CHAPTER: SINGLEPHASE TRANSFORMER

W hat is a transformer?
A transformer can be defined as a static device which helps in the transformation of
electric power in one circuit to electric power of the same frequency in another circuit.
The voltage can be raised or lowered in a circuit, but with a proportional increase or
decrease in the current ratings (since constant power operation takes place in a
transformer)
P rinciple of operation of a transformer

Fig 1. Single phase transformer

The basic principle on which the transformer works is Faraday’s Law of

Electromagnetic Induction or mutual induction between the two coils. The working of the
transformer is explained below. The transformer consists of two separate windings placed over
the laminated silicon steel core. The winding to which AC supply is connected is called primary
winding and to which load is connected is called secondary winding as shown in the figure above
(Fig 1). It works on the alternating current only because an alternating flux is required for mutual
induction between the two windings.
When the AC supply is given to the primary winding with a voltage of V 1, an alternating flux ϕ
sets up in the core of the transformer, which links with the secondary winding and as a result of
it, an emf is induced in it called Mutually Induced emf E2. The direction of this induced emf is
opposite to the applied voltage V1, this is because of the Lenz’s law shown in the figure below

Fig 2. Flux Linkage

Physically, there is no electrical connection between the two windings, but they are magnetically
connected. Therefore, the electrical power is transferred from the primary circuit to the secondary
circuit through mutual inductance. The induced emf in the primary and secondary windings depends
upon the rate of change of flux linkage that is (N dϕ/dt). dϕ/dt is the rate of change of flux and is
same for both the primary and secondary windings. The induced emf E 1 in the primary winding is
proportional to the number of turns N1 of the primary windings (E1 ∞ N1). Similarly, induced emf
in the secondary winding is proportional to the number of turns on the secondary side. (E 2 ∞ N2).
Transformer Construction
The three main parts of a transformer are,
Primary Winding of Transformer-Which produces magnetic flux when it is connected
to electrical source.
Magnetic Core of Transformer-The magnetic flux produced by the primary winding,
that will pass through this low reluctance path linked with secondary winding and create
a closed magnetic circuit. The core of transformer either square or rectangular type in
size. It is further divided into two parts vertical and horizontal. The vertical portion on
which coils are wounds called limb while horizontal portion is called yoke. Core is made
of laminated core type constructions, eddy current losses get minimize. Generally high-
grade silicon steel laminations (0.3 to 0.5mm) are used.
Secondary Winding of Transformer-The flux, produced by primary winding, passes
through the core, will link with the secondary winding. This winding also wounds on the
same core and gives the desired output of the transformer.
Conducting material is used in the winding of the transformer. The coils are used are wound on
the limbs and insulated from each other. If the leakage flux is more it affects the performance
and efficiency of transformer. To reduce the leakage flux, it is necessary that the windings
should be very close to each other to have high mutual induction.
Thus, a transformer carries the operations shown below:
1. Transfer of electric power from one circuit to another.
2. Transfer of electric power without any change in frequency at constant power
3. Transfer with the principle of electromagnetic induction. (electrical energy
magnetic energy electrical energy)
4. The two electrical circuits are linked by mutual induction (magnetically coupled)
while being electrically isolated from another

Transformer on DC supply
As discussed above, the transformer works on AC supply, and it cannot work not DC supply. If the
rated DC voltage is applied across the primary winding, a constant magnitude flux will set up in the
∅
core of the transformer and hence there will not be any self-induced emf generation (Since = 0 )
In AC transformer, current through the primary winding is give by,
𝑆𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 − 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑚𝑓
𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 =
𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
According to Ohm’s Law during Dc connection
𝐷𝐶 𝑆𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 =
𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔

The resistance of the primary winding is very low, and the primary current is high (due to the absence
of self-induced emf responsible for regulating the current). So, this current is much higher than the
rated full load primary winding current. Hence, as a result, the amount of heat produced will be greater
and therefore, eddy current loss (I2R) loss will be more. Because of this, the insulations of the primary
windings will get burnt, and the transformer will be damaged.
T ransformer classification

