Rock Properties Lab - PUT

Reservoir Rock Properties Lab
Report DM1
PETROLEUM
UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY
ROUTINE CORE ANALYSIS

REPORT
Group#BM3
1-Mehdi Imanian 8452003

2-Hamed Aslanian 8452001
3-Yousef Jamali 8453010
Laboratory Instructor:
Mr.Majde Yazdi
Submitted to petroleum laboratory department of

petroleum engineering
P.U.T
Ahwaz-Iran
Fall.2007
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LIST OF CONTENT
1-Core sampling………………………………3
2-core washing………………………………..11
3-Boyles two cell………………………………15
4- Gas permeability …………………………..24
5- Saturation …………………………………36
6- Liquid permeability ………………………46
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7- Extraction…………………………………53
8-Boyles one Cell. …………………………..59
9-Retort method. …………………………..65
10-Refrences…………………………………72
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Experiment 1:
Core Sampling
Outline :
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Knowledge of petrochemical and hydrodynamic properties of reservoir rocks is of

fundamental importance to the petroleum engineer. These data are obtained from two
major sources: Core analysis and Well logging.
We try to present some details about the analysis of cores and review the nature and
quality of the information that can be deduced from cores.
Core Analysis
Core analysis is the starting point for a wide range of geologic and engineering
services provided by Core Laboratories. The preservation and preparation of core
samples prior to analysis can have a significant effect on the quality of data
subsequently generated and it is therefore vital that the methods to be used are
carefully planned prior to cutting the core or commencing the analysis programmed.
The preparatory procedures requiring careful planning can be subdivided into:

-Well site handling and preservation
-Core receipt in the laboratory
-Sample screening
-Core sampling
-Sample cleaning
After the samples have been prepared the following conventional measurements can
be performed:
-Fluid saturations
-Permeability
-Porosity
-Additional services
1. Well site Handling and Preservation:

Core analysis quality starts with correct well site handling. It is vital that the person
who handling the core at the well site should be fully trained and aware of the need
for careful attention to be given to the orientation, marking and preservation of the
core.
The important preservation methods are:
-Immersion of core in non-reactive liquids
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-Wrapping and dipping in heat strippable plastics

-Resin stabilization for unconsolidated or friable cores
-Use of laminates such as protectors
2. Core Receipt in the Laboratory:

Upon receipt of core at the laboratory the first operation is to review the well site
information by checking box logs, depths and the core orientation.
Prior to undertaking any core cutting operations the surface core gamma measurement
is undertaken. Gamma instruments provide the total count and the relative counts of
potassium, thorium and uranium. The surface core gamma log measurement is useful
for checking the core depth with the down hole gamma log.
3. Sample Screening:
Prior to sampling the core for core analysis it is necessary to select the correct cutting
lubricant, solvents to be used for cleaning and method for drying samples. This can
only be done if the mineralogy of the sample is known and the type, amount and
distribution of any delicate clays are recognized. It is recommended therefore that the
core be screened using X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy and detailed
thin section analysis.
4. Core Sampling:
It is important that the samples selected for analysis are representative of the
formations cored.
Plug samples will be drilled from the core using a non-reactive fluid (formation brine,
depolarized kerosene, mineral oil and dead crude can be used); the selection of the
fluid will be project specific and depend upon the post plugging operation and rock
type. Samples used are 1 or 1.5 and a half inches in diameter and up to 3 inches in
length.
The plug trims are retained and may be used during the study for thin section
preparation, or mercury injection. Trims are also useful for giving an indication of
plug porosity when samples have been prepared by miscible solvent displacement and
proceed for testing without pore volume determination.
Cores are obtained during the drilling of a well by replacing the drill bit with a
diamond core bit and a core barrel. The core barrel is basically a hollow pipe
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receiving the continuous rock cylinder, and the rock is inside the core barrel when
brought to surface.
Continuous mechanical coring is a costly procedure due to:

-The drill string must be pulled out of the hole to replace the normal bit by core bit
and core barrel.
-The coring operation itself is slow.
-The recovery of rocks drilled is not complete.
-A single core is usually not more than 9 m long, so extra trips out of hole are
required.
Coring should therefore be a detailed programmed, especially in production wells. In

an exploration well the coring cannot always be accurately planned due to lack of
Knowledge about the rock. Now and then there is a need for sample in an already
drilled interval, and then sidewall coring can be applied.
During drilling, the core becomes contaminated with drilling mud filtrate and the
Reduction of pressure and temperature while bringing the core to surface results in
gas dissolution and further expansion of fluids.
The fluid content of the core observed on the surface cannot be used as a quantitative
measure of saturation of oil, gas and water in the reservoir. However, if water based
mud is used the presence of oil in the core indicates that the rock information is oil
bearing.
When the core arrives in the laboratory plugs are usually drilled 20-30 cm apart
throughout the reservoir interval. All these plugs are analyzed with respect to
porosity, permeability, saturation and lithology. This analysis is usually called routine
core analysis. The results from routine core analysis are used in interpretation and
evaluation of the reservoir. Examples are prediction of gas, oil and water production,
definition of fluid contacts and volume in place, definition of completion intervals etc.
Data from routine core analysis and from supplementary tests and the application of
these data area summarized below.
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Routine core analysis:

Data Applications
Porosity Storage capacity
Permeability Flow capacity
Saturations Define the mobile hydrocarbons (productive zones and contacts), type
of hydrocarbons
Lithology Rock type and characteristics (fractures, layering etc)
Special core analysis includes several measurements with the objective of obtaining
detailed information about multiphase flow behavior such as Oil and water analysis
densities, viscosities, interfacial tension, composition ,etc
Special core analysis gives information about the distribution of oil, gas, and water in
the reservoir (capillary pressure data), residual oil saturation and multiphase flow
characteristics (relative permeability). Measurements of electrical and acoustic
properties are occasionally included in special core analysis. This information is
mainly used in the interpretation of well logs.
The effect of pressure and temperature on rock and fluid properties is in some
reservoir formations significant, and laboratory measurements should therefore be
made at, or corrected to, reservoir conditions wherever possible. Included in special
core analysis is in some cases detailed petro graphical analysis of rocks (grain size
distribution, clay identification, digenesis etc.). Wetability analysis and special tests
for enhanced oil recovery (EOR) are also often part of special core analysis.
Sidewall Core Analysis:

In sidewall coring a wire line-conveyed core gun is used, where a hollow
cylindrical “bullet” is fired in to the wall of the hole. These plugs are small and
usually not very valuable for reservoir engineers.
Full diameter core analysis, sometimes called whole core analysis, allows for
determination of rock properties in complex lithology such as carbonates and
fractured or vugular rock that would be difficult to represent with plug type analysis.
-Percussion sidewall cores:
Data provided by the analysis of percussion cores has been in use in the industry for
more than half a century. The analysts at Core Laboratories are trained in methods of
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analysis, which will provide to the client a reliable, fast and accurate data set that can
aid in completion decisions.
Data normally provided include porosity (summation of fluids method), permeability
(enhanced by Laser Particle Size Analysis), fluid saturations, and description of
probable production, sample quality index and lithological description. Digital
photography, both white and ultra-violet and Laser Particle Size Analysis are often
added for a more complete evaluation.
-Rotary Sidewall Cores:

… …
Rotary tools have provided samples, which are suitable for all tests, and they can be
provided on plug samples , drilled from a conventional core. Fluid saturations may be
determined by either the Dean-Stark method or the summation of fluids technique.
Porosity and permeability may be measured in a core holder, at stressed conditions, as
with any conventional plug sample. The fact that one point may have to be chosen to
represent many feet of reservoir rock makes this method of sampling less desirable
than a full section of conventional core, but reliable data may certainly be acquired for
the sample recovered. Rotary cores are most often quite suitable for more advanced
testing when required.
-Petrography Service:
Thin section, grain size, scanning electron microscope and XRD analyses are all
provided in house for rapid turnaround with high quality results.
Schematic:
In the laboratory we apply a special machine run on electricity to get plug samples
from a rock. This machine consists of tree parts:
The first part, which is used to get plug sample, is the coring bit, which is a hollow
cylindrical tube. When sampling the rock, this tube rotates and imbeds the rock,
which is kept tightly and cuts the desired plug sample. This coring bit is conducted to
a bed, which can move horizontally by rotating the handle beside the bed.
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The second part of this machine is a rotating cutter by which you can cut the sample
to shorten it and make it fit the rubber sleeve, which is used in reservoir rock
experiments.
The third part is a rotating file, which is used to smooth the side surface and the bases
of the plug.
When applying each of these three parts a water-circulating system keeps them cool
to prevent them from being easily damaged, since they produce a large amount of heat
when rotating and dealing with the rock.
We make a hammer to release the cutting plug after using the first part.
Procedure:
First keep the rock tightly against the coring bit in a way that it does not move or
vibrate. Start the apparatus and turn the handle, which cause the bed at the tip of
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which the coring bit is connected move. Make sure to turn the handle slowly. After
the bit cuts a plug size sample, move the bed back slowly to release the bit from
rotating bit.
Then turn off the machine. Kick the rock on the back by a hammer so that the plug
gets released. Make the surface of the obtained smooth by using the machine if there
is any roughness on its surface.
Conclusions and Recommendations:
To perform the experiment more accurately follow these recommendations:

