Sei sulla pagina 1di 33

i

CHAPTER - 1

PLASMA DIAGNOSTIC METHODS

Plasma physics is the study of charged particles


collected in sufficient number so that the large range coulomb
force is a factor in determining their statistical properties,
yet low enough in density so that the force due to a near
neighbour particle is much less than the long range coulomb
force exerted by the many distant particles. It is the study
of low density ionized gases.

The term, fourth state of matter, is often used to


describe the plasma state. This term was coined by w. Crooks
in 1879, to describe the ionized medium created in a gas
discharge. The term, fourth state of matter, follows from the
idea that as heat Is added to a given state of a substance,
it undergoes a phase transition to a new state. Phase transition
from solid to a gaseous state is very familiar. Figure 1 shows
graphically the behaviour of matter at high temperatures and
emphasizes several important facts about high temperature
physics and chemistry, no solids or liquids exist above 5000 K
•(at 1 atm. pressure), and above 10,000 K no molecules and
very few atoms exist, since they tend to become ionized at
these temperatures. As temperatures go higher, the degree of
ionization increases and we obtain a plasma. The ionised
state of matter is called a fourth state.
2
A plasma state can exist at temperatures lower than
10 5 O
K provided, there is a mechanism for ionization of gas
and if the density is low enough so that the recombination
is not rapid.

The challenge of plasma physics comes from the fact


that many plasma properties result from long range coulomb
interaction. The collective properties involve many particles
interacting simultaneously. One of the basic problems of

experimental plasma physics is the determination of plasma


parameters. Such parameters can be kinetic electron temperature,
electron density, current density or the other quantities
which are of interest to the experimenter. In principle, if the
state of plasma is known all the parameters of Interest can be
derived. Methods which give information on the state or
parameters of a plasma are called Diognostic Methods.

DIFFERENT METHODS EMPLOYED IN DIAGNOSTICS

A wide variety of diagnostic techniques are used to


study the properties of laboratory and astrophysical plasma*
Each technique takes advantage of a particular aspect of plasma
behaviour.

Generally, a diagnostic method is a way of expressing


the quantity to be measured as an easily observable physical
I

En ergy
0.01 005 01 05 5eV/pat tide
I •
r-T—
0,50
-r 50 lOOkcal/mole
10
Room f l PLASMA'
tempera ture iiiliiil ( Ions :tion3 )
and elect

L * tomic

GASES
Molecular
iiilil

LIQUIDS

SOLIDS llll
Mi I
L X X
10z 10J 1CT 10"
TEMPERATURE,°K

FIG-1 High-temperature behaviour of matter.

Resonance

Metnctabtt
states

Stable [states
Plasma *•-- f Plasma

No plasma f No plasmq
Outgoing radiation

FIG-2 Optical radiation from a pl'isma


i

quantity by the use of a suitable device. Plasma diagnostic


has a somewhat inter-disciplinary character, borrowing its
methods from many branches of physics. Often, a diagnostic
method is named after the branch of physics from which the
principle of the method is derived. Examples of such methods
are spectroscopic diagnostic methods, microwave diagnostic
methods. X-ray diagnostic methods and so on.

Every plasma experiment must incorporate different means


of sampling and monitoring plasma properties and all the
effects which are observed have some diagnostic significance.
However, measurements on plasma rarely yield the desired plasma

parameter directly. Usually the measured quantity depends on


several parameters and to be able to interpret the measured
value, it helps a great deal if one has a certain conception
of the plasma state.

Plasma measurements are termed passive or active,


depending on the technique used. Passive means that the plasma
is not perturbed lay the measurement, A S example of a passive
measurement is the measurement of radiation emitted by a plasma.
Active measurement means that the plasma is directly involved

in the measurement.