Step up
Based on output
voltage

step down

Power
transformer

Based on Distribution
application transformer

Instrumentation transformer

Instrumentation
Transformer

Transformer
types Core type
Based on
Construction

Shell type

Indoor
Based on
location of use

Outdoor

Dry type

Based on
insulation
Liquid immersed
type
I) Based on output voltage
a) Step up- Transformer whose output voltage is more than input
supply or primary voltage.
b) Step down- Transformer whose output voltage is less than input
supply or primary voltage.
II) Based on construction
a) Core
b) Shell
Comparative analysis of a core and shell type transformer is as shown below.
 Fig 3 Core type transformer Fig 4 Shell type transformer

III) Based on application

a) Power transformer- Generally high rating step up transformer placed
after the generating unit of a power station is called a power transformer.
These transformers operate continuously i.e. as long as the generating
station is in operation.
b) Distribution Transformer-Generally high to medium rating step down
transformer used on the distribution side are known as distribution
transformers. They operate according to load requirement on the
distribution side.
c) Instrumentation transformer- They can be further classified as current
transformer and potential transformer. They are used for measuring
voltage and current of high rating transmission lines and are generally
stepdown in nature for safe manual measurement.
IV) Based on location of use
a) Indoor Transformer- Generally dry type transformer used for indoor
applications
b) Outdoor Transformer- Generally oil immersed transformers used in
power stations and other distribution points.
V) Based on insulation
a) Dry Type- Dry type transformer never uses any insulating liquid where
its winding with core be immerged. Rather windings with core are kept
within a sealed tank that is pressurized with air.
b) Liquid immersed type- Entire transformer setup is immersed in a
viscous oil for providing cooling and insulation to the different
transformer parts.
VI) Also Based on supply
a) Single-phase transformer – Utilizes single phase ac source
b) Three-phase transformer - Utilizes three phase ac source
Transformer E.M.F equation

from the above equations 8.2a and 8.2b,

…. (8.3)
This ratio shown in equation 8.3 is called the voltage per turn transformer,
For an ideal transformer on no load, E1 = V1 and E2 = V2
where, V1 = supply voltage of primary winding
V2 = terminal voltage of secondary winding
Transformation ratio
From equation 3 it is clear that the emf / number of turns is same for both primary
and secondary winding. So, the following equation can be written from eq 8.3

= = = 𝑘 (𝑠𝑎𝑦) (8.4)

Here K is known as the voltage transformation ratio.

(i) If K>1, then the transformer is called step-up transformer.

(ii) If K<1, then the transformer is called step-down transformer.

Considering an ideal transformer whose losses are negligible, volt- ampere input and
output of the transformer can be equated as same (i.e. constant power operation)

Output VA = Input VA

i.e. 𝑉 𝐼 = 𝑉 𝐼

 (8.5)

(From equation 8.4)

From equation 8. 4 and 8.5 it is evident that while the voltage of a transformer is
directly proportional to the number of turn (as evident from transformer e.m.f
equation also) the current flowing through the winding is inversely proportional to
the number of turns.

Ideal transformer on No load

An ideal transformer is an imaginary transformer used for reference to understand the
working of a practical transformer. An ideal transformer has the following properties.
a. Primary and the secondary winding resistances are negligible.
b. Core has infinite permeability (µ) so negligible m.m.f is required to establish the
flux in the core.
c. Leakage flux and hence leakage inductance is zero.
d. There are no losses due to resistance, hysteresis and eddy currents. Thus efficiency 100 %.

An ideal iron core transformer is shown in the figure below. It consists of two coils
primary and secondary on a common magnetic core. Here V1 is the supply voltage,
E1 primary induced e.m.f, E2 secondary induced e.m.f, ZL is the load and the turns
on the primary and secondary sides are T1 and T2 respectively.
P ractical transformer on no load
 Here Rc = R0, Xm = X0, Ic= Iw, and
X0= Xm as discussed in class

Practical transformer on load

When the transformer is on loaded condition, the secondary of the transformer is

connected to load. The load can be resistive, inductive or capacitive. The current I2 flows
through the secondary winding of the transformer. The magnitude of the secondary
current depends on the terminal voltage V 2 and the load impedance. The phase angle
between the secondary current and voltage depends on the nature of the load.

