Mechanical Design

3-D STRESS IN MECHANICAL
DESIGN
August 2000
Copyright  2000 C. E. Knight

PURPOSE OF THE TUTORIAL
This tutorial is designed to introduce and place strong emphasis on the role of 3-D stress in the process of
mechanical design. Students in engineering are normally introduced to stress in its simplest one-
component form defined by load divided by area of cross section.. This is a valid definition of a pure 1-D
state of stress, but in many cases it seems to establish a baseline safe position for which many students
don’t want to venture forth. Carrying this attitude through the mechanical design process is a recipe for
failure.
Everything in the mechanical design realm has solid 3-D characteristics. The same is true for the state of
stress in the solid. In many simple cases the effective state of stress can be reduced to 2-D or 1-D, but only
after careful consideration. In the early stages of mechanical design, the locations of most likely stress
failure and the corresponding stress components acting at those locations must be identified. Once all the
stress components at a given location are determined, they may then be combined to find principal stresses,
maximum shear stress or other measures that are useful for predicting design success or failure. It is very
important to remember that stress components for one location in a machine part should never be
combined with stress components for a different location in the same part.
One of the interesting developments in visualizing the combining of 2-D stress components was the
creation of Mohr’s circle. This graphical representation of the 2-D stress transformation equations provides
a quick, accurate and visual protrayal of the 2-D state of stress. It finds the principal stresses and a
maximum shear stress (although this maximum shear stress may be quite misleading in 3-D stress).
Review of Two-Dimensional Mohr’s Circle - Graphical Approach
The beginning of a Mohr’s circle representation must be a stress element sketch of the 2-D state of stress as
shown in the figure.
This shows all potential non-zero 2-D stress components. The graphical Mohr’s circle uses coordinate
pairs of these data to make a plot. They are (σx, τxy ) and (σy , τyx). These two points establish the circle
diameter. By convention normal stresses, σ are positive in tension and negative in compression, however,
the shear stresses, τ, in the Mohr’s circle constructions are taken as positive if they make a cw moment
about the stress element. In the stress element above, τxy is ccw (-) while τyx is cw(+). This convention is
useful for determining the proper orientation of principal stresses and other components relative to the x,y
coordinates.
As an example, assume that σx is positive and τxy is positive (cw) with σy equal zero. First sketch the
normal stress axis along the horizontal and the shear stress axis along the vertical. Then plot the first
coordinate pair (σx, τxy ) at point A. Then plot the second pair (0, τyx ) at point B. These two points form
the diameter of the circle with its center at point C. Simple geometric triangles can then determine the
circle radius and all principal stress and peak shear stress values.
In a second example, assume that σx is smaller than σy , but both are positive, and that τxy is cw. Sketch the
normal stress, σ, and shear stress, τ axes and plot the coordinate pair (σx, τxy ) at point A and then (σy , τyx) at
point B. Connecting these points locates the circle center at point C. Geometrical calculations finish the
numerical values.
The Mohr’s circle gives a complete visual representation of the 2-D state of stress along with accurate
numerical values. However, there is a highly significant factor in mechanical design that has thus far been
neglected. That factor is the influence of the additional 3-D stress components on the design safety.
Three-Dimensional Stress in Mechanical Design
In the real world of applications all objects are 3-D. The general state of stress is pictured on the stress
element below. There are six independent stress components shown in a conventient Cartesian coordinate
system. It is readily seen that in the 2-D Mohr’s circle, the principal stresses are larger numerically than the
cartesion components unless they are already principal stresses. The same is true in 3-D stress. A qubic
equation can be solved for the three principal stress roots in the general stress case, however, in many
cases of mechanical design some of the principal stresses may be determined by inspection.
3-D Mohr’s Circles
Use of Mohr’s circles can again make visualization of the stress condition clearer to the designer. The
definition of the three circle diagram is sketched below. Note that the principal stress values are always
ordered by convention so the σ1 is the largest value in the tensile direction and σ3 is the largest value in the
compressive direction. Note also that there is one dominant peak shear stress in this diagram. Be
forewarned the principal stresses and this peak shear stress are going to play a strong role in
determining the factor of safety in mechanical design.
What about the two 2-D examples? How do they become 3-D representations? If the stress state is only
two-dimensional, then σz and all the shear stresses with z components are zero, therefore, σz = 0 is the third
principal stress. Only two principal stresses were found by the Mohr’s circle transformation. Since σz = 0,
it must not be important. Wrong!! Look at the modified examples below. In example 1, the second
principal stress, σ2 , becomes zero and the third principal stress, σ3 , is negative, but the overall range is the
same. In this case, there is no effect on the overall stress state.
However, the second example has the same first two principal stresses σ1 and σ2 , but σ3 is 0. This enlarges
the outermost circle which means that the overall state of stress has increased. In this case, there is an
appreciable contribution by the 3-D effect that must not be ignored in accounting for design safety.
Example 3
As a final example, use the stress conditions σx = 90 (T), τxy = 40 ccw, σy = 30 (T), and σz = - 25 (C).
First sketch the normal stress and shear stress axes and then plot the coordinate pair ( σx , τxy ) at A. Plot the
next coordinate pair ( σy , τyx ) at B. Connect points A and B to form the diameter of the 2-D Mohr’s circle
with center at C. Draw the circle and determine two of the principal stresses. The center C is located at a
stress value of 60. The triangle C, σx, and τxy form a 30, 40, 50 triangle, so the circle radius is 50. The two
principal stresses from the 2-D circle are 110 (T) and 10(T). Since there are no non-zero z component
shear stresses, σz is the third principal stress with a value of –25 (C). The maximum shear stress is at the
peak of the largest circle and is equal to half the difference between σ1 and σ3 .
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DESIGN
TUTORIAL 6, PART A: INTRODUCTION TO STATIC FAILURE THEORIES
APPROACH
Theories have been developed for the static failure of metals based upon the two classes of material
failure; ductile metals yield while brittle metals fracture. Thus separate failure theories exist for
ductile and brittle metals:
Failure Theories for Ductile Materials
1. Maximum Shear Stress (MSS)

2. Distortion Energy (DE)
3. Ductile Coulomb-Mohr (DCM)
Failure Theories for Brittle Materials
1. Maximum Normal Stress (MNS)

2. Brittle Coulomb-Mohr (BCM)
These theories have grown out of hypotheses and experimental data in the following manner.
1. Experimental failure data is first collected through tensile tests.

2. The state of stress is correlated to the experimental data using Mohr’s circle plots.
3. A failure theory is developed from a concept of the responsible failure mechanism.
4. A design envelope is established based upon the theoretical and empirical design
equations.
In light of the extensive dependence of failure theories on experimental data, we will first review
the acquisition and correlation of tensile test data to failure theory. Subsequently, the criteria and
application of specific failure theories will be discussed.
TENSILE TEST
d0
l0
TEXT FIGURE 3-1: A typical tension-test specimen. Some of the standard

dimensions used for d0 are 2.5, 6.25, and 12.5 mm and 0.505 in, but other sections and
sizes are in use. Common gauge lengths l0 used are 10, 25, and 50 mm and 1 and 2 in.
†
Text refers to Mechanical Engineering Design, 7th edition text by Joseph Edward Shigley, Charles R.
Mischke and Richard G. Budynas; equations and examples with the prefix T refer to the present tutorial.
The tensile test is a standardized test (ASTM Standard E8 or E8m) and thus allows for the sharing
of experimental data amongst researchers, typically in the form of stress-strain curves. Standard
dimensions for the test-specimen are provided in Text Figure 3-1 while a comparison of
characteristic stress-strain curves for ductile and brittle materials are shown in Text Figure 3-2.
These engineering stress-strain diagrams graphically demonstrate the difference in the failure
behavior of ductile and brittle metals, and the need for separate failure criteria. However, the curves
do not represent true values of stress and strain; rather, they are calculated based upon the original
specimen cross-sectional area, prior to loading.
P 4P
Engineering Stress σ= = (Text Eq. 3-1)
A0 π d 02
l − l0
Engineering Strain ε= (Text Eq. 3-2)
l0
u
Su f Sut u, f
Sf Sy y
Sy y
el
pl
Stress σ = P/A0
O a εy εu εf a
Strain ε Strain ε
(a) (b)
TEXT FIGURE 3-2: Stress-strain diagram obtained from the standard tensile test
(a) Ductile material; (b) brittle material. pl marks the proportional limit; el, the
elastic limit; y, the offset yield strength as defined by offset strain Oa; u, the
maximum or ultimate strength; and f, the fracture strength.
Referring to Text Fig. 3-2 (a), point el, the elastic limit, defines the onset of permanent set
while point a represents 0.2 percent permanent set with respect to the original gauge length
(ε = 0.002).
A measure of the “true” stress and strain can be obtained by taking simultaneous
measurements of the load and cross-sectional area during the tensile test experiment. Text
Shigley, Mischke & Budynas Machine Design Tutorial 6: Static Failure Theories 2/5
Figure 3-4 shows a typical true stress-strain diagram for a ductile material. The curve
between points u and f corresponds to a reduction in stress as the specimen necks down.
σf f
σu
u
True stress
εu εf
True strain
TEXT FIGURE 3-4: True stress- TEXT FIGURE 3-3: Tension specimen
strain diagram plotted in Cartesian after necking.
coordinates.
CORRELATION OF STATE OF STRESS WITH TEST DATA
For design, we need to relate the expected state of stress in a part to the actual state of stress
and thus, the material strength, as determined through the tensile test. We accomplish this
by applying principal stresses since they characterize a state of stress independent of the
original coordinate system.
y
σy =0
τ yx = τ xy = 0
σ x = P / A0 σ x = P / A0
x
σ1 σ1
τ yx = τ xy = 0
σ2 =σ3 = 0
σy =0
(a) State of stress for simple tension. (b) Principal stresses for simple tension.
FIGURE 6A-1: Correlation of state of stress

