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TABLE OF CONTENTS
S.NO TOPIC PAGE NO.

1 Aim and Objective of the Subject I
2 Syllabus II
3 Detailed Lesson Plan III
Unit-I – FUNDAMENTAL OF COMPUTER GRAPHICS
4 Part - A (2 Marks Q &A) 5
5 Part - B (13 Marks Q &A) 7
6 ww Unit-II – GEOMETRIC MODELING

Part - A (2 Marks Q &A) 23
7 w .Ea
Part - B (13 Marks Q &A)
Unit-III – VISUAL REALISM
26
8 Part - A (2 Marks Q &A) syE 40

9 Part - B (13 Marks Q &A)
ngi 42
10
Unit-IV – ASSEMBLY OF PARTS
Part - A (2 Marks Q &A) nee 59
11 Part - B (13 Marks Q &A) rin 61
Unit-V – CAD STANDARDS
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13
Part - A (2 Marks Q &A)
Part - B (13 Marks Q &A)
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81
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Unit-I -V
14 Part - C (15 Marks Q &A) 90
ANNA UNIVERSITY PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTION PAPERS
15 NOV/DEC 2015 – Reg 2013 99
16 MAY/JUNE 2016 – Reg 2013 102
17 NOV/DEC 2016 – Reg 2013 104
18 APRIL/MAY 2017- Reg 2013 106

AIM AND OBJECTIVE OF THE SUBJECT
Aim and Objective of the subject:
The main focus of this course will be to acquire an understanding of heat transfer
effects and to developing the skills needed to predict heat transfer rates.
This course is designed to introduce a basic study of the phenomena of heat and
mass transfer, to develop methodologies for solving a wide variety of practical
engineering problems, and to provide useful information concerning the performance
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and design of particular systems and processes.
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Pre-requisite:
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Knowledge about Differential Equations, Fluid Mechanics and Engineering
Thermodynamics.
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Need and importance for study of the subject: nee
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Heat transfer phenomenon plays an important role in many industrial and
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environmental problems. In the generation of power from conventional fossil fuels,
nuclear sources, magneto hydrodynamic processes, or the use of geothermal energy
sources, heat transfer forms the key to the technology concerned. et
All modes of heat transfer are important, as conduction, convection, and radiation
processes determine the design of systems such as boilers, condensers, and turbines.
Quite often, the challenge is to maximize heat transfer rates (such as in heat exchangers)
or to minimize (as in insulations).
Heat transfer processes are also involved in propulsion systems, such as the IC
engines, gas turbine, and rocket engines. Heat transfer problem arise in the design of
conventional space and water heating systems, in the cooling of electronic equipment, in
the design of refrigeration and air conditioning systems, in many manufacturing
processes, and in biological systems.

Course Outcome:
Upon completion of this course, the students able to
 Understand the basic laws of heat transfer.
 Apply the applications of various experimental heat transfer correlations in
engineering calculations.
 Analyze heat exchanger performance by using the method of LMTD and NTU.
 Calculate radiation heat transfer between black body surfaces.
 Understand the basic concepts of mass transfer.
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SYLLABUS
ME6501 COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN L T P C
3 0 0 3
OBJECTIVE:
To provide an overview of how computers are being used in mechanical component

design
UNIT I FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTER GRAPHICS 9
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Product cycle- Design process- sequential and concurrent engineering- Computer aided
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design – CAD system architecture- Computer graphics – co-ordinate systems- 2D and 3D
transformations-
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homogeneous coordinates - Line drawing -Clipping- viewing
transformation
UNIT II
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GEOMETRIC MODELING 9
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Representation of curves- Hermite curve- Bezier curve- B-spline curves-rational curves-
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Techniques for surface modeling – surface patch- Coons and bicubic patches- Bezier and B-
spline surfaces. Solid modeling techniques- CSG and B-rep
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UNITIII VISUAL REALISM
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Hidden – Line-Surface-Solid removal algorithms – shading – colouring – computer

animation.
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UNIT IV ASSEMBLY OF PARTS 9
Assembly modelling – interferences of positions and orientation – tolerance analysis-

massproperty calculations – mechanism simulation and interference checking.
UNIT V CAD STANDARDS 9
Standards for computer graphics- Graphical Kernel System (GKS) - standards for exchange
images- Open Graphics Library (OpenGL) - Data exchange standards - IGES, STEP, CALSetc. -
Communication standards.

OUTCOMES: TOTAL : 45 PERIODS
• Upon completion of this course, the students can able to use computer and
CAD software's for modeling of mechanical components
TEXT BOOKS:
1. Ibrahim Zeid “Mastering CAD CAM” Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Co.2007
REFERENCES:
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1. Chris McMahon and Jimmie Browne “CAD/CAM Principles", "Practice and
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Manufacturing management “ Second Edition, Pearson Education, 1999.
2.
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William M Neumann and Robert F.Sproul “Principles of Computer Graphics”,
McGraw Hill Book Co. Singapore, 1989.
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3.
1992. gin
Donald Hearn and M. Pauline Baker “Computer Graphics”’. Prentice Hall, Inc,
4. ee rin
Foley, Wan Dam, Feiner and Hughes - "Computer graphics principles &
practice" Pearson Education - 2003.
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DETAILED LESSON PLAN
Subject Name : COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN Code : ME6501
Year : III Semester : V
Degree & Branch : B.E. – MECHANICAL
COURSE OBJECTIVES:
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To provide an overview of how computers are being used in mechanical component design.
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Text Book: 1. Ibrahim Zeid “Mastering CAD CAM” Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Co.2007
Ref. Books: 1. asy

Chris McMahon and Jimmie Browne “CAD/CAM Principles", "Practice and
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Manufacturing management “ Second Edition, Pearson Education, 1999.
Hill
2.
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William M Neumann and Robert F.Sproul “Principles of Computer Graphics”, McGraw
3. ee
Book Co. Singapore, 1989.
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Donald Hearn and M. Pauline Baker “Computer Graphics”’. Prentice Hall, Inc, 1992.
4.
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Foley, Wan Dam, Feiner and Hughes - "Computer graphics principles & practice" Pearson
Education - 2003.
Edition.2015
5.
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Dr. S.Ramachandran and Ms. Vijaya Lakshmi “Computer Aided Design” AirWalk New
Total Hours: 55
COURSE OUTCOMES:
1. To provide an overview of how computers are being used in mechanical

component design.
2. This may help the students to accessible ANSYS Lab in next semester.

Text/
Unit Cumulative
S.no Topics to be covered Hours Reference
No Hours
Book
I-FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTER GRAPHICS
1 Product Cycle, Design process, 1 1 T1,R5
2 Sequential Engineering 1 2 T1,R5
3 Concurrent Engineering, 1 3 R5
4 Computer aided design 1 4 R5
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5 CAD System Architecture 1 5 R5
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Computer Graphics
Coordinate system
1
1
6
7
T1
T1
8
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2D 3D Transformations 1 8 T1
10 Line drawing En
Homogeneous Coordinates 1
1
9
10
T1
R3
11 Clipping gin 1 11 R3
12
discussion. ee
Viewing transformation & Overview
1
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12 R3
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II-GEOMETRIC MODELLING
13 Representation of curves, Hermite curve 1 13 T1
14
15
Bezier curve, B-Spline curves
Rotational curve,
1
1
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15
T1
R5
16 Techniques for surface modelling. 1 16 R5
17 Surface patch,Coons 1 17 T1
II
18 bicubic patch 1 18 T1
19 Bizer Surface 1 19 T1
20 B-Spline Surface 1 20 T1
21 Solid modelling techniques 1 21 R5
22 CSG 1 22 T1

