BIOLOGY REVIEWER 2Q

Importance of Water:

1. Water is a biological solvent.

THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE 2. Water molecules stick to each other and to surfaces.

atom—molecule—macromolecules—organelle—cell—tissue— 3. Water is a medium where chemical and physical processes

organ—organ system—organism
take place.

Seven Major Elements in the Living System:

4. Water serves as moisturizer of surfaces.

5. Water is a lubricant and good cushion.

SYMBOL NAME DESCRIPTION

* Adhesion - interaction of different molecules

the main composition of organic * Cohesion - interaction of alike molecules

C Carbon
compounds * CSF (cerebrospinal fluid) - protects the brain; serves as a
cushion

the major source of fuel in the

H Hydrogen
production of energy Organic Compounds: Macromolecules (Biomolecules)
essential part of water molecule and - all living things are made up of four classes of large biological
O Oxygen
organic compounds molecules: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins & nucleic acids

- macromolecules: are large molecules composed of thousands

N Nitrogen key element in proteins of covalently connected atoms

- molecule structure and function are inseparable

major component of nucleic acids

S Sulfur - carbon-based molecules are often the result of smaller
and energy-rich compounds
molecules (subunits), linked together in a chain

part of some amino acids and - each subunit of a complex molecule is call monomer (single
P Phosphorus
vitamins molecule)

major component of bones and acts - when monomers are linked together they for complex molecules
Ca Calcium
as biological signals in the body called polymers (chain)

Other Elements in Living Systems:

CARBOHYDRATES
SYMBOL NAME DESCRIPTION - are organic compounds that serve as the main source of energy
in all organisms

essential for muscle and nerve - made up of CHO molecules (Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen)

Na Sodium
functions - the proportion of C to H to O is 1:2:1

fluid and electrolyte balance; regulate - small sugar molecules to large sugar molecules

K Potassium - examples:

muscle contraction
‣ monosaccharide

acts as a thermostat to regulate body

I Iodine ‣ disaccharide

temperature
‣ polysaccharide

needed by plants to incorporate Monosaccharide

Md Molybdenum Nitrogen into a biologically useful - one sugar unit

substance
- serves as building blocks in the formation of complex sugars

important component of bones, - examples:

Mg Magnesium
teeth, and chlorophyll ‣ glucose (C6H12O6)

‣ fructuose

Fe Iron carrier of oxygen in blood

‣ galactose

‣ deoxyribose

Compounds: Organic & Inorganic

‣ ribose

• Inorganic Compounds - are substances that do not contain

Disaccharide
both Carbon & Hydrogen

- two sugar units

‣ essential to human functioning include water, salts, acids, and

1. Sucrose (glucose + fructose)

bases

- major product of photosynthesis

• Organic Compounds - are substances that contain Carbon,

- produced in plants

usually bonded to Hydrogen

2. Maltose (glucose + glucose)

Inorganic Compound: Water - an intermediate in the intestinal digestion of glycogen and

- most abundant inorganic compound inside the cell’s starch

protoplasm, making it 75%-85%

3. Lactose (glucose + galactose)

- water participates directly in many chemical reactions

- naturally found in milk and dairy products

- medium in which most biological reactions take place

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Polysaccharide ‣ keratin - makes up 90% of hair

- many sugar units

‣ collagen - fibrous protein found in connective tissues that
- examples:
supports the skin, tendons, and ligaments

‣ starch (bread, potatoes) — 200 glucose

2. Enzymatic Proteins
‣ glycogen (beef muscle) — >200 glucose
- enzymes: proteins that speed up chemical reactions in the
‣ cellulose (lettuce, corn)
body without chemically changing themselves at the end of
the process they catalyze

* Cellulose - most abundant in organic compounds

- enzymes need substrate to function

* Amylase - enzyme that breaks down the starch to be absorbed

- optimum temperature: best temperature for an enzyme

by our system

Characteristics of Enzymes:

• enzymes are highly specific

PROTEINS
• enzymes are required in small amounts

- are the most abundant organic compounds in living organisms

• enzymatic reactions are affected by temperature

- functions: structural support, storage, transport, cellular

• enzymatic reactions are affected by power of Hydrogen

communications, movement, and defense against foreign

* 7.35—7.45: pH level of the blood

substances

3. Transport Proteins
- amino acids: building blocks of proteins

‣ membrane proteins - carriers & channels in the plasma

- amino acid is composed of Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen,
membrane and aids cells in and out of the cell

Nitrogen (sometimes Sulfur) — CHON

‣ hemoglobin - transport protein in RBC that helps in oxygen

- is made up of amino group, carboxyl group, and R group (side
transport; magnetizes CO2 molecules

chain)