-Make sure that the water cycle is working both when you are getting the plug and
when you are smoothing the plug sample.
-Seize the rock tightly so that it cannot vibrate or move when you are sampling.
-Select an appropriate piece of rock to get a plug sample from it. What we mean by an
appropriate rock is a rock, the surface of which is as smooth as possible.
-Try to move the bed as slowly as possible because if you do not so, the plug or bit
may be damaged easily.
-When working with the plug-sampling machine, wear eyeglasses and suitable cloth.
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Experiment 2:
Core Washing
Outline :
Before measuring porosity and permeability. the core samples must be cleaned of residual fluids
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and thoroughly dried. The cleaning process may' also be apart of fluid saturation. The cleaning
process is commonly performed extraction apparatus such that indicated in Figure I. The samples
are placed in extractor with a solvent (pentane. naphtha. toluene, carbon tetrachloride, etc.) and
boiled for several hours. This method of cleaning is not entirely satisfactory, and other methods are
employed.
Centrifuge Flushing:
Centrifugal extractors which cycle clean solvent through the sample have several obvious
advantages in that they produce a cleaner sample in much less time. After extraction. the samples
are oven-dried and after the sample has cooled it is ready for the necessary testing.
The other method at' cleaning (he core is .ASTM extraction. This method is used for determining
fluid saturation by extraction with a solvent extraction can be accomplished by a modified ASTM
method. [n (he standard distillation test the core is placed so (hat a vapor or toluene, gasoline. or
naphtha rises through (he core and is condensed to reflux back over the core. This process leaches
OU( (he oil and water in the core. The water and extracting fluid are condensed and are collected in
a graduated receiving tube, The water settles to the bottom of the receiving tube because of its
greater density. and the extracting fluid refluxes back into the main heating vessel. The process is
continued until no more water is collected in the receiving cube.
DIRECT INJECTION SOLVENT:
A special method or' cleaning whole core samples is shown in Figure 2. The cores are
placed in the core chamber through the open end. An O-ring cap is screwed in placed and the
chamber is then tilled "\with gas co a pressure equal to chat or" the gas dissolved in the solvent. Next.
this gas is displaced at constant pressure by the solvent gas mixture. Then the chamber is pressured
up by means of the hydraulic pump to approximately tour or rive times the solvent-gas pressure.
When liquid flow into (he cores cases. the core chamber de-pressured rapidly co atmospheric
pressure: the cores are left submerged in solvent until most of the gas has flowed from the cores. The
solvent is then drained off and the cycle is repeated.
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Schematic:
Procedure:
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A soxhlet extraction apparatus is the most common method for cleaning sample and is routinely
used by most laboratories.
a slow boil in a Pyrex flask: its Vapor move upwards and [he core becomes
' -
engulfed in the toluene vapors (at approximately 1100C). Eventual water within the core sample in
the thimble will be vaporized. The toluene and Water vapors enter the inner; chamber of the
condenser: the cold Water circulating about the inner chamber condenses oath vapors to
immiscible liquids. Recompensed toluene together with liquid water falls from the base of the
condenser onto the core sample in the thimble: the coquille soaks the core sample and dissolves
any oil with which it come into Contact. When the liquid level within the Soxh1et cube reaches the
top of the siphon tube arrangement. the liquids within the Soxhlet tubes are automatically emptied
by a siphon effect and flow into the boiling flask. The toluene is then ready to start another cycle.
A complete extraction may take
Several days to several weeks in the case of low API gravity crude or presence of heavy
Residual hydrocarbon deposit within the core .low permeability rock may also require a long
extraction time.
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Experiment 3:
Boyle’s Two Cell
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outine:
Porosity Definition:
From the viewpoint of petroleum engineers, the two most important properties of a
reservoir rock are porosity and permeability. Porosity is a measure of storage capacity
of a reservoir. It is defined as the ratio of the pore volume to bulk volume, and is may
be expressed as either a percent or a fraction. In equation form:
Pore Volume Grain Vol. - Bulk Volume

φ= 
Bulk Volume Bulk Volume
Matrix Pore space

Two types of porosity may be measured: Total or absolute porosity and Effective
porosity. Total porosity or absolute porosity is the ratio of all the pore spaces in a rock
to the bulk volume of the rock.
Effective porosity is the ratio of interconnected void spaces to the bulk volume. Thus,
only the effective porosity contains fluids that can be produced from wells and may
also be termed the available pore space, since oil and gas, to be recovered, must pass
through interconnected voids. A pumice or scoria, for example, though it has a high
total porosity, has a low effective porosity.
Porosity may be classified according to its origin as either primary or secondary.
Primary or original porosity is developed during deposition of the sediment. Some
geologic process subsequent to formation of the deposit causes secondary porosity.
These changes in the original pore spaces may be created by ground stresses, water
movement, or various types of geological activities after the original sediments were
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deposited. Fracturing or formation of solution cavities often will increase the original
porosity of the rock.
For a uniform rock grain size, porosity is independent of the size of the grains. A
maximum theoretical porosity of 48% is achieved with cubic packing of spherical
grains, Rhombohedral packing, which is more representative of reservoir conditions
has the porosity of 26%. This two arrangement of grains are shown above.
Porosity varies greatly within most reservoirs, both laterally and vertically. If porosity
is measured for each foot of core taken from the reservoir rock, as is the common
practice, even some of the most uniform-appearing rocks show rapid and marked
changes in porosity.
The porosity of most reservoirs ranges from 5 to 30 percent and is most commonly
between 10 and 20 percent. Carbonate reservoirs generally have slightly less porosity
than sandstone reservoirs, but the permeability of carbonate rocks may be higher.
A reservoir having a porosity of less than 5 percent is generally considered
noncommercial or marginal unless there are some compensating factors, such as
fractures, fissures, vugs, and caverns, that are no; revealed in the small sections of the
rock cut by the core or the well bore.
Sedimentary rocks consist of grains of solid matter with varying shapes which are
more or less cemented, and between which there are empty spaces. It is these empty
spaces that are able to contain fluids such as water or liquid or gaseous hydrocarbons
and to allow them to circulate. In this case the rock is called porous and permeable.
While porosity of reservoir rock is frequently stated as acre-feet of pore space, or as
volume in barrels per acre-foot of reservoir rock. Since there are 5.6146 cubic feet per
U.S. barrel of 42 gallons, an acre-foot has a volume of 7,758 barrels.
Porosity Measurements of Core Plugs:

From the definition of porosity, it is evident that the porosity of a sample of porous
material can be determined by measuring any two of the three quantities: Bulk
volume, pore volume or grain volume. The porosity of reservoir rock may be
determined by
 Core analysis
 Well logging technique
 Well testing
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The question of which source of porosity data is most reliable can not be answered
without reference to a specific interpretation problem. These techniques can all give
correct porosity values under favorable conditions. The core analysis porosity
determination has the advantage that no assumption needs to be made as to mineral
composition, borehole effects, etc.
However, since the volume of the core is less than the rock volume which is
investigated by a logging device, porosity values derived from logs are frequently
more accurate in heterogeneous reservoirs.
Bulk Volume Measurement:

Although the bulk volume may be computed from measurements of the dimensions of
a uniformly shaped sample, the usual procedure utilizes the observation of the volume
of fluid displaced by the sample. The fluid displaced by a sample can be observed
either volumetrically or gravimetrically. In either procedure it is necessary to prevent
the fluid penetration into the pore space of the rock.
This can be accomplished
1. By coating the sample with paraffin or a similar substance,
2. By saturating the core with the fluid into which it is to be immersed, or
3. By using mercury.
Gravimetric determinations of bulk volume can be accomplished by observing the

loss in weight of the sample when immersed in a fluid or by change in weight of a
pycnometer with and without the core sample.
Pore Volume Measurement:

All the methods measuring pore volume yield effective porosity. The methods are
based on either the extraction of a fluid from the rock or the introduction of a fluid
into the pore spaces of the rock.
One of the most used methods is the helium technique, which employs Boyle’s law.
The helium gas in the reference cell isothermally expands into a sample cell. After
expansion, the resultant equilibrium pressure is measured. The Helium porosimeter
apparatus is shown schematically in Fig. 2.
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Helium has advantages over other gases because:

1. Best regards,Its small molecules rapidly penetrated small pores,
2. It is inert and does not adsorb on rock surfaces as air may do,
3. Helium can be considered as an ideal gas (i.e., z = 1.0) for pressures and
temperatures usually employed in the test, and
4. Helium has a high diffusivity and therefore affords a useful means for
determining porosity of low permeability rocks.
Fig2.shematic of prosimeter
The schematic diagram of the helium porosimeter shown in Fig..2 has a reference
volume V1, at pressure p1, and a matrix cup with unknown volume V2, and initial
pressure p2.
The reference cell and the matrix cup are connected by tubing; the system can be
brought to equilibrium when the core holder valve is opened, allowing determination
of the unknown volume V2 by measuring the resultant equilibrium pressure p.
(Pressure p1and p2 are controlled by the operator; usually p1 = 100 and p2 =0 psig).
When the core holder valve is opened, the volume of the system will be the
equilibrium volume V, which is the sum of the volumes V1 and V2. Boyle’s law is
applicable if the expansion takes place isothermally. Thus the pressure-volume
products are equal before and after opening the core holder valve:
p1V1 + p2V2 = p(V1 + V2)
Solving the equation for the unknown volume, V2:
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( P  P1 )V1
V2 
P2  P
Since all pressures in this equation must be absolute and it is customary to set p1 =
100 psig and p2 = 0 psig, this equation may be simplified as follows:
V1 (100  P)
V2 
P
Where V2 in cm3 is the unknown volume in the matrix cup, and V1 in cm3 is the
known volume of the reference cell. p in psig is pressure read directly from the gauge.
Small volume changes occur in the system, including the changes in tubing and
fittings caused by pressure changes during equalization.
A correction factor, G, may be introduced to correct for the composite system
expansion. The correction factor G is determined for porosimeter before they leave
the manufacturer, and this correction is built into the gauge calibration in such a way
that it is possible to read the volumes directly from the gauge.
Schematic:
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The apparatus consists of a panel known as unit panel. The panel is comprised of a
gauge pressure, a manometer, 3 valves and 2 cells. The gauge pressure is used to
measure the pressure in the first cell known as reference cell. The equilibrium
pressure in the experiment is measured by using the manometer. The three valves are
as follows:
Inlet valve, which lets the gas enter the reference cell. Expansion valve, which lets the
gas occupying the reference cell, expand in both cells. Exhaust valve, which is applied
to let the gas in the apparatus out of the apparatus.
Procedure:
1. Evacuate the whole apparatus using the exhaust valve.
2. Having the exhaust valve and the expansion valve closed, open the inlet valve
so that gas can enter the reference cell. Close the valve as the pressure gauge
indicates 30 inHg.
3. Open the expansion valve and record the equilibrium pressure indicated by the
manometer.
4. Open the exhaust valve and let the gas in the cells exist.
5. Having the bulk volume of rigid sample measured, place it in the sample cell
and seal it up.
6. Repeat steps 1 to 4 inclusive.
7. Having the bulk volume of plug sample measured, put it in the sample
chamber and seal it up.
8. Repeat steps 1 to 4 inclusive.
9. Carry out the experiment again as explained above talking the reference
chamber pressure as 60 inHg.
Data&Data analyses:
D1=37.5mm D2=37.45mm D3=37.6mm
Dav=(D1+D2+D3)/3 Dav=37.52mm
H1=36.15mm H2=36.00mm H3=36.1mm
Hav=(36.15+36.00+36.1)/3=36.08mm
Hav=36.08mm
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Vb= Plug sample bulk volume = Dav2   / 4  Hav=  / 4  3.752  3.608=39.89 cm3
2
Vst = Rigid sample bulk volume = 10mlit=10 cm3