The Operation of the Transformer on Load Condition is explained below

 When secondary of the transformer is kept open, it draws the no-load current from the
main supply. The no-load current induces the magnetomotive force N0I0 and this force
set up the flux Φ in the core of the transformer. The circuit of the transformer at no load
condition is shown in the figure below.
 When the load is connected to the secondary of the transformer, the I2 current flows
through their secondary winding. The secondary current induces the magnetomotive
force N2I2 on the secondary winding of the transformer. This force set up the flux φ2 in
the transformer core. The flux φ2 oppose the flux φ, according to Lenz’s law

 As the flux φ2 opposes the flux φ, the resultant flux of the transformer decreases and
this flux reduces the induces EMF E 1. Thus, the strength of the V1 is more than E1 and
an additional primary current I’1 drawn from the main supply. The additional current
is used for restoring the original value of the flux in the core of the transformer so that
the V1= E1. The primary current I’1 is in phase opposition with the secondary current I2.
Thus, it is called the primary counter balancing current.
 The additional current I’1 induces the magnetomotive force N1I’1. And this force set
up the flux φ’1. The direction of the flux is same as that of the φ and it cancels the flux
φ2 which induces because of the MMF N2I2
Now, N1I1’ = N2I2, so it can be rewritten as,
Therefore,

 The phasor difference between V1 and I1 gives the power factor angle ϕ1 of the
primary side of the transformer.
 The power factor of the secondary side depends upon the type of load
connected to the transformer.
  If the load is inductive as shown in the above phasor diagram, the power factor will be lagging,
and if the load is capacitive, the power factor will be leading. The total primary current I1 is
the vector sum of the current I0 and I1’. i.e.

Phasor Diagram of Transformer on Inductive Load

The phasor diagram of the actual transformer when it is loaded inductively is shown below

Phasor Diagram of the Transformer on Inductive Load

Steps to draw the phasor diagram

 Take flux ϕ a reference
 Induces emf E1 and E2 lags the flux by 90 degrees.
 The component of the applied voltage to the primary equal and opposite to induced emf in the
primary winding. E1 is represented by V1’.
 Current I0 lags the voltage V1’ by 90 degrees.
 The power factor of the load is lagging. Therefore, current I2 is drawn lagging E2 by an angle
ϕ2.
 The resistance and the leakage reactance of the windings result in a voltage drop, and hence
secondary terminal voltage V2 is the phasor difference of E2and voltage drop.
V2 = E2 – voltage drops
I2 R2 is in phase with I2 and I2X2 is in quadrature (at 90⸰) with I2.
 The total current flowing in the primary winding is the phasor sum of I 1’ and I0.
 Primary applied voltage V1 is the phasor sum of V1’ and the voltage drop in the primary
winding.
 Current I1’ is drawn equal and opposite to the current I2
 V1 = V1’ + voltage drop
I1R1 is in phase with I1 and I1XI is in quadrature with I1.
 The phasor difference between V1 and I1 gives the power factor angle ϕ1 of the primary side
of the transformer.
 The power factor of the secondary side depends upon the type of load connected to the
transformer.
 If the load is inductive as shown in the above phasor diagram, the power factor will be lagging,
and if the load is capacitive, the power factor will be leading. Where I1R1 is the resistive drop
in the primary windings
I2X2 is the reactive drop in the secondary winding

The following figure shows a phasor diagram of a practical transformer on capacitive load.

