Fundamentals of Flexible

Pavement Design

  Function
  Terminology
  Types of Flexible Pavement
  Environment
  Failure mechanisms
Fundamentals  of  Flexible     Pavement design
Pavement  Design     Residential streets / Low traffic
AAPA training pavements

Function Why do we have pavements?

  To  distribute  loads  to  the  

ground  
–   most  soils,  par�cularly  
when  wet,  are  incapable  of  
withstanding  vehicle  loads    
  Provide  for  safe,  smooth  
and  efficient  movement  of  
vehicles  

Fundamentals of Flexible Terminology

Pavement Design
  Function
  Terminology
  Types of Flexible Pavement
  Environment
  Failure mechanisms
  Pavement design
  Residential streets / Low traffic
pavements

1
 Fundamentals of Flexible Types of Flexible Pavement
Pavement Design
  Conventional
  Function –  granular pavement with thin surfacing
  Deep strength
  Terminology –  asphalt wearing course and base
  Types of Flexible Pavement   Full depth

  Environment –  all asphalt layers – granular working platform required on soft

subgrades
  Failure mechanisms
  Pavement design
  Residential streets / Low traffic
pavements

Fundamentals of Flexible
Pavement Design Environmental Impacts on
Pavements
  Function
  Terminology
  Types of Flexible Pavement
  Environment   Air – oxidation
  Failure mechanisms   Moisture
  Pavement design
  Residential streets / Low traffic   Temperature
pavements

Environment - Moisture Environment - Temperature

  Asphalt  and  Seals  

–  aging  –  resul�ng  from  oxida�on  -­‐  s�ffening  
–   so�ening  at  high  temperature  -­‐  rut  
 hardening  at  low  temperature  -­‐  fa�gue  
  Cemented  
–   shrinkage  at  construc�on  
–   weakened  final  product  

2
 Fundamentals of Flexible
Pavement Design
Cracking
  Function
= environment or
  Terminology fatigue
  Types of Flexible Pavement
  Environment
Rutting
  Failure mechanisms
= deformation
  Pavement design
  Residential streets / Low traffic
pavements

Failure Mechanisms
Surfacing Failure
(poor construction /
a) Surfacing  failure   mix design)
 
Base Failure
b)    Subgrade  failure  
(poor construction /
materials / thickness
design)

Subgrade Failure
(poor drainage /
Pothole formation thickness design)

Fundamentals of Flexible Pavement Design

Pavement Design

  Func�on   The aim of pavement thickness

  Terminology   design is to determine the most
  Types  of  Flexible  Pavement   economic pavement composition that
  Environment   will provide a reliable level of service
  Failure  mechanisms   for the anticipated traffic and
  Pavement  design   operating environment.
  Residen�al  streets  /  Low  traffic  
pavements  

3
 Pavement Design Pavement Design

Pavement Design Subgrade support value

PAVEMENT PROFILE IN MECHANISTIC EMPIRICAL DESIGN METHOD

Subgrade support value Pavement Materials - Granular

4
 Pavement Materials - Granular Pavement Materials - Granular
Stiffness development in granular layers

E Layer Layer T Layer

ELayer = 0.21 ESub TLayer0.45

Approximately doubles each 150mm lift

E Sub Sub-layer

Pavement Materials – Cemented

Density is the critical issue;

compaction achievement is
difficult; a density gradient is
common; thick structures
require multi-layer and
interface bond essential

Pavement Materials – Cemented Pavement Materials – Cemented

5
Pavement Materials – Asphalt Pavement Materials – Asphalt

WMAPT Weighted Mean Annual

Mix gradation more important;
Pavement Temperature – if all traffic
large stone mixes prone to
were applied at this temperature the
segregation diminishing stiffness;
damage will (in theory) be the same as
research shows stiffness maximised
the cumulative damage at each
at or slightly fine of maximum
temperature across the traffic spectrum
theoretical density gradation
For practical purposes:
WMAPT ≈ 1.5 MAAT
Mean Annual Air Temperature

Pavement Materials – Asphalt Pavement Materials – Asphalt

Asphalt modulus relative to Asphalt modulus at traffic load

design at 5% air voids duration relative to laboratory loading

Pavement Materials – Asphalt

Asphalt beam

IPC Fatigue test apparatus

Fatigue testing of bound pavement materials.
Outputs: Flexural stiffness; Fatigue data

6
 ALF Testing Pavement Testing

Benkelman Beam

“Alf”

Traffic Loading Traffic Loading

Traffic Loading Traffic Loading

  Structural  damage  to  pavements  caused  
predominantly  by  commercial  vehicles  –  passenger  
cars  have  negligible  effect  
  Damage  related  to  the  axle  loads  and  the  number  of  
axles  or  axle  groups  (ie  tandems,  triaxles)  within  the  
traffic  flow  
  Introduced  the  concept  of  the  EQUIVALENT  
STANDARD  AXLE  to  be  able  to  aggregate  the  
damaging  effects  of  different  loads  on  different  axle  
groups  