4. Defense Protein
- amino acids are linked together by peptide bonds
- antibody: plays an important role in the body’s defense
- polypeptide chain: linked amino acids

system against disease

- 0.3 g / kg - daily protein intake needed by the body

- antibodies are produced by a type of WBC called B

Essential Amino Acids:
lymphocytes

- cannot be synthesized within the body

- these are produced in response to the presence of a foreign
1. threonine
substance called antigen
2. histidine
5. Regulatory Protein
3. tryptophan
- hormones: signal proteins that regulate the body functions

4. methionine
‣ growth factors - proteins that influence growth &
5. phenylalanine
development

6. lysine
‣ insulin - hormone that regulates glucose concentration in
7. arginine
blood

8. valine
‣ testosterone - key male sex hormone that regulates
9. leucine
fertility, muscle mass, fat distribution, and RBC production

10. isoleucine
‣ progesterone - female sex hormone that regulates the
Valine, Leucine, Isoleucine menstrual cycle and is crucial for pregnancy

- these are included in protein that forms muscles; they account ‣ adrenaline - hormone released into the body of someone
for 30-40% of essential amino acids
feeling extreme emotion, which causes the person to have
Non-Essential Amino Acids:
more energy

1. alanine
‣ oxytocin - hormone crucial for child birth and labor,
2. aspartic acid
breastfeeding, and social behaviors and bonding

3. asparagine
6. Contractile Proteins
4. glycine
- animals are capable of movement and substances that move
5. glutamic acid
inside the body due to action of contractile proteins

6. glutamine
- actin & myosin: are found in cells to allow movements and
7. serine
cause contraction

8. proline
7. Storage Proteins
9. tyrosine
- serve as reservers of amino acids, which can later be used
10. cysteine
on to nourish the growth and development of organisms

- proteins are found in egg whites (albumin), seeds, and milk

* all amino acids are required for body growth

* essential amino acids have to be consumed in the form of food

LIPIDS

Functions of Proteins:
- is an organic substance found in living systems that is insoluble
1. Structural Proteins in water but it is soluble in organic solvents

- proteins form the structural parts of cells and tissues

- are organic molecules essential for life that are composed
mostly of C, H, O

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- they are soluble in organic solvents but not in water (non-polar)
Triglycerides
- gives twice as much energy compared to carbohydrates
- aka blood fats

- consist of repeating units called fatty acids - the main form of stored energy in animals

- fatty acid: are the building blocks of fat in the body and in food - predominant form of fat in food and major storage form of fat in
that living organisms consume
the body

- ester bond: links fatty acids together

- composed of 3 fatty acids + glycerol (backbone)

- 2 major types of fatty acids:

Phospholipid
‣ saturated - single bonds between carbons; mainly solid at - major components of cell membranes

room temperature
- composed of fatty acids + phosphate head

‣ unsaturated - one/more double bonds between carbons; - fatty acid chains = non-polar = hydrophobic “water fearing”

mainly liquid at room temperature

- phosphate head = polar = hydrophilic “water loving”

- polar: water

Fatty Acid: Saturated

Steroids
- carbon atoms are bonded to as many hydrogen atoms as
possible
- important components of cell membranes which alter
membrane fluidity, and as signalling molecules

- this causes the molecules to form straight chains—the straight

chains can be packed together very tightly, allowing them to - composed of 4 fused Carbon Rings

store energy in a compact form

- hormones, carrier of vitamins

- cholesterol, fat soluble vitamins

- solid in room temperature

- structure is straight; single carbon and hydrogen bond ‣ cholesterol - is a type of sterol (modified steroid) found in the
tissues of animals, but not in plants; important in the
continuously—strong packing

manufacturing of vitamin D, brain, nervous tissue

Fatty Acid: Unsaturated

‣ hormones - regulate processes in the body (such as
- some carbon atoms are not bonded to as many hydrogen atoms pregnancy)

as possible due to the presence of one or more double bonds in

‣ vitamins (A, D, E, K) - support metabolism and cell
the carbon chain, causing bending of chains

processes

- bent chains are not packed tightly (loose packing)

- liquid in room temperature

* two types of cholesterol: LDL & HDL

‣ LDL - deliver bad cholesterol

‣ HDL - remove cholesterol from the bloodstream; good

SATURATED FAT UNSATURATED FAT cholesterol

meats, butter, dairy products vegetable oils Vitamins

- are organic compounds required in small quantities for normal
“bad cholesterol”
“good cholesterol”
metabolism

(low-density lipoprotein) (high-density lipoprotein) - they must be obtained from the diet (our cells cannot synthesize
HDL “grabs” LDL and escorts them)

in to the liver where LDL is - are either water soluble or fat soluble

LDL clogs arteries

broken down & eventually - the four fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K) are lipids and non-polar

removed from the body - are found in fruits, vegetables, fish, liver, and dairy products