23 B-rep 1 23 T1
24 Overview and discussion 1 24
III-VISUAL REALISM
26 Hidden, Line & Surface 2 26 T1
27 Solid removal algorithm 2 28 T1
28 III Shading 1 29 T1
29 Colouring 2 31 T1
30 Computer animation 1 32 T2
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31 Revision
IV-ASSEMBLY OF PARTS
1 33
32w.E Assembly modelling 2 35 R5
33
34 asy
Interferences of positions
Tolerance analysis
1
2
36
38
R5
R5
35 IV
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Mass property calculations 2 2 40 R5
36 Implementation
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37
38
Mechanism simulation
Interference checking ee 1
1
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42
43
R5
R5
39 Revision
V-CAD STANDARDS
1
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40
41
Standards for computer graphics (GKS)
Standards for exchange images 2

1
2
et 45
47
R5
R5
42 Open Graphics Library 1 48 R5

V
43 IGES 1 49 T1
44 STEP 1 50 T1
45 CALS 1 51 T2
46 Application of all graphics 1 52
47 Communication Standards 1 53 R5
48 Revision 1 54

UNIT I
FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTER GRAPHICS
PART –A
1. Why should we go for CAD? (Nov/Dec2015)
There are four fundamental reasons for implementing CAD system which are as
follows
 To increase the Productivity of the designer
 To improve the qualities of the design
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 To create a database for engineering
2. Mention any four applications of computer aided design in mechanical
engineering?
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(Nov/Dec 2015)
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The applications of computer aided design in mechanical engineering cover all
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types of manufacturing operations such as milling, turning wire cut EDM, punching,etc.
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3. List the types of 2D geometric transformation? (Nov/Dec 2015)
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 Windowing and viewing transformation , Zooming transformation
 Clipping transformation , Reflection transformation
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4. What is the design process? Mention the steps involved in shigley’s model for the
design process? (May/June 2016) et
The engineering design process is a methodical series of steps that engineers use
in creating functional products and processes. The process is highly iterative - parts of
the process often need to be repeated many times before another can be entered - though
the part(s) that get iterated and the number of such cycles in any given project can be
highly variable.
5. What is Translation?
Translation is one of the important types of transformer. This is used to move the
entity after moving all points of new entity are parallel to all points of old entity.

6. Define Concurrent Engineering?

Concurrent Engineering is also known as Simultaneous Engineering. Here while
the product is designed the design and manufacturing process are carried out
simultaneously this technique facilitates the design engineer to improve the efficiency of
product design and process.
7. List out the factor consider for CAD ?
 Reliabity, Cost Factor
 Comparability with other system
 Memory Requirements and Storage requirements
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8. What is the main drawback of wire frame modeling ?
w.E The main drawback in terms of representation of objects in wireframe model is

 Lack of clarity
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 The part geometry model is complex in the case of 3D wireframe system
 Hidden line causes the image to be confused
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9. Draw the flow diagram of Sequential Engineering
Design Planning gin Manufacturing Quality
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Marketing
10. What are the disadvantages of Beizer Curve ? g.n

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 The Curve does not pass through the control points which may be inconvinient to
the designer
 The Bezier curve lacks control it only has the global control nature
 If one control point is changed the whole curve changes thus the designer cannot
selectively change part of the curve
11. What is meant by morphology design?
Morphology design refers the study of the chronological structure of design
projects.

12. List the various stages in the life cycle of a product? (May/June 2016)
 Introduction Stage, Maturity Stage
 Growth Stage , Decline Stage
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1. Discuss about sequential and concurrent engineering? (May/June2016),
(Nov/Dec2015)
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Sequential Engineering Concurrent Engineering
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Sequential engineering is the term used
to explain the method of production in a
In concurrent engineering, various tasks
are handled at the same time, and not
essentially in the standard order. This
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linear system. The various steps are done
one after another, with all attention and
resources focused on that single task
means that info found out later in the
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course can be added to earlier parts,
improving them, and also saving time.
Sequential engineering is a system by
which a group within an organization g.n
Concurrent engineering is a method by
which work several groups within an
works sequentially to create new
products and services.
The sequential engineering is a linear
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organization simultaneously to create
new products and services.
The concurrent engineering is a non-
product design process during which all linear Product design process during
stages of manufacturing operate in serial. which all stages of manufacturing
operate at the same time.
Both process and product design run in Both process and product design run in
serial and take place in the different time. serial and take place in the different time
Process and Product are not matched to Process and Product are coordinated
attain optimal matching to Attain optimal matching of
requirements for effective quality and
delivery.
Decision making done by only group of Decision making involves full team
experts. Involvement.
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ww 2. Explain in detailed about product cycle?
w.E Product cycle integrate processes, people, data, and business and gives a
product information for industries and their extended activity. Product cycle is the
process of managing the entire lifecycle of a product from starting, through design and
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manufacture, to repair and removal of manufactured products.
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There are several Product cycle models in industry to be considered, one of the
possible product cycle is given below
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Step 1: Conceive
Imagine, Specify, Plan, Innovate
The first step is the definition of the product requirements based on company,
market and customer. From this requirement, the product's technical data can be
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defined. In parallel, the early concept design work is performed defining the product
with its main functional features. Various media are utilized for these processes, from
paper and pencil to clay mock-up to 3D Computer Aided Industrial Design.
Step 2: Design
Describe, Define, Develop, Test, Analyze and Validate
This is where the completed design and development of the product begins,
succeeding to prototype testing, through pilot release to final product. It can also involve
improvement to existing products as well as planned obsolescence. The main tool used
for design and development is CAD. This can be simple 2D drawing / drafting or 3D
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parametric feature based solid/surface modeling.
This step covers many engineering disciplines including: electronic, electrical,
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mechanical, and civil. Besides the actual making of geometry there is the analysis of the
components and assemblies.
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Optimization, Validation and Simulation activities are carried out using
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Computer Aided Engineering (CAE) software. These are used to perform various tasks
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such as: Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD); Finite Element Analysis (FEA); and
Mechanical Event Simulation (MES). Computer Aided Quality (CAQ) is used for
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activities such as Dimensional tolerance analysis. One more task carried out at this step
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is the sourcing of bought out components with the aid of procurement process.
Step 3: Realize
Manufacture, Make, Build, Procure, Produce, Sell and Deliver g.n
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Once the design of the components is complete the method of manufacturing is
finalized. This includes CAD operations such as generation of CNC Machining
instructions for the product‘s component as well as tools to manufacture those
components, using integrated Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM) software.
It includes Production Planning tools for carrying out plant and factory layout
and production simulation. Once details components are manufactured their geometrical
form and dimensions can be verified against the original data with the use of Computer
Aided Inspection Equipment (CAIE). Parallel to the engineering tasks, sales and
marketing work take place. This could consist of transferring engineering data to a web
based sales configuration.
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Step 4: Service
Use, Operate, Maintain, Support, Sustain, Phase-out, Retire, Recycle and
Disposal
The final step of the lifecycle includes managing of information related to service
for repair and maintenance, as well as recycling and waste management information.
This involves using tools like Maintenance, Repair and Operations Management
software.
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3. Dicuss about 2D and 3D transformation?
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4. EXPLAIN IN DETAILED ABOUT DESIGN PROCESS? (May/June 2016)

It is a process in which we initiate the design and come up with a number of design
concepts and then narrow down to the single best concept. This involved the following
steps.
 Identification of customer needs