P1VR =P2 (VE+VR)
P1 (VR-Vst) = P'2 (VR+VE-Vst)
P1(VR-VG) = P"2 (VR+VE-VG)
Where:
VR = volume of reference chamber
VE= volume of expansion chamber
Vst= bulk volume of rigid sample
VG = grain volume of plug sample
P1 = pressure in reference chamber
P2 = manometer pressure reading when using neither rigid sample nor plug sample
P'2 = manometer pressure reading when using rigid sample
P"2 = manometer pressure reading when using plug sample
P1= 63 in Hg
P2= 11.5 in Hg
P'2 = 10.8 in Hg
P"2 =9 in Hg
63VR =11.5 (VE+VR)

63 (VR-10) = 10.8 (VR+VE-10)
63(VR-VG) = 9(VR+VE-VG)
Solving these thee equations simultaneously gives:

VR= 136.122 cm3
VE = 609.556 cm3
VG= 34.53 cm3
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Conclusion and Recommendations:

Comparing the unknown volumes VR, VE, and VG obtained at two pressures, 40 in Hg
and 60 in Hg, one may conclude that there is an appreciable difference between the
volumes, respectively at the two pressures. This difference shows the effect of
pressure P1 in the experiment. That is why we performed the experiment twice at two
different pressures to show the effect of pressure on the experiment results.
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Experiment 4:
Gas Permeability
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Outline:
Permeability is a property of the porous medium and it is a measure of capacity of the
medium to transmit fluids. In other words permeability is the property that permits the
passage of a fluid through the interconnected pores of a rock without damage to or
displacement of the rock particles. Permeability is a tensor that in general is a function
of pressure.
Usually, the pressure dependence is neglected in reservoir calculations, but the
variation with position can be pronounced. Very often the permeability varies by
several magnitudes, and such heterogeneity will ofcourse influence any oil recovery.
In other hands permeability is the most important single property of a reservoir rock.
Permeability, in the geology of petroleum, is not absolute but relative; a rock is
termed permeable if an appreciable quantity of fluid will pass through it in a short
time (for example, an hour); it is termed impermeable if the rate of passage is
negligible.
It is recognized, however, that nearly all rocks have some permeability when
considered in terms of long periods of geologic time and low-viscosity gases and
liquids.
Darcy’s Law:
The unit of measurement of the permeability of a rock in the CGS system has been
named the darcy after Henri Darcy, who experimented with the passage of liquids
through porous media in 1856. Darcy's law is expressed by the equation:
kA dp
q= 
 dx
In which:
q is the volume flux (Flowrate) in centimeters per second for horizontal flow,
k is the permeability constant in darcy,
A is the cross-sectional area in square centimeters,
µ is the fluid viscosity in centipoises, and
dp/dx is the hydraulic pressure gradient in atmosphere per centimeter.
The permeability in SI system has dimension of m2.
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This equation defines completely the viscous or laminar flow of homogeneous fluids
through porous media of uniform packing and of uniform cross section.
There are four conditions that are required for this equation to be valid:
1. Creeping flow, It means that the Reynolds’s number based on superficial
velocity must be on the order of 1.
2. The porous media is not reactive with the flowing fluid.
3. No accumulation.
4. Single-phase flow
For a given value of k the flow rate through any porous block of rock is thus
proportional to the difference in pressure across the block and to the area of the block,
and inversely proportional to the viscosity of the fluid and to the length of the block.
The permeability of average reservoir rocks generally range between 5 and 1000 md.
A rough idea of one darcy is obtained if one considers a cube of sand one foot on a
side. If the sand has a permeability of one darcy (1000 md), this one-foot cube will
pass approximately one barrel of oil per day with a one-pound pressure drop.
Commercial production has been obtained from rocks whose permeability were as
low as 0.1 md, but such rocks may have highly permeable fracture systems that are
not revealed in the standard laboratory analysis.
Permeability, along with porosity, varies greatly both laterally and vertically in the
average reservoir rock. A reservoir rocks whose permeability is 5 md or less is called
tight sand or a dense limestone, according to its composition. A rough field appraisal
of reservoir permeability is:
Fair 1.0-10 md
Good 10-100 md
Very good 100-1000 md
The permeability of a reservoir rock is commonly determined in the laboratory by

testing cores and pieces of core in a permeameter. Permeameters differ in design but
generally consist of a core holder, a pump for forcing fluid through the core,
manometers to measure the pressure drop across the core, and a flow meter for
measuring the rate of flow of the fluid through the core.
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Laboratory methods are standardized so that measurements may be made rapidly and
yet with sufficient accuracy for most reservoir problems. The test samples are
generally cylindrical cores, 2 cm in diameter and 2-3 cm in length.
The fluid used in measuring the permeability of a reservoir rock is generally air or dry
gas such as nitrogen, and the pressure applied is the lowest that will cause a
measurable rate of flow.
Serious errors result from pressures that cause turbulent flow. Air is most commonly
used because it has little or no reaction with the rock and does not cause any
permanent change in the permeability. Furthermore, permeability measurements made
with air are comparable with one another.
Using Darcy equation, one is able to determine the permeability of the porous media,
k. Although liquids display a k value that depends on the media only, gases display a
k value that also depends on the identity of the gas and the pressure differential across
the media.
Several factors tend to make permeability measurements using air/nitrogen higher

than permeability measurements using reservoir fluids:
1. The sample is dried, and all gas, oil, and water are extracted from it before
permeability measurements are made. Since most reservoir rocks are water-wet (that
is, a thin film of reservoir water envelops each particle), the permeability of the dried
specimen to air will be different from that of the normal water-wet specimen to gas or
oil.
2. Reservoir rocks almost always contain some clay minerals, many chemically
unstable. Some of these take up water and swell to an extent depending on the
character of the water. As the water is eliminated in the laboratory preparation of the
sample, the clay minerals may either lose their water or break up into smaller
particles, and either of these changes modifies the permeability measurement of the
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rock. Colloidal clay material in the reservoir rock may become loosened within the
sample, as it is being cleaned and dried. Thus fine pores may become clogged, or at
least the pore pattern may be changed from what it was in the reservoir.
Where it is planned to flush the reservoir rock with water, as in water flooding for
secondary recovery operations, it is desirable to make special permeability
measurements with the same water that is to be used. What would then be measured is
permeability to water, and that is generally lower than permeability to air. The
efficiency and success of secondary recovery operations, in which water is pumped
into the reservoir to drive or flush oil out of the pores, depend largely on using water
that does not swell the clay materials present in the rock.
3. Incomplete desaturation of the core may cause air trapping, or Jamming action.
Thus the resistance to flow is markedly increased where gas and liquid globules
alternate in a capillary-sized channel, as, for example, air globules in water or gas
globules in oil. When liquids are used for permeability tests, therefore, extreme care
must be taken to eliminate all gas and air from the specimen tested; otherwise the
permeability will be unduly low.
4. Permeability is independent of the fluid passing through the rock and also of the
differential pressure. The permeability of a rock to gas, however, is greater than its
permeability to liquid, probably largely due to the slippage of the gas along the rock
wall, which does not occur with liquids. When air or other gas is used for the
measurement, the higher the pressure, the smaller the volume, and consequently the
mean free path of the gas molecules is greatly reduced until at high pressures gases
and liquids are very similar.
This variation with the identity and pressure of the gas is known as slippage. This
effect was originally detected with gas flow through capillary tubes, and becomes
more pronounced when the diameter of the capillary tubes approach the mean free
path of the gas molecule. The mean free path is a function of the molecular weight
and kinetic energy of a gas. We know this as Klinkenberg Effect.
For equal pressures, a small molecule in the gas phase will exhibit significantly more
slippage when traveling through the medium than a larger gas molecule, resulting in a
more positive deviation from the effective liquid permeability. For a liquid that totally
fills the media, there will be no slippage.
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Klinkenberg Effect:
Klinkenberg has reported variations in permeability determined by using gases as the
flowing fluid compared to those obtained when using non-reactive liquids. These
variations were considered to be due to slippage, a phenomenon well known with
respect
to gas flow in capillary tubes.
The phenomenon of gas slippage occurs when the diameter of the capillary openings
approach the mean free path of the gas. The mean free path of a gas is a function of
molecular size and the kinetic energy of the gas. Therefore, permeability of gas
depends on factors, which influence the mean free path, such as temperature, pressure
and the molecular size of the gas.
The effect of gas slippage on the k values was identified and quantified by
Klinkenberg. Klinkenberg noted that a plot of k versus 1/Pmean, (Pmean being the
average pressure between the inlet and outlet fluid), yields a straight line, with the
slope dependent on the gas’s identity.
Lower-weight molecular gases display a greater slope, a result of the greater mean
free path. All gases, regardless of identity, have the same y-intercept on such a graph
when the data is extrapolated to 1/pmean= 0. This limit corresponds to the k-value for
liquid flow through a rock, which independent of the liquid identity; as 1/Pmean goes
to zero, the pressure goes to infinity. A gas in such a situation is a compressed fill the
pores of a medium.
Below Figure is a plot of the permeability of a porous medium as determined at
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various mean pressures using three different gases. Note that for each gas a straight
line is obtained for the observed permeability as a function of the reciprocal of the
mean pressure of the test.
All the lines when extrapolated to infinite mean pressure (1/Pm = 0) intercept the
permeability axis at a common point. This point is designated kL or the equivalent
liquid
Variation in gas permeability with mean pressure and type of gas.
The Klinkenberg graph can be fit with a line of the form:
Kg=kl+m*(1/pm)
Where m=b/kl
b is a constant for a given gas in a given medium (atm*d2)

kl is the equivalent liquid permeability (Darcy’s)
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kg is the medium’s permeability to the gas (Darcy’s)
The constant, b, is dependent on the mean free path of the gas and the size of the
openings of the medium. This constant increases for decreasing pore size as the
effects of gas slippage become more significant.
Permeability Measurement:
Gas permeability measurements have several flaws that either renders the data
difficult to use and in some instance result in misleading data.
There are two main areas of concern:

The first is that in order to measures the permeability with gas the samples have to be
cleaned and dried. There are occasions when this process is damaging. The result
being those future measurements on the plug will result in data that is not
representative of the original rock. In addition this process is normally undertaken in a
lab environment. In the majority of instances the requirement to ship samples to the
laboratory and then undertaking the cleaning and drying process precludes the
possibility of providing data at the well site that can assist in decision regarding
logging runs or formation evaluation.
Secondly aspects are related to the measurement conditions. It is standard to measure

permeability with a low confining stress. This is based on the belief that using one
confining stress for all samples provides a datum and allows a correlation to reservoir
conditions. At is it is easier or quicker to measure permeability when the confining
pressure is low. This is not correct as different poor fabrics react differently to stress
and no single correlation is correct. Along similar lines is the way in which a
Klinkenberg correction is applied. All too often the correction is derived form a
generalized algorithm rather than measurement made on a single plug at different pore
pressures.
In addition to the above the samples because the samples have been cleaned of all
fluids the immobile water phase associated with the reservoir has been removed. The
gas permeability measurement measures the total permeability of the core rather than
the effective permeability.
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All of these concerns are obviated when permeability is measured with a liquid (oil)
rather than gas. The first concern is negated as the permeability can be measured
without having to clean the sample. It is however, necessary to flood the core with a
liquid that is miscible with the hydrocarbon phase of the reservoir. Sufficient liquid
should be flowed so that the viscosity of the flowing liquid is known.
As the samples do not have to be cleaned and dried the process is rapid and can be
undertaken at the well site to provide accurate data hours after the core has been cut.
Because liquids are incompressible the Klinkenberg correction is no longer a concern.
Further more the samples tested still contain reservoir brine and so an effective
permeability is being measured. The use of the appropriate confining pressure is just a
matter of having the appropriate core holder.
Schematic:
A vertical core holder keeps the core during the experiment. A rubber sleeve covers
the inner surface of the core holder. The rubber sleeve does not let the liquid pass
through the space between the core and the core holder. A gas regulator is connected
to the sidewall of the core holder by a hose.
When the gas regulator’s tap is open, the gas enters the space between the core holder
and the rubber sleeve and causes the rubber sleeve to keep the sidewall of the core
tightly.
A cap is screwed on the top of the core holder after the core has been placed in the
core holder. A gauge indicates the inlet pressure of the liquid. A pipe connects the top
of the core holder to the liquid supply.
There are two taps between the liquid supply and the core holder. One of them is used
for letting the liquid enter the core holder and the other one is for making the water
flowing in the pipe, circulate in another pipe which bypasses the pipe which leads the
liquid to the core holder. This tap can be applied to control the inlet pressure. To force
the liquid through the core an electric pump is used.
Since the bottom of the core holder is exposed to the air, the outlet pressure is
atmospheric pressure. A graduated cylinder and a chronometer is used to measure the
flow rate of liquid passing through the core.
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Procedure:
1. Measure the dimensions of the plug.
2. Put the plug in the core holder and seal the core holder.
3. Open the regulator’s tap so that the nitrogen gas in the regulator enters the
space between the core holder and the rubber sleeve.
4. Open the tap on the Gas-leading pipe.
5. Adjust the taps on the Gas-leading pipe and the by bass pipe so that the gauge
indicates the minimum possible inlet pressure.
6. Measure the flow rate of gas along the core by using the reading gauge.
7. Increase the inlet pressure and measure the flow rate after each increase.
8. Record all data including pressure and flow rate and draw klinkenberg chart to
find the liquid permeability.
Data analysis:
We obtain the following results by using Darcy equation:
kA dp
q= 
 dx
 Core dimensions:
L=36.0625 mm , d=37.5167 mm , A= 11.05 cm2
 We find viscosity trough the diagram of gas viscosity versus temperature so
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the viscosity of nitrogen is: µ=0.0181 cp

 The flowrate which we read from the gauge is not absolute flux so we can find
actual Q, in cc/sec form of a graph which we can see I in appendix.
 And finally the pressure which we read from the gauge can be considered as
∆p because we assume that outlet pressure is equal to zero. But we should be
careful in calculation of mean pressure since we need absolute pressure.
Now we should draw the klinkenberg chart to find the liquid permeability .You can
see the charts and data which obtained in next page.
Q(cc/s) ∆P(atm) K(md)

0.785 0.05 90.69
1.523 0.1 87.97
2.209 0.15 85.06
2.981 0.2 86.09
3.774 0.25 87.19
Gas permeability
92
90
88
K(md)
86
Series1
84
82
80
78
0 5 10 15 20 25
1/Pm
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Discussion and Recommendation:

The measurement for gas/air permeability has several disadvantages which invariably
result in an over estimation of reservoir permeability. The reasons for the weakness of
the measurement are:
 The potential to damage during the cleaning and drying processes
 The traditional measurements are made at a low confining pressure
 The gas slippage Klinkenberg effect
We should notice during the experiment:

1. In this experiment it should be noted that the core may be damaged by
applying so much gas pressure to the rubber sleeve.
2. After changing the inlet pressure wait some seconds in order that the liquid
flows steadily and then measure the pertained flow rate.
3. It is recognized, however, that the permeability of a specimen of reservoir rock
to air/Nitrogen in the laboratory is not necessarily the same as the permeability
of the rock to oil, gas, or salt water under reservoir conditions and this is the
condition which we want to know more about it.
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Experiment 5:
Saturation Method
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Outline:
From the definition of porosity, it is evident that the porosity of a sample of porous
material can be determined by measuring any two of the three quantities: Bulk
volume, pore volume or grain volume. The porosity of reservoir rock may be
determined by:
 Core analysis
 Well logging technique
 Well testing
Lots of methods have been developed for the determination of the porosity of
consolidated rocks having intergranular porosity. Most of the methods developed
have been designed for small samples, roughly the size of a walnut. As the pores of
intergranular material are quite small, a determination of the porosity of such a sample
involves measuring the volume of literally thousands of pores. The porosity of larger
portions of the rock is represented statistically from the results obtained on numerous
small samples.
The core analysis porosity determination has the advantage that no assumption needs
to be made as to mineral composition, borehole effects, etc. However, since the
volume of the core is less than the rock volume which is investigated by a logging
device, porosity values derived from logs are frequently more accurate in
heterogeneous reservoirs.
In the laboratory measurement of porosity, it is necessary to determine only two of the

three basic parameters (bulk volume, pore volume, and grain volume). All methods of
determination of bulk volume are, in general, applicable to determining both total and
effective porosity.
Bulk Volume:
Although the bulk volume may be computed from measurements of the dimensions of
a uniformly shaped sample, the usual procedure utilizes the observation of the volume
of fluid displaced by the sample. This procedure is particularly desirable, as the bulk
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volume of irregular-shaped samples can be determined as rapidly as that of shaped

samples.
The fluid displaced by a sample can be observed either volumetrically or

gravimetrically. In either procedure it is necessary to prevent fluid penetration into the
pore space of the rock. This can be accomplished:
1. By coating the rock with paraffin or a similar substance,

2. By saturating the rock with the fluid into which it is to be immersed, or
3. By using mercury, which by virtue of its surface tension and wetting
characteristics does not tend to enter the small pore spaces of most
intergranular materials.
Gravimetric determinations of bulk volume can be accomplished by observing the

loss in weight of the sample when immersed in a fluid or by observing the change in
weight of a psychomotor when filled with mercury : and when filled with mercury
and the core sample. Determination of bulk volume volumetrically utilizes a variety
of specially constructed psychomotor or voltmeters in an electric psychomotor from
which the bulk volume can be read directly, The sample is immersed in the core
chamber, which causes a rise in the level of the connecting U tube.
The change in level is sensed by the micrometer screw. The resulting change in level
is read directly in volume from the micrometer scale. Either dry or saturated samples
may be used in the device. The Russell voltmeter also provides for direct reading of
the bulk volume.
A saturated sample is placed in the sample bottle after a zero reading is established
with fluid in the voltmeter. The resulting increase in volume is the bulk volume. Only
saturated or coated samples may be used in the device.
Sand-grain Volume:
The various porosity methods are usually distinguished by the means used to
determine the grain or pore volume. Several of the oldest methods of porosity
determination are based on determination of grain volume.
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The grain volume can be determined from the dry weight of the sample and the sand-
grain density. For many purposes, results of sufficient accuracy can be obtained by
using the density of quartz (2.65 gm/cc) as the sand-grain density.
For more rigorous determination either the Melcher-Nutting or Russell methods can
be employed. In each, the bulk volume of a sample is determined, then either that
sample or an adjacent sample is reduced to grain size, and the grain volume
determined. In the Melcher-Nutting technique, all the measurements are determined
gravimetrically, utilizing the principle of buoyancy.
The Russell method utilizes an especially designed voltmeter and the bulk volume and
grain volume are determined volumetrically. The porosity determined is total
porosity. In sands of relatively uniform characteristics, the grain density can be
determined from the above measurements, and that density, together with an observed
dry weight and bulk volume, can be used to calculate the porosity of adjacent samples
of the same litho logy. The results are highly reproducible.
The methods of determining grain' volume described above when combined with an
observation of bulk volume yield total porosity values. The Stevens porosimeter is a
means of measuring the "effective" grain volume. The Stevens porosimeter consists of
a core chamber which can be sealed from atmospheric pressure and closed from the
remaining parts of the porosimeter by a needle valve.
The volume of the core chamber is known accurately. In operation a core is placed in
the core chamber; a vacuum is established in the system by manipulating the mercury
reservoir; the air in the core and chamber is expanded into the evacuated system and
then measured at atmospheric pressure in the graduated tube.
The difference in volume of the core chamber and of the air extracted is the
"Effective" grain volume, the volume of the grains plus any sealed pore space. Thus if
the effective grain volume is subtracted from the bulk volume, the volume of
interconnected or effective pore space is obtained. The Stevens method is an
adaptation of the Washburn-Bunting procedure.
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Pore Volume:
All the methods of measuring pore volume yield effective porosity. The methods are
based on either the extraction of a fluid from the rock or the introduction of a fluid
into the pore space of the rock. The Washburn-Bunting porosimeter measures the
volume of air extracted from the pore space by creating a partial vacuum in the
porosimeter by the manipulation of the attached mercury reservoir.
The core is exposed to contamination by mercury and is therefore not suitable for
additional testing. The Stevens method previously illustrated is a modification of the
Wash-burn-Bunting procedure especially designed to prevent contamination of the
core.
A number of other devices have been designed for measuring the pore volume,
including the Kobe me porosimeter and the mercury pump porosimeter. The mercury
pump porosimeter is so designed that the bulk volume may be obtained as well as the
pore volume.
The saturation method of determining porosity consists of saturating in a clean dry

sample with a fluid of known density and determining the pore volume from the gain
in weight of the sample. The sample is usually evacuated in a vacuum flask to which
the saturation fluid may be admitted by means of a separator funnel. If care is
exercised to achieve complete saturation, this procedure is believed to be the best
available technique for intergranular materials.
We can summarize all of above methods as follow:
1) Washburn-bunting:
Function measured  pore volume and bulk volume
Manner of measurement  reduction of pressure on a confined sample and