- excess vitamins are stored in adipose cells to be used when

Functions of Lipids:

needed

1. Good sources of energy and stored energy in the body

Vitamin A
2. Thermal insulator in subcutaneous tissues

- found in liver, fish, and dairy products, and is made from B-

3. Act as electrical insulators

carotene (the orange pigment in carrots)

4. Important dietary constituents because of fat soluble vitamins

- needed for vision and for health mucous membranes

when present in an intestine

- deficiency causes night blindness and dry eyes & skin

5. Make up the basic structure of cell membranes (phospholipids)

Vitamin D
6. Serve as chemical messengers (hormones)

- can be synthesized from cholesterol

7. Shock absorbers or protects vital organs

- can be obtained in the diet from many foods, especially milk,

* Plaques - formation of clogging of fats in the arteries
and helps regulate Ca and P metabolism

- deficiency causes rickets (bone malformation)

Types of Lipids:

Vitamin E
1. Triglycerides

- an antioxidant, protecting unsaturated side chains in fatty acids

2. Phospholipids

from unwanted oxidation

3. Steroids

- deficiency causes numerous neurological problems, although it

4. Waxes

is rare

5. Sphingolipids

Vitamin K
- regulates the synthesis of clotting proteins (prothrombin)

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- deficiency leads to excessive or fatal bleeding
DNA NUCLEOTIDES RNA NUCLEOTIDES
- important for the formation of clots to prevent further bleeding
COMPOSITION COMPOSITION
Waxes
one of 4 types of bases (all one of 4 types of bases (all
- solid at room temperature

containing Nitrogen):
containing Nitrogen):

- insoluble in water
* adenine
* adenine

- function: protective covering for animals and plants

* thymine (only in DNA)
* uracil (only in RNA)

- examples:
* cytosine
* cytosine

‣ beeswax
* guanine * guanine
‣ earwax
A — T
U — A

‣ cuticle of leaf (keeps water in)

C—G C—G
Sphingolipids
- important coverings of the organs of the body
double-stranded helix single-stranded helix
arrangement arrangement

NUCLEIC ACIDS
- are macromolecules that store genetic information and enable
protein production
THE CELL AND ITS ENERGY: AT-ADP CYCLE AND CELLULAR
- the chemical link between generations
RESPIRATION
- the source of genetic information in chromosomes
Energy
- C, H, O, N, O
- refers to the capacity to do work or to supply heat

- covalent bonds: bonds nucleotides

- body cells need a steady supply of energy to keep organism
- phosphodiester linkage: linkage of nucleotides, important for alive

the formation of backbone (DNA & RNA)

- energy is also required to produce and breakdown molecules,
Composition of Nucleic Acids:
and transport products in and out of the cell

- nucleic acid is composed of simple units called nucleotides, Bioenergetics

connected long chains
- study of the concepts of energy flow within living systems

- nucleotides have 3 parts:

- deals with the intake, processing, reactions, expenditure of
‣ 5-Carbon sugar (pentose)
energy within the body

‣ Nitrogen containing base (made of C, H, and N) aka Two Types of Energy Reactions:

nitrogenous base
1. Endergonic Reactions
‣ a phosphate group (P)
- chemical reaction that requires a net input of energy
- the P groups make the links that unite the sugars (hence a (absorbs energy)

“sugar-phosphate backbone”)
- photosynthesis

Two Types of Nitrogenous Bases:

- 6CO2 + 6H2O —> C6H12O6 + 6O2

‣ Purine - A & G (adenine, guanine)

2. Exergonic Reactions
‣ Pyrimidine - C, T, U (cytosine, thymine, uracil)
- chemical reactions that release energy

Nucleic Acid Functions:

- cellular respiration

1. Dictates amino-acid sequence in proteins

- C6H12O6 + 6O2 —> 6CO2 + 6H2O

2. Give information to chromosomes, which is then passed from ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)
parent to offspring
- a molecule that carries energy within cells

3. Responsible for maintaining the identity of different species for - made up of the molecule adenosine (which itself is made up of
over millions of years
adenine and a ribose sugar) and three phosphate groups

4. Cellular function is under the control of DNA

- insoluble in water

Two Types of Nucleic Acid:

- high energy content

1. Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) - phosphoanhydride bond: links phosphate groups to one

- the pentose sugar is ribose
another

2. Deoxyribose Acid (DNA) Components of ATP:

- the pentose sugar is deoxyribose

1. adenine: nitrogenous base

- deoxy: “minus oxygen”