 Problem definition, Gathering Information
 Conceptualization, Concept selection
Feasibility Study
Designs can be futile unless satisfying the original need is feasible
ww  At this stage, the product appears in abstract forms, but is they feasible???
 Alternative solutions must be subjected to physical and economic analyses and
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The Feasibility Study using analysis of several alternatives establishes the design
concept as something which can be realized and accepted
Some examples
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(i) A building must be comfortable to live in:
Heating, ventilation and air conditioning are required. Specify limits of temperature,
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humidity, velocity and fresh air constituency.
(ii) National fossil fuel supplies are low: rin
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Alternative forms of energy supply are required. Specify amount and where they are
needed, and any restrictions of space, time or pollution levels.
Preliminary Design et
 Main purpose is selection of the best possible solution from a choice of
alternatives Make comparisons against given criteria & constraints
 Must maintain an open mind; use your judgment
Detailed design
 Aim is to produce a complete set of working drawings which are then
transmitted to the manufacturer
 This stage of design is far less flexible than those previous
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 Design should now reflect all of the planning both for manufacture and
consumption stages Construction/testing of various components may be
required
Production
 Here, the device or system is actually constructed, and planning for this should
have been incorporated into the design
 Knowledge of the capability of the machines is required, since it must be
possible to build and assemble the components as specified
 Special jigs, fixtures and even machines may be required
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 Timing of construction may be important e.g. Climates
Distribution
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 Transportation of the manufactured article, complete or in subassembly form
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must be anticipated in the design
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 Packaging, availability of vehicles, regulations for use of thoroughfares ,
shelf/component life,
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warehouse storage facilities,
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special
environmental control of temperature and humidity may need to be addressed
handling,
Consumption
 The product is now used by the consumer g.n
 If the design is effect, it will have met the need
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 The design may yet not be complete; redesigns and modifications may be
required depending on field trials or consumer feedback
 May need to consider maintenance of components and supply of spare parts or
subassemblies
Retirement
 The product will be discarded as its life cycle terminates
 It may have become obsolete whilst still serviceable and therefore the design
may not have been fully economical
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 Disposal and recovery of useful materials should have been included

in the design Threats to safety should be guarded against
4. Rotate the rectangle shown in fig 300 counter clockwise about the line EF and
find new coordinates of the rectangle (Nov/Dec2015)
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5. Rotate the rectangle (0,0), (2,0), (2,2), (0,2as shown ,300counter clockwise about
the centroid and the new co ordinates of thr rectangle(Nov/Dec 2015)
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UNIT-2
GEOMETRIC MODELING
1. What are the limitation of Hermite curves?(May/June 2016)

 It is difficult to select the magnitude as well as angle of the tangent vector at the
two end points of the curve segment
 Curves are difficult to control because of global shape control characteristics.
 The cubic curve never reduces exactly to a conical section and poorly
approximate asymptotic curve
ww2. What are the advantage and disadvantage of wire frame model?(May/June
2016)
w.E Advantage
 Wire frame models are more clear than 2D representation
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 It is widely used method
Disadvantage
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 Representation of model in wire frame models is lack in clarity
 During surface definition there might be confusion by eliminating hidden lines
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3. Difference between analytical curves interpolated curves and approximated
curves. (Nov/Dec 2015)
S.NO ANALYTICAL CURVE INTERPOLATED g.n

APPROXIMATED
1.
CURVE CURVE
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These curves are represented It is drawn by by the It provides the most
by a simple mathematical interpolating the flexibility in drawing
equation given data points curves for complex
shapes
They have a fixed form These curves have The model of
2. cannot be modified to limited flexibility in automobile fender can
achieve the shapes that shape creation be easily created with
violates the mathematical the help of
equations approximated curves
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4. What are the types of surfaces that CAD/CAM systems use?

 Open and closed surfaces
 Flattening a surface
 Surface patches
 Faces
 Skins and volumes
 Transition to solids
5. What is meant by coon surface?
In mathematics, a Coons patch, is a type of manifold parameterization used in
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computer graphics to smoothly join other surfaces together, and in computational
mechanics applications, particularly in finite element method and boundary element
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method, to mesh problem domains into elements.
6. What do you understand by the form element method of geometric
construction?
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Geometric constructions of figures and lengths were restricted to the use of only
a straightedge and compass (or in Plato's case, a compass only; a technique now called
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a Mascheroni construction). Although the term "ruler" is sometimes used instead of
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"straightedge," the Greek prescription prohibited markings that could be used to make
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measurements. Furthermore, the "compass" could not even be used to mark off
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distances by setting it and then "walking" it along, so the compass had to be considered
to automatically collapse when not in the process of drawing a circle.
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7. Specify the applications of this method of modeling in comparison to that of the
variant type?
The finite element method is used to describe the detailed properties of the
atmospheric boundary layer by use of a high-resolution model and its bulk properties by
use of a simple vertically integrated model. Features of the finite element method that
can be exploited for applications to the atmospheric boundary layer include the
capability to use different basis functions in different parts of the domain, ability to grid
over irregular terrain, ease of using time-dependent basis functions and the natural way
that surface boundary conditions and vertically integrated properties enter the model.
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8. What are the limitations in utilizing the sweep method for geometric?.
 In computational geometry, a sweep line algorithm or plane sweep algorithm is a
type of algorithm that uses a conceptual sweep line or sweep surface to solve various
problems in Euclidean space.
 The idea behind algorithms of this type is to imagine that a line (often a vertical
line) is swept or moved across the plane, stopping at some points. Geometric
operations are restricted to geometric objects that either intersect or are in the
wwimmediate vicinity of the sweep line whenever it stops, and the complete solution is
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available once the line has passed over all objects
9. Generate the conical surface obtained by rotation of the line segment AB around
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the z-axis with A= (1,0,1) and B= (7,0,7)(Nov/Dec 2015)
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10. For a cubic Bezier curve, carry a similar matrix formulation to a cubic spline?
A Bézier curve is a parametric curve frequently used in computer graphics and
related fields. Generalizations of Bézier curves to higher dimensions are called Bézier
surfaces, of which the Bézier triangle is a special case.
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PART -B
1. Discuss in detail about approximate synthetic curve representation? (Nov/Dec
2015),
Hermite curve:
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A Hermite curve is a spline where every piece is a third degree polynomial

defined in Hermite form: that is, by its values and initial derivatives at the end points of
the equivalent domain interval. Cubic Hermite spines are normally used for
interpolation of numeric values defined at certain dispute values x1x2x3, ….., xn to
achieve a smooth continuous function. The data should have the preferred function
value and derivative at each Xk. The Hermite formula is used to every interval (Xk,Xk+1)
individually. The resulting spline become continuous and will have first derivative.
Cubic polynomial splines are specially used in computer geometric modeling to
attain curves that pass via defined points of the plane in 3D space. In these purposes,
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each coordinate of the plane is individually interpolated by a cubic spline function of a
divided parameter‗t‘.
w.E Cubic splines can be completed to functions of different parameters, in several
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ways. Bicubic splines are frequently used to interpolate data on a common rectangular
grid, such as pixel values in a digital picture. Bicubic surface patches, described by
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three bicubic splines, are a necessary tool in computer graphics. Hermite curves are
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simple to calculate but also more powerful. They are used to well interpolate between
key points.
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The following vectors needs to compute a Hermite curve:
 P1: the start point of the Hermite curve
 T1: the tangent to the start point
 P2: the endpoint of the Hermite curve
 T2: the tangent to the endpoint
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Figure shows the functions of Hermite Curve of the 4 functions (from left to right:
h1, h2, h3, h4).
Functions of Hermite Curve
A closer view at functions ‗h1‘ and ‗h2‘, the result shows that function ‗h1‘ starts
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at one and goes slowly to zero and function ‗h2‘ starts at zero and goes slowly to one.
w.E At the moment, multiply the start point with function ‗h1‘ and the endpoint with
function ‗h2‘. Let s varies from zero to one to interpolate between start and endpoint of
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Hermite Curve. Function ‗h3‘ and function ‗h4‘ are used to the tangents in the similar
way. They make confident that the Hermite curve bends in the desired direction at the
start and endpoint. En
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2. Write short notes on Bezier and B-spline curve? (May/June 2016)
Bezier curve
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Bezier curves are extensively applied in CAD to model smooth curves. As the
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curve is totally limited in the convex hull of its control points P0, P1,P2 & P3, the points
can be graphically represented and applied to manipulate the curve logically. The
control points P0 and P3 of the polygon lie on the curve .The other two vertices
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described the order, derivatives and curve shape. The Bezier curve is commonly tangent
to first and last vertices.
Cubic Bezier curves and Quadratic Bezier curves are very common. Higher
degree Bezier curves are highly computational to evaluate. When more complex shapes
are required, Bezier curves in low order are patched together to produce a composite
Bezier curve. A composite Bezier curve is usually described to as a ‗path‘ in vector
graphics standards and programs. For smoothness assurance, the control point at which
two curves meet should be on the line between the two control points on both sides.
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A general adaptive method is recursive subdivision, in which a curve's control