Fig Phasor diagram for capacitive load

Phasor diagram of a transformer with inductive load considering V2 i.e. secondary voltage as the reference
is shown below.
1. Draw V2 on the x- axis
2. Draw I2 at an angle φ2 with respect to V2 (phase angle obtained from wattmeter reading
of the transformer on the secondary side)
3. The voltage drops I2R2 and I2X2 are added to V2 to obtain E2 since E2 = V2 + voltage
drops.
4. The induced e.m.f E1 is in phase with E2 a both are induced by the same flux φm. Draw
V1’ = - E1
 5. The magnetizing (Im) and the core loss (Ic) component of no-load current is drawn. Im
lags V1’ by 90⸰ while Ic is in phase with V1’.
6. The no load current Io is drawn, which is a phasor sum of I m and Ic.
7. Current I1’ is drawn equal and opposite to the current I2
8. The total primary current taken from the supply is

9. V1 = V1’ + voltage drop. So, the I1R1 and I1XI drops are added to V1’ to obtain the
supply voltage on the primary side i.e. V1. I1R1 is in phase with I1 and I1XI is in
quadrature with I1.
10. The angle φ1 represents the phase angle between V1 and I1.

Fig Phasor diagram for inductive load with secondary voltage as reference

Transformer equivalent circuit or complete equivalent circuit of transformer

From the overall phasor diagram drawn previously the equivalent circuit of a transformer is as shown
below.

Where,
R1= winding resistance of the primary winding of a practical transformer, X1= leakage reactance of the
primary representing the leakage flux, R2 = winding resistance of the secondary winding of a practical
transformer, X2= leakage reactance of the secondary representing the leakage flux. V1= supply AC
voltage, V2= output load voltage, E1= induced e.m.f in the primary E2= induced e.m.f in the secondary.
And as shown previously,
I0 = no load primary current (3-5 % of the full load rated current), Ic= core loss component of no-load
current, Im= magnetizing component of no-load current. Rc= represents the core los of the transformer
Xm= represents the flux setup necessary for transformer operation.
When the parallel branch containing the core loss resistance and the magnetizing reactance (R c and Xm)
is brought up front near the supply the circuit is known as approximate equivalent circuit.

Fig Exact equivalent circuit referred to primary

Fig Approximate equivalent circuit referred to primary

Fig Approximate equivalent circuit referred to primary

Where, Re1 = R1 + R2'= R1 + R2/K2 = equivalent resistance referred to primary

Xe1 = X1 + X2' = X1 + X2/K2 = equivalent reactance referred to primary
Ze1 = Re1 + j Xe1 = overall equivalent impedance referred to primary
Ro= Rc = V1 /Ic and Xo = Xm = V1 /Im, Ic = Io cosΦo and Im = Io sinΦo
In the similar fashion, the approximate equivalent circuit referred to secondary also can be obtained.
The following figures shows the equivalent circuit (exact and approximate) of a transformer referred to
secondary.
 Fig Approximate equivalent circuit referred to secondary

Where, Re2 = R1' + R2= K2 R1 + R2 = equivalent resistance referred to secondary

Xe2 = X1' + X2 = K2X1 + X2 = equivalent reactance referred to secondary
Ze2 = Re2 + j Xe2 = overall equivalent impedance referred to secondary

TESTING OF TRANSFORMERS
Open Circuit & Short Circuit Test
Open circuit & Short circuit test is also known as the Indirect Test. Open circuit & Short circuit test is
performed on the transformer for the Iron loss, no-load current, no-load resistance & reactance and
copper loss, impedance, voltage regulation respectively. Here performance of a transformer can be
determined without any actual loading at any load and power factor by open and short circuit test. This test
is very economical because power require is very less to perform this test.