with principal stresses for simple tension.
Since the tensile test generates a uniaxial state of stress, the principal stresses can be defined
as,
P
σ 1 = σ axial = and σ 2 = σ 3 = 0
A0
When plotted on a Mohr’s circle diagram, these stress values translate into what looks like a
single circle passing through the origin where σ 2 is coincident with σ 3 . Actually, there are
still three circles on the Mohr’s circle diagram. Two circles, defined by principal stresses
(σ 1,σ 2 ) and (σ 1,σ 3 ) , are drawn on top of each other. The third circle degenerates to a point
defined by principal stresses (σ 2,σ 3 ) .
σ3 σ2 σ1 σ
FIGURE 6A-2: Mohr’s circle for simple tension.
DEVELOPMENT OF STATIC FAILURE THEORIES
Design for static loading dictates that all loading variables remain constant:
1. Magnitude of load is constant;

2. Direction of load is constant;
3. Point of application of the load is fixed.
These conditions, in conjunction with criteria specific to ductile and brittle materials, have
been used in the development of the static failure theories outlined earlier.
Characteristics of Ductile Materials
1. The strain at failure is, ε f ≥ 0.05 , or percent elongation greater than five percent.
2. Ductile materials typically have a well defined yield point. The value of the
stress at the yield point defines the yield strength, Sy.
3. For typical ductile materials, the yield strength has approximately the same value
for tensile and compressive loading ( S yt ≈ S yc = S y ).
4. A single tensile test is sufficient to characterize the material behavior of a ductile
material, Sy and Sut.
Characteristics of Brittle Materials
1. The strain at failure is, ε f ≤ 0.05 or percent elongation less than five percent.
2. Brittle materials do not exhibit an identifiable yield point; rather, they fail by
brittle fracture. The value of the largest stress in tension and compression
defines the ultimate strength, Sut and Suc respectively.
3. The compressive strength of a typical brittle material is significantly higher than
its tensile strength, ( Suc Sut ).
4. Two material tests, a tensile test and a compressive test, are required to
characterize the material behavior of a brittle material, Sut and Suc.
SUMMARY
This tutorial has attempted to provide a focused introduction to the development of static failure
theory by summarizing the theories associated with specific material classifications. In addition, the
experimental and analytical models, which have been employed historically to relate the
experimental data to strength quantities used for static design, are presented. Subsequent tutorials,
Static Failure of Ductile Materials and Static Failure of Brittle Materials, will respectively provide
detailed reviews and examples, respectively, of the failure theories associated with ductile and
brittle materials.
TUTORIAL 4-14: STRESS CONCENTRATION
ORIGIN OF STRESS CONCENTRATIONS
Machine members often have regions in which the state of stress is significantly greater than
theoretical predictions as a result of:
1. Geometric discontinuities or stress raisers such as holes, notches, and fillets;

2. Internal microscopic irregularities (non-homogeneities) of the material created by such
manufacturing processes as casting and molding;
3. Surface irregularities such as cracks and marks created by machining operations.
These stress concentrations are highly localized effects which are functions of geometry and
loading. In this tutorial, we will examine the standard method of accounting for stress
concentrations caused by geometric features. Specifically, we will discuss the application of a
theoretical or geometric stress-concentration factor for determination of the true state of stress in
the vicinity of stress raisers.
THEORETICAL (GEOMETRIC) STRESS-CONCENTRATION FACTOR, K t AND K ts
In order to predict the “actual” stress resulting from a geometric stress raiser, a theoretical stress-
concentration factor is applied to the nominal stress. For a part subjected to a normal stress, the true
stress in the immediate neighborhood of the geometric discontinuity is calculated as:
σ max = Ktσ 0 (Text Eq. 4-48)
where,
Kt = Theoretical stress-concentration factor
σ 0 = Nominal normal stress
Similarly, we can also estimate the highly localized amplification of shear stress in the vicinity of a
geometric stress concentration,
τ max = Ktsτ 0
where,
K ts = Theoretical stress-concentration factor for shear
τ 0 = Nominal shear stress
The nominal stress of the above equations is typically derived from the elementary strength of
materials equations, using either a net or a gross cross section.
†
Text refers to Mechanical Engineering Design, 7th edition text by Joseph Edward Shigley, Charles R.
Mischke and Richard G. Budynas; equations and examples with the prefix T refer to the present tutorial.
Characteristics of Stress-Concentration Factors
1. Function of the geometry or shape of the part, but not its size or material;
2. Function of the type of loading applied to the part (axial, bending or torsional);
3. Function of the specific geometric stress raiser in the part (e.g. fillet radius,
notch, or hole)
4. Always defined with respect to a particular nominal stress;
5. Typically assumes a linear elastic, homogeneous, isotropic material.
Determination of Kt Value
The stress-concentration factor, associated with a specific geometry and loading condition of a part,
can be derived through experimentation, analysis or computational methods.
1. Experimental Methods. Optical methods, such as photoelasticity, are very

dependable and widely used for experimentally determining the stress
concentration at a point on a part. However, several alternative methods have
been used historically: the grid method, brittle-coating, brittle-model and strain
gauge.
2. Analytical Methods. The theory of elasticity can be used to analyze certain
geometrical shapes to calculate stress-concentration factors.
3. Computational Methods. Finite-element techniques provide a powerful and
inexpensive computational method of assessing stress-concentration factors.
Following are comparisons of stress-concentration factors derived using experimental, analytical

and computational methods for a rectangular filleted bar in tension and in pure bending. Text Figure
A-15-5 provides tensile test results for the bar in simple tension while Figure T6-2-1 shows
TEXT FIGURE A-15-5: Rectangular filleted bar in tension or simple

compression. σ 0 = F / A, where A = dt and t is the thickness.
Shigley, Mischke & Budynas Machine Design Tutorial 4-14: Stress Concentration 2/9
FIGURE T6-2-1: Stress distribution in a rectangular filleted bar in
simple tension obtained through photoelastic procedures. (S. P.
Timoshenko and J. N. Goodier, "Theory of Elasticity," Third Edition,
McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1969.)
the fringe pattern captured photographically from a photoelasticity experiment. Fringe

patterns are indicative of the stress intensity which is directly proportional to the maximum
shear stress and the principal stresses:
σ Intensity = 2τ max = σ 1 − σ 3 .
Stress-concentration factors can be developed from these contours.
Finally, Figure T6-2-2 contains the graphical results of a finite element analysis of the bar in
tension. Since the bar geometry and the loads applied to the bar are symmetrical with respect
to the longitudinal axis, the model only needs to incorporate the upper half of the bar; the
analytical results for the lower half of the bar will be a mirror image of those in the top half.
The finite element model plot contains contours of the σ x component of stress. However,
since the stress-concentration factor is applied to the dominant component of the stress, σ x
in this model, the finite element model can be queried for σ x to estimate the value of Kt
directly
σ x , FiniteElement
Kt =
σ0
where the nominal stress must be defined for the section geometry and applied loading.
FIGURE T6-2-2: Stress contours of σ x generated by a
finite element model of one half of a rectangular filleted
bar in tension.
Similarly, Text Figure A-15-6, Figure T6-2-3 and Figure T6-2-4 respectfully provide results
obtained by applying bending and photoelastic testing and finite element analysis to a
rectangular filleted bar in pure bending.
TEXT FIGURE A-15-6: Rectangular filleted bar in pure bending.

σ 0 = Mc / I , where c = d / 2, I = td 3 /12 and t is the thickness.
FIGURE T6-2-3: Stress distribution in a rectangular filleted bar in pure
bending obtained through photoelastic procedures. (By permission of S. P.
Timoshenko and J. N. Goodier; the figure was included in, "Theory of
Elasticity," Third Edition, McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1969.)
FIGURE T6-2-4: Stress contours of σ x generated by a

finite element model of one half of the rectangular filleted
bar in pure bending.
Stress-concentration factors, derived through many years of practice, have been catalogued
for numerous geometric features and loading configurations in two authoritative resources:
1. Pilkey, W. D., Peterson’s Stress Concentration Factors, 2nd ed., Wiley