points are verified to view if the curve approximates a line segment to within a low
tolerance. If not, the curve is further divided parametrically into two segments, 0 ≤ t ≤
ww
0.5 and 0.5 ≤ t ≤ 1, and the same process is used recursively to each half. There are
future promote differencing techniques, but more care must be taken to analyze error
w.E
transmission.
asy
Analytical methods where a Bezier is intersected with every scan line engage
finding roots of cubic polynomials and having with multiple roots, so they are not often
En
applied in practice. A Bezier curve is described by a set of control points P 0 through Pn,
gin
where ‗n‘ is order of curve. The initial and end control points are commonly the end
(i) Linear Bezier curves ee

points of the curve; but, the intermediate control points normally do not lie on the curve.
rin
g.n
et
Linear Bezier Curve
As shown in the figure the given points P0 and P1, a linear Bezier curve is merely
a straight line between those two points. The Bezier curve is represented by
30

(ii) Quadratic Bezier curves
Quadratic Bezier Curve
As shown in the figure, a quadratic Bezier curve is the path defined by the
function B(t), given points P0, P1, and P2
ww
This can be interpreted as the linear interpolate of respective points on the linear Bezier
w.E
curves from P0 to P1 and from P1 to P2 respectively. Reshuffle the preceding equation
gives:
asy
En
The derivative of the Bezier curve with respect to the value‗t‘ is
gin
intersect at P1. While
ee
From which it can be finished that the tangents to the curve at P 0 and P2
rin
‗t‘ increases from zero to one, the curve departs from P0 in the direction of P1, then
turns to land at P2 from the direction of P1.
g.n
The following equation is a second derivative of the Bezier curve with respect to ‗t‘:
et
A quadratic Bezier curve is represent a parabolic segment. Since a parabola
curve is a conic section, a few sources refer to quadratic Beziers as ‗conic arcs‘.
(iii) Cubic Bezier curves
31

The function B Pi, Pj, Pk (t) for the quadratic Bezier curve written by points Pi, Pj, and Pk,
the cubic Bezier curve can be described as a linear blending of two quadratic Bezier
curves:
The open form of the curve is:
For several choices of P1 and P2 the Bezier curve may meet itself.
Any sequence of any four dissimilar points can be changed to a cubic Bezier
ww
curve that goes via all four points in order. Given the beginning and ending point of a
few cubic Bezier curve, and the points beside the curve equivalent to t = 1/3 and t =
w.E
2/3, the control points for the original Bezier curve can be improved.
asy
The following equation represent first derivative of the cubic Bezier curve with respect
to t:
En
gin
Properties Bezier curve
ee rin
 The Bezier curve starts at P0 and ends at Pn; this is known as ‗endpoint
interpolation‘ property.
g.n
 The Bezier curve is a straight line when all the control points of a cure are
collinear. et
 The beginning of the Bezier curve is tangent to the first portion of the Bezier
polygon.
 A Bezier curve can be divided at any point into two sub curves, each of which
is also a Bezier curve.
 A few curves that look like simple, such as the circle, cannot be expressed
accurately by a Bezier; via four piece cubic Bezier curve can similar a circle,
with a maximum radial error of less than one part in a thousand (Fig.2.8).
32

Circular Bezier Curve

 Each quadratic Bezier curve is become a cubic Bezier curve, and more
ww commonly, each degree ‗n‘ Bezier curve is also a degree ‗m‘ curve for any m >
w.E n.
 Bezier curves have the different diminishing property. A Bezier curves does not
asy
‗ripple‘ more than the polygon of its control points, and may actually ‗ripple‘
less than that.
En
 Bezier curve is similar with respect to t and (1-t). This represents that the
gin
sequence of control points defining the curve can be changes without modify of
the curve shape.
ee
 Bezier curve shape can be edited by either modifying one or more vertices of
rin
its polygon or by keeping the polygon unchanged or simplifying multiple
coincident points at a vertex. g.n
B-Spline Surfaces
et
 The B-spline surface approximates a characteristics polygon as shown and
passes through the corner points of the polygon, where its edges are tangential
to the edges of the polygon
 This may not happen when the control polygon is closed
 A control point of the surface influences the surface only over a limited portion
of the parametric space of variables u and v.
33

The expression for the B-spline surfaces is given by
ww
w.E
3. Briefly explain the different scheme used to generate a solid model? (Nov/Dec
2015)
asy
TECHNIQUES IN SURFACE MODELLING
 Constructive solid geometry (CSG and C-rep)
En
 Boundary representation method (B-rep)
gin
CONSTRUCTIVE SOLID GEOMETRY (CSG and C-rep)
ee
 Constructive solid geometry (CSG) (formerly called computational binary solid
geometry) is a technique used in solid modeling.
rin
 Constructive solid geometry allows a modeler to create a complex surface or
object by using Boolean operators to combine objects. g.n
et
 Often CSG presents a model or surface that appears visually complex, but is
actually little more than cleverly combined or de-combined objects
 The simplest solid objects used for the representation are called primitives.
Typically they are the objects of simple shape.
34

The set of allowable primitives is limited by each software package. Some software
packages allow CSG on curved objects while other packages do not.
 it is said that an object is constructed from primitives by means of allowable

operations, which are typically Boolean operations on sets :Union, intersection
and difference as well as geometric transformations of those sets
Boolean Operations
The CSG is constructed by the following Boolean operation
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
4. What do you understand by boundary representation technique in solid
modeling, explain briefly the structure of B-rep technique (May/June 2016)
Boundary representation method (B-rep) g.n
et
 In solid modeling and computer-aided design, boundary representation often
abbreviated as B-rep or BREP is a method for representing shapes using the
limits.
 Consisting of two parts: topological description of connectivity and orientation of
vertices, edges and faces, and geometric description for embedding these
elements in space
 The topological description specifies vertices, edges and faces abstractly, and
indicates their incidences and adjacencies.
 The geometric representation specifies surface equations, edge equations, and
vertices coordinates.
35

 A vertex is a unique point in space

 An edge is a finite, non-self-intersecting, directed space curve bounded by two
vertices that are not necessarily distinct.
 A face is a finite connected, nonself-intersecting region of a closed oriented
surface bounded by one or more loops.
 A loop is an ordered alternating sequence of edges and vertices.
The Euler-Poincar´e Formula - nucessary conditions for consistecy
(1).For solids that have a closed, orientable surface and no holes or no interior
voids:
ww V-E+F=2
w.E
face is
(2).For solids bounded by a single connected surface and with holes, but each
asy
homeomorphic to a disk:
V - E + F = 2(1 - G)
En
where G is the number of handles, called genus
gin
ee rin
g.n
Advantages of b-rep
 Appropriate to construct solid models of unusual shapes
et
 Relatively simple to co nvert a b-rep model to wireframe model
Disadvantages of b-rep
 Requires more storage
 Not suitable for applications like tool path generation
 Slow manipulation
5. Discus the various methods in surface modeling?
i. Surface Patch
ii. Coons Patch
36