2. ribose: five carbon sugar

3. phosphate group: chain of 3

DNA NUCLEOTIDES RNA NUCLEOTIDES

COMPOSITION COMPOSITION Mitochondria: Specialized Cell Organelle for Energy
Transformation

deoxyribose sugar ribose sugar - small, specialized cellular organelles that produce energy from
food by breaking down carbon-containing molecules and
phosphate group phosphate group releasing energy packets in the form of ATP

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How does ATP work?
STAGES LOCATION RAW PRODUCTS
- organisms use enzymes to break down energy-rich glucose to
release its potential energy
cont:
acetyl
- this energy is trapped and stored in the form of adenosine Pyruvate mitochondria pyruvate
coenzyme A
triphosphate (ATP)
oxidation
How much ATP do cells use? 2. Kreb’s matrix of NADH &
acetyl coA
- it is estimated that each cell will generate and consume Cycle mitochondria FADH 2
approximately 10,000,000 molecules of ATP per second

3. Electron inner
NADH & ATP (35-38
ADP (Adenosine Diphosphate) Transport membrane of
FADH 2 units)
- also known as adenosine pyrophosphate (APP)
Chain mitochondria
- it differs from ATP because it has two phosphate groups

- ATP becomes ADP with the loss of a phosphate group, and this Stages of Glycolysis:

reaction releases energy

1. Energy Investment

- phosphoester bond: links phosphate group and sugar

2. Energy Generating

(1) Steps 1-5 = 2 ATP

ATP-ADP Cycle (2) Steps 6-10 = 4 ATP

————

2 ATP

Glycolysis Enzymes:

STEPS ENZYMES

Step 1 (ATP - ADP) hexokinase

Step 2 phosphohexose isomerase

Step 3 (ATP - ADP) phosphofructokinase

Step 4 aldolase (for splitting)

Step 5 triose phosphate isomerase

Releasing Energy
- to release the energy stored in ATP molecules, bonds between Step 6 (NAD - NADH) G3P dehydrogenase
their phosphate groups are broken through hydrolysis

- as a result of hydrolysis, energy is released and ATP loses a Step 7 (2ADP - 2ATP) phosphoglycerate kinase
phosphate to become ADP

Step 8 phosphoglycerate mutase

Hydrolysis
- a process of splitting one molecule to another with the presence Step 9 enolase
of H2O

Step 10 (2ADP - 2ATP) pyruvate kinase

- ATP + H2O —> ADP + P

Storing Energy Common Enzymes in Metabolism:

- small amounts of energy can be stored in a cell by adding

phosphate groups to ADP molecules, producing ATP
TYPE OF ENZYME TYPE OF REACTION
- ADP is constantly recombined with phosphate groups to form addition of a carboxylate (—
Carboxylase
new molecules of ATP to support the work of the cell
COO-)
removal of carbon dioxide
Decarboxylase
CELLULAR RESPIRATION (CO2)
- C6H12O6 + O2 —> 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy (heat, ATP)
Dehydrogenase
remove of two hydrogen
atoms
Glycolysis
isomerization of one isomer to
- breakdown of glucose into 2 pyruvate
Isomerase
another
- glyco: glucose, lysis: splitting/breakdown

- an aerobic reaction in cytoplasm

Kinase transfer of phosphate

STAGES LOCATION RAW PRODUCTS

* Isomerization - is the process by which one molecule is
transformed or converted into another molecule which has
1. Glycolysis cytoplasm glucose pyruvate
exactly the same atoms but different in arrangement

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THE BASICS OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
1. Almost all plants are photosynthetic autotrophs, as are some
bacteria and protists

- autotrophs generate their own organic matter through

photosynthesis

- sunlight energy is transformed to energy stored in the form

of chemical bond

* Autotrophs - they make their own food

* Heterotrophs - consume autotroph and/or other heterotroph

* carbon dioxide is the starting material for photosynthesis

* sunlight is the most important component for photosynthesis

General Formula:
CO2 + H2O + sunlight = O2 and C6H12O6 (glucose)

Cellular Respiration:
glucose + O2 + respiration = CO2 and H2O

2. Why are plants green?

- plant cells have green chloroplasts

- the thylakoid membrane of the chloroplast is the

impregnated with photosynthetic pigments (i.e., chlorophylls,
carotenoids)

- chloroplasts absorb light energy and convert it to chemical

energy

3. An overview of photosynthesis

- photosynthesis is the process by which autotrophic

organisms use light energy to make sugar and oxygen gas
from carbon dioxide and water

4. Chloroplast pigments

- chloroplasts contain several pigments

‣ chlorophyll a - blue green

‣ chlorophyll b - yellow green

‣ carotene - orange

‣ xanthophyll - yellow

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