Interscience, 1997.
2. Young, W. C. and R. G. Budynas, Roark’s Formulas for Stress and Strain, 7th
ed., McGraw-Hill, 2001.
Application to Ductile and Brittle Materials for Static Loading
Ductile Materials. While stress concentration must be considered for fatigue and impact
loading of most materials, stress-concentration factors are seldom applied to ductile
materials under static loading. This design practice is justified by four points:
1. Areas of high stress caused by stress concentrations are highly localized and will
not dictate the performance of the part. Rather, it is assumed that the stress state
in the cross section as a whole is below the general yield condition;
2. If the magnitude of the loading is large enough to cause yielding due to the stress
concentration, the localized area will plastically deform immediately upon
loading;
3. Ductile materials typically work-harden (strain-strengthen) on yielding, resulting
in a localized increase in material strength;
4. The static load is never cycled.
It is important to note, that even though the stress-concentration factor is not usually applied
to estimate the stresses at a stress raiser in a ductile material, the higher state of stress does
in fact exist.
Ductile Material Practice: σ max = σ 0
Brittle Materials. Stress-concentration factors are always required for brittle materials,
regardless of the loading conditions, since brittle failure results in fracture. This type of
failure is characteristic of brittle materials which do not exhibit a yielding or plastic range.
As a consequence of brittle fracture, the part breaks into two or more pieces having no load
carrying capability. To avoid such catastrophic failure, the design practice is to always use a
stress-concentration factor for brittle materials to ensure that the state of stress is accurately
represented.
Brittle Material Practice: σ max = K tσ 0
Example T6.2.1:
Problem Statement: A bar machined from an ASTM No. 20 cast iron, a brittle
material, is subjected to a static axial load.
Find: The critical section of the bar.
Solution Methodology:
1. Assume the stress concentrations do not interact and analyze the

localized effect of each stress concentration separately.
2. Compute the actual stress in the shoulder by taking into account the
stress concentration caused by a fillet radius in a rectangular bar in
tension.
3. Compute the actual stress in the region immediately adjacent to the
hole by applying the stress-concentration factor associated for a bar in
tension with a transverse hole.
4. Evaluate the critical section as the region having the highest actual
stress.
Schematic:
3/16” R. ¾ ” D.
1000 lb 1000 lb
D=2¼” d = 1½”
¼”
Solution:
1. Material Properties: Sut = 20 kpsi
2. Actual Stress in Shoulder

a. Stress-Concentration Factor from Text Figure A-15-5:
D 2.25 in. r 0.1875 in.
for = = 1.5 and = = 0.125 in., Kt = 1.95
d 1.5 in. d 1.5 in.
b. Nominal stress, as defined in the caption of Text Figure A-15-5:
F F 1000 lb
σ0 = = = = 2666.7 psi = 2.67 kpsi
A0 dt (1.5 in.)(0.25 in.)
c. Actual stress at fillet:
σ max = Ktσ 0 = 1.95(2666.7 psi) = 5200 psi = 5.20 kpsi
Kt = 1.95
TEXT FIGURE A-15-5: Rectangular filleted bar in tension or simple

compression. σ 0 = F / A, where A = dt and t is the thickness.
3. Actual Stress at Hole Perimeter

a. From Text Figure A-15-1 shown on the next page:
d 0.75 in.
for = = 0.5, Kt = 2.19
w 1.5 in.
b. Nominal stress, as defined in the caption of Text Figure A-15-1:
F F 1000 lb
σ0 = = =
A0 ( w − d )t (1.5 in. − 0.75 in.)(0.25 in.)
= 5333.3 psi = 5.333 kpsi
Kt = 2.19
TEXT FIGURE A-15-1: Bar in tension or simple compression with a

transverse hole. σ 0 = F / A, where A = ( w − d )t and where t is the thickness.
c. Actual stress at hole perimeter:

σ max = Ktσ 0 = 2.19(5.333 kpsi) = 11.68 kpsi
4. Since the actual stress at the hole is greater than the actual stress at the fillet, the
hole represents the critical section for this part.
TUTORIAL 4 –15: PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN MODELS FOR CYLINDERS:
1. Thick-walled Cylinders
2. Thin-walled Cylinders
THICK-WALL THEORY
• Thick-wall theory is developed from the Theory of Elasticity which yields the state of
stress as a continuous function of radius over the pressure vessel wall. The state of
stress is defined relative to a convenient cylindrical coordinate system:
1. σ t — Tangential Stress
2. σ r — Radial Stress
3. σ l — Longitudinal Stress
• Stresses in a cylindrical pressure vessel depend upon the ratio of the inner radius to
the outer radius ( ro / ri ) rather than the size of the cylinder.
• Principal Stresses ( σ 1 , σ 2 , σ 3 )
1. Determined without computation of Mohr’s Circle;

2. Equivalent to cylindrical stresses ( σ t , σ r , σ l )
• Applicable for any wall thickness-to-radius ratio.
Cylinder under Pressure
Consider a cylinder, with capped ends, subjected to an internal pressure, pi, and an
external pressure, po,
ri
σr
σl
σt pi
σl σ
r σt
ro
po
FIGURE T4-15-1
†
Text Eq. refers to Mechanical Engineering Design, 7th edition text by Joseph Edward Shigley, Charles
R. Mischke and Richard G. Budynas; equations and figures with the prefix T refer to the present tutorial.
The cylinder geometry is defined by the inside radius, ri , the outside radius, ro , and the
cylinder length, l. In general, the stresses in the cylindrical pressure vessel ( σ t , σ r , σ l )
can be computed at any radial coordinate value, r, within the wall thickness bounded by
ri and ro , and will be characterized by the ratio of radii, ζ = ro / ri . These cylindrical
stresses represent the principal stresses and can be computed directly using Eq. 4-50 and
4-52. Thus we do not need to use Mohr’s circle to assess the principal stresses.
Tangential Stress:
pi ri2 − po ro2 − ri2 ro2 ( po − pi ) / r 2

σt = for ri ≤ r ≤ ro (Text Eq. 4-50)
ro2 − ri2
Radial Stress:
pi ri2 − po ro2 + ri2 ro2 ( po − pi ) / r 2

σr = for ri ≤ r ≤ ro (Text Eq. 4-50)
ro2 − ri2
Longitudinal Stress:
• Applicable to cases where the cylinder carries the longitudinal load, such as
capped ends.
• Only valid far away from end caps where bending, nonlinearities and stress
concentrations are not significant.
pi ri2 − po ro2
σl = for ri ≤ r ≤ ro (Modified Text Eq. 4-52)
ro2 − ri2
Two Mechanical Design Cases
1. Internal Pressure Only ( p o = 0 )

2. External Pressure Only ( p i = 0 )
Design Case 1: Internal Pressure Only
• Only one case to consider — the critical section which exists at r = ri .

• Substituting p o = 0 into Eqs. (4-50) and incorporating ζ = ro / ri , the
largest value of each stress component is found at the inner surface:
ro2 + ri2 ζ 2 +1
σ t (r = ri ) = σ t ,max = pi 2 2 = pi 2 = pi Cti (T-1)
ro − ri ζ −1
Shigley, Mischke & Budynas Machine Design Tutorial 4–15: Pressure Vessel Design 2/10
ζ 2 + 1 ro2 + ri 2
where Cti = 2 = is a function of cylinder geometry only.
ζ − 1 ro2 − ri 2
σ r (r = ri ) = σ r ,max = − pi Natural Boundary Condition (T-2)
• Longitudinal stress depends upon end conditions:
pi Cli Capped Ends (T-3a)

σl =
0 Uncapped Ends (T-3b)
1
where Cli = .
ζ −1
2
Design Case 2: External Pressure Only
• The critical section is identified by considering the state of stress at two

points on the cylinder: r = ri and r = ro. Substituting pi = 0 into Text
Eqs. (4-50) for each case:
r = ri σ r (r = ri ) = 0 Natural Boundary Condition (T-4a)
2ro2 2ζ 2
σ t (r = ri ) = σ t ,max = − po = − p o = − poCto (T-4b)
ro2 − ri2 ζ 2 −1
2ζ 2 2ro2
where, Cto = = .
ζ 2 − 1 ro2 − ri 2
r = ro σ r (r = ro ) = σ r ,max = − po Natural Boundary Condition (T-5a)
ro2 + ri2 ζ 2 +1
σ t (r = ro ) = − po = − po = − poCti (T-5b)
ro2 − ri2 ζ 2 −1
• Longitudinal stress for a closed cylinder now depends upon external

pressure and radius while that of an open-ended cylinder remains zero:
− poClo Capped Ends (T-6a)

σl =
0 Uncapped Ends (T-6b)
ζ2
where Clo = .
ζ 2 −1
Example T4.15.1: Thick-wall Cylinder Analysis
Problem Statement: Consider a cylinder subjected to an external pressure of

150 MPa and an internal pressure of zero. The cylinder has a 25 mm ID and a 50
mm OD, respectively. Assume the cylinder is capped.
Find:
1. the state of stress ( σ r , σ t , σ l ) at the inner and outer cylinder
surfaces;
2. the Mohr’s Circle plot for the inside and outside cylinder surfaces;
3. the critical section based upon the estimate of τ max .
Since we have an external pressure case, we need to compute the state of
stress ( σ r , σ t , σ l ) at both the inside and outside radius in order to determine
the critical section.
1. As the cylinder is closed and exposed to external pressure only,
Eq. (T-6a) may be applied to calculate the longitudinal stress
developed. This result represents the average stress across the wall
of the pressure vessel and thus may be used for both the inner and
outer radii analyses.
2. Assess the radial and tangential stresses using Eqs. (T-4) and (T-5)
for the inner and outer radii, respectively.
3. Assess the principal stresses for the inner and outer radii based
upon the magnitudes of ( σ r , σ t , σ l ) at each radius.
4. Use the principal stresses to calculate the maximum shear stress at
each radius.
5. Draw Mohr’s Circle for both states of stress and determine which
provides the critical section.
Solution:
1. Longitudinal Stress Calculation:
OD 50 mm ID 25 mm
ro = = = 25 mm ; ri = = = 12.5 mm
2 2 2 2
Compute the radius ratio, ζ

ro 25 mm
ζ = = = 2.0
ri 12.5 mm
Then,
ζ2 (2) 2
Clo = = = 1.3333 mm 2
ζ − 1 (2) − 1
2 2
ζ2
σ l (r = ri ) = σ l (r = ro ) = − po 2 = − poClo = (−150MPa)(1.3333 mm 2 )
ζ −1
σ l = −200 MPa
2. Radial & Tangential Stress Calculations:
Inner Radius (r = ri)