iii. Bicubic Patch

iv. Be‘zier Surface
v. B-Spline Surface
i. Surface Patch
The patch is the fundamental building block for surfaces. The two
variables u and v vary across the patch; the patch may be termed biparametric.
The parametric variables often lie in the range 0 to 1. Fixing the value of one of
the parametric variables results in a curve on the patch in terms of the other
ww variable (Isoperimetric curve). Figure shows a surface with curves at intervals
w.E of u and v of 0 : 1.
asy
En
gin
ii. Coons Patch
ee rin
g.n
The sculptured surface often involve interpolation across an intersecting mesh of
et
curves that in effect comprise a rectangular grid of patches, each bounded by four
boundary curves. The linearly blended coons patch is the simplest for interpolating
between such boundary curves. This patch definition technique blends for four
boundary curves Ci(u) and Dj(v) and the corner points pij of the patch with the linear
blending functions,
Using the expression
37

iii. Bicubic Patch

The bi-cubic patch is used for surface descriptions defined in terms of
ww point and tangent vector information. The general form of the expressions for a
bi-cubic patch is given by:
w.E
asy
This is a vector equation with 16 unknown parameters kij which can be found
En
by Lagrange interpolation through 4 x 4 grid.
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
iv. Bezier Surface
A Bézier surface patch is defined by its 4 x 4 Bézier geometry matrix GB, which
specifies the control points of the surface. As in the case of Bézier curves, the corner
points of GB specify actual points on the edge of the interpolated surface, while the
―inner‖ points are intermediate points which indirectly specify the tangent vectors to the
surface. The x, y, and z directions of the surface are calculated independently; thus, for a
3D surface patch. there will actually be separate geometry matrices GBx, GBy and GBz
38

one for each direction.

The geometry matrix GBk is given by
ww
Advantages of Surface Modeling
 It is less ambiguous.
w.E


Complex surfaces can be easily identified.
It removes hidden line and adds realism.
asy
Disadvantages of Surface Modeling:


Difficult to construct.
En
Difficult to calculate mass property.

gin
More time is required for creation.


Requires high storage space.
ee
Also requires more time for manipulation.
rin
g.n
et
39

Unit – III
VISUAL REALISM
1. Write Advantages of Gouraud shading.(May/June 2016)
 Gouraud shading is effective for shading surfaces which reflect light diffusely.
 Specular reflections can be modeled using Gouraud shading.
 Less Expensive.
2. Define interpolative shading and list the two methods used for interpolative
shading (Nov/Dec 2015)
The interpolation of normal vectors N at the surface vertices instead of
ww
interpolating the shade intensities is also called normal – vector interpolation shading.
w.E
Interpolation occurs across a polygon span on a scan line between starting and ending
normals for the span. The interpolated normal are then used to evaluate a shade at each
pixel.
asy
 Gouraud shading
En
 Phong shading
gin
3. What is meant by visible surface determination in 3D computer graphics?
(Nov/Dec 2015)
ee rin
Visible surface determination (VSD) is the process used to determine which surfaces
and parts of surfaces are not visible from a certain view point.
g.n
4. Mention the importance of colouring of three dimensional objects in computer
graphics (may/june2016)
 Used for realism, aesthetics
et
 Distinguish the different areas in the geometry of an object
 Help the designer to classify the components in the assembly
5. Describe the ‘Surface patch’?
Surface patch is used to create a surface using curves that form closed
boundaries.
40

6. Mention the advantages and limitations of ray tracking algorithm.

 A realistic simulation of lighting over other rendering.
 An effect such as reflections and shadows is easy and effective.
 Simple to implement yet yielding impressive visual results. Limitation of ray
tracing:
 More time needed for rendering.
 Computation complexity
7. How Warnock algorithm works?
It divides the screen into smaller areas and sorts triangles within
ww these. If there is ambiguity (i.e., polygons overlap in depth extent within
w.E these areas), then further subdivision occurs. At the limit, subdivision may
occur down to the pixel level.
asy
8. What are the advantages and disadvantages of Depth-Buffer Algorithm?
Advantages
En
Easy to implement Hardware supported Polygons can be processed in
gin
arbitrary order Fast: polygons, covered pixels
Disadvantages
Costs memory ee
9. List some hidden-space algorithms. rin
 Depth –Buffer Algorithm g.n
 Scan-line coherence Algorithm
 Area-coherence algorithm (Warnock‘s algorithm)
et
 Priority algorithm (Newell, Newell and Sancha algorithm)
10. Catalog Hidden surface removal algorithms
1. Z-buffering 2.Sorted Active Edge List
3. Painter‘s algorithm 4.The Warnock algorithm
5. Binary space partitioning (BSP) 6.Ray tracing
41

Part -B
1. Write short notes on Hidden surface algorithm:
1 .Back face removal, 2. Z-buffer algorithm (May/June 2016)\
Hidden Surface Removal (Hsr) And Its Algorithms
Hidden surface determination is a process by which surfaces which should not
be visible to the user (for example, because they lie behind opaque objects such as
walls) are prevented from being rendered. Despite advances in hardware capability
there is still a need for advanced rendering algorithms. The responsibility of a
ww
rendering engine is to allow for large world spaces and as the world‘s size approaches
w.E
infinity the engine should not slow down but remain at constant speed. Optimizing
this process relies on being able to ensure the deployment of as few resources as
asy
possible towards the rendering of surfaces that will not end up being rendered to the
user.
En
There are many techniques for hidden surface determination. They are
gin
fundamentally an exercise in sorting, and usually vary in the order in which the sort is
ee
performed and how the problem is subdivided. Sorting large quantities of graphics
primitives is usually done by divide and conquers.
Hidden surface removal algorithms rin
g.n
Considering the rendering pipeline, the projection, the clipping, and the
rasterization steps are handled differently by the following algorithms:
Z-buffering:
et
During rasterization the depth/Z value of each pixel (or sample in the case of
anti-aliasing, but without loss of generality the term pixel is used) is checked against
an existing depth value. If the current pixel is behind the pixel in the Z-buffer, the
pixel is rejected, otherwise it is shaded and its depth value replaces the one in the Z-
buffer. Z-buffering supports dynamic scenes easily, and is currently implemented
efficiently in graphics hardware. This is the current standard. The cost of using Z-
buffering is that it uses up to 4 bytes per pixel, and that the rasterization algorithm
needs to check each rasterized sample against the z-buffer. The z-buffer can also
42

suffer from artifacts due to precision errors (also known as z-fighting), although this is
far less common now that commodity hardware supports 24-bit and higher precision
buffers.
ww
Painter's algorithm
w.E It sorts polygons by their center and draws them back to front. This produces
few artifacts when applied to scenes with polygons of similar size forming smooth
asy
meshes and back face culling turned on. The cost here is the sorting step and the fact
En
that visual artifacts can occur.
gin
ee rin
g.n
BASIC OPERATIONS:
 find y range of an object
et
 Find intersection point (world space position & normal) of a given object with
ray through pixel (x,y).
 compare depth of two objects, determine if A is in front of B, or B is in front of
A, if they don‘t overlap in xy, or if they intersect split one object by another
object
Strength: The inner loops are dirt simple. Drawback: sorting is a nuisance. This method
gets clumsy for intersecting surfaces, because of need to split them. Postscript uses
Painter‘s algorithm
43

Binary space partitioning (BSP)