measurement of air evolved. Bulk volume from mercury psychomotor.
Errors in this method are  air from dirty mercury, possible leaks in system,
incomplete evacuation due to rapid operation or tight sample
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2) Stevens porosimeter, Kobe porosimeter, boil’s law porosimeter:
Function measured  sand –grain volume and unconnected pore volume and bulk
volume
Manner of measurement  difference in volume of air evolved from a constant-

volume chamber when empty and when occupied by sample bulk volume by Russell
tube
Errors in this method are  mercury dos not become dirty, possible leaks in system,
incomplete evacuation due to rapid operation or tight sample.
3) Core laboratories wet sample:
Function measured  volume of gas space, oil and water, and bulk volume.
Manner of measurement  weight of retort sample, volume of oil and water from
retort sample, gas volume and bulk volume of M.P.S
Errors in this method are  obtaining excess water from shale’s. Loss of vapor
through-condensers
4) Core laboratories dry sample
Function measured  sand –grain volume and unconnected pore volume and bulk
volume.
Manner of measurement  difference in volume of air evolved from a constant-

volume chamber when empty and when occupied by sample.
Errors in this method are  possible leaks in system, incomplete evacuation due to
rapid operation or tight sample.
5) Saturation:
Function measured  pore volume and bulk volume
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Manner of measurement  weight of dry sample, weight of saturation sample in air,

weight of saturated sample immersed in saturate.
Errors in this method are  possible incomplete saturation
This is the best method which we can do it in laboratory.
Cleaning and Saturation Determination:
Before measuring porosity and permeability, the core samples must be cleaned of
residual fluids and thoroughly dried. The cleaning process may also be apart of fluid
saturation determination.
Fluid saturation is defined as the ratio of the volume of fluid in a given core sample to
the pore volume of the sample
Vw Vo Vg
Sw  So  Sg 
Vp Vp Vp (1)
sw+so+sg=1 (2)
Where Vw, Vo and Vg are water, oil and gas volumes respectively and Sw, So and Sg
are water, oil and gas saturations. Note that fluid saturation may be reported either as
a fraction of total porosity or as a fraction of effective porosity. Since fluid in pore
spaces that are not interconnected can not be produced from a well, the saturations are
more meaningful if expressed on the basis of effective porosity. The weight of water
collected from the sample is calculated from the volume of water by the relationship
Ww=wVw
Where w is water density in g/cm3. The weight of oil removed from the core may be
computed as the weight of liquid less weight of water
Wo= W L- Ww
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Where Wl is the weight of liquids removed from the core sample in gram. Oil volume
may be calculated as Wo o. Pore volume Vp is determined by a porosity
measurement, and oil and water saturation may be calculated by Eq. (1). Gas
saturation can be determined using Eq. (2)
Shematic:
Procedure:
1. For this experiment we need dry and clear cores, for this reason at first we
must clean the cores by means of soxhhelt extraction method and put the in the
oven until it dried.
2. Then put the cores in desiccators and provide a vacuum by the pump. Allow
the pump do this job about 45min.after this section all of gases that were in the
core, come out from the core.
3. Put the core in a beaker that has water, for few days to saturate the core
sample.
4. Weight the dry &clean core (Wdry)
5. Weight the saturated core (Ws)
6. Obtain the weight of water by Ww=Ws-Wdry
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7. Obtain the volume of water by using the formula for density of water. This
volume shows pore volume.
8. For determining porosity of the samples use φ=Vp/Vb
Experimental Results:
We should calculate and report:
1. Calculate the saturated brine weight, Wbrine = Wsat-Wdry.
2. Calculate the pore volume (saturated brine volume), Vp = Wsat/ brine.
3. Calculate effective porosity, φe= Vp/Vb.
Wsaturated: Weight of original saturated sample
Wdry: Weight of unsaturated and dry sample
Equations:
Wl  W s  Wdry Wo  Wl  Ww Vb   ( D / 2) 2 L
And equations for this method are:
Ww Vw
Vw    100
Ww  Ws  Wdry w Vtotal
Ww ,Vw Are weight and volume water in the core,
Where D and L are diameter and length of the core sample, respectively.
For our sample we have
Wdry= 87.232 gr Wwet =93.838 gr D=37.52 mm L=36.08 mm
Ww = Wwet - Wdry = 93.838 – 87.232 = 6.606gr
103 gr
 water 
mm 3
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Vp=Ww/ρw= 6.606 μm3
Vb= πD2L /4 = 39.89 μm3
Φ= 16.56%
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Experiment 6:
Liquid Permeability
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Outline:
The measurement of permeability is one of the basic building blocks of any core
analysis study. Traditionally this measurement has been made by cleaning plug
samples and then measuring the permeability by flowing a gas through the dried
samples.
In 1856, Henry Philibert Gaspard Darcy first developed the equation to describe fluid
flow through a porous media.
Q=-kA/µ[dP/dX]
Q = Volumetric Flow (cm3/s)

k = permeability (Darcys, (cm2*cP)/(s*atm))
A = cross-sectional area (cm2)
µ = viscosity (centipoises)
P = pressure (atm)
X = length (cm)
There are four conditions that are required for this equation to be valid:
1. Creeping flow – The Reynold’s number based on superficial velocity must be
on the order of 1.
2. The porous media is not reactive with the flowing fluid.
3. No accumulation.
4. Single-phase flow
Using this equation, one is able to determine the permeability of the porous media, k.
Although liquids display a k value that depends on the media only, gases display a k
value that also depends on the identity of the gas and the pressure differential across
the media. This variation with the identity and pressure of the gas is known as
slippage.
This effect was originally detected with gas flow through capillary tubes, and
becomes more pronounced when the diameter of the capillary tubes approach the
mean free path of the gas molecule. The mean free path is a function of the molecular
weight and kinetic energy of a gas.
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For equal pressures, a small molecule in the gas phase will exhibit significantly more
slippage when traveling through the medium than a larger gas molecule, resulting in a
more positive deviation from the effective liquid permeability. For a liquid that totally
fills the media, there will be no slippage.
When the fluid becomes liquid-like, the effect of slippage decreases.
Illustration of effects due to pressure differences
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The effect of gas slippage on the k value was identified and quantified by
Klinkenberg. He noted that a plot of k versus 1/Pmean, P being the average pressure
between the inlet and outlet, yields a straight line, with the slope dependent on the
gas’s identity.
Lower-weight molecular gases display a greater slope, a result of the greater mean
free path. All gases, regardless of identity, have the same y-intercept on such a graph
when the data is extrapolated to 1/pmean= 0.
This limit corresponds to the k-value for liquid flow through a rock, which
independent of the liquid identity; as 1/Pmean goes to zero, the pressure goes to
infinity. A gas in such a situation is compressed fills the pores of a medium.
Petroleum Reservoir Engineering, pg 92
The Klinkenberg graph can be fit with a line of the form:

Kg=kl+m*(1/pm)
Where m=b/kl
b is a constant for a given gas in a given medium (atm*Darcys2)

kl is the equivalent liquid permeability (Darcys)
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kg is the medium’s permeability to the gas (Darcys)

The constant, b, is dependent on the mean free path of the gas and the size of the
openings of the medium. This constant increases for decreasing pore size as the
effects of gas slippage become more significant.
Corpro recognize that this measurement (gas permeability) has several flaws that
either renders the data difficult to use and in some instance result in misleading data.
There are two main areas of concern:
The first is that in order to measures the permeability with gas the samples have to be
cleaned and dried. There are occasions when this process is damaging. The result
being those future measurements on the plug will result in data that is not
representative of the original rock. In addition this process is normally undertaken in a
lab environment. In the majority of instances the requirement to ship samples to the
laboratory and then undertaking the cleaning and drying process precludes the
possibility of providing data at the well site that can assist in decision regarding
logging runs or formation evaluation.
Secondly there are aspects related to the measurement conditions It is standard to

measure permeability with a low confining stress. This is based on the belief that
using one confining stress for all samples provides a datum and allows a correlation to
reservoir conditions. At is it is easier or quicker to measure permeability when the
confining pressure is low. This is not correct as different poor fabrics react differently
to stress and no single correlation is correct. Along similar lines is the way in which a
Klinkenberg correction is applied. All too often the correction is derived form a
generalized algorithm rather than measurement made on a single plug at different pore
pressures.
In addition to the above the samples because the samples have been cleaned of all
fluids the immobile water phase associated with the reservoir has been removed. The
gas permeability measurement measures the total permeability of the core rather than
the effective permeability.
All of these concerns are obviated when permeability is measured with a liquid (oil)
rather than gas. The first concern is negated as the permeability can be measured
without having to clean the sample. It is however, necessary to flood the core with a
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liquid that is miscible with the hydrocarbon phase of the reservoir. Sufficient liquid
should be flowed so that the viscosity of the flowing liquid is known.
As the samples do not have to be cleaned and dried the process is rapid and can be
undertaken at the well site to provide accurate data hours after the core has been cut.
Because liquids are incompressible the Klinkenberg correction is no longer a concern.
Further more the samples tested still contain reservoir brine and so an effective
permeability is being measured. The use of the appropriate confining pressure is just a
matter of having the appropriate core holder
Schematic:
Procedure:
1-Put the core sample in the core holder.
2-set up the apparatus with distinctive pressure.
3-turn on the pump and flow the water in the core holder.
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4-after allowing the water attain steady – state flow condition , put a graduated
cylinder under the hole of the bottom of core holder by using a timer record the flow
rate of water.
5–repeat step 2 &4 for a series of pressure.
Data analysis:
We plot the curve Q vs. p, the region that the curve is linear the fluid is laminar and
by using Darcy equation, we obtain the permeability of the core. However, if the
curve is not linear the flow is turbulent and we cannot use Darcy equation. In this exp,
we deal with only with laminar flow.
∆P(atm) Q(cm3/s) K(md)

0.71 0.061 6.40
1.11 0.119 14.59
1.31 0.166 22.22
1.50 0.242 35.84
1.70 0.476 78.38
We obtain kl with three methods:

1) Arithmetic approach:
kave=(k)/n
kave=31.51 md
:Comment:
1-steady-flow doesn’t take place

