of the dipole, the 'x' direction will be at right - angles to this, but on the same
horizontal plane, and the 'z' direction at right - angles in a vertical plane.

The 1st tab is 'Symbols', which should have no values in line. Leave this tab blank.

The 2nd tab is 'Geometry', which have tabs that describes the size and orientation of the antenna. Being a
wire, it suffices to specify the X, Y, Z coordinates of the extremities.

We want the center of the dipole at the origin of the axes. This means that two ends will be at +y and -y,
where y is half of the total length of the dipole. The dipole we want is to have a total length of 10cm, i.e.
±5cm.

Firstly, enter the figure -0.05 (for 5 cm - the dimensions are in meters) in the table under 'Y1' for Wire 1.
This is the x coordinate of one end of the dipole. To do this, move the cursor onto the required cell of the
table and click the left mouse button. A box appears round the cell, with a highlighted '0' in it. Just type
-0.05. Don't forget the minus sign!

When you press the Enter key, the -0.05 is entered into the Y1 cell. The dipole does not have any
dimension in the X, or Z directions, so the X1 and Z1 coordinates should be zero. Just press the Enter key
to accept zeros for these cells. The Y coordinate of the other end of the dipole is +0.05. Enter this in the Y2
cell - you don't actually have to type the plus sign, as the software assumes all non-minus figures to be
plus. Click the mouse on the 'Radius' Cell on the Wire 1 row, and enter 0.002 (a diameter of 4mm).

2. Setting up the Segments

In the cell under 'Seg', enter 9. This determines the number of segments the wire is divided into for
computation. The higher the number you put in here, the more accurate the result will be - but the longer
the calculations will take to perform. For a simple antenna like dipole, 9 is a good compromise. Note that
it is always better to choose an odd number.

3. Setting up the Source

In the tab 'Source/Load' we control how the antenna is fed. You need to put a source (of signal) in the
middle of it - because this is where the dipole is being fed. Now you can see why it is best to choose an
odd number of segments, so that there is a middle one! In this case we will use a voltage source with 5
segments. The phasing of the source is also set here as well as other parameters. For now, we will leave as
is.

4. Setting the Frequency

The tab 'Freq./Ground' is where we set the environment in which the antenna is placed. There should be
two settings on this tab, for our first run. The 'Frequency' should be 1500 MHz and the "Environment' set
to 'Free-Space'.

The tab 'Others' does not need changes. The tab 'Comment' is where we enter the notes that appear in
the box at the bottom of the Main window. If so desired, we could save the file under another name, in
the usual manner.

5. Running the Simulation

On the Main window, select Calculate -> 'NEC outout-data F7' or one can click the calculator icon at the
top of the window.

Either way, another window Generate will pop up and in it we should select 'Far Field Pattern' and use '2'
deg for the Resolution. Hit the 'Generate' button and the result of the simulation will appear in the new
window Pattern.
The Pattern shown is a cut of the 3-dimensional object. To see the 3-D version, click on the 3D icon, on the
top part of the Main window. This opens up the 3D Viewer window. By default, the pattern is hidden. To
see it, on the right side of this window change the setting 'Hide patt' to 'Multi-color'. You can rotate the
diagram with the keyboard arrows. The effect of the arrows depends on which pattern is being viewed.

Question 1

On the Main window, what are the values of the input impedance and of the Radiation Efficiency?

Impedance:_______________

Radiation Efficiency:________

Question 2

Does the dipole antenna have the same response in all directions in the azimuth (horizontal) plane?

________________________________________________________________________

Record your observation

________________________________________________________________________

Question 3

In what direction(s) is the response a maximum?

_______________________________________

Question 4

In which direction(s) is the response minimum?

______________________________________

Question 5

Does the dipole antenna have the same response in all directions in the elevation (vertical) plane?

_________________________________________________________________________

Record your observation

_________________________________________________________________________
Question 6

In what direction(s) is the response a maximum?

_______________________________________

Question 7

In which direction(s) is the response minimum?

_______________________________________

To end the experiment, feel free to explore the Smith Chart generated by the simulation. this is done by
selecting in the Main windows and then selecting 'Window -> Smith Chart'.