Trace the pattern of social changes during the early medieval period of Indian

history. How are these changes related to processes of agricultural expansion and
state formation?

The major historical-societal processes or changes that occurred during the early
medieval period of Indian history were in close correspondence with the political,
economic, religious and ideological processes that had been in run throughout
the major part of Indian history, but gained prominence particularly during the
early historical phase. Thus, every process can be better understood in
association, and interrelationship with, and dependence on, other processes that
were simultaneously taking place as certain fundamental movements within
regional and local levels considering the diversity of the Indian subcontinent, and
not as a homogenous phenomenon occurring at a pan-Indian level.

Historians of early medieval India might be divided on their opinion about the
nature of the changes that were taking place. But there is a general consensus
among them that the phase of early medieval India saw the strengthening of
regional identities, agricultural expansion and proliferation of castes, over the
subcontinent, including in areas which had earlier remained peripheral. These
changes were not unrelated to each other and have been explained by several
historians through the use of the feudal model, by others through the use of the
so-called ‘Integrative Model’, while some others have tried to explain it through
the analysis of regions at a micro-level.

According to R. S. Sharma, the social changes that were taking place can be best
understood in the light of the feudal structure and ideology that came to
dominate the politics, society and economy of this period, which was based on an
intense preoccupation with land and the absorption of the tribal people into the
brahmanical fold through conquest and land grants to the brahmanas and others.
This period was largely characterised by urban decay and decline caused by slump
in trade and commerce which forced artisans to the countryside. Land in the
peripheral areas which had earlier not come under cultivation was granted to the
brahmanas. This period saw large-scale transfer of land revenues and land to both
secular and religious elements and their vassals which undermined the autonomy
of the peasants and artisans as they were fixed to the villages that were granted
to the beneficiaries. The brahmanas brought advanced knowledge of agriculture
into these areas and was supplemented by the ready availability of artisans.
Introduction of new crops, expansion of irrigation facilities and innovation in
agricultural techniques contributed to the growth of agriculture.

Agricultural expansion in turn shaped the social configuration in the countryside.

Land grants and subinfeudation marked the shift from social status based on
affiliation to higher Varna to one which was based on the possession of land and
property that now became the determinant for social ranking. The existing Varna
order broke up into numerous castes, and numerous new tribes were brought
into the brahmanical cultural fold. Sects and guilds also fossilized into separate
castes. A new caste of Kayasthas, emerged during this period who were scribes
and writers needed for record keeping of land grants. The feudal localism
fostered an ideology of gramadharma, gramacara, etc. as the village manners,
practises and customs became authoritative.

The unequal distribution of land and military power created feudal ranks which
cut across Varna consideration. The way to legitimise the power of ruling classes
and landed families, and the tribal and kin groups was through the fabrication of
genealogical superiority, with support from obliging brahmanas. They associated
themselves with mythical solar and lunar ancestries and rose in the social ladder
by learning Sanskrit and practising polygamy. Thus, genealogy became an
important ideology in a complex society to ensure socio-political supremacy and
superior rights over land.

B.D. Chattopadhyaya gives a more detailed understanding of the working of these

processes in interrelation with each other through his region-specific studies. He
links the rise of regional state polities, like that of Rajputs, with the expansion in
agriculture and through peasantisation of tribal groups.

The decline of the pan Indian identity of the Gupta Empire saw the rise of
proliferating regional political centres fragmented over North India. Different
clans like Gujjara-Pratihara in North West, Chandellas in Bundelkhand, Paramaras
in Malwa, Guhelas in Mewar, Paramars in Dhara, Tomars and Chahmanas in the
North came into prominence and spread through development of their sub-clans,
branches, and sub-branches. Their military strength had led to a transition from
their feudatory or mercenary position to an independent sovereign status which
was legitimized and consolidated through the construction of genealogies tracing
their descend from the royal divine. Before they could finally attain pure Kshatriya
status transitional use of ‘Brahma-ksatriya’ title was adopted. These genealogies
did not only help them to cover their inferior status of the past but also proved to
be a strong ideological force which legitimized their political rule in their
respective locality. Such developments were possible with the crucial role played
by Brahmans in crafting royal lineages linked with Vedic or Puranic literature and
performing auspicious rituals and rights which would grant the ruling class a
stable Varna status. And in turn, land was gifted to Brahmans as ‘Bramadeya’
which carried a permanent revenue free status, control over its people and
resources. So, the intersection of religion and politics could be highlighted from
the fact that not only Brahmanical legitimization established a conducive
condition for state rule but also led to the emergence of Brahmans as a socially,
politically and economically dominant class.