2ζ 2 2(2) 2
Cto = 2 = = 2.6667
ζ − 1 (2) 2 − 1
2ro2
σ t (r = ri ) = σ t ,max = − po 2 2 = − poCto = (−150 MPa)(2.6667)
ro − ri
σt (r = ri ) = −400 MPa Compressive
σ r (r = ri ) = 0 Natural Boundary Condition for pi = 0
Outer Radius (r = ro)

ζ 2 + 1 (2)2 + 1
Cti = = = 1.6667
ζ 2 − 1 (2) 2 − 1
ro2 + ri 2
σ t (r = ro ) = σ t ,min = − po = − poCti = (−150 MPa)(1.6667)
ro2 − ri 2
σ t (r = ro ) = −250 MPa Compressive
σ r (r = ri ) = − po = −150 MPa Natural Boundary Condition
3. Define Principal Stresses:
Inner Radius (r = ri ) Outer Radius (r = ro )
σ 1 = σ r = 0 MPa σ 1 = σ r = −150 MPa

σ 2 = σ l = −200 MPa σ 2 = σ l = −200 MPa
σ 3 = σ t = −400 MPa σ 3 = σ t = −250 MPa
4. Maximum Shear Stress Calculations:
σ 1 − σ 3 0 − (−400)
Inner Radius (r = ri ) τ max (r = ri ) = = = 200 MPa
2 2
σ 1 − σ 3 (−150) − (−250)
Outer Radius (r = ro ) τ max (r = ro ) = = = 50 MPa
2 2
5. Mohr’s Circles:
Inner Radius (r = ri )
τ
FIGURE T4-15-2
τ max = 200 MPa
σ 1 = 0 MPa
σ
σ 3 = -400 MPa
σ 2 = -200 MPa
Outer Radius (r = ro )
τ
FIGURE T4-15-3
σ 3 = -250 MPa σ 1 = −150 MPa
• τmax = 50 MPa
σ 2 = -200 MPa
Critical Section
τ max ( r = ri ) = 200 MPa ⇐ Critical Section is at Inside Radius!
THIN-WALL THEORY
• Thin-wall theory is developed from a Strength of Materials solution which yields the
state of stress as an average over the pressure vessel wall.
• Use restricted by wall thickness-to-radius ratio:
t 1
According to theory, Thin-wall Theory is justified for ≤
r 20
t 1
In practice, typically use a less conservative rule, ≤
r 10
• State of Stress Definition:
1. Hoop Stress, σ t , assumed to be uniform across wall thickness.

2. Radial Stress is insignificant compared to tangential stress, thus, σ r 0.
3. Longitudinal Stress, σ l
S Exists for cylinders with capped ends;
S Assumed to be uniformly distributed across wall thickness;
S This approximation for the longitudinal stress is only valid far away
from the end-caps.
4. These cylindrical stresses (σ t , σ r , σ l ) are principal stresses (σ t , σ r , σ l ) which

can be determined without computation of Mohr’s circle plot.
• Analysis of Cylinder Section
FIGURE T4-15-4
di
t
FV
FHoop FHoop
Pressure Acting over
Projected Vertical Area
The internal pressure exerts a vertical force, FV, on the cylinder wall which is
balanced by the tangential hoop stress, FHoop.
FV = pA proj = p{( d i )(1)} = pd i

FHoop = σ t Astressed = σ t {(t )(1)} = σ t t
¦ Fy = 0 = FV − 2 FHoop = pd i − 2σ t t
Solving for the tangential stress,

pd i
σt = Hoop Stress (Text Eq. 4-53)
2t
• Comparison of state of stress for cylinder under internal pressure verses external
pressure:
Internal Pressure Only
pdi
σt = Hoop Stress
2t
σr = 0 By Definition
pdi σ t
σl = = Capped Case (Text Eq.4-55)
4t 2
External Pressure Only

pd o
σt = Hoop Stress
2t
σr = 0 By Definition
pd o σ t
σl = = Capped Case
4t 2
Example T4.15.2: Thin-wall Theory Applied to Cylinder Analysis
Problem Statement: Repeat Example T1.1 using the Thin-wall Theory

(po = 150 MPa, pi = 0, ID = 25 mm, OD = 50 mm).
Find: The percent difference of the maximum shear stress estimates found using
the Thick-wall and Thin-wall Theories.
1. Check t/r ratio to determine if Thin-wall Theory is applicable.

2. Use the Thin-wall Theory to compute the state of stress
3. Identify the principal stresses based upon the stress magnitudes.
4. Use the principal stresses to assess the maximum shear stress.
5. Calculate the percent difference between the maximum shear stresses
derived using the Thick-wall and Thin-wall Theories.
Solution:
t 12.5 mm 1 1 1
1. Check t/r Ratio: = = ² or
r 25 mm 2 20 10
The application of Thin-wall Theory to estimate the stress state of this

cylinder is thus not justified.
2. Compute stresses using the Thin-wall Theory to compare with Thick-

wall theory estimates.
a. Hoop Stress (average stress, uniform across wall)

− po d o − (150 MPa )(50 mm)
σt = = = −300 MPa
2t 2(12.5 mm)
b. Radial Stress σ r = 0 by definition
c. Longitudinal Stress (average stress, uniform across wall)

−p d σ
σ l = o o = t = −150 MPa
4t 2
3. Identify Principal Stresses in terms of “Average” Stresses:
σ 1 = σ r = 0 MPa
σ 2 = σ l = −150 MPa
σ 3 = σ t = −300 MPa
4. Maximum Shear Stress Calculation:
σ 1 − σ 3 0 − (−300 MPa )
τ max = = = +150 MPa
2 2
5. Percent Difference between Thin- and Thick-wall Estimates for the

Critical Section:
τ max,Thin − τ max,Thick
% Difference = ∗100%
τ max,Thick
(+150) − (+200)
= ∗ (100%) = −25%
(+200)
Thin -wall estimate is 25% low! ⇐
TUTORIAL 4-17: PRESS AND SHRINK FITS
APPLICATION OF THICK-WALL CYLINDRICAL PRESSURE VESSEL THEORY

RELATING TO STRESSES DEVELOPED FROM INTERFERENCE FITS:
1. Design application which uses the cylindrical pressure vessel Thick-Wall Theory.
2. Stresses develop between cylinders due to the contact pressure generated by an
interference fit. The interference fit is achieved by pressing a larger inside member
into the smaller opening of an outside member. In the specific case of a shaft press fit
into the hub of a gear, the outside diameter (OD) of the shaft is slightly larger than the
inside hole diameter (ID) of the hub. The diametral difference between the shaft OD
and the ID of the hub hole is referred to as the interference fit.
• The radial deformation required by the interference fit causes an interfacial

pressure, p, to develop at the nominal radius, at r = R. Consequently, radial
and tangential stresses, σ r and σ t , are produced.
• Assuming uncapped ends (σ l = 0), a biaxial state of stress exists for which
two non-zero principal stresses must be considered.
• From the cylindrical pressure vessel theory, the radial and tangential stresses
represent principal stresses.
• The length of the outer member is assumed to be equal to the length of the
inner member.
ro
δ
Outer
Member R
R ro
ri
Inner
Member ri
(a) End view of inner and outer (b) Cross-section of cylinders

members, press fit together. showing internal outside radius
larger than external inside radius
by a small amount of δ.
FIGURE T4-17-1 Interference fit of two

cylinders of finite length and equal lengths.
†
R. Mischke and Richard G. Budynas; equations with the prefix T refer to the present tutorial.
3. Referring to Fig. T4-17-1, the geometric features of the cylindrical parts are defined
as:
ri = the inside radius of the inner cylinder

R = nominal radius of internal outside radius and external inside radius after assembly
ro = outside radius of the outer cylinder
δ = radial interference
INSIDE CYLINDER
• Inner member experiences an external pressure, po = p, resulting in compressive

tangential and radial stresses.
• Thick-Wall Theory may be applied with ro = R:
§ R 2 + ri2 ·
(σ t )i r =R = − po¨ 2 2 ¸
= − pCit (Text Eq. 4-57)
© R − ri ¹
(σ r )i r = R = − po = − p
OUTSIDE CYLINDER
• Outer member only experiences internal pressure, pi = p, resulting in tensile

tangential stress and compressive radial stress.
• Thick-Wall Theory is, as always, applicable with ri = R:
§ ro2 + R 2 ·
(σ t )o r = R = pi ¨ 2 2 ¸
= pCot (Text Eq. 4-58)
© ro − R ¹
(σ r )i r = R = − pi = − p
DEFINITION OF INTERFACIAL PRESSURE
We presently have two equations and three unknowns for both the inside and outside
cylinder analyses. A third equation which relates the contact pressure and the interference
can be derived by examining the deformation of the members.
Deflection Equation
The total radial interference may be defined as:

δ total = δ i + δ o
where,
Shigley, Mischke & Budynas Machine Design Tutorial 4-17: Press and Shrink Fits 2/11
δ i = decrease in radius of inner cylinder
δ o = increase in radius of hole
The deformation may also be expressed as:
δ total = pRK i + pRK o (Modified Text Eq. 4-59)
where the outside member constant, Ko, is defined as,
1 ª§ ro2 + R 2 · º 1
Ko = «¨ 2 2 ¸ + ν o» = [Co +ν o ]
Eo ¬«© ro − R ¹ ¼» Eo
Using the radius ratio form defined for the cylindrical pressure vessel
formulation, ζ o = ro / R , we can define
ζ o2 + 1
Co = 2
ζ o −1
Note that the Co term is a function of geometry only, while the member constant
term Ko is a function of both geometry and material parameters. Similarly for the
inside member constant Ki,
1 ª§ R 2 + ri2 · º 1
Ki = «¨ 2 2 ¸ − ν i » = [Ci − ν i ]
Ei «¬© R − ri ¹ »¼ Ei
with ζ i = R / ri , Ci is defined as:
ζ i2 + 1
Ci =
ζ i2 − 1
For the case of a solid shaft, ri = 0, ζ i = R / ri = ∞ and Ci = 1.
We can now solve for the deformation for a given class of interference fits,
δ total = [ K o + K i ] pR
Or, rearranging, the contact pressure, p, may be expressed as a function of the
interference without assumptions regarding material property values:
ª 1 º δ total
p=« » (Modified Text Eq. 4-60)
¬ Ko + Ki ¼ R
Example T4.17.1: Shaft & Hub Shrink Fit
Problem Statement: A carbon-steel gear hub having a nominal hole diameter of 1 inch
is to be shrink-fitted to a carbon-steel shaft using a class FN4 fit. The hub has a nominal
thickness of ½ inch.
Find:
1. the maximum tangential and radial stresses in the hub and shaft when the
loosest fit is obtained;
2. the same as (a), except using the tightest fit as a condition.
1. Using Table A-1-2 of this document, identify the diametral size ranges for the
shaft and the hole based on an ANSI US Customary Standard class FN4 fit
which is discussed below.
2. Calculate the interferences for the loosest and tightest fits.
3. Compute the interfacial pressure for the loosest and tightest fits.
4. For each fit, calculate the radial and tangential stresses for both the hub and
the shaft.
Schematic:
Shaft
Hub
Solution:
1. Shaft and Hub Size Ranges:

This problem specifies a class FN4 fit. The class FN4 fit is a specification
defined by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI), American
Standard Limits for Cylindrical Parts ANSI B4.1-1978. The FN4 fit is a
“Force fit suitable for parts which can be highly stressed or for shrink fits
where the heavy pressing forces required are impractical.” Excerpts from the
ANSI B4.1-1978 standard are provided in Table A-1 of this tutorial.
From Table A-1-2, for a nominal shaft/hole diameter of 1 in., the appropriate
size range is 0.95–1.19 in. The allowable tolerances, in thousandths of an
inch, are:
†
R. Mischke and Richard G. Budynas; equations with the prefix T refer to the present tutorial.
Largest Tolerance Smallest Tolerance
(10-3 in.) (10-3 in.)
Hub hole +0.8 –0.0

Shaft +2.3 +1.8
The shaft and hub size ranges for a nominal 1 in. diameter are:
Largest Diameter Smallest Diameter

(in.) (in.)
Hub hole 1.0008 1.0000

Shaft 1.0023 1.0018
2. Diametral and Radial Interference Calculations:

Loosest Fit Tightest Fit
Hub hole 1.0008 1.0000

Shaft 1.0018 1.0023
–0.0010 –0.0023
The radial interferences are therefore δ = –0.0005 in. (loosest fit) and
δ = –0.001 15 in. (tightest fit). The interference is taken as a positive number by
convention. Consequently, the radial interferences for the two cases are:
δ = 0.0005 in. (loosest fit)

δ = 0.001 15 in. (tightest fit)
3. Interfacial Pressure
The interface pressure can be computed from Modified Eq. (4-60):
ª 1 º δ total
p=« »
¬ Ko + Ki ¼ R
For this problem, the geometric features have been defined as:
d 1 in. d
ro = +t = + 0.5 in. = 1.0 in. ri = 0.0 R= = 0.5 in.
2 2 2
Thus, for the hub (outside member),
ro (1 in.)
ζo = = =2
R (0.5 in.)
ζ o2 + 1 (2) 2 + 1 5
Co = = = = 1.6667
ζ o2 − 1 (2) 2 − 1 3
1 1
Ko = [Co +ν o ] = [1.667 + 0.292] = 6.5289 ×10−8 (1/psi)
Eo ( 30 ×10 psi )
6
Similarly for the shaft (inside member)
R
ζi = =∞
ri
ζ i2 + 1
Ci = = 1.0
ζ i2 − 1
1 1
K i = [Ci − ν i ] = [1.0 − 0.292] = 2.360 ×10−8 (1/psi)
Ei ( 30 ×10 psi )
6
For the loosest fit case:

ª 1 º δ loosest fit ª 1 º § 0.0005 ·
ploosest fit = « » =« −8 −8 » ¨ ¸
¬ Ko + Ki ¼ R ¬ 6.5289 ×10 + 2.360 ×10 ¼ © 0.5 ¹
= 11 250 psi (loosest fit)
For the tightest fit case:
ª 1 º δ tightest fit ª 1 º § 0.00115 ·