7
 Traffic Loading Traffic Loading

2
ESA / HV 6

3
1x2x3x4x5x6

Traffic Loading Pavement Design - Empirical

Road Train

Increasing loads, tyre pressures,

greater traction effect, supersingles

Pavement Design - Empirical Pavement Design - Empirical

160 mm base CBR > 80

160 mm subbase CBR > 40

150 mm select CBR > 10

8
 Pavement Design - Empirical Pavement Design - ME
Standard axle; 80kN single axle dual tyres; circular footprint ≈ 90mm radius each

  Surface treatment
–  Spray seal – life circa 10 years
–  Asphalt < 40 – life circa 15 years
–  Asphalt > 50 – life circa 20 years
  Allow 1 for 1 replacement asphalt /
basecourse
  Design reliability circa 50%
  Good performance provided regular
maintenance
PAVEMENT PROFILE IN MECHANISTIC EMPIRICAL DESIGN METHOD

Pavement Design - ME Pavement Design - ME

Fundamentals of Flexible Pavement Design - ME

Pavement Design

In theory, there is no difference

between theory and practice.

But, in practice, there is.

Jan L A van de Snepscheut

9
 Pavement Design - ME Perpetual Pavements

Perpetual Pavements Perpetual Pavements

UK FULLY FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT CONSTRUCTION DEFLECTION HISTORIES OF IN-SERVICE
MOTORWAYS (DEFLECTOGRAPH)
0.5

WEARING COURSE
SURFACING
0.4
BASECOURSE
BITUMEN Investigatory Level
BOUND
LAYERS 0.3
ROADBASE Standard
deflection
(mm)
FORMATION 0.2
SUB-BASE
(Unbound granular material)
SUB-FORMATION 0.1
CAPPING LAYER FOUNDATION
(Select granular material if subgrade CBR <5) Conventional Life Curve
0
SUBGRADE 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Cumulative standard axles (millions)

Perpetual Pavements Perpetual Pavements

500

450
80 msa
400
Total Asphalt Thickness (mm)

GRADE 1
350
GRADE 3
300
GRADE 6
250
GRADE 9
200

150

100

50

0
1 10 100 1000
Design Life (msa)

10
 Fundamentals of Flexible Residential Streets and Low
Pavement Design Traffic Pavements
  Functions of a pavement
  Environment
  Asphalt mix design
  Failure mechanisms
  Special problems
  Preliminary design factors
  Pavement design   Highway vs Residential
  Residential streets / Low traffic
pavements

Residential Street / Low Residential Street / Low

Traffic Pavements Traffic Pavements
  Scala Report   ARRB TR Trial
–  shape loss not related to strength or degree of cracking
–  2 conventional mixes with C170 & C320 binder
–  surface cracking usually preceded shape loss
–  gap graded mix
–  environmental conditions (eg temperature, rainfall, tree root
systems, seasonal ground moisture) cause shape loss –  VicRoads Type L mix
–  importance of construction   Gap Graded mix performed better
  backfilling trenches, appropriate pavement materials, high
uniform compaction of pavement materials   WA study (Rimpas 1998) found that gap graded mixes
–  importance of maintenance achieved higher compaction (lower in-situ air voids)
  crack sealing, overlays, reseals, surface enrichment and better performance

Residential Street / Low Residential Street / Low

Traffic Pavements Traffic Pavements
  Special Problems   Solutions
–  ensure sound, well-compacted base
–  inappropriate asphalt mixes used
–  avoid very thin layers of dense graded asphalt
–  poor base compaction
–  use more workable mixes e.g. well sanded fine gap graded
–  use of thin asphalt layers which cool rapidly,
making compaction difficult to achieve   Conclusions
–  distress generally not load-associated and usually confined to
  asphalt needs to be compacted before its temperature falls
below 90°C the surfacing
–  require appropriate mix design, construction
–  mixes crack and ravel due to binder hardening
–  timely maintenance
caused by high in-situ voids

11
 Comparison of Design Aims Fundamentals of Flexible
(in approximate priority order) Pavement Design
RESIDENTIAL MIX HIGHWAY MIX

 
DENSITY – LOW AIR VOIDS STABILITY – RESISTANCE TO
HIGH BITUMEN CONTENT DEFORMATION Functions of a pavement
IMPERMEABILITY SUFFICIENT BITUMEN
FLEXIBILITY
CONTENT – COHESION
– FATIGUE RESISTANCE   Environment
MAIN AIM – WORKABILITY STABILITY – MAIN AIM   Failure mechanisms
HOW ACHIEVED?
  Preliminary design factors
COARSE GRADING
HIGHER BITUMEN CONTENT ANGULAR/CRUSHED FINES   Pavement design
ROUNDED/SMOOTH FINES ROUGH TEXTURED
SOFTER BITUMEN BINDER AGGREGATE
HARD BITUMEN BINDER
  Residential streets /
Low traffic pavements
COMMON TO ALL: THE NEED FOR CAREFUL COMPACTION CONTROL!

Fundamentals of Flexible
Pavement Design

Whenever a theory appears to you as

the only possible one, take this as a
sign that you have neither
understood the theory nor the
problem which it was intended to
solve.
Carl Popper

12