The intensification, acceleration, expansion and interference of Brahman control

over land eroded kinship ties of the settled communities and reduced their status
to that of subordination. Moreover the burgeoning number of Brahmadeya grants
not only established hierarchy between Brahmans and local inhabitants but also
produced divisions and branches within different Brahmans who were now
crystallizing into various sub-caste groups. The tribal communities were not bereft
of the changes in their close vicinity. Peasantization of the tribal communities and
their incorporation into the lowest order of Varna system further expanded layers
of hierarchy of the caste system and their local cults and practices were also
appropriated and integrated as Brahmans came to control major cults and cult
centres.

Significant expansion in settlements was another feature coinciding with the

emergence of new ruling political centers. The rise in expansion could also be
linked to the rise of political authority and so to the mushrooming of intense
fortification. Forts not only stood for defense purpose but also as a part of
consolidation process of the ruling clans which becomes more evident in later
stages. Process of matrimonial network tied one clan with the other which not
only consolidated the inter clan political relations but also led to their further
expansion and tying of different cultures together. From about 12th century we
come across a change where longing for a kshatriya status is substituted for
Rajput, which could refer to a mix of around 36 clans of multiple social
backgrounds assimilated and ruling, as suggested in sources like Rajatarangini.
Thus, the rise of the Rajputs was not merely a consolidation of political power
structure but a social process.

The processes that unfolded in South India were quite different from that in
North India. It was the rise of temples in south India around which all the major
ideological, political, economic and social processes revolved. The identification
of a ‘divine-deity’ with ‘ruler’, ‘temple’ with the ‘territory’ and the ‘devotees’ with
his ‘subjects’ was a powerful tool for legitimization which was in parallel to the
feudal ideology. The simultaneous rise of Bhakti Movement in South India highly
influenced of submissive ideas and had within itself the message of complete
devotion to ‘lord’ and to his services in the temple which further deepened the
ideological domination of the ruling elites. The increasing patronage of the Bhakti
Movement and its subsequent popularity got manifested in the proliferation of
temples which now began to emerge as important commercial centers where
exchange of commodities was of special interest. Emergence of towns like
Kanchipuram, Madurai and Thanjavur around the temples describes the
underlying urban processes. The following processes did not only revolutionize
the economy of the region but also unfolded various simultaneous social
processes. The steady flow in the rise of temples influenced the tribal life by
drawing them into caste hierarchy of Varna System. The temples were
accompanied with huge land grants providing supreme supervisory and
ownership rights to Brahmans which further strengthened its political and
economic role in due course of time. The interaction and inclusion of different
cultures was also very well reflected in the mushrooming of syncretic cults of folk
deities. It highlights the blending of ideology, politics and religion in South India.
Thus, overall we see that the emergence of regions and the social changes that
were taking place during the medieval period was out of a long drawn dynamic
process whose dominant political, economic and cultural dimensions could be
recognized at a pan-Indian level.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Sharma, R.S. 1987. Agrarian Expansion. Urban Decay in India c. 300-1000.

2. Chattopadhyaya, B.D. 1994. Introduction to The Making of Early Medieval India.
3. Chattopadhyaya, B.D. 1997. Origin of Rajputs. In B.D. Chattopadhyaya, The Making of
Early Medieval India.
4. Sharma, R.S. 1969. Changes in Social Structure. In Early Medieval Indian Society by R.S.
Sharma.
5. Veluthat, Kesavan. 1993. Religious Symbols in Political Legitimization: The Case of Early
Medieval South India.

This is an excellent answer. You have dealt with the question in a systematic and
rich manner to the extent that the historiographic diversities were duly noted and
discussed. Some relevant details of social change might be added: for example,
the emergence of mool and gotra, as markers identity; or even the rise of
untouchability! These details should be added.

You get 20 out of 25.