It divides a scene along planes corresponding to polygon boundaries. The
subdivision is constructed in such a way as to provide an unambiguous depth ordering
from any point in the scene when the BSP tree is traversed. The disadvantage here is
that the BSP tree is created with an expensive pre-process. This means that it is less
suitable for scenes consisting of dynamic geometry. The advantage is that the data is
pre-sorted and error free, ready for the previously mentioned algorithms. Note that the
BSP is not a solution to HSR, only an aid.
Ray tracing
ww Ray tracing is a method to produce realistic images; it determines visible surfaces
w.E
in an image at the pixel level unlike the z-buffer and BSP tree, ray tracing operates
pixel-by-pixel rather than primitive-by-primitive. This tends to make ray tracing
asy
relatively slow for scenes with large objects in screen space. However, it has a variety of
nice features which often make it the right choice for batch rendering and even for some
interactive applications.
En
gin
The simplest use of ray tracing is to produce images similar to those produced by
ee
the z-buffer and BSP-tree algorithms. Fundamentally, those methods make sure the
rin
appropriate object is ―seen‖ through each pixel, and that the pixel color is shaded based
on that object‘s material properties, the surface normal seen through that pixel, and the
light geometry g.n
et
The geometry is aligned to uvw coordinate system with the origin at the eye
location e. The key idea in ray tracing is to identify locations on the view plane at w = n
that correspond to pixel centers,
44

The 3D parametric line from the eye e to a point s on the screen

p(t) = e + t(s − e).
This should be interpreted as, we advance from e along the vector (s − e) a
fractional distance t to find the point p So given t, we can determine a point p. Note that
p(0) = e, and p(1) = s. Also note that for positive t, if t1 < t2, then p(t1) is closer to the
eye than p(t2).
The Warnock algorithm
It divides the screen into smaller areas and sorts triangles within these. If there
ww
is ambiguity (i.e., polygons overlap in depth extent within these areas), then further
subdivision occurs. At the limit, subdivision may occur down to the pixel level.
w.E The Warnock algorithm is a hidden surface algorithm invented by John

Warnock that is typically used in the field of computer graphics. It solves the problem
asy
of rendering a complicated image by recursive subdivision of a scene until areas are
En
obtained that are trivial to compute. In other words, if the scene is simple enough to
compute efficiently then it is rendered; otherwise it is divided into smaller parts
gin
It is based on a hypothesis that tells how the human eye-brain combination
ee
processes information contained in a scene.
rin
 Hypothesis: Very little time or effort is spent on areas of scene that contain
g.n
little information. The majority of the time and effort is spent on high
information content
et
 A table top with one object only has less colour texture etc information. Takes
minimal time to perceive.
 This algorithm can be implemented both in image and object space. • The
algorithm relies on divide and conquer strategy.
 Warnock and its variants take advantage of homogeneity in the areas of display
(scene) which is known as area coherence
 The algorithm considers a window (area) in image (or object) space and seeks
to determine if the window is empty or the contents are simple enough to
resolve. If not, it divides the window until either the scene is simple or the
45

preset resolution is reached.

 If image space results are not satisfactory, the algorithm shifts to object space
for better accuracy
ww
w.E
2. Explain the Shading Techniques in Detail?
Shading Techniques
asy
The term 'shading' is loosely used to signify the application of a 'point' reflection
En
model over the entire surface of an object. The term 'rendering' appears to be used to
gin
mean the complete process of going from an object database to the final shaded object
on a screen. This section deals only with the problem of applying simple reflection
ee
models to polygon mesh objects. The next section looks at how these methods are
rin
integrated with scan conversion and hidden surface removal to form a complete
rendering system.
g.n
et
Two incremental shading techniques are common; Gouraud interpolation (1971)
and Phong interpolation (1975). Phong interpolation gives more accurate highlights and
is generally the preferred model. The Gouraud method tends to be confined to
applications where the diffuse component is sufficient, or to preview images prior to
final rendering.
Phong shading is more expensive than Gouraud shading and obeys the first law
of computer graphics, which appears to be that the required processing time grows
exponentially with perceived image quality. However, Gouraud shading has become
almost standard in recent graphics hardware and Phong shading is also available.
46

ww
w.E
asy
Shading examples: top left - lines with normals; top right - faceted; bottom left -
Gouraud; bottom right - Phong
En
These notes deal with both these methods. Doing shading calculations efficiently
gin
is a neglected topic in computer graphics. Phong calculations can greatly exceed more
ee
than 50% of the total rendering time and addressing the problem of shading using an
rin
efficient method should be considered to be just as important as the quality of the
reflection model. It is mandatory in areas such as three-dimensional animation where
large numbers of frames have to be generated.
g.n
et
Another problem that must be addressed by interpolative shading techniques is
final polygon visibility. Polygon boundaries should be invisible in the final shaded
version and some impression of the original surface that the polygon mesh approximates
restored. We can thus identify two functions of a shading scheme for polygon meshes:
 To use some interpolative method for interior points
 To diminish the visibility of the polygon mesh approximation.
The first shading schemes to be used in computer graphics were developed by
Bouknight (1970) and Wylie et al. (1967). Wylie et al.'s method calculated intensity at
the vertices of triangular facets on the basis of distance from the viewpoint and then
used linear interpolation to assign an intensity to interior points. In Bouknight's work
47

the emphasis was on hidden surface removal and the polygons were 'constant' shaded.
That is, a single intensity was calculated for each polygon and used over its entire area.
This method, although it certainly imparts an impression of three dimensionality, leaves
the polygon mesh structure glaringly obvious.
Gouraud shading
The generally acknowledged first scheme that overcame the disadvantages of
constant shading of polygons uses bilinear intensity interpolation. This is known as
Gouraud shading (1971). It is a simple and economic scheme that does not entirely
eliminate the visibility of polygons. It suffers from Mach banding - where piecewise
ww
linear intensity changes across a polygon boundary trigger the human visual system into
w.E
perceiving the boundary as a bright band. The standard explanation for this is that the
human visual system is sensitive to the second derivative of intensity because of our
asy
need to detect and enhance edges.
The Gouraud scheme is normally restricted to the diffuse component of the
En
reflection model developed in Chapter 2. This is because the shape of the specular
gin
highlights, using this scheme, depends strongly on the underlying polygon mesh. An
ee
obvious highlight example that Gouraud shading misses altogether is the case of a
rin
highlight in the middle of a polygon. If there is no highlight component at any vertex
then there is no way that the highlight will be recovered by the interpolation. The
diffuse component as we have seen previously is expressed as: g.n
Ii kd (L . N) / (r + k)
et
If we assume the light source is at infinity then L . N is constant over the surface
of the polygon. The only variable is r, the distance of the view point. If we ignore the
fact that the variation of r over the polygon is non-linear (or even ignore r altogether),
then we can calculate intensities at the vertices and use bilinear interpolation to calculate
all other intensities.
The technique first calculates the intensity at each vertex of the polygon. The
normal N used in this calculation is the so-called vertex normal and this is calculated as
the average of the normals of the polygons that share the vertex (see the figure below).
48

This is an important feature of the method and the vertex normal is an approximation to
the true normal of the surface (which the polygon mesh represents) at that point.
A pass through the data structure storing the object will calculate an intensity
Iv for each vertex. The interpolation process that calculates the intensity over a
polygonal surface can then be integrated with a scan conversion algorithm that evaluates
the screen position of the edges of a polygon from the vertices in the data structure.
ww
w.E
asy
En
The vertex normal NA is the average of the normals Nl, N2, N3 and N4,
gin
the normals of the polygons that meet at the vertex.
ee
The intensities at the edge of each scan line are calculated from the vertex
rin
intensities and the intensities along a scan line from these (see figure below). The
interpolation equations are as follows:
g.n
et
The notation used for the intensity interpolation equations.