The measurement of microwave transmission in a plasma


may be classed as an active measurement, (Krall and Trivelpiece,

1973). For an active measurement, the plasma may be perturbed


5

by the measurement itself, thus sometimes contributing to

errors*

Various diagnostic techniques may be classified


under the following headings t

1. Plasma radiation measurements.


2. Plasma diagnostics by probes.
3. Plasma wave experiments.
4. Optical and laser probing techniques.
5. Particle measurements.
A brief introduction to various techniques i s given i n the
following, before a detailed discussion of the methods, used
i n the thesis i s undertaken.

1. PIASMA RADIATION MEASUREMENTS

Historically, radiation methods were originally developed


in astrophysical applications. Later, they appeared in an
Increasing number in the field of laboratory plasma physics.
The radiation producing processes in a gaseous plasma are
shown in figure 2. The emitted radiation may exhibit either a
continnum or a line spectra or both, its analysis by spectro-
scopic measurements of continuum Intensities, line intensities,
and line profiles can often provide considerable information
about plasma. The methods of radiation measurement are usually
applied to hot plasma. The methods are often named after the
t;

spectral region of investigation. The names such as, vacuum


ultraviolet spectroscopy, x-ray diagnostics are examples of
such methods.

However, methods of radiation measurements are also


applied to low temperature plasmas* Methods of interpreting
spectral measurements in the case of high and low temperature
plasmas, however differ considerably.

As stated above, radiation measurement 3.3 classified as


a passive method* There is no disturbing effect on the plasma
during the measurements. On the other hand, the information
content of a calibrated spectrum is very large, (See figure 3).

If one measures the spectral intensity of one line and


its vicinity, the wavelength gives information that a certain
element is present in a certain stage of ionization. The line
profile contains information on the Jclnstic temperature of the
emitting atom (Doppler broadening) or the density of perturbing
particles (pressure broadening). The total energy omitted in
the line allows conclusion regarding the cxitatlon temperature
and particle density of the emitting species. From the conti-
nuous background, one can often determine the electron density
(Richter, 1968). Finally, the maximum intensity may provide a
lower limit of the plasma temperature or the plasma tempera-
ture itself. Xf one takes into consideration that a spectrum
usually has more than one line, and that a photographic
7

HALF WIDTH
AX —

Profile
Total Intensity

Xo Wavelength

FfG-3 '• Information content of a spectrum


8

spectrum may contain information on local density distri-

bution/ one can understand the importance of spectroscopic

methods for plasma investigations.

The difficulties of spectroscopic diagnostics consist


in the detailed interpretation of the measured spectrum.
Apart from a few simple cases in which it is possible to
evaluate plasma parameters directly from the measured values
taken from the spectrum, the detailed analysis of the spectrum
is the only way to find the state of the plasma. For this,
important data of the spectrum is used to construct a simple
model of the plasma. This model is then related to standard
models based on certain derivations from thermodynamic
equilibrium, A plasma may be "cold", that is, non-thermal,
with the gas atoms at ordinary temperatures and electrons
at considerably higher temperature, or "Hot", meaning thermal,
approaching complete thermodynamic equilibrium (CTE) under
certain conditions and often leading to the establishment of
local thermodynamic equilibrium (LTE) (venugopalan, 1971).

When the theoretical deductions made from the assumed

model agree with the measured spectrum the plasma state is

defined and the purpose is achieved.


•J

2. PLASMA DIAGNOSTICS BY PROBES

Most natural and laboratory plasmas are not in local

thermodynamica1 equilibrium. Electrical (or electrostatic)

probes are comparatively simple and versatile diagnostic

tools for the study of these plasmas. It is a fortunate pro-

perty of the plasmas that under a wide range of conditions*

the disturbance caused by the presence of the probe is locali-

zed and hence has little effect on the quantities it is measuring

(Chen 1965).

The region in which the plasma is perturbed by the probe


is, in many cases, only a few Debye lengths in extent. There-
fore measurements with a high spatial resolution can be taken
with the probe method. This property, combined with a resolution
in time, normally of the order of 10 ° to 10 sec, has made
the probe an efficient tool for the measurement of spatial and

temporal correlation functions of plasma parameters (Schott,

1968).