ptightest fit = « » =« −8 −8 » ¨ ¸
¬ K o + Ki ¼ R ¬ 6.5289 × 10 + 2.360 × 10 ¼ © 0.5 ¹
= 25 875 psi (tightest fit)
4. Radial & Tangential Stress Calculations for Shaft and Hub:
Loosest Fit (p = 11 250 psi)
Hub: σ r (r = R) = − p = −11 250 psi
ro2 + R 2
σ t (r = R) = p = pCo = (11 250 psi)(1.6667) = 18 750 psi
ro2 − R 2
Shaft: σ r (r = R) = − p = −11 250 psi
R 2 + ri 2
σ t (r = R) = − p 2 2 = − pCi = (−11 250 psi)(1) = −11 250 psi
R − ri
Tightest Fit (p = 25 875 psi)
Hub: σ r (r = R) = − p = −25 875 psi
ro2 + R 2
σ t (r = R) = p = pCo = (25 875 psi)(1.6667) = 43 125 psi
ro2 − R 2
Shaft: σ r (r = R) = − p = −25 875 psi
R 2 + ri 2
σ t (r = R) = − p = − pCi = (−25 875 psi)(1) = −25 875 psi
R 2 − ri 2
Thus the shaft has equal radial and tangential stress for each tightness condition,
whereas, the hub’s tangential stress is consistently higher than its radial stress for
both the loosest and the tightest condition.
Note: Since the shaft length is greater than the hub length, which is typical in
practice, this design case violates one of the assumptions of the interfacial
pressure development. In this case, there would be an increase in the interfacial
pressure at each end of the hub. This condition of increased interfacial pressure
would typically be accounted for by applying a stress concentration factor, Kt, for
stresses calculated at points at the end of the hub such as,
σ t actual = K t , tangentialσ t
σ r actual = K t , radialσ r
Table A-1 LIMITS AND FITS FOR CYLINDRICAL PARTS†
The limits shown in the accompanying tabulations are in thousandths of an inch. The size ranges include all sizes
over the smallest size in the range, up to and including the largest size in the range. The letter symbols are defined
as follows:
RC Running and sliding fits are intended to provide a similar running performance, with suitable lubrication
allowance, throughout the range of sizes. The clearance for the first two classes, used chiefly as slide fits,
increases more slowly with diameter than the other classes, so that accurate location is maintained even at
the expense of free relative motion.
RC1 Close sliding fits are intended for the accurate location of parts which must assemble without perceptible
play.
RC2 Sliding fits are intended for accurate location but with greater maximum clearance than class RC1. Parts
made to this fit move and turn easily, but are not intended to run freely, and in the larger sizes may seize
with small temperature changes.
RC3 Precision running fits are about the closest fits which can be expected to run freely and are intended for
precision work at slow speeds and light journal pressures, but are not suitable where appreciable
temperature differences are likely to be encountered.
RC4 Close running fits are intended chiefly for running fits on accurate machinery with moderate surface speeds
and journal pressures, where accurate location and minimum play is desired.
RC5–RC6 Medium running fits are intended for higher running speeds, heavy journal pressures, or both.
RC7 Free running fits are intended for use where accuracy is not essential or where large temperature variations
are likely to be encountered, or under both of these conditions.
RC8–RC9 Loose running fits are intended for use where wide commercial tolerances may be necessary, together
with an allowance, on the external member.
L Locational fits are fits intended to determine only the location of the mating parts; they may provide rigid or
accurate location, as with interference fits, or provide some freedom of location, as with clearance fits.
Accordingly, they are divided into three groups: clearance fits, transition fits, and interference fits.
LC Locational clearance fits are intended for parts which are normally stationary but which can be freely
assembled or disassembled. They run from snug fits for parts requiring accuracy of location, through the
medium clearance fits for parts such as ball, race, and housing, to the looser fastener fits where freedom of
assembly is of prime importance.
LT Locational transition fits are a compromise between clearance and interference fits, for application where
accuracy of location is important, but either a small amount of clearance or interference is permissible.
LN Locational interference fits are used where accuracy of location is of prime importance and for parts
requiring rigidity and alignment with no special requirements for bore pressure. Such fits are not intended for
parts designed to transmit frictional loads form one part to another by virtue of the tightness of fit, since
these conditions are covered by force fits.
FN Force and shrink fits constitute a special type of interference fit, normally characterized by maintenance of
constant bore pressure throughout the range of sizes. The interference therefore varies almost directly with
diameter, and the difference between its minimum and maximum value is small so as to maintain the
resulting pressures within reasonable limits.
FN1 Light drive fits are those requiring light assembly pressures and producing more or less permanent
assemblies. They are suitable for thin sections or long fits or in cast-iron external members.
FN2 Medium drive fits are suitable for ordinary steel parts or for shrink fits on light sections. They are about the
tightest fits that can be used with high-grade cast-iron external members.
FN3 Heavy drive fits are suitable for heavier steel parts or for shrink fits in medium sections.
FN4–FN5 Force fits are suitable for parts which can be highly stressed or for shrink fits where the heavy pressing
forces required are impractical.
†
Extracted from American Standard Limits for Cylindrical Parts ANSI B4.1-1978, with the permission of the
th
publishers, The American Society of Mechanical Engineers, United Engineering Center, 345 East 47 Street, New
York 10017. Limit dimensions are tabulated in this standard for nominal sizes up to and including 200 in. An SI
version is also available.
Table A-1-1 RUNNING AND SLIDING FITS
Diameter Size Range (in.)
Class 0.00 - 0.12 0.12 - 0.24 0.24 - 0.40 0.40 - 0.71
RC1 Hole +0.20 -0.00 +0.20 -0.00 +0.25 -0.00 +0.30 -0.00
Shaft +0.10 -0.25 -0.15 -0.30 -0.20 -0.35 -0.25 -0.45
RC2 Hole +0.25 -0.00 +0.30 -0.00 +0.40 -0.00 +0.40 -0.00
Shaft -0.10 -0.30 -0.15 -0.35 -0.20 -0.45 -0.25 -0.55
RC3 Hole +0.40 -0.00 +0.50 -0.00 +0.60 -0.00 +0.70 -0.00
Shaft -0.30 -0.55 -0.40 -0.70 -0.50 -0.90 -0.60 -1.00
RC4 Hole +0.60 -0.00 +0.70 -0.00 +0.90 -0.00 +1.00 -0.00
Shaft -0.30 -0.70 -0.40 -0.90 -0.50 -1.10 -0.60 -1.30
RC5 Hole +0.60 -0.00 +0.70 -0.00 +0.90 -0.00 +1.00 -0.00
Shaft -0.60 -1.00 -0.80 -1.30 -1.00 -1.60 -1.20 -1.90
RC6 Hole +1.00 -0.00 +1.20 -0.00 +1.40 -0.00 +1.60 -0.00
Shaft -0.60 -1.20 -0.80 -1.50 -1.00 -1.90 -1.20 -2.20
RC7 Hole +1.00 -0.00 +1.20 -0.00 +1.40 -0.00 +1.60 -0.00
Shaft -1.00 -1.60 -1.20 -1.90 -1.60 -2.50 -2.00 -3.00
RC8 Hole +1.60 -0.00 +1.80 -0.00 +2.20 -0.00 +2.80 -0.00
Shaft -2.50 -3.50 -2.80 -4.00 -3.00 -4.40 -3.50 -5.10
RC9 Hole +2.50 -0.00 +3.00 -0.00 +3.50 -0.00 +4.00 -0.00
Shaft -4.00 -5.60 -4.50 -6.00 -5.00 -7.20 -6.00 -8.80

Class 0.71 - 1.19 1.19 - 1.97 1.97 - 3 .15 3.15 - 4.73
RC1 Hole +0.40 -0.00 +0.40 -0.00 +0.50 -0.00 +0.60 -0.00
Shaft -0.30 -0.55 -0.40 -0.70 -0.40 -0.70 -0.50 -0.90
RC2 Hole +0.50 -0.00 +0.60 -0.00 +0.70 -0.00 +0.90 -0.00
Shaft -0.30 -0.70 -0.40 -0.80 -0.40 -0.90 -0.50 -1.10
RC3 Hole +0.80 -0.00 +1.00 -0.00 +1.20 -0.00 +1.40 -0.00
Shaft -0.80 -1.30 -1.00 -1.60 -1.20 -1.90 -1.40 -2.30
RC4 Hole +1.20 -0.00 +1.60 -0.00 +1.80 -0.00 +2.20 -0.00
Shaft -0.80 -1.60 -1.00 -2.00 -1.20 -2.40 -1.40 -2.80
RC5 Hole +1.20 -0.00 +1.60 -0.00 +1.80 -0.00 +2.20 -0.00
Shaft -1.60 -2.40 -2.00 -3.00 -2.50 -3.70 -3.00 -4.40
RC6 Hole +2.00 -0.00 +2.50 -0.00 +3.00 -0.00 +3.50 -0.00
Shaft -1.60 -2.80 -2.00 -3.60 -2.50 -4.30 -3.00 -5.20
RC7 Hole +2.00 -0.00 +2.50 -0.00 +3.00 -0.00 +3.50 -0.00
Shaft -2.50 -3.70 -3.00 -4.60 -4.00 -5.80 -5.00 -7.20
RC8 Hole +3.50 -0.00 +4.00 -0.00 +4.50 -0.00 +5.00 -0.00
Shaft -4.50 -6.50 -5.00 -7.50 -6.00 -9.00 -7.00 -10.50
RC9 Hole +5.00 -0.00 +6.00 -0.00 +7.00 -0.00 +9.00 -0.00
Shaft -7.00 -10.50 -8.00 -12.00 -9.00 -13.50 -10.00 -15.00
Table A-1-2 FORCE AND SHRINK FITS
Class 0.00 - 0.12 0.12 - 0.24 0.24 - 0.40 0.40 - 0.56
FN1 Hole +0.25 -0.00 +0.30 -0.00 +0.40 -0.00 +0.40 -0.00
Shaft +0.50 +0.30 +0.60 +0.40 +0.75 +0.50 +0.80 +0.50
FN2 Hole +0.40 -0.00 +0.50 -0.00 +0.60 -0.00 +0.70 -0.00
Shaft +0.85 +0.60 +1.00 +0.70 +1.40 +1.00 +1.60 +1.20
FN3 Hole
Shaft
FN4 Hole +0.40 -0.00 +0.50 -0.00 +0.60 -0.00 +0.70 -0.00
Shaft +0.95 +0.70 +1.20 +0.90 +1.60 +1.20 +1.80 +1.40
FN5 Hole +0.60 -0.00 +0.70 -0.00 +0.90 -0.00 +1.00 -0.00
Shaft +1.30 +0.90 +1.70 +1.20 +2.00 +1.40 +2.30 +1.60
Class 0.56 - 0.71 0.71 - 0.95 0.95 - 1.19 1.19 - 1.58
FN1 Hole +0.40 -0.00 +0.50 -0.00 +0.50 -0.00 +0.60 -0.00
Shaft +0.90 +0.60 +1.10 +0.70 +1.20 +0.80 +1.30 +0.90
FN2 Hole +0.70 -0.00 +0.80 -0.00 +0.80 -0.00 +1.00 -0.00
Shaft +1.60 +1.20 +1.90 +1.40 +1.90 +1.40 +2.40 +1.80
FN3 Hole +0.80 -0.00 +1.00 -0.00
Shaft +2.10 +1.60 +2.60 +2.00
FN4 Hole +0.70 -0.00 +0.80 -0.00 +0.80 -0.00 +1.00 -0.00
Shaft +1.80 +1.40 +2.10 +1.60 +2.30 +1.80 +3.10 +2.50
FN5 Hole +1.00 -0.00 +1.20 -0.00 +1.20 -0.00 +1.60 -0.00
Shaft +2.50 +1.80 +3.00 +2.20 +3.30 +2.50 +4.00 +3.00

Class 1.58 - 1.97 1.97 - 2.56 2.56 - 3 .15 3.15 - 3.94
FN1 Hole +0.60 -0.00 +0.70 -0.00 +0.70 -0.00 +0.90 -0.00
Shaft +1.40 +1.00 +1.80 +1.30 +1.90 +1.40 +2.40 +1.80
FN2 Hole +1.00 -0.00 +1.20 -0.00 +1.20 -0.00 +1.40 -0.00
Shaft +2.40 +1.80 +2.70 +2.00 +2.90 +2.20 +3.70 +2.80
FN3 Hole +1.00 -0.00 +1.20 -0.00 +1.20 -0.00 +1.40 -0.00
Shaft +2.80 +2.20 +3.20 +2.50 +3.70 +3.00 +4.40 +3.50
FN4 Hole +1.00 -0.00 +1.20 -0.00 +1.20 -0.00 +1.40 -0.00
Shaft +3.40 +2.80 +4.20 +3.50 +4.70 +4.00 +5.90 +5.00
FN5 Hole +1.60 -0.00 +1.80 -0.00 +1.80 -0.00 +2.20 -0.00
Shaft +5.00 +4.00 +6.20 +5.00 +7.20 +6.00 +8.40 +7.00
Table A-1-2 FORCE AND SHRINK FITS (CONTINUED)