2-the formation of core is changed by high pressure
3- capillary of test tube.
4- we do this experiment with more volume &more time.
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Experiment 7:
Dean-Stark Method
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outline:
Fluid Saturation
To the engineer there is an important factor to be determined. What is the fluid

content of the rock? In most oil-bearing formations it is believed that the rock was
completely saturated with water prior to the invasion and trapping of petroleum. The
less dense hydrocarbons are considered to migrate to positions of hydrostatic and
dynamic equilibrium, thus displacing water from the interstices of the structually high
part of the rock. The oil will not displace all the water which originally occupied these
pores. Thus, reservoir rocks normally will contain both petroleum hydrocarbons and
water (frequently referred to as connate water) occupying the same or adjacent pores.
To determine the quantity of hydrocarbons accumulated in a porous rock formation, it
is necessary to determine the fluid saturation (oil, water, and gas) of the rock material.
There are two approaches to the problem of determining the original fluid saturations
within a reservoir rock. The direct approach is the selecting of rock samples and
measuring the saturations of these samples as they are recovered from the parent
formations. The indirect approach is to determine the fluid saturation by measuring
some other physical property of the rock such as using electric logs or capillary-
pressure measurements. Some methods of the direct approach will be discussed here.
In determining fluid saturations directly from a sample removed from a reservoir, it
is necessary to understand first how these values are measured; second, what these
measured values represent; and third, knowing what they represent, how they can be
applied.
In order to measure values of original rock saturations there have been essentially
three methods devised (Extraction, Retort and Centrifuge). These methods involve
either the evaporation of the fluids in the rock or the leaching out of the fluids in the
rock by extraction with a solvent.
On of the methods of determining fluid saturation is by extraction with a solvent.
In the standard distillation test the core is placed so that a vapor of toluene, gasoline,
or naphtha rises through the core and is condense to reflux back over the core. This
process leaches out the oil and water in the core. The water and extracting fluid are
condensed and are collected in a graduated receiving tube. The water settles to the
bottom of the receiving tube because of its greater density, and the extracting fluid
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refluxes back into the main heating vessel. The process is continued until no more
water is collected in the receiving tube. The distillation apparatus is shown in Fig 1.
The water saturation can be determined directly;
Water, cc
Sw =
Pore Volume, cc
The oil saturation is an indirect determination. It is necessary to note the weight of

the core sample prior to extraction. Then, after the core has been cleaned and dried,
the sample is again weighed. The oil saturation as a fraction of pore volume is given
by;
(wt of wet core, gm - wt of dry core, gm - wt of water, gm)

So =
(pore volume, cc)(densit y of oil, gm/cc)
The core can be completely cleaned in the ASTM extraction apparatus, or once all
water is removed, the remainder of the cleaning can be done in a soxhlet extractor.
The mechanics of the soxhlet extractor are essentially the same as the ASTM
extraction apparatus except that no receiving vessel is supplied for trapping water.
The cleaning solution is continually vaporized and condensed on the core. This action
leaches out the oil and water from the core. The ASTM extraction method does less
damage to a core sample and results in perhaps the cleanest core of any of the
saturation determinations. The core sample is ready for porosity or permeability
determinations after this extraction process. Before permeability and porosity can be
extractor.
Modified Extraction Apparatus
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Another method of determining water saturation is to use a centrifuge. A solvent is

injected into the centrifuge just off center. Owing to centrifugal force it is thrown to
the outer radii, being forced to pass through the core sample. The solvent removes the
water and oil from the core. The outlet fluid is trapped, and the quantity of water in
the core is measured. The use of the centrifuge provides a very rapid method because
of the high forces which can be applied. At the same time that the water content is
determined, the core is cleaned in preparation for the other measurements. The values
of water and oil saturation are calculated by using Eqs. (1) and (2) as for the
extraction method.
There is another procedure for saturation determination that is used with either of
the extraction methods. The core as received from the well is placed in a modified
mercury porosimeter wherein the bulk volume and gas volume are measured. The
volume of water is determined by one of the extraction methods. The fluid saturations
can be calculated from these data. In connection with all procedures for determination
of fluid content, a value of pore volume must be established in order that fluid
saturations can be expressed as percentage of pore volume. Any of the porosity
procedures can be used.
Factors Affecting Fluid Saturations of Cores

The core sample delivered to the laboratory for fluid-saturation determinations was
obtained from the ground by rotary, side-wall, or cable tool coring. In all cases, two
processes have altered the fluid content of these samples. First, especially in the case
of rotary drilling, the formation is under a greater pressure from the mud column in
the well than from the fluid in the formation. The differential pressure across the well
face causes mud and mud filtrate to invade the formation immediately adjacent to the
well surface, thus flushing the formation with mud and its filtrate. As most drilling is
done with water-base mud, water filtrate invades the core and displaces some of the
oil and perhaps some of the original interstitial water. This displacement process
changes the original fluid contents of the in-place rock. Second, as the sample is
brought to the surface, the confining pressure of the fluid column is constantly
decreasing. The reduction of pressure permits the expansion of the entrapped water,
oil, and gas. Gas, having the greater coefficient of expansion, expels oil and water
from the core. Thus, the contents of the core at the surface have been changed from
those which existed in the formation. The core has been invaded with water, and the
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contents subsequently subjected to a solution-gas-drive mechanism. As the invasion

of the filtrate precedes the core bit, it is not possible to use pressurized core barrels to
obtain undisturbed samples.
shematic:
The apparatus used in this experiment is mainly comprised of different parts listed
below:
1.Electrical heater, which supplies the heat, needed in the course of the experiment.
2.Thimble, which serves as a container in the experiment. The solvent used in the
experiment is contained within the thimble. The thimble is also referred to as
boiling flask.
3.Graduated receiving tube, which is used to collect the water and extracting fluid
after they are condensed. It is connected exactly to the bottom of the condenser so that
all the condensed fluids can be collected readily.
4.Condeser, which causes the vaporized fluids to be condensed. The body of the
condenser is maintained cool by water circulation during the experiment in order that
the vaporized fluids led to the condenser are easily condensed.
The solvent used in the experiment is toluene.
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Procedure:
First fill half of the boiling flask with an appropriate solvent such as toluene. Then,
place the plug sample in the apparatus and assemble the equipment set-up as
illustrated in Fig.1.After that, start the water circulation and switch on the heater. The
heat transferred to the core by convection and conduction processes causes the fluids
contained within the plug to leach out of it. The extracted fluids are then condensed
and collected in the receiving tube. Let the process to be continued until no more
extracted fluid is collected in the graduated tube, which is the end of experiment.
Note: The remainder of cleaning can be done in a soxhlet extractor, which was
defined in the second experiment.
Experimental Data:
Volume of water extracted from core = 6.5cc
Since our core was completely saturated with water we don’t have any data
analysis.
Фe=16.29%
Conclusion & Recommendation:

1- It should be noted that an appropriate solvent must be used in this experiment.
Because if the boiling point of solvent is so much less than the fluids contained within
the core, the vaporized solvent may not be hot enough to evaporate these fluids. That
is the vapor solvent should be at temperature a little bit more than the boiling point of
the fluids within the core.
2- When no more fluid is collected in graduated tube, it can be taken to mean that
we have come to the end of the experiment. But it does not mean that the hole fluid
within the core has been extracted. To extract the reminder of these fluids, we can
make use of Soxhlet extraction method.
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Experiment 8:
Retort Method
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Outline:
Fluid Saturations:
1-as follows:
 The Retort method Fluid saturations may be measured at Robertson by the

Retort method, the Dean and Stark method or using Karl Fischer apparatus. Each of
these methods have a number of advantages and disadvantages is fast (results within
several hours), but is destructive
 The Dean and Stark method does not rely on destruction of the samples and
gives increased accuracy
2-Factors which may introduce errors into the measurements include:
 Invasion of the core by drilling mud or mud filtrate during the coring process
 Gas expansion during core recovery
 Handling of the core during preservation and measurement
Core analysis results may yield information concerning the magnitude of

reservoir oil content. Under conditions where the oil content of a core is at the water
flooding residual value prior to lifting, core data can be combined with an adjustment
for oil expulsion by gas drive during lifting and for oil shrinkage to yield an estimation
of reservoir residual oil saturation. The effect of analysis errors in oil content values
determined by retort distillation of oil from core plugs has been examined.
To the engineer there is yet another important factor to be determined. What is

the fluid content of the rock? In most oil-bearing formations it is believed that the
rock was completely saturated with water prior to the invasion and trapping of
petroleum. The les~ dense hydrocarbons are considered to migrate to positions of
hydrostatic and dynamic equilibrium, thus displacing water from the interstices of
the structurally high part of the rock. The oil will not displace all the water which
originally occupied these pores. Thus, reservoir rocks normally will contain both
petroleum hydrocarbons and water (frequently referred to as connate water)
occupying the same or adjacent pores. To determine the quantity of hydrocarbons
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accumulated in a porous rock formation, it is necessary to determine the fluid

saturation (oil, water, and gas) of the rock material.
Methods of Determining Fluid Saturation There are two approaches to the problem of
determining the original fluid saturations within a reservoir rock. The direct approach
is the selecting of rock samples and measuring the saturations of these samples as they
are recovered from the parent formations. The indirect approach is to determine the
fluid saturation by measuring some other physical property of the rock.
Determination of Fluid Saturations from Rock Samples In determining fluid
saturations directly from a sample removed from a reservoir, it is necessary to
understand first how these values are measured; second, what these measured values
represent; and third, knowing what they represent, how they can be applied.
In order to measure values of original rock saturations there have been essentially
three methods devised. These methods involve either the evaporation of the fluids in
the rock or the leaching out of the fluids in the rock by extraction with a solvent.
One of the most popular means of measuring the initial saturations is the retort
method. This method takes a small rock sample and heats the sample so as to vaporize
the water and the oil, which is condensed and collected in a small receiving vessel.
The retort method has several disadvantages as far as commercial work is concerned.
First in order to remove all the oil, it is necessary to approach temperatures on the
order of 1000 to ll00°F. At temperatures of this magnitude the water of crystallization
within the rock is driven off.
Causing the water-recovery values to be greater than just the interstitial water Thus, it
is seen that an error of 33 per cent is possible if the water of crystallization is not
accounted for. The second error which occurs from retorting samples is that the oil
itself when heated to high temperatures has a tendency to crack and coke. This change
of a hydrocarbon molecule tends to decrease the liquid volume and also in some cases
coats the internal walls of the rock sample itself.
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Retort distillation apparatus. (From Stevens.)
Results of these studies indicate that errors in the oil content of cores expressed as oil
volume per unit bulk volume of rock are small in comparison to the natural variations
of oil content from one sampling point to the next in the cores of most sandstone
reservoirs. It is suggested that the common practice of analyzing one plug-size sample
of core per foot of reservoir depth may be inadequate, particularly for thin sand sections
or sands of a highly inhomogeneous nature.
Summarizing about Retort method:

A technique for measuring the fluid saturations in a core sample by heating the
sample and measuring the volumes of water and oil driven off. The sample is crushed
and weighed before being placed in the retort It is then heated in stages or directly to
650oC [1200oF] during which the fluids are vaporized, collected, condensed and
separated. Plateaus in the rise of the cumulative water volume with temperature are
sometimes analyzed to indicate when free water, surface clay-bound water and
interlayer clay-bound water have been driven off.
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The volumes of water and oil are measured directly, but corrections are needed
to account for alterations in the oil. The volume of gas also is needed for accurate
results. This is measured on a separate, adjacent sample by injecting mercury under
pressure and measuring the volume absorbed. Before injection, the sample is weighed
and its bulk volume determined by mercury displacement The total pore volume is
then the sum of the volumes of gas, oil and water. The saturation of each component
is the ratio of its volume to the total pore volume.
Shcemati:
Procedure:
1 – We have crushed sample and take 20 gr of sample before being placed in the
retort.
2 –After that we should clean the apparatus and open the valve to flooding water
to cold and condensed the oil and water in the sample but we see some vapors exist
the apparatus because it’s dirty and water doesn’t flooding very good and condensed
the vapors .
3 – Then we power on the apparatus and then heated in stag or directly.
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4 – In this stage sample is warmer and warmer to fluid vaporized , collect and
condensed .
5 – Fluid very slowly collected and dripped to the small receiving vessel tube.
6 – After that we can measure volume oil and water directly.
Data analysis:
The retort is a rapid method for the determination of fluid saturations, and utilizing the
corrections yields satisfactory results. It gives both the water and oil volumes, so that the oil
and water saturations can be calculated from the following formulas:
Sw =water saturation
So =oil saturation
Sg=gas saturation
In 30 gr sample we had 1.9 cc oil and 1.2 cc water.
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Experiment 9:
Boyle’s One Cell
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outline:
From the viewpoint of petroleum engineers, the two most important properties of a
reservoir rock are porosity and permeability. Porosity is a measure of storage capacity
of a reservoir. Sedimentary rocks consist of grains of solid matter with varying shapes
which are more or less cemented, and between which there are empty spaces. It is
these empty spaces that are able to contain fluids such as water or liquid or gaseous
hydrocarbons and to allow them to circulate. Ill this case the rock is called porous and
permeable.
Porosity is defined as the ratio of pore space to total volume of reservoir rock and is
commonly expressed as a percentage. Two measurements, pore volume and bulk
volume, are required to obtain the percentage porosity in accordance with the
equation
pore volume
Percentage Porosity =  100
bulk volume
Porosity varies greatly within most reservoirs, both laterally and vertically. If porosity
is measured for each foot of core taken from the reservoir rock, as is the common
practice, even some of the most uniform-appearing rocks show rapid and marked
changes in porosity.
While porosity is generally stated as the percentage of pore space in the reservoir
rock, it is frequently stated in reservoir estimates as acre-feet of pore space, or as
volume in barrels per acre-foot of reservoir rock. Since there are 5.6146 cubic feet per
U.S. barrel of 42 gallons, an acre-foot has a volume of 7,758 barrels. A rock with 10
percent porosity, then, contains 775.8 barrels of pore capacity per acre-foot.
Two types of porosity may be measured: total or absolute porosity and effective
porosity.
Total porosity is the ratio of all the pore spaces in a rock to the bulk volume of the
rock.
Effective porosity is the ratio of interconnected void spaces to the bulk volume. Thus,
only the effective porosity contains fluids that can be produced from wells. For
granular materials such as sandstone, the effective porosity may approach the total
porosity, however, for shale and for highly cemented or vugular rocks such as some
limestones, large variations may exist between effective and total porosity.
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Porosity may be classified according to its origin as either primary or secondary.

Primary or original porosity is developed during deposition of the sediment.
Secondary porosity is caused by some geologic process subsequent to formation of
the deposit, these changes in the original pore spaces may be created by ground
stresses, water movement, or various types of geological activities after the original
sediments were deposited.
The ratio of total volume of pore space to total volume of rock is called the absolute
or total porosity. It includes all of the interstices or voids, whether interconnected or
not.
The porosity measurement ordinarily used in reservoir studies, however, is the ratio of
the interconnected pore spaces to the total bulk volume of the rock, and is termed the
effective porosity. It is commonly 5-10 percent less than the total porosity.
The permeability of a rock depends on the effective porosity. The effective porosity
may also be termed the available pore space, since oil and gas, to be recovered, must
pass through interconnected voids. A pumice or scoria, for example, though it has a
high total porosity, has a low effective porosity.
The porosity of most reservoirs ranges from 5 to 30 percent and is most commonly
between 10 and 20 percent. Carbonate reservoirs generally have slightly less porosity
than sandstone reservoirs, but the permeability of carbonate rocks may be higher.
A reservoir having a porosity of less than 5 percent is generally considered
noncommercial or marginal unless there are some compensating factors, such as
fractures, fissures, vugs, and caverns, that are no; revealed in the small sections of the
rock cut by the core or the well bore.
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Schematic:
Procedure:
The purpose of this experiment is to determine `the porosity of a small core sample in
the laboratory. These methods consist of two other methods: 1-Mercury injection 2-
Kobe methods.
This apparatus has a handle pump and a plunger that has a shaft for going forward and
backward, also it has a cell, which provides a Niddle valve on it. With opening and
closing it we connect and disconnect it to air. Also it has cylinders, which move
backward, and forward with the force of mercury. In this experiment mercury is a
nonweting fluid in comparison with the gas, and gas is wetting fluid. In the normal
pressure mercury can’t enter the core sample.
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The volume of the injected mercury is equal to the pore volume of the core sample.
But in the Kobe method the volume of the gas, which exit from the system because of
the vacuum, take pore volume.
This method gives us bulk volume although pore volume. In this experiment we
should take the core sample away, because it is very poison. The procedure of the
experiment is coming below. This experiment has four stages which coming below.
1- The first stage is calibration. When the niddle valve is open, we rotate the
handle pump until mercury can be seen from a very small hole on the cylinder.
This shows that there is no more gas in the apparatus.
2- The second stage is that when we are closing the niddle valve and we are
disconnecting with the air, suction the system with a base pressure. This
means that we make a relative vacuum by means of handle pump. After
inserting the core sample we read the pressure again and the difference
between these two stages is pore volume.
3- The third step is that we open the niddle valve again and bring it backward
seventy units to insert the core sample in the system. In this stage we can
determine the value of bulk volume.
4- The fourth stage again in the previous pressure , zero, adjust the apparatus, but
in this step niddle valve is closed and the gas remains in the system but comes
out of the void spaces and with this assumption that this is the total amount of
gas coming out of the pore spaces, this is the value of pore volume. But in
reality this is not the value of pore volume, because gas cant comes out of the
small pores.
This is a Boyle one cell Porosimeter that we use in the porosity measurement by Boyl
s law. If you notice to this figure can see three handles using for pushing the mercury
to the cylinder. Also there are some gauges on the apparatus showing the pressure of
the mercury in the cylinder.
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Data & Data Analysis:

As you know in the third stage of this experiment, because mercury is no wetting
phase and air is wetting phase, the mercury cannot enter to the pore spaces of the core
sample and hence we can calculate the bulk volume of the core sample by subtracting
the differences between two stages of mercury injection.
So from the third stage we get the bulk volume of our core sample equal to 39.85 cc.
V2=46.9cc
P1=1atm P2=0.4atm
P1V1=P2V2 (VP=V1)
VP*1= (VP+46.9-39.85)*0.4
VP=4.7cc
Ф= 4.7/39.85=11.79%
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Recommendation:
We can setup a gauge pressure above the chamber, for ignore the effect of height of
mercury.
From this experiment we conclude that we have a lot of methods for calculating the
value of porosity, water methods is the best then two boyls cell.
One of the dangerous methods is by this experiment. Because in this experiment we
have to use mercury that is poison and when we use it we should have very strong fan
to not make us sick.
1-we suppose that air is a ideal gas (we can obtain z for calculation)
2-height of mercury above the core(in step one)
3-height of mercury above the gauge pressure (in last step)
Because of these cases and use gas we obtain the most error for prosity .
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Refrences:
1.Amyx, Bass JR , “Petroleum Reservoir Engineering “ , Mc-Graw Hill company
Inc., 1960
2.www.GlassoryOilfield.com
3.www.corelab.com
4.www1.eng.usm.my/Awam/geolab.html
5.the SPE image library no 1552 by Rathmell Atlantic Co .Dallas ,Tex .June 1967 .
6.Petroleum reservoir engineering by amix and whiting page 100 to 103 .
7. http://www.robresint.co.uk/LS/coreanalysis/convcoreanal/fluidsat/fluidsat.asp .
8.www://oilonline.com
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Petroleum University of Technology
Reservoir Rock Property

Lab
Routine Core Analysis
BY Group BM3
Instructor:
Mr.Majdi Yazdi
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Core Sampling
Core sampling apparatus in this experiment does not work automatically.
In fact, the source of errors belongs to the core sampling apparatus.
One error during the experiment is unevenness in the surface of the
plug, that is important in the next experiments, for measuring the
porosity and permeability.
On the other hand we can not use the core completely and we must break
the core to some parts to fit in instrument.
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Core Washing
we use pure water for washing and cleaning the core (instead of toluene).
So we have one problem because there may be a material that has
higher boiling point with respect to water. Therefore, that material
remains in the core sample.
In soxhelt apparatus we see a spherical

bulb that cause continues flow of water.
One of the advantages of this apparatus
is that we can clean some plugs
simultaneously.
One of the most important
disadvantages of this apparatus
is low speed of cleaning.
After core washing plug is placed in an oven that its temperature is higher
than boiling point of water so all of the water is vaporized and sample will
be dried.
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Boyle’s Two Cells
This experiment is on the base of Boyle’s low (PV=constant) that is
used for ideal gases when temperature is constant .
In accurate calculations a gas with very small molecules, in low

pressure , high penetration power and similar to ideal behavior
is used ,such as He.
for more accurate calculation we should use the laws for real gases
(e.g. van der waals ).
In this experiment , we don’t know the volume of the Reference and