The basic experimental setup required in the probe


* technique consists normally of the following three components t
(i) the probe (in most cases just a piece of a thin
wire insulated except for its tip which is introduced into the
plasma.
10
(11) a variable voltage supply, one terminal of which
is connected to the probe, with the other terminal connected
to an electrode in contact with the plasma.

(iii) an instrument to measure the current to the probe

as a function of the voltage.

Two probe configurations are commonly employed , via.


the single probe and the double probe.

From the plot of probe current versus voltage (figure 4)


information on the velocity distribution of the electrons, the
density and the space potential of a plasma can be obtained
in a wide range of plasma conditions. This plot is called the
current voltage characteristic of the probe. Typical examples
are given in figure 4 a and b. More detailed discussion about
the characteristics will be given later.

Experimentally, electrostatic probes are extremely


simple devices. Nature, however, makes us to pay a penalty
for this simplicity. The theory of probes is extremely compli-
cated. The difficulty stems from the fact that probes are
boundaries to a plasma, and near the boundary the equations
* governing the motion of the plasma change their character. In
particular charge neutrality does not hold near boundaries,
and a layer, called a "sheath", can form, in which ion and

electron densities can differ and hence large electric fields


can be sustained (Chen 1965).
Up=Vp+Uo

^unperturbed Dlasma
vquo.ineuUal
layers*
>robe>:

FIG-4a Single-probe characteristics

l' i txtrupolatcd ion current


!
ri ' /'. •

FIG -4b Double probe characteristics


12

The theoretical basis for the interpretation of the


probe characteristic was first developed by jjangmuir in
1923. His theory, however, is applicable only to tenuous,
stationary plasmas with Maxwellian ion and electron distri-
butions, and when the probes are much smaller than the mean
free paths for collisions of charged with neutral particles.

However, during the period 1960-75, rigorous probe


theories have been developed that have greatly increased the
range of plasma conditions to which the probe method is
applicable. Excellent and quite complete accounts of probe
theories have been given by chen (1965), Schott (1968, 1971),
Swift and Schwar (1971) and Chung and others (1975).

Table I t Grouping of Parameters

Group Governing Parameters

II X^ t T± / T e ,

III f'ontjn!Ous Probe :


C o l l i s i o n l e s s - t r a n s i t i o n probes t

• /\ = - } e p r e s p n f a t i v e mean f r e e p a t h .
L = C h a r a c t e r i s t i c l e n g t h (taken t o be the probe r a d i u s ) .
)\ ~ sheath,

X « Probe p o t e n t i a l
=
TJ/ T Ratio of i o n t o e l e c t r o n temperature.
13
Under certain circumstances , particularly in the
presence of a strong magnetic field, the disturbance caused
by the presence of a probe in the plasma is not localised,
and the probe current then depdnds not only on the plasma
parameters (density and electron and ion temperatures), but
also on the way in which plasma is created and maintained.
(Chen, 1965). in such a case the probe method becomes less
useful.

In the absence of magnetic fields, the response of the


probe in a flowing plasma depends on a number of parameters
that arise naturally from the governing equations. These para-
meters can be combined into groups as indicated in Table I
(Chung et al., 1975).

The three parameters in Group I determine the various


domains at which an electric probe can operate. Figure 5 a
shows a three dimensional diagram illustrating various probe
operating regimes, using R as the characteristic probe
dimension. Most probe theories are asymptotic in one of the
three parameters, X , } \ ~ , and R, and the domains of applica-
bility reside in one of the shaded areas shown in figure 5 a.
£or example, regime Al lies in the > ~ 0 plane with X as the
largest parameter, similarly, regime B3 lies in the same plane
but with R as the largest parameter. In addition, one has to
deal with several transitional domains represented by the
FlG-5aThree-dimensional d ^ l p ^ Castrating various probe
operation regime c - H, probe radii.-; X D sheath- X
mean free path.