Class 3.94 - 4.73 4.73 - 5.52 5.52 - 6.30 6.30 - 7.09
FN1 Hole +0.90 -0.00 +1.00 -0.00 +1.00 -0.00 +1.00 -0.00
Shaft +2.60 +2.00 +2.90 +2.20 +3.20 +2.50 +3.50 +2.80
FN2 Hole +1.40 -0.00 +1.60 -0.00 +1.60 -0.00 +1.60 -0.00
Shaft +3.90 +3.00 +4.50 +3.50 +5.00 +4.00 +5.50 +4.50
FN3 Hole +1.40 -0.00 +1.60 -0.00 +1.60 -0.00 +1.60 -0.00
Shaft +4.90 +4.00 +6.00 +5.00 +6.00 +5.00 +7.00 +6.00
FN4 Hole +1.40 -0.00 +1.60 -0.00 +1.60 -0.00 +1.60 -0.00
Shaft +6.90 +6.00 +8.00 +7.00 +8.00 +7.00 +9.00 +8.00
FN5 Hole +2.20 -0.00 +2.50 -0.00 +2.50 -0.00 +2.50 -0.00
Shaft +9.40 +8.00 +11.60 +10.00 +13.60 +12.00 +13.60 +12.00
TUTORIAL 4-20: HERTZ CONTACT STRESSES
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTACT STRESSES
1. Represent compressive stresses developed from surface pressures between two curved
bodies pressed together;
2. Possess an area of contact. The initial point contact (spheres) or line contact
(cylinders) become area contacts, as a result of the force pressing the bodies against
each other;
3. Constitute the principal stresses of a triaxial (three dimensional) state of stress;
4. Cause the development of a critical section below the surface of the body;
5. Failure typically results in flaking or pitting on the bodies’ surfaces.
TWO DESIGN CASES
Two design cases will be considered,
1. Sphere – Sphere Contact (Point Contact Circular Contact Area)

2. Cylinder – Cylinder Contact (Line Contact Rectangular Contact Area)
SPHERE – SPHERE CONTACT
F F
x x
d1
y y
d2
2a
F F
z z
(a) Two spheres held in (b) Contact stress has an elliptical

contact by force F. distribution across contact over
zone of diameter 2a.
TEXT FIGURE 4-42 Two Spheres in Contact
†
Text. refers to Mechanical Engineering Design, 7th edition text by Joseph Edward Shigley, Charles R.
Mischke, and Richard G. Budynas; equations and figures with the prefix T refer to the present tutorial.
Consider two solid elastic spheres held in contact by a force F such that their point of contact
expands into a circular area of radius a, given as:
a = Ka 3 F (Modified Text Eq. 4-72)

1/ 3
ª 3 (1 − ν12 ) / E1 + (1 − ν 22 ) / E2 º
where K a = « »
¬8 (1/ d1 ) + (1/ d 2 ) ¼
F = applied force
ν1 ,ν 2 = Poisson's ratios for spheres 1 and 2
E1 , E2 = elastic modulii for spheres 1 and 2
d1 , d 2 = diameters of spheres 1 and 2
This general expression for the contact radius can be applied to two additional common cases:
1. Sphere in contact with a plane (d 2 = ∞);

2. Sphere in contact with an internal spherical surface or ‘cup’ (d 2 = − d ).
Returning to the sphere-sphere case, the maximum contact pressure, pmax , occurs at the center
point of the contact area.
3F
pmax = (Text Eq. 4-73)
2π a 2
State of Stress
• The state of stress is computed based on the following mechanics:
1. Two planes of symmetry in loading and geometry dictates that σ x = σ y ;

2. The dominant stress occurs on the axis of loading: σ max = σ z ;
3. The principal stresses are σ 1 = σ 2 = σ x = σ y and σ 3 = σ z given σ 1 , σ 2 ≥ σ 3 ;
4. Compressive loading leads to σ x , σ y , and σ z being compressive stresses.
• Calculation of Principal Stresses
ªª § 1 ·º º
1
σ x = − pmax «1 − ζ a tan −1 ¨¨
« ¸¸ » (1 + ν ) − » (Modified Text Eq. 4-74)
« ¬«
¬ © ζa ¹ ¼» (
2 1 + ζ a2 ) »
¼
= σ y = σ1 = σ 2
Shigley, Mischke & Budynas Machine Design Tutorial 4-20: Hertz Contact Stresses 2/10
− pmax
σ3 = σ z = (Modified Text Eq. 4-75)
1 + ζ a2
where ζ a = z / a = nondimensional depth below the surface

ν = Poisson's ratio for the sphere examined (1 or 2)
• Mohr’s Circle
Plotting the principal stresses on a Mohr’s circle plot results in: one circle, defined by
σ 1 = σ 2 , shrinking to a point; and two circles, defined by σ 1 , σ 3 and σ 2 , σ 3 , plotted
on top of each other. The maximum shear stress, τ max , for the plot is calculated as:
σ1 − σ 3 σ x − σ z σ y − σ z
τ max = = = (Modified Text Eq. 4-76)
2 2 2
If the maximum shear stress, τ max , and principal stresses, σ 1 , σ 2 , and σ 3 , are plotted
as a function of maximum pressure, p max , below the surface contact point, the plot of
Fig. 4-43 is generated. This plot, based on a Poisson’s ratio of ν = 0.3 , reveals that a
critical section exists on the load axis, approximately 0.48a below the sphere surface.
Many authorities theorize that this maximum shear stress is responsible for the
surface fatigue failure of such contacting elements; a crack, originating at the point of
maximum shear, progresses to the surface where lubricant pressure wedges a chip
loose and thus creates surface pitting.
TEXT FIGURE 4-43: Magnitude of the stress components below the

surface as a function of maximum pressure of contacting spheres.
CYLINDER–CYLINDER CONTACT
Consider two solid elastic cylinders held in contact by forces F uniformly distributed along the
cylinder length l.
F x
F x
d1
l
y y
d2
2b
F F
z z
(a) Two right circular cylinders held (b) Contact stress has an elliptical
in contact by forces F uniformly distribution across contact zone
distributed along cylinder length l. of width 2b.
TEXT FIGURE 4-44 Two Cylinders in Contact
The resulting pressure causes the line of contact to become a rectangular contact zone of half-
width b given as:
b = Kb F (Modified Text Eq. 4-77)

1/ 2
ª 2 (1 − ν12 ) / E1 + (1 − ν 22 ) / E2 º
where Kb = « »
¬π l (1/ d1 ) + (1/ d 2 ) ¼
F = applied force
ν1 ,ν 2 = Poisson's ratios for cylinders 1 and 2
E1 , E2 = elastic modulii for cylinders 1 and 2
d1 , d 2 = diameters of spheres 1 and 2
l = length of cylinders 1 and 2 (l1 = l2 assumed)
This expression for the contact half-width, b, is general and can be used for two additional cases
which are frequently encountered:
1. Cylinder in contact with a plane, e.g. a rail (d 2 = ∞);

2. Cylinder in contact with an internal cylindrical surface, for example the race of a
roller bearing (d 2 = − d ).
The maximum contact pressure between the cylinders acts along a longitudinal line at the center
of the rectangular contact area, and is computed as:
2F
pmax = (Text Eq. 4-78)
π bl
State of Stress
• The state of stress is computed based on the following mechanics:
1. One plane of symmetry in loading and geometry dictates that σ x ≠ σ y ;

2. The dominant stress occurs along the axis of loading: σ max = σ z ;
3. The principal stresses are equal to σ x , σ y , and σ z with σ 3 = σ z ;
4. Compressive loading leads to σ x , σ y , and σ z being compressive stresses.
• Calculation of Principal Stresses and Maximum Shear Stress
1
σ 3 = σ z = − pmax (Modified Text Eq. 4-81)
1 + ζ b2
°σ x for 0 ≤ ζ b ≤ 0.436

σ1 = ®
°̄σ y for 0.436 ≤ ζ b
where,
σ x = −2ν pmax ª« 1 + ζ b2 − ζ b º» (Modified Text Eq. 4-79)
¬ ¼
ª§ 1 + 2ζ 2 · º
σ y = − pmax «¨ b ¸
− 2 ζb » (Modified Text Eq. 4-80)
«¨ 1 + ζ 2 ¸ »
¬© b ¹ ¼
ζb = z /b
The maximum shear stress is thus given as:
°τ1/ 3 = (σ z − σ x ) / 2 for 0 ≤ ζ b ≤ 0.436