For computational efficiency these equations are implemented as incremental
calculations. This is particularly important in the case of the third equation, which is
49

evaluated for every pixel. If we define Ax to be the incremental distance along a scan
line then AI, the change in intensity, from one pixel to the next is
Apart from Mach banding, two well-known errors that can be introduced in Gouraud
shading are
ww 1) Anomalies can appear in animated sequences because the intensity

interpolation is carried out in screen coordinates from vertex normals calculated in
w.E
world coordinates. This is not invariant with respect to transformations such as rotation
asy
and in animated sequences frame-to-frame disturbances can be caused by this.
2) The process of averaging surface normals to provide vertex normals for the
En
intensity calculation can cause errors which result in, for example, corrugations being
gin
smoothed out. The figure below shows three normals all pointing in the same direction.
This would result in a visually flat surface. Although this can be a problem, it should
ee
not occur providing a sufficiently dense polygonal surface has been used in the model.
rin
g.n
et
A regularly corrugated surface producing identical vertex normals from non-

identical surface normals.
50

Phong interpolation
A method due to Bui-TuongPhong (1975) overcomes some of the disadvantages
of Gouraud shading and specular reflection can be successfully incorporated in the
scheme. In particular we can now have a specular highlight in the middle of a polygon
despite the fact that each of the vertex normal angles would not produce a highlight.
The features of the method are:
 Bilinear interpolation is still used so that points interior to polygons can be
calculated incrementally.
 The attributes interpolated are the vertex normals, rather than vertex intensities.
ww These are calculated, as before, by averaging the normal vectors of the surfaces that
w.E
share the vertex.
 A separate intensity is evaluated for each pixel from the interpolated normals.
asy
 Again we need to assume that both the light source and the viewpoint are at infinity
so that the intensity at a point is a function only of the interpolated normal.
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
In the Phong method vector interpolation replaces intensity interpolation.
The first stage in the process is the same as for the Gouraud method - for any
polygon we evaluate the vertex normals. For each scan line in the polygon we evaluate
by linear interpolation the normal vectors at the end of each line (see the figure above).
These two vectors Na and Nb are then used to interpolate Ns. We thus derive a normal
vector for each point or pixel on the polygon that is an approximation to the real normal
on the curved surface approximated by the polygon. This feature accounts for the
51

quality of Phong shading. Ns, the interpolated normal vector, is then used in the
intensity calculation. This idea is represented in the figure below, which shows that
vector interpolation tends to restore the curvature of the original surface that has been
approximated by a polygon mesh. Referring to the notation used above we have:
ww
w.E Vector interpolation tends to 'restore'curvature
asy
These are vector equations that would each be implemented as a set of three
equations, one for each of the components of the vectors in world space. This makes
En
the interpolation phase three times as expensive as Gouraud shading. In addition there
gin
is an application of the Phong model intensity equation at every pixel. Incremental
be implemented as: ee
computations can be employed as with intensity interpolation, and for example, would
rin
Ns and g.n
whereNsx, Nsy and Nsz are the components of a general scanline normal vector
et
52

Comparison of Gouraud and Phong shading

Gouraud shading is effective for shading surfaces which reflect light diffusely.
Specular reflections can be modelled using Gouraud shading, but the shape of the
specular highlight produced is dependent on the relative positions of the underlying
polygons. The advantage of Gouraud shading is that it is computationally the less
expensive of the two models, only requiring the evaluation of the intensity equation at
the polygon vertices, and then bilinear interpolation of these values for each pixel.
Phong shading produces highlights which are much less dependent on the
underlying polygons. However, more calculations are required, involving the
ww
interpolation of the surface normal and the evaluation of the intensity function for each
w.E
pixel.
3. Explain and briefly about colour models? (May/June 2016)
asy
Colours perceived in subtractive models are the result of reflected light. There
are several established colour models used in computer graphics, but the two most
common are the En
RGBmodel (Red-Green-Blue) for computer display and the
gin
CMYK model (Cyan-Magenta-Yellow-Black) for printing.
RGBcolour model
ee rin
In this model, the primary colours are red, green, and blue. It is an additive
model, in which colours are produced by adding components, with white having all
g.n
colours present and black being the absence of any colour. This is the model used for
et
active displays such as television and computer screens. The RGB model is usually
represented by a unit cube with one corner located at the origin of a three-dimensional
colour coordinate system, the axes being labeled R, G, B, and having a range of values
[0, 1]. The origin (0, 0, 0) is considered black and the diagonally opposite corner (1, 1,
1) is called white. The line joining black to white represents a gray scale and has equal
components of R, G, B.
53

The RGB model's approach to colours is important because:

 It directly reflects the physical properties of "True colour" displays
 As of 2011, most graphics tools support it, even if they prefer another colour
model
 It is the only means of specifying a specific colour in the CSS2 standard for Web
pages
ww
w.E
CMY colour model
asy
Cyan, magenta, and yellow are the secondary colours with respect to the primary
En
colours of red, green, and blue. However, in this subtractive model, they are the primary
gin
colours and red, green, and blue, are the secondaries. In this model, colours are formed
ee
by subtraction, where adding different pigments causes various colours not to be
rin
reflected and thus not to be seen. Here, white is the absence of colours, and black is the
g.n
sum of all of them. This is generally the model used for printing. It is possible to
achieve a large range of colours seen by humans by combining cyan, magenta,
et
and yellow transparent dyes/inks on a white substrate. These are the subtractive primary
colours. Often a fourth ink, black, is added to improve reproduction of some dark
colours. This is called "CMY" or "CMYK" colour space.
54

YIQ colour model

This model was designed to separate chrominance from luminance. This was a
requirement in the early days of colour television when black-and-white sets still were
expected to pick up and display what were originally colour pictures. The Y-channel
contains luminance information (sufficient for black-and-white television sets) while
theI and Q channels (in-phase and in-quadrature) carried the colour information. A
colour television set would take these three channels, Y, I, and Q, and map the
information back to R, G, and B levels for display on a screen. YIQ is the colour
space used by the NTSC colour TV system, employed mainly in North and Central
ww
America, and Japan. Istands for in-phase, while Q stands for quadrature, referring to the
w.E
components used in quadrature amplitude modulation. Some forms of NTSC now use
the YUV colour space, which is also used by other systems
asy
En
gin
ee rin
HSV colour model g.n
et
The HSV, or HSB, model describes colours in terms of hue, saturation, and value
(brightness). Note that the range of values for each attribute is arbitrarily defined by
various tools or standards. Be sure to determine the value ranges before attempting to
interpret a value.
Hue corresponds directly to the concept of hue in the Colour Basics section. The
advantages of using hue are the angular relationship between tones around the colour
circle is easily identified Shades, tints, and tones can be generated easily without
affecting the hue.
55

ww
HSL colour model
w.E
In this model, as in the YIQ model, luminance or intensity (I) is decoupled from the
colour information which is described by a Hue channel and a Saturation channel. Hue
asy
and saturation of colours respond closely to the way humans perceive colour, and thus
En
this model is suited for interactive manipulation of colour images where changes occur
gin
for each variable shift that correspond to what the operator expects. The HSL model
describes colours in terms of hue, saturation, and lightness (also called luminance).
ee
(Note: the definition of saturation in HSL is substantially different from HSV, and
lightness is not intensity.) The model has two prominent properties:
rin

g.n
The transition from black to a hue to white is symmetric and is controlled solely
by increasing lightness
 et
Decreasing saturation transitions to a shade of gray dependent on the lightness,
thus keeping the overall intensity relatively constant
The properties mentioned above have led to the wide use of HSL, in particular, in the
CSS3 colour model.
As in HSV, hue corresponds directly to the concept of hue in the Colour Basics section.
The advantages of using hue are
 The angular relationship between tones around the colour circle is easily
identified
 Shades, tints, and tones can be generated easily without affecting the hue.
56

ww
w.E
4. Discuss the Hidden line removal technique? (Nov/Dec 2015)
Hidden line removal (HLR) is the method of computing which edges are not
asy
hidden by the faces of parts for a specified view and the display of parts in the
En
projection of a model into a 2D plane. Hidden line removal is utilized by a CAD to
gin
display the visual lines. It is considered that information openly exists to define a 2D
wireframe model as well as the 3D topological information. Typically, the best
ee
algorithm is required for viewing this information from an available part representation.
rin
g.n
et
Hidden line removal
3D parts are simply manufactured and frequently happen in a CAD design of

such a part. In addition, the degrees of freedom are adequate to show the majority of
models and are not overwhelming in the number of constraints to be forced. Also,
almost all the surface-surface intersections and shadow computations can be calculated
57

analytically which results in significant savings in the number of computations over

numerical methods.
Priority algorithm
Priority algorithm is basis on organization all the polygons in the view according
to the biggest Z-coordinate value of each. If a face intersects more than one face, other
visibility tests besides the Z-depth required to solve any issue. This step comprises
purposes of wrapper.
Imagines that objects are modeled with lines and lines are generated where
surfaces join. If only the visible surfaces are created then the invisible lines are
ww
automatically removed.
w.E Priority algorithm
asy Face Priority
En ABCE 1
gin
ADFG 1
ee
DCEF
ABHG
EFGH
1
2
2 rin
BCEH 2 g.n
et
ABCD, ADFG, DCEF are given higher priority-1. Hence, all lines in this faces
are visible, that is, AB, BC, CD, DA, AD, DF, FG, AG, DC, CE, EF and DF are visible.
AGHB, EFGH, BCEH are given lower priority-2. Hence, all lines in this faces
other than priority-1 are invisible, that is BH, EH and GH. These lines must be
eliminated.
58