AnL . • A-1
Orbital 1 Conventional
motion | Langmuir
limited ' probe

o
-<* 1-G • Transitional sheath

* ~ Collisional sheath

0 0n
r\
vo
R/XD

FIG-5b;Two dimensional representation of various probe


operation regimes.
diagonals in figures 5 a. Figure 5 b is a simplified, two
dimensional representation o£ various probe operation regimes.
These diagrams bring out the complexity of probe theories.

3. PIASMA, WAVS EXPERIMENTS

It must at first be noted that neither the individual


particle picture not the continuum approach is fully adequate
to describe the plasma state, since each assumes a complete
equilibrium everywhere (or transient changes which are rapidly
restored to equilibrium), and ignores local departures from
equilibrium conditions by assemblies of particles on a scale
that is large compared with atomic distances but small compared
with the plasma as a whole. For example, a momentary separation
of changes in a small volume or the plasma might arise, the
mutual electric field of the charges in the displaced volume
produces a restoring force which could lead to consequent
oscillatory motion of the charges, such oscillations have been
observed in plasma and their frequencies calculated using
several assumptions.

Detailed investigations show that in general, three types


of waves can exist in a plasma (spitzer, 1962 i Denisee and
Delcroix, 1963 t Watson, 1956).

(1) Electromagnetic waves, which in the simplest cases


are only transverse. These waves are analogous to the usual
IK

<
UJ
Q m

UJ
QQ
O
cr
a
CL
cc
UJ
>
UJ
o
^Ok
AMPLIFIER
UJ

RECORDER
500 K H z in

CHART
TUNED
(V
>
r rd

rd
•E
1/1
_rd
a.
;<
, ^-
cr
;< o
. i i— CL
•0_ <
ID

UJ

< a
01
UJ o
c
en
cr
CL rd
cc Q
UJ.
I— a*
X oo
UJ
cr CTI
o M
i— LL

n < T
ID ^.
Q o
u < O o
UJ Z LT>
Q cr
m
17

electromagnetic wives propagating in a vacuum, their speed


is of the order of the speed of light in vacuum.

(il) -The plasma waves that the longitudinal which only


propagate due to thermal agitation with a low speed with the
order of the speed of thermal agitation.

(iii) Magnetohydrodynamic waves, which are somewhat


similar to acoustic waves. They cause motions of the electrons
and ions with electromagnetic coupling. Their propagation speed
is of the order of the speed of thermal agitation.

The analysis of these various types of waves is based


primarily on Maxwellian equations.

Experimentally, plasma wave phenomena occupy a central


place in almost all areas of plasma physics. They owe their
importance to the fact that the response of a linear physical
system to a signal can often be expressed in terms of elementary
waves by the use of suitable transforms in time and space, it
follows that an understanding of characteristic wave properties,
for example, the knowledge of whether different modes are
growing or attenuating, is fundamental to the prediction of
plasma behaviour, in a practical situation, however, non-
linearity, plasma inhomogeneity, and the effect of boundaries,
introduce complexities in the application of simple wave theory
(Crawford ; 1969).
18

»—
z:
o
t— 2
LU , 3
a. cr
UJ
- t

L DE
.- t— _i

EXP
ceiv
3— -^z> <
<
< c °O 2
&
zz zCD —
a
LU S "
»—i
-z.
o
»— —
CO
z > LO

M OF BASIC Ml ROWAVE TRAN MIS'


<
2
a:
o\ to
X \ <i

k\NN< CD N X V o
\OsV-J LU <VsN|
V\\Q- a: \xy

^ 7 >
DOW

> I—*
< <
d9VI

ASM

$
A 2
1 —» Q _i
VAC I

Q_
.OCK

<
_l LU
< O _i 2
SOUR
SIGN

m
CO
I
O
u_
19

Observation of these waves serves as a powerful diagnos-


tic technique for the plasma. Plasma density and temperature
can be measured without disturbing the plasma, in some cases,
details of the distribution function can be inferred from
the wave measurement.