Open Circuit Test

The circuit diagram of the open circuit test for the transformer is shown below:

Fig: Open Circuit Test on a Transformer

A voltmeter V, an ammeter A, and a wattmeter W are connected in the low voltage (lv) side of transformer.
The voltmeter V gives the rated voltage V1 of the primary. A very small current I0, called the no-load
current, flows in the primary side because the secondary side is open circuited. The ammeter A, therefore,
reads the no-load current I0. The power loss in the transformer occurs due to core loss and a very small I2R
loss in the primary. There is no I2R loss in the secondary since it is open and I2 = 0. Since the no-load
current I0 is very small, the I2R loss in the primary winding can be neglected. The instrument readings
obtained in open circuit test are as follows:
o Ammeter reading = no-load current I0
o Voltmeter reading = primary rated voltage V1
o Wattmeter reading = iron or core loss P1
From the above readings we can determine the no-load equivalent circuit:

Im= I0sinΦ0 and Ic = I0cosΦ0.

Xm = and Rc =
Where Xm is the shunt inductive reactance, Rc is the shunt core loss component, Ic is the core loss
component of no load current, Im is the magnetizing current.
First keep in mind, open circuit test can be conducted at any side. But it's better to use convenient side (LV
side for measurement) for test due to following advantages.
1. For LV side, rated voltage required will be less compare to High voltage side. so low range
voltmeter and wattmeter sufficient to conduct the test.
2. In no load test, no load current is only 4 to 6 percentage of full load current, so for LV side rated
current is high and no-load current which only 4 or 6 percentage will be high compare to no load
current in case of high voltage winding. So that's why no-load current can be accurately measured.
Short Circuit Test

Fig: Short Circuit Test on a Transformer

In the short circuit test, usually, the low voltage side is short-circuited by a thick conductor. As we can
see that in the figure an ammeter, a voltmeter, and a wattmeter are connected on the high-voltage side.
The reason for short-circuiting the low voltage side is as follows:
1. The rated current on the high voltage (HV) side of a transformer is less than the low voltage (LV)
side of the transformer. And we can measure this current with the help of available laboratory
ammeters.
2. Greater accuracy in the reading of the voltmeter is possible when we use the hv side as the
primary because the applied voltage is less than 5 percent of the rated voltage of the winding.
The high voltage winding is supplied at the reduced voltage from a variable voltage supply. This supply
voltage is gradually increased until full-load primary current flows. When the rated full load current
flows in the primary winding, then it will also flow in the secondary winding by the transformer action.
The readings of the instruments on the short circuit test are as follows:
o Ammeter reading = Full load primary current, I1SC
o Voltmeter reading = Short circuit voltage, V1SC
o Wattmeter reading = full-load copper loss of the transformer Pcfl
The equivalent resistance of the transformer referred to primary

Equivalent impedance referred to primary

Equivalent reactance referred to primary

When short circuit test is performed only on one side the equivalent circuit constants referred to another
side can also be calculated as follows:
𝑁
𝑍 = 𝑍 ( )
𝑁
𝑁
𝑅 = 𝑅 ( )
𝑁
𝑁
𝑋 = 𝑋 ( )
𝑁
Why Transformers Are Rated In KVA?
From the above transformer tests, it can be seen that Cu loss of a transformer depends on current, and
iron loss depends on voltage. Thus, total transformer loss depends on volt-ampere (VA). It does not
depend on the phase angle between voltage and current, i.e. transformer loss is independent of load
power factor. This is the reason that transformers are rated in kVA.

What is Transformer Efficiency?

Transformer efficiency (η) can be explained as the ratio of the output power to the input power.

As we know that in a transformer there is no rotational part so there are no rotational losses such as
windings and frictional losses in a rotating machine. Therefore, we can obtain a maximum efficiency as
high as 99% in a well-designed transformer.

Consider, the x is the fraction of the full load. The efficiency of the transformer regarding x is expressed
as
The copper losses vary according to the fraction of the load.

What is all day (or energy) efficiency of a transformer?

The ratio of the energy output of 24-hour to the energy input of a 24-hour period is called the All-day
efficiency of a transformer.

If we know the load cycle of the transformer, then all day efficiency can easily be determined.

Maximum Efficiency Condition of a Transformer

The efficiency of the transformer along with the load and the power factor is expressed by the given
relation.

