Annotated Bibliography

“How Gender and Motherhood Affects Womens Wages” Research Project

By: Cassidy Vause

Date: Updated October 27, 2019

Amuedo-Dorantes, Catalina, and Jean Kimmel. ""the Motherhood Wage Gap for Women in the

United States: The Importance of College and Fertility Delay"."Review of Economics of

the Household, vol. 3, no. 1, 2005, pp. 17-48. ProQuest,

https://login.proxy039.nclive.org/login?url=https://search.proquest.com/docview/2211

33794?accountid=10163,

Amuedo and Kimmel in their research examined how birth trends correlate with

education and how it affects the wages of all women in the United States. Less educated

women start to bear children at an earlier age that women with a longer formal

education, like college or trade school, and studies pointed out by the Authors show

that the gap between married mothers and single mothers tends to reflect on the fact

that married mothers tend to take on “convenient” and “less intensive” jobs, than their

male counterparts. The time a mother chooses to start having children also threatens

the survival of any society; meaning if fertility rates fall to low the population would not

be able to thrive or survive because it is not being “replaced” quick enough.

BensiDoun, Isabelle, and Danièle TranCart. "Career Choices and the Gender Pay Gap: The Role

of Work Preferences and Attitudes." Population, vol. 73, no. 1, 2018, pp. 35-59.
 ProQuest,

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453135?accountid=10163.

BensiDoun Conducts a study to examine the gender pay gap based on career

preferences and attitudes. In the conclusion of BensiDoun’s paper, the author sums up

that that women earn an average of 21.6% less than men, and approximately 20% of

this difference is caused by their career preference. The paper points out that women

tend to take service jobs (like restaurants, housekeeping, or retail), while men take on

industrial jobs (for example, freight, engineering, or construction), which causes the

wage gap to occur from the career preference prospective. BensiDoun also explains the

dynamics of how the wage gap works between different career categories. Occupation

segregation is also explained by BensiDoun, which it is defined as the distribution of

workers in a particular field of work, especially by gender.

Glynn, Sarah Jane. "The Gender Wage Gap Is Caused by a Variety of Factors." Income Inequality,

edited by Noël Merino, Greenhaven Press, 2016. Opposing Viewpoints. Gale in Context:

Opposing Viewpoints,

https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/EJ3010979215/OVIC?u=shel41774&sid=OVIC&xid=6dd8

d533. Accessed 27 Oct. 2019. Originally published as "Explaining the Gender Wage

Gap,", 19 May 2014.

It is often plastered on posters that women make seventy-seven scents for every dollar

a man make, but many people often refuse to look at what causes the differences. Some
 of the differences are simple, while others are complex. Approximately 44% of the wage

gap is caused by occupational differences, this means that because men and women

tend to take different job types, they earn different pay. Women often times have

children and that requires them to work less hours and have less intensive jobs than

men. Women do this because it is generally expected of them by society to scale back

their work hours in order to have time to provide for their families. It is estimated that

60% of the wage gap is caused by societal factors.

Kristal, Tali, Yinon Cohen, and Edo Navot. "Benefit Inequality among American Workers by

Gender, Race, and Ethnicity, 1982–2015." Sociological Science, vol. 5, 2018, pp. 461-488.

ProQuest,

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020012?accountid=10163,

Kristal and Yinon use a lot of graphs in their work to demonstrate their points about

benefits inequality among American workers. Their paper discusses the topic based off

of gender, race, and ethnicity. As an employee you may have the opportunity to earn

benefits, which can be included as a wage, since you have to work to earn them. As

explored in the paper, the gap in benefits compared to the gap pay is significantly lower

since the latter half of the 1990’s. Kristal and Yinon have found by comparing data,

benefit gaps are decreasing faster than the pay inequality gaps, based off gender. When

looked at based of race and ethnicity the gaps between pay and benefits are much

wider and are continuing to increase. These gaps are explained partially by prejudice

and education and labor market disadvantages.

Miller, Claire Cain. "Motherhood Has Role in the Gender Pay Gap." New York Times, 17 May

2017, p. B1(L). Gale in Context: Opposing Viewpoints,

https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A491829916/OVIC?u=shel41774&sid=OVIC&xid=46af1e

5e. Accessed 27 Oct. 2019.

As explained by the author, in jobs that require a college education the pay gap is

nonexistent at entry level positions. The pay gap grows exponentially when comparing

men who are in their late 20’s and early 30’s. Children and marriage in general cause

this gap to grow. Statistically women are more likely to leave their job when their

spouse finds a better employment opportunity that requires a major move. The author

finds in family studies that person who earns less will usually do more housework and

raise the kids. The wage gap for college graduates in generally bigger because men

dominate higher paying jobs and require more flexible hours.

Minor, Olive Melissa, and Michelle Cameo. "A Comparison of Wages by Gender and Region of

Origin for Newly Arrived Refugees in the USA." Journal of International Migration and

Integration, vol. 19, no. 3, 2018, pp. 813-828. ProQuest,

https://login.proxy039.nclive.org/login?url=https://search.proquest.com/docview/2037

260113?accountid=10163,

Minor and Cameo compare the wage gap by gender and how the country of origin

affects the wage gap. Due to different crisis around the world the United States takes in

more and more refugees from around the world. Refugee resettlement in the US is

based primarily off of the labor market. The authors bring forward the point that
 refugees are forced to take the first available job offered to them, which are often lower

paying jobs. The examples included by the author shows that black men only 75% of

what white men make, and women make 83% of what men make. The wages of women

lagged behind in all ethnic groups, but women of color had even larger wage gaps with

men in their ethnic groups.

Petreski, Marjan, Nikica M. Blazevski, and Blagica Petreski. "Gender Wage Gap when Women

are Highly Inactive: Evidence from Repeated Imputations with Macedonian Data."

Journal of Labor Research, vol. 35, no. 4, 2014, pp. 393-411. ProQuest,

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821833?accountid=10163,

M Petreski, Blazevski, and B Petreski analyzed the wage gap between genders using data

from Macedonia. The authors explored an adjusted wage gap which suggests that the

wage gap could actually only fall between 5.4% and 9.8% if Inactive or unemployed are

excluded. They also found that the wage gap is almost nonexistent in individuals who

were highly educated. Their adjusted wage gap accounts for housewives and unpaid

family workers. Their wage gap is calculated through a long equation which is linear in

age and quadratic in age. The results of their equations is found on page 7 (399) of the

article, which breaks the information down by occupation, industry and education, then

compares it by gender.
Pettit, Becky, and Stephanie Ewert. "EMPLOYMENT GAINS AND WAGE DECLINES: THE EROSION

OF BLACK WOMEN'S RELATIVE WAGES SINCE 1980*."Demography (Pre-2011), vol. 46,

no. 3, 2009, pp. 469-92. ProQuest,

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32438?accountid=10163.

Pettit and Ewert analyze the wage gap between black and white women since 1980.

Affirmative Action and Equal Employment Opportunity Law aimed the increase the rate

of which of people of color get hired for jobs and allow them to get jobs based off of

their merit. After the civil rights movement everything changed and in the 1980’s there

were still challenges for people of color to find jobs. Policy shift from the mid-1990s

encouraged welfare recipients to start joining the workforce, welfare recipients at the

time were primarily black and the sudden call to join the labor force, allowed employers

to get away with lower wages.