Ion acoustic waves are longitudinal compression waves in


a plasma, which quite analogous to sound waves in a gas. in
the plasma, most of the momentum is supplied by the ions and
the restoring force is supplied by the thermal pressure of
electrons. The electron and ion fluids are constrined to move
in plasma by the requirement that the plasma should be charge-
neutral. Ion-acoustic waves offer the opportunity of studying
relatively simple plasma co-operative effect in an easily
accessible low frequency range. The plasma can be studied in
quiet simple systems in absence of magnetic field.

in the plasma wave studies, microwave diagnostic methods


form an important discipline. Historically, the subject of
microwave diagnostics may be said to have started from the
laboratory experiments of Balthazar van der Pol (1920) to

demonstrate the influence of charged particles on electromagnet!'


wave propagation. The improved microwave technology, following
world war II, opened new expanses of the frequency spectrum.
The pioneering theoretical work of Margenau (1946) and experi-
mental work of Biondi and Brown (1949) in developing resonant
cavity techniques and of Faraday rotation measurements by Post
20

and others at Berkeley in 1952 stimulated the development of


microwave diagnostics as standard measuring technique. In the
case o£ microwave diagnostics/ the interpretation is often
difficult and require not only an understanding of the formal
theory of electromagnetic interactions with plasmas* but also
the development of an intutitive skill in selecting meaningful
simplifications (Heald and Wharton, 1965).

4. OPTICAL AND LASER PRCBING TECHNIQUES

Probing by moans of light beams is* in principle* very


similar to microwave probing. However* their experimental
realization differs greatly from microwave experimental tech-
niques. Optical interferometers that are direct analogues of
microwave interferometer are useful for dense plasma measurements.
The Mach-Zehnder interferometer figure 6 is an example of an
optical probing system, A similar optical arrangement is used
for schlieren photography, except that changes in refractive
index are recorded as modulations of light intensity* rather

than interference fringes (Lovberg* 1963). Optical Faxaday

potation can be used to study dense plasmas in strong magnetic

fields (Dougal, 1963).

The refractive indices of transparent media are usually

measured with interferometers, A measurement of the plasma


7t

a
E
a

CI
u "to
o
•*—
l_
3

erferometer used
l
{£> O ~

3
.— -4 r
a
x
X
1— •*-> to

1
TJ
xi c
c
o k.
4; JZ
.n V O
u >
E TJ
>. C
a
£ a
o JC p
ULI

QJ
^*
ach-Z

3
c o
u
E
i_
o
a.
x
UJ u o S
S*-.
o 1_ • *
»—• «l^_» CD
o
FIG-

X 3 E
_-f -
witowwyi > .
fc- "CT
o w
T3 • o to
c c 1o_
o 0)
o X 3
OL 1— «n 6 u
to V
o
in

E
refractive index enables us to find the densities of free
electrons and other plasma p a r t i c l e s . Lasers are very good
approximations towards the ideal l i g h t source for interferon
metric studies. However, some special features of lasers make
i t possible to develop quite unusual interferometers that can
operate with lasers only. An example of such a system i s shown
i n figure 7. Laser diagnostic methods are particularly suitable
for plasma systems having an intermediate range of parameter
values ( n ^ 10 to 10 cm" , T ^ 1 0 to 10 °K ).
e e
In addition to laser feedback interferometry, laser hetero-
dyning t and laser perturbation technique are other methods of
laser diagnostics.
Another type of optical probing method where laser as
a source finds application i s the study of l i g h t scattering
from plasma p a r t i c l e s . In principle t h i s method seems to be
very simple. Measurement of scattered l i g h t intensity as a
function of the scattering angle and frequency enable deter-
mination of electron and ion densities/ velocity distributions/
density fluctuations and local magnetic f i e l d intensity
(ovsyannicov, 1971). Moreover a l l this information r e l a t e s to
a small selected region inside the plasma.