The value of the terminal voltage V2 is approximately constant. The transformer iron losses are
practically constant at constant voltage, but copper losses varies as square of load current therefore the
efficiency is affected by the factor load current.Thus, for a given power factor the Transformer efficiency
depends upon the load current I2. In the equation (1) shown above the numerator is constant and the
transformer efficiency will be maximum if the denominator with respect to the variable I 2 is equated to
zero.

i.e. Copper losses = Iron losses

Thus, the transformer will give the maximum efficiency when their copper loss is equal to the iron loss.

For maximum efficiency Pc = Pi

I12 Re1 = Pi
I22 Re2 = Pi
I2 = √ ( Pi / Re2 )
I2 = [ I2fl / I2fl ] √ ( Pi / Re2 )
= I2fl √ ( Pi / I2fl2 Re2 )
= I2fl √ ( Pi / Pcfl )
 = I2fl √ ( Iron losses / Full load copper losses )

kVA rating at which the efficiency of transformer becomes maximum

I2 = I2fl √ ( Pi / Pcfl )
V2I2 = V2 I2fl √ ( Pi / Pcfl )
V2I2 / 1000 = [ V2 I2fl / 1000 ] √ ( Pi / Pcfl )

kVA = kVAfl √ ( Pi / Pcfl )

SM= Sfl √ ( Pi / Pcfl )

Effect of power factor on transformer efficiency

Power Factor, defined as cosine of load angle cosϕ.The current required to transfer power
P=VIcosϕ is I=P/Vcosϕ
It can be derived from the above equation that with lower value of Power Factor, current required is
more and hence loss ( I2R)increases and eventually efficiency decreases. Hence, it is better to keep
the power factor high (close to 1) for best efficiency.

Losses in Transformers
There are two types of losses occurs in a transformer:
1. Iron loss or Core loss Pi
2. Copper loss or I2R loss Pc
Iron loss or core loss (Pi)
Iron loss in transformers is the combination of hysteresis loss (Ph) and eddy current loss (Pe). This type of
loss mainly occurs in the magnetic core of the transformer, and depends on magnetic properties of core
material.
Pi = P h + P e
The formula for hysteresis and eddy current losses is as follows:
Ph = khf Bxm
Pe = kef2 B2m
Where,
kh = It is a constant which is proportional to the volume, quantity of the core material and the units used.
ke = It is a constant which is proportional to the volume, resistivity of the core material, thickness of
laminations and the units used.
Bm = maximum flux density in the core.
f = frequency of the alternating flux.
The exponent 'x' is called Steinmetz constant. Depending upon the magnetic properties of the core material
its value varies from 1.5 to 2.5.
Therefore, the total core loss in the transformer is
Pi = Ph + Pe
Pi = khf Bxm + kef2 B2m
As we know that the voltage applied is approximately equal to the induced voltage in the transformer.

The above relation shows that the hysteresis loss depends upon both the applied voltage and frequency.

Pe = kef2 B2m = kef2 ( )2 = Ke V21

The above relation shows that the eddy current loss is proportional to the square of the applied voltage and
is independent of frequency.
Since, V1 = 4.44 BmAifTi,
V1 ∝ Bmf
Which means for any voltage if f decreases, Bm increases. Similarly, if f increases, Bm decreases.
The total core loss can be written as
Pi= Kh Vx f 1-x + Ke V2

Copper loss or I2R loss (Pc)

The loss which takes place in the primary and secondary winding of the transformer because of the winding
resistance is called the Copper loss or I2R loss.
Total copper loss in the transformer = Primary winding copper loss + Secondary winding copper
loss

Therefore, copper loss varies as the square of the load current.

Stray Loss
Eddy current in the conductor, tank, etc., produced by the leakage flux in a transformer is known as stray
losses. We can neglect these losses, as the percentage of these losses is very less as compared to iron and
copper loss.

Dielectric loss
The losses that occur in insulating materials, i.e., in the transformer oil and the solid insulation of the
transformer, are known as a dielectric loss. This loss occurs only in high voltage transformer, and is very
small so that we can neglect these losses.