τ max = ®
°̄τ1/ 3 = (σ z − σ y ) / 2 for 0.436 ≤ ζ b
When these equations are plotted as a function of maximum contact pressure up to a

distance 3b below the surface contact point, the plot of Fig. 4-45 is generated. Based
on a Poisson’s ratio of 0.3, this plot reveals that τ max attains a maxima for
ζ b = z / b = 0.786 and 0.3pmax.
TEXT FIGURE 4-45: Magnitude of stress components below

the surface as a function of maximum pressure for contacting
cylinders.
Example T4.20.1:
Problem Statement: A 6-in-diameter cast-iron wheel, 2 in wide, rolls on a flat

steel surface carrying a 800 lbf load.
Find:
1. The Hertzian stresses σ x , σ y , σ z and τ 1/3 in the cast iron wheel at
the critical section;
2. The comparative state of stress and maximum shear stress, arising
during a revolution, at point A located 0.015 inch below the wheel
rim surface.
1. Compute the value of the contact half-width, b.
2. Compute the maximum pressure generated by the normal force of
the wheel.
3. Use the results of steps (1) and (2) to calculate the contact stresses
in the cast iron wheel for the critical section, z/b = 0.786.
4. Evaluate the principal stresses based upon the contact stress
calculations.
5. Calculate the maximum shear stress.
6. Compare these results with those obtained by using Fig. 4-45.
7. During a single revolution of the wheel, point A will experience a
cycle of stress values varying from zero (when point A lies well
outside the contact zone) to a maximum state of stress (when A lies
within the contact zone and on the line of action of the 800 lbf
force.) We expect point A to “feel” the effects of a semi-elliptical
contact pressure distribution as point A moves into and through the
contact zone. Thus, we need to calculate the contact stresses for a
depth of z = 0.015 inch, which we expect to lie within the contact
zone.
Schematic:
Ecast iron = 14.5 × 106 psi

800 lbf 6 in
ν cast iron = 0.211
2 in
A·
Esteel = 30 × 106 psi

ν steel = 0.292
Solution:
1. Compute contact half-width, b

Material Properties: E1 = Ecast iron = 14.5 × 106 psi; ν 1 = ν cast iron = 0.211
E2 = Esteel = 30.0 × 106 psi; ν 2 = ν steel = 0.292
Dimensions: d1 = 6.0 in; d 2 = ∞; l = 2.0 in
b = Kb F (Modified Text Eq. 4-72)

1/ 2
ª 2 (1 − ν12 ) / E1 + (1 − ν 22 ) / E2 º
Kb = « »
¬π l (1/ d1 ) + (1/ d 2 ) ¼
1/ 2
° 2 ª¬1 − (0.211) 2 º¼ /(14.5 ×106 ) + ª¬1 − (0.292) 2 º¼ /(30.0 × 106 ) ½°
=® ¾
°¯ π (2.0) (1/ 6.0) + (1/ ∞) °¿
= 4.291× 10−4 in/ lbf
b = Kb F = (4.291×10 −4 in/ lbf )(800 lbf )1/2 = 1.214 × 10-2 in
2. Maximum Pressure, pmax
2F 2(800 lbf)
pmax = = = 20 980 psi
π bl π (1.214 ×10−2 in)(2.0 in)
3. Hertz Contact Stresses in Cast Iron Wheel
At the critical section, ζ b = z / b = 0.786 ,
σ x = −2ν1 pmax ª« 1 + ζ b2 − ζ b º»
¬ ¼
= −2(0.211)(20 980 psi) ª 1+(0.786)2 − 0.786 º
«¬ »¼
= −4302 psi
ª§ 1 + 2ζ 2 · º
σ y = − pmax «¨ b ¸ − 2 ζb »
«¨ ¸ »
¬© 1 + ζ b
2
¹ ¼
ª 1 + 2(0.786) 2 º ½
° °
= (−20 980 psi) ® « » − 2(0.786) ¾
°¯ «¬ 1 + (0.786) »¼
2
°¿
= −3895 psi
1 −20 980 psi
σ z = − pmax =
1 + ζ b2 1+(0.786)2
= −16 490 psi
Note that the small contact area involved in this type of problem gives rise to
very high pressure, relative to the applied force, and thus exceptionally high
stresses.
4. Since σ x , σ y , and σ z are all principal stresses, we can conclude:
σ 1 = σ y = − 3895 psi
σ 2 = σ x = − 4302 psi
σ 3 = σ z = −16 490 psi
5. Maximum Shear Stress
σ 1 − σ 3 σ y − σ z −3895 psi − (−16 490 psi)

τ max = τ1/ 3 = = =
2 2 2
= 6298 psi
6. Comparison with results based on Text Figure 4-45:
For z/b ≈ 0.75,
σ x ≈ −0.3 pmax = −6294 psi

σ y ≈ −0.2 pmax = −4196 psi
σ z ≈ −0.8 pmax = −16 780 psi
τ max ≈ 0.3 pmax = 6294 psi
Comparing these results with those calculated using a value of ν = 0.211, we

find that only σ x is a function of ν; σ y , σ z , and τ max are independent of ν
since the graphical estimates of their values are within 3 % of those obtained
from the plot which assumes a Poisson’s ratio of 0.3.
7. For a depth of 0.015 in below the cylinder surface,
0.015 in
ζb = = 1.236
1.214 × 10 −2 in
Substituting,
σ x = −2ν pmax ª« 1 + ζ b2 − ζ b º»
¬ ¼
= −2(0.211)(20 980 psi) ª 1+(1.236)2 − 1.236 º
«¬ »¼
= −3133 psi
ª§ 1 + 2ζ 2 · º
σ y = − pmax «¨ b ¸ − 2 ζb »
«¨ 1 + ζ 2 ¸ »
¬© b ¹ ¼
ª 1 + 2(1.236) 2 º ½
° °
= (−20 980 psi) ® « » − 2 1.236 ¾
« 2 »
¯° ¬ 1 + (1.236) ¼ ¿°
= −1652 psi
1 −20 980 psi
σ z = − pmax =
1 + ζ b2 1+(1.236) 2
= −13 200 psi
σ 1 − σ 3 σ y − σ z −1652 − (−13 200)

τ max = = = = 5774 psi
2 2 2
As expected, at a depth corresponding greater than the critical section

( z/b = 1.236 > 0.786), the magnitudes of all three principal stresses are
smaller than those calculated for z/b = 0.786. The difference between the
principal stresses is also smaller and consequently, τmax also decreases.

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3-D STRESS IN MECHANICAL

Copyright  2000 C. E. Knight

Review of Two-Dimensional Mohr’s Circle - Graphical Approach

Three-Dimensional Stress in Mechanical Design

Failure Theories for Ductile Materials

1. Maximum Shear Stress (MSS)

Failure Theories for Brittle Materials

1. Maximum Normal Stress (MNS)

1. Experimental failure data is first collected through tensile tests.

TEXT FIGURE 3-1: A typical tension-test specimen. Some of the standard

CORRELATION OF STATE OF STRESS WITH TEST DATA

FIGURE 6A-1: Correlation of state of stress

FIGURE 6A-2: Mohr’s circle for simple tension.

DEVELOPMENT OF STATIC FAILURE THEORIES

1. Magnitude of load is constant;

Characteristics of Ductile Materials

Characteristics of Brittle Materials

ORIGIN OF STRESS CONCENTRATIONS

1. Geometric discontinuities or stress raisers such as holes, notches, and fillets;

THEORETICAL (GEOMETRIC) STRESS-CONCENTRATION FACTOR, K t AND K ts

σ max = Ktσ 0 (Text Eq. 4-48)

1. Experimental Methods. Optical methods, such as photoelasticity, are very

Following are comparisons of stress-concentration factors derived using experimental, analytical

TEXT FIGURE A-15-5: Rectangular filleted bar in tension or simple

the fringe pattern captured photographically from a photoelasticity experiment. Fringe

Stress-concentration factors can be developed from these contours.

TEXT FIGURE A-15-6: Rectangular filleted bar in pure bending.

FIGURE T6-2-4: Stress contours of σ x generated by a

1. Pilkey, W. D., Peterson’s Stress Concentration Factors, 2nd ed., Wiley

Application to Ductile and Brittle Materials for Static Loading

Ductile Material Practice: σ max = σ 0

Brittle Material Practice: σ max = K tσ 0

Find: The critical section of the bar.

1. Assume the stress concentrations do not interact and analyze the

1. Material Properties: Sut = 20 kpsi

2. Actual Stress in Shoulder

TEXT FIGURE A-15-5: Rectangular filleted bar in tension or simple

3. Actual Stress at Hole Perimeter

= 5333.3 psi = 5.333 kpsi

TEXT FIGURE A-15-1: Bar in tension or simple compression with a

c. Actual stress at hole perimeter:

PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN MODELS FOR CYLINDERS:

1. Determined without computation of Mohr’s Circle;

• Applicable for any wall thickness-to-radius ratio.

Cylinder under Pressure

pi ri2 − po ro2 − ri2 ro2 ( po − pi ) / r 2

pi ri2 − po ro2 + ri2 ro2 ( po − pi ) / r 2

Two Mechanical Design Cases

1. Internal Pressure Only ( p o = 0 )

Design Case 1: Internal Pressure Only

• Only one case to consider — the critical section which exists at r = ri .

• Longitudinal stress depends upon end conditions:

pi Cli Capped Ends (T-3a)

Design Case 2: External Pressure Only

• The critical section is identified by considering the state of stress at two

r = ri σ r (r = ri ) = 0 Natural Boundary Condition (T-4a)

• Longitudinal stress for a closed cylinder now depends upon external

− poClo Capped Ends (T-6a)

Example T4.15.1: Thick-wall Cylinder Analysis

Problem Statement: Consider a cylinder subjected to an external pressure of

1. Longitudinal Stress Calculation:

Compute the radius ratio, ζ

2. Radial & Tangential Stress Calculations:

Thin -wall estimate is 25% low! ⇐

1. Sphere – Sphere Contact (Point Contact Circular Contact Area)