In practice we can obtain only a small part of t h i s


Information. Many d i f f i c u l t i e s stand i n the way, at present/
and the main difficulty i s the smallness of the Thomson scattering
)DUJ3}X9 3L); UIC|JIM pSUIDJUOD DUUSD]d 6uiAjDA-8UU!}. D

0} 3np }nd}ho JQSD] a q ; j.o , 6UI6UIJJ oupuuoj8jJa;ui;q£-9u

C
AJJADO aouajapj s i o . u i IAJ j o p s j j a j }D]j D Buisn
J9}3W0JejJ9}UI >|DDqp99J. JQSD) D JO UUDj6Dip OJiDUUaqOS'.D^-OI-j

JOJJIUJ A^IADQ

SJOJJIUI J35D")

-
T£ ^r §
-L T
\

DUJSD|d ;S9| 2 J8SD) SD6 3N-3(H ^V\


W
•w \
J»UU »9 jajlduinujoioqj

«tf
23

cross section ( 6 ~7.94 x lo" cm'1' ster" electron" ).


e
The Intensity of Thomson scattered l i g h t i s £ . n , I where
w €$ 0
n i s the electron density and I i s the incident radiation
© o
ntensity. Even in the most favourable cases great care i s
equired in order to obtain the desired signal-to-noise r a t i o .

5. PARTICLE MEASUREMENTS

These diagnostic techniques involve relatively direct


leasurements of the particles constituting the plasma under
;tudy. The overall goal of plasma diagnostics is to measure
he ion, electron and neutral particle distribution functions,
(r,v,t), and the associated electromagnetic fields in order
o specify the physics of a plasma system (Osher, 1965). In
rinciple, a complete set of accurate particle measurements
hould yield a significant portion of the desired data; in
•ractice, the techniques are sufficiently difficult that a wide
arlty of measurements are needed to even obtain averages over
elatJ.vely gross features.

Mass spectrometer is a useful instrument in the field of


lasma diagnostics. For a mass spectrometric analysis only a
ery small number of ions is required. For this reason, plasmas
eed not seriously be influenced by the extraction systems
Drawin, 1968). It is possible to get mass spectrometric informa-
lon on neutral particles arising from a plasma via known
2!J

secondary processes In a reaction chamber, a.g. ion source


with electronic Ionization, charge exchange chamber, etc*

Rapid scanning mass spectrometers can be used for studying


time dependent and transient processes. There exist a great
number of possible mass analysis systems, many of them are
applicable for diagnosis of plasmas.

If the plasma has the "suitable" dimensions and "suitable"


density, it may be probed by a beam of fast particles. The term
"suitable" means that the plasma has a sufficient influence on
the bsam to allow certain plasma parameters to be derived from
the interaction of beam particles with plaema particles.

The density of a plasma can be obtained by the measurement


of the attenuation factor of a beam of atoms or ions traversing
it. if the beam of particles is sufficiently fast, tne main

reactions between beam and plasma particles are due to charge


exchange and stripping. Reactions between plasma electrons and
beam particles are, in general, of only minor importance.

OBjacTXVg:-.; 0^ 221 THSSX3


Plasma physics i s a rapidly expanding field of science,


.lthough the importance of plasma physics has been understood
by many leading Indian s c i e n t i s t s , the subject i s s t i l l i n
i t s early developing stages, particularly i n Indian universities.
2B

The work described in the present thesis represents the


new developmental work recently undertaken in the Physics
Department of the Poona University.

The objective of the thesis is to present the experimental


setup and results pertaining to laboratory plasma diagnostics
using diagnostic techniques involving plasma waves and oscilla-
tions.

The subject of plasma diagnostics is concerned with making


significant, non-perturbing measurements and expressing them in
numbers. The term 'Plasma Diagnostics' implies that the diagnostic
measurement does not itself change the state of the plasma, that
two or more diagnostic measurements may thus be made simultaneously

Experimental studies of plasma are usually complicated by


the fact that it is necessary to first create the plasma, since
it does not exist as a normal state of matter on earth. The
methods of creating laboratory plasma are quite varied, and
depending on the method of creation, the plasma may be high - or
low - density, high - or low - temperature, steady state of*
transient, stable or unstable, and so on. Thus the kinds of
•laboratory studies that can be done depend, to a great extent,
on the plasma production scheme itself, similarly, an under-
standing of the objectives of theoretical plasma studies
requires some appreciation of the problems of plasma production
and measurement (Krall and Trivelpiece, 1973).
27