Expansion cells; for this case we use a standard body that its
volume is measured by submerging in water .
We should notice that the inlet pressure should not be very high
because the mercury may spill out.
If two cells is not vacuumed completely we have errors in our volume

calculation because some amount of volume of cell is occupied
by air.
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Data
P1 60inHg
P2 10.9inHg
P'2 10.4 inHg
P"2 7.7 inHg
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Data Analysis
VG=grain volume
VR=reference cell volum
VE=expansion cell volume
Vst=volume of standard body
Vst= 10 cm3
P1 VR=P2 (VR+VE)
P1 (VR-VG)=P'2 (VR+VE-VG)
P1 (VR-Vst)=P"2 (VR+VE-Vst)
So, We find that :
VR=177.1 cm3
VE=796.9 cm3
VG=46.17 cm3
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D1 38mm h1 46.9mm
D2 38mm h2 46.9mm
D3 38mm h3 46.9mm
Vb=53.19cm3
Vp=(53.19-46.17)cm3=7.02 cm3
So, The Porosity is:

Φe=Vp/Vb=13.20%
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Gas Permeability
In this experiment air permeameter apparatus does not measure the flow
rate of air. So we use the volume flow rate of water instead of it but in
this way the human error for measuring time cause error in measuring
flow rate.
We ignore the height of water in outlet line and this cause the error in
measuring the outlet pressure.
One of the points in this apparatus is distributors on the top of apparatus

to distribute the flow of gas on the whole top of the plug.
For simulation of reservoir condition and confining pressure we can

apply the pressure by using rubber sleeve.
This apparatus can measure the permeability in one direction.
For calculating the air permeability relation we use the ideal gas law so
for accuracy we should use gas with law pressure and small
molecules.
At very high pressures gas permeability is equal to absolute permeability.
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Data and Analysis
K=2q µ L Psc/A (Pi-P0)(Pi+P0)
Q=V/t A=11.34
µ=0.0181 c.p L=4.69cm
P0=1 atm
Psc=1 atm
Pi1=1.2atm Q1=1.72 cc/s K1=58.30md
Pi2=1.25 atm Q2=2.08 cc/s K2=55.36 md
Pi3=1.30 atm Q3=2.60cc/s K3=56.41 md
Pi4=1.35 atm Q4=3.08 cc/s K4=56.04md
Pi5=1.40 atm Q5=3.85 cc/s K5=60.00 md
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GRAPH OF PERMIABILITY
VERSUS 1/Pm
K∞=58.24
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Saturation Method
For saturating the core we placed the core in the container evacuate the container
then pour the water on the core.
One points in this apparatus is when the sound of motor decrease we understand
that the perfect vacuum is produced.
The apparatus has trap before the container to avoid entering oil in container.
This is a simple way to calculate porosity of core. When the core is saturated with
water ,it’s weight is increased; because the water is placed in the void spaces
of core .
The difference between the weight of dry core and saturated core gives the weight
of water, which is in the pore spaces. Having density of water, we can calculate
its volume. This volume gives the volume of pore spaces.
If we do not vacuum the core completely some amount of air remain in the pores
space and the obtained weight of trapped water is less than actual weight of
water that can be trapped in the core.
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Data:
We find that Vb=53.19 cm3
Mass of dry sample=118.0gr
Mass of saturated sample=126.6gr
Mass of saturated water=8.6gr
Vp=Ww/ρw=8.6cm3
Φe=Vp/Vb=16.16%
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Liquid Permeability
For measuring the permeability with one liquid we should at first saturate
it with this liquid (here our liquid in this experiment is water).
We should notice that before measuring the flow rate we must stay until
the flow become steady state.
The apparatus has distributor on the top to distribute water on whole area
of core.
In this experiment we use common pump so it can’t produce continues

flow.
Absolute permeability (liquid permeability) almost be remained constant

with changing of pressure because absolute permeability is a
property of reservoir rock and does not depend on pressure.
In this experiment because of error in calculations ,the amount of

permeability a bit changed. So we must calculate the average liquid
permeability.
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Data and Analysis:
ΔP=P-P0 P0=1 atm
ΔP1=1.09 atm
ΔP2=1.30 atm
ΔP3=1.50 atm
Q=V/t
ρw=999.7gr/cm^3
µ=0.894 c.p
g=980 cm/s^2
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Q1=0.0286cc/s K1=117.5 md
Q2=0.0195 cc/s K2=24.03md
Q3=0.0376cc/s K3=27.80 md
K=-q µ /A(Δp)
Kave=(K1+K2+K3)/3= 56.44md
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Dean-Stark Method
In this experiment because the core completely saturated whit water and we
don’t have any oil or gas so the volume of water that obtained is equal to
pore volume.
On of the most important advantages of this apparatus is measuring

saturation of water, oil and clean the core simultaneously. On the other
hand we can calculate gas saturation indirectly.
Toluene is used for cleaning that is very toxic so we should do this experiment
in ventilator.
For more accuracy of measuring water volume we can use higher condensor.
We should continue the experiment until the rising height of water stop.
Toluene is used as solvent in this experiment which has boiling point equals
to almost 110c. It causes that all of water and hydrocarbons are separated
from the core and the accuracy of porosity measurement would be high.
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DATA AND ANALYSIS
The volume of water is 6.4cc
Фe=Vp/Vb =12.03%
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Retort Method
This experiment do in the two stages :
First heated to 400 ˚C then increase temperature to higher than 1000 ˚C .
At first stage the water in pore space vaporize and in second stage
the water of crystallization vaporize. On the other hand in second
stage coking and cracking of hydrocarbons occur so we should use
correction factor.
The Retort is a rapid method for the determination of fluid saturations,

and utilizing the corrections yields satisfactory results. It gives both
the water and oil volumes,
so that the oil and water
saturations can be calculated
from the following formulas:
Sw=Vw/Vp
So =Vo/Vp
Sg =1-Sw-So
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Boyle’s One Cell
This experiment is on the base of Boyle’s low (PV=constant) so we
should gas in very low pressure and gas with small molecules so that
we can use ideal gas law.
In this experiment we use sulfur to neutralize the effect of mercury.
We should consider the effect of height of mercury in our calculation.
The lid of apparatus has a lot’s of bar so that it can hold the plug in the
mercury.
This experiment is for measuring the bulk volume and pore volume .In
this case we use a fluid that has no penetration in the rock. This fluid
is mercury; because of its high surface tension. Its density is greater
than the rock.
The accuracy of the pressure gauge is low because of the mercury head
above the gauge.
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Data and Analysis
Vb=52.4cc P1=1 atm

V2=46.9cc P2=0.82atm
Vp(p1)=(Vp+V2-Vb)P2
Vp(1)=(Vp+1.4)0.82
Vp=7.77cc
Φe=7.77/52.4=14.82%
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The OVERAL RESULT OF ROUTINE
TESTS
Obtained porosity by different method:
1) Saturation Method: Porosity =16.16%
2) Boyle’s Two Cells Method: Porosity =13.20%
3) Dean- Stark Method: Porosity = 12.03%
4) Boyle’s One Cell : Porosity =14.82%
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Obtained Permeability by different method:
Gas Permeability:
K∞=58.22md
Liquid Permeability:
K=56.44 md
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Comparison of data:
Porosity :
In dean stark method there isn’t enough time to collect all of the
water so amount of porosity for this method is less than real.
Because boyle’s one cell and boyle’s two cell use the ideal gas law
so the porosity for both of them are approximately similar.
We think that we did something wrong on saturation method

because all the errors (e.g. not perfect saturation , not be
completely dry when we weight it ) that may occur cause to
decrease the porosity but the value that we obtain is higher than
other values.
We think that the most reliable value is value that we obtain by

boyl’s one cell because this method has less source of errors.
Permeability :
We find permeability in only two method and Our data are very close
so we can’t judge exactly what method is better.
www.petroman.ir
Members of Group BM3 :
1-Mehdi Imanian 8452003
2-Hamed Aslanian 8452001
3-Yousef Jamali 8453010
Thanks For Your Attention
www.petroman.ir

Rock Properties Lab - PUT

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Reservoir Rock Properties Lab

ROUTINE CORE ANALYSIS

1-Mehdi Imanian 8452003

Submitted to petroleum laboratory department of

3-Boyles two cell………………………………15

4- Gas permeability …………………………..24

6- Liquid permeability ………………………46

8-Boyles one Cell. …………………………..59

9-Retort method. …………………………..65

Knowledge of petrochemical and hydrodynamic properties of reservoir rocks is of

The preparatory procedures requiring careful planning can be subdivided into:

1. Well site Handling and Preservation:

-Wrapping and dipping in heat strippable plastics

2. Core Receipt in the Laboratory:

Continuous mechanical coring is a costly procedure due to:

Coring should therefore be a detailed programmed, especially in production wells. In

Routine core analysis:

Sidewall Core Analysis:

-Rotary Sidewall Cores:

Conclusions and Recommendations:

To perform the experiment more accurately follow these recommendations:

DIRECT INJECTION SOLVENT:

Boyle’s Two Cell

Pore Volume Grain Vol. - Bulk Volume

Matrix Pore space

Porosity Measurements of Core Plugs:

Bulk Volume Measurement:

Gravimetric determinations of bulk volume can be accomplished by observing the

Pore Volume Measurement:

Helium has advantages over other gases because:

p1V1 + p2V2 = p(V1 + V2)

Solving the equation for the unknown volume, V2:

Vst = Rigid sample bulk volume = 10mlit=10 cm3

63VR =11.5 (VE+VR)

Solving these thee equations simultaneously gives:

Conclusion and Recommendations:

The permeability of a reservoir rock is commonly determined in the laboratory by

Several factors tend to make permeability measurements using air/nitrogen higher

Below Figure is a plot of the permeability of a porous medium as determined at

Variation in gas permeability with mean pressure and type of gas.

The Klinkenberg graph can be fit with a line of the form:

b is a constant for a given gas in a given medium (atm*d2)

kg is the medium’s permeability to the gas (Darcy’s)

There are two main areas of concern:

Secondly aspects are related to the measurement conditions. It is standard to measure

the viscosity of nitrogen is: µ=0.0181 cp

Q(cc/s) ∆P(atm) K(md)

Discussion and Recommendation:

We should notice during the experiment:

In the laboratory measurement of porosity, it is necessary to determine only two of the

volume of irregular-shaped samples can be determined as rapidly as that of shaped

The fluid displaced by a sample can be observed either volumetrically or

1. By coating the rock with paraffin or a similar substance,

Gravimetric determinations of bulk volume can be accomplished by observing the

The saturation method of determining porosity consists of saturating in a clean dry

We can summarize all of above methods as follow:

Function measured  pore volume and bulk volume

Manner of measurement  reduction of pressure on a confined sample and

2) Stevens porosimeter, Kobe porosimeter, boil’s law porosimeter:

Manner of measurement  difference in volume of air evolved from a constant-

3) Core laboratories wet sample:

4) Core laboratories dry sample

Manner of measurement  difference in volume of air evolved from a constant-