Since the work presented in the thesis is a new developmental

effort there were many problems faced by the author after


surmounting the initial difficulties of producing a uniform,
stable plasma for sensitivie diagnostic measurements. The author
was faced with the problems of making the experimental plasma
free from electrical noise from the plasma source. The author

had to devote a considerable effort for solving these initial


problems of plasma production and making it suitable for the
planned diagnostic measurements.

A spherical plasma system was selected to make use of the


spherical symmetry in measurements and also to minimise in
effect of plasma boundary on the diagnostic measurements. An
attempt was made to study the influence of plasma boundary on
the observed physical processes by varying the size of the
spherical chamber.

This enabled a detailed study of ion acoustic oscillations


at different background gas pressures and at different distances
from plasma boundary.

The thesis presents the results of diagnostic measurements


^carried out by the author during the period 1980-83. The work
involved the design and fabrication of plasma system, setting
up the vacuum system and the diagnostic setup, in the experiments,
electrical double probe methods were used to characterise the
plasma which was studied using a combination of different
diagnostic techniques.
28

THE SCHEME OF PRESENTATION

The b a s i c plan of the p r e s e n t a t i o n of the t h e s i s i s t o


begin with a brief survey of the d i f f e r e n t diagnostic methods.
The d e t a i l s of the experimental set-up are described n e x t , i n
Chapter I I , i n which d e t a i l s of diagnostic probes, t h e i r
mechanical dimensions, e t c . , a r e given. The r e s u l t s of different
diagnostic measurements a r e discussed i n separate c h a p t e r s .

Chapter I I I contains the d e t a i l s of the e l e c t r o n guns which


were used to c r e a t e plasma i n the spherical chamber. The e l e c t r i -
c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of these guns were studied using a Faraday
Cup device and a magnetic set-up for the measurement of p a r t i c l e
beam energy. These r e s u l t s a r e described i n Chapter I I I .

The Floating double probe method was employed to determine


the plasma parameters. These are discussed i n Chapter IV. The
f l o a t i n g - d o u b l e probe method has some advantages over the
Langmuir probe method and i t i s f e l t t h a t i t can give more
accurate l o c a l measurements. However, the difference between the
i d e a l and the r e a l shape of t h e probe c h a r a c t e r i s t i c curve
n e c e s s i t a t e s f u r t h e r improvements i n the method of analysis of

floating probe measurements. These problems are discussed and
the experimental measurements are analysed in the light of recent
developments in chapter IV.

Plasma waves and oscillations provide very good diagnostic


methods. Besides this, low frequency plasma waves and oscillations
2«J

afford an interesting topic for experimental study, in the


present investigations, author studied the propagation characte-
r i s t i c s of ion acoustic waves and applied these to determine the
elevated ion temperatures. Secondly, the spectacular phenomenon
of low frequency ion sound waves was studied by the author with
applications orientation, A discussion of these results i s
presented i n chapter v.

The experimental measurements of the e l e c t r i c a l conductivity


of spherical plasma are discussed separately in Appendix I .
Electrical conductivity of a weakly ionised plasma i s controlled
by electron-neutral collisions occurring over a time-scale which
i s much longer than the time-scale of plasma waves. Therefore,
the discussion of e l e c t r i c a l conductivity of a plasma involves
plasma processes which are different from those involved i n the
discussion of collective behaviour, i t was therefore f e l t that
i t would be appropriate to discuss conductivity measurements
separately.

The research work presented in the thesis was periodically


reported i n some international conferences on plasma physics.
These timely presentations enabled the author to discuss h i s
r e s u l t s with eminent plasma physicists and to benefit from their
suggestions and encouragements. These publications are enclosed
in l a t e r Appendixes i n the t h e s i s .
7,8

F i n a l l y , the r e s u l t s of the present i n v e s t i g a t i o n , which


involved a combination of two o r more diagnostic methods/ are
inter-compared and discussed t o g e t h e r , i n chapter VI. Tho
a u t h o r ' s plan of future development of the present work Is also
o u t l i n e d i n Chapter VI.
1

REFERENCES

B i o n d i , M.A, and 1949 Phys. r e v . 7_5 / 1700


Brown, S.C.

Chen, F . F . 1965 i n •Pia ana D i a g n o s t i c Tech-


niques* Ed. R i c h a r d H.
Huddle s t o n e and S t a n e l y L.
Leonard, Academic P r e s s ,
New York, P . 114 & 178.

Chung, P.M. 1975 I n ' E l e c t r i c Probes i n


T a l b o t , L. S t a t i o n a r y and Flowing P l a s m a s '
Touryan, K . J . s p r i n g e r - v e r l a g ; New York.

Crawford, F.W. 1969 I n 'Plasma waves i n Space and


In the Laboratory'.
Ed. J . O . Thorns, and B . J .
Landmark., P . 145.

Crookes, W. 1879 P h i l . T r a n s ; J., 135.

Denise, J.F. 1963 In 'Plasma Waves' Interscience,


Delcroix, J.L. New York.

Dougal, A.A. 1963 Bull Am. Phys. Soc. II, 8,


163.

Drawl n , H. W. 1968 I n 'Plasma D i a g n o s t i c s ' .


Ed. w. L o c h t e - H o l t g r e v e n ,
North H o l l a n d , Amsterdam,
P. 844.

H e a l d , M.A. 1965 I n 'Plasma D i a g n o s t i c s w i t h


Wharton, C.B. Microwaves *. J . 'rtiley,New York.
K r a l l , N.A. 1973 I n ' P r i n c i p l e s o£ Plasma
T r i v e l p i e c e , A.w. P h y s i c s ' , McGraw-Hill,
J a p a n . , P . 42.

Langmuir, I . 1923 Gen. E l e c . Rev. ^26 , 7 3 1 .


M o t t - S m i t h , H.M.

Lovberg, R.H. 1963 IEEE. Trans. Nucl. Sci.,


.11* 187.

Margenau, H. 1946 Phys. Rev. 6S> , 508.

Osher, J . E . 1965 I n 'Plasma D i a g n o s t i c Tech


n i q u e s * , E d . R . H . Huddleston
and S.I.. Leonard. Academic
p r e s s . New York, P . 5 1 7 .

Ovsyannicov, A. 1971 i n ' R e a c t i o n s Under Plasma


C o n d i t i o n s ' , Ed. M.Venugop
W i l e y - I n t e r s c i e n c e , N e w Yor
Vol. 1 . , P . 4 7 1 .

Richter, J. 1968 I n 'Plasma D i a g n o s t i c s ' Ed


Lochte-Holtgreven, North-
Holland; Amsterdam.,P.3.

S c h o t t , L. 1968 I n 'Plasma D i a g n o s t i c s ' , E


W. l o c h t e - H o l t g r e v e n ,
Amsterdam., P . 6 6 8 & 6 7 1 .

S p i t z e r , L. 1962 I n • P h y s i c s of F u l l y I o n i z
G a s e s ' . , 2nd Edn. Wiley
I n t e r s c i e n c e , New York.

Swift, J.D. 1971 I n ' E l e c t r i c P r o b e s For P i


Schwar, M.J.R. D i a g n o s t i c s ' . , I l i f f e Books
London.
33

Van Der P o l 1920 i n »Van Dar Pol s e l e c t e d


S c i e n t i f i c P a p e r s , Vol. I ;
Amsterdam., Publish^- 3 i n
I 9 6 0 , P . 376 & 386.

Venugopalan, M. 1971 i n ' R e a c t i o n s Under Plasma


C o n d i t i o n s ' , Ed. M. venugopalan
Vol.1., Wiley-Interscience.
New York. , p . 5.

Potrebbero piacerti anche