UNIT IV
ASSEMBLY OF PARTS
1. What is the use of tolerance stack ups? (May/June2016)
Whenever more than one tolerance in a given direction, it is called tolerance
stack up it affect the location of a given surface of a part.
2. What is meant by assembly modeling? (May/June2016)
Assembly modeling is a technique applied by CAD and product visualization
software systems to utilize multiple files that shows components within a product. The
components within an assembly are called as solid / surface models
ww
3. Define the following term (a) Interference fit (b) Running and sliding fit
w.E
(Nov/Dec2015)
Interference fit:
asy
The hole is always smaller than shaft. In other words, it can be stated that a fit
between two parts in which the external dimension of one part slightly exceeds the
En
internal dimension of the parts into which it has to fit
Running and sliding fit:
gin
ee
The hole is always larger than the shaft. Clearance fit for when it may be
desirable for the shaft to rotate or slide freely with in the hole
4. Define Tolerance and its importance? (Nov/Dec2015) rin
g.n
 The tolerance is the permissible value in the size of a dimension and is the
difference between the upper and lower acceptable limits.
et
 Tolerance has a major influence in cost and quality of an assembly
 It is essential for mass production, facilitate easy replace of broken and
worn out parts with spare parts which is manufactured in different place.
5. Define automated assembly?
It implies that there are different components which are to be assembled by
machines. The main difference is that the machines are so far less adaptable than the
human counterparts
59

6. What are the Common mistake made in creating motion simulation?

 It is selecting improper joints to connect bodies. Introducing improper
joints creates an invalid or inaccurate model that does not simulate the true
behavior of the mechanical systems.
7. Mention the importance of geometric tolerance?
 It is a symbolic language on engineering drawings and computer –
generated three dimensional solid models
 It provide the information about manufacturing staff and machines what
degree of accuracy and precision
ww  It defines the nominal geometry of parts and assembly, allowable
w.E Variation in form and possible size of individual features and allowable
variation in form and possible size of individual features and allowable
asy
variation between features.
8. What is Interference checking?
En
Component interference misaligned and mismatched holes and fasteners and
gin
incorrect tolerance of manufactured parts are the main causes of high rework and scrap
costs on the assembly floor.
9. Write SET command used in GKS. ee rin
Display characteristics for primitives such as line style and thickness, colour, text
g.n
font, and text angle are defined by attributes the value of which are set using the SET
et
command. GKS also allows attributes to be bundled that is grouped together and
modified as a single entity.
10. List the Classifications of assembly modeling.
 Heat application method – Welding, Brazing & soldering.
 Chemical method – Adhesives.
 Mechanical method- Screw, Rivet, Clip.
11. What are the categories of mechanical joints?
 Integral design features,
 Threaded fasteners,
 Non-threaded fasteners.
60

12. Write the Advantages of adhesive techniques.

 For assembly purpose it does not require any high temperature
operations
 Does not suffer from any distortion problem
 Smooth joining is possible
13. Why the Need for assembly modeling.
 To dismantle the assembled component during its service life
 The physical size needs the assembly modeling
 Certain manufacturing process needs the assembly modeling like
ww casting
w.E PART-B
1. Explain in detailed about assembly modeling and methods? (Nov/Dec2015)
asy
In today‘s global situation, two main things are significant for the industry:
cost reduction and environment protection. Assembly modeling is essential to design
En
appropriate plans for parts assembly: manufacturing, and disassembly, recycling.
gin
To attain an optimum assembly method, various complex software for
ee
assembly analysis and, as well as simulation programs based on multi agent methods
rin
or which apply contact data between assembly components, were created. Newly,
Virtual Reality (VR) has broadly developed towards Assembly realistic simulation.
Assembly modeling: g.n
Assembly modeling is a technique applied by CAD and product
et
visualization software systems to utilize multiple files that shows components within
a product. The components within an assembly are called as solid / surface models.
The personal data files defining the 3D geometry of personal components
are assembled together via a number of sub assembly levels to generate an assembly
explaining the complete product. Every CAD methods support the bottom-up
construction. A few systems, through associative copying of geometry between
components allow top-down construction. Components can be situated within the
assembly applying absolute coordinate position methods.
61

Bottom up Assembly design:

Bottom-up design is the traditional method. You first design and model parts,
then insert them into an assembly and use mates to position the parts. To change the
ww
parts, you must edit them individually. These changes are then seen in the assembly and
w.E
use the mating conditions to locate and orient them in the assembly as required by the
assembly design
asy
This process itself begins with creating a blank assembly model using the
assembly model of the cad system. We import the assembly parts in to this model one at
En
a time. The first part we insert is known as the base part or host on top of which other
gin
parts are assembled. We use the proper mating conditions to place and orient each
ee
inserted part correctly in the assembly model.
rin
When insert the part in to the assembly we insert copies of the part .These copies
g.n
are known as inserts. We can use multiple inserts of any parts if the assembly required
it. The CAD software maintains a link each inserts and its original parts. If we change
et
the original parts change its entire instance in an assembly by updating the assembly
.These links between assembly and its individual parts is the most important
fundamental concept behind the assembly modeling. As a master of fact an assembly
link is bidirectional. We change part and update the assembly or we change the instance
in the assembly and update the part
How do we assembly constraints among different parts in the bottom-up
approach? We specify them among the instance of the parts in the assembly model
itself. We cannot specify them otherwise because each part has its own file. These
constraints are required to maintain the correct proportions among the assembly parts
62

The bottom up approach has some advantages it is the preferred technique if the
parts have already been constructed as in the case of off- the-shelf parts. It is also allows
designers to focus on the individual parts. It is also makes it easier and simple to
maintain the relationship and regeneration behavior of part than in the top-down
approaches
ww
w.E
asy
Top down assembly approaches:
En
The top-down assembly approaches fosters a system engineering approach to
product design in which the assembly layout communicates design criteria to subsystem
gin
developers including suppliers this tight control alloes distributed design terms to work
ee
concurrently within a common product frame work it allows detailed design to begin
while the assembly layout is being finalized
rin
g.n
The top-down assembly approaches lends its self well to the conceptual design
phase it captures the design intent of a product in the early design stage at a high level
et
abstraction. After all assembly design does not always require detailed design of
construction parts and subassemblies. This allows designers to validate different design
concepts before implementing them The top-down assembly approaches also allows
designers to practice the what if design scenario with ease.
The process of creating an assembly using the top down approach is follows
1. Log in and start the CAD/CAM system
2. Select the assembly mode
3. Open new assembly file
63

4. Create a sketch in which various entities represent components indicate a

tentative location for each component capturing the overall design intent of
the assembly
5. Create more sketches if needed a complex assembly may require more
sketches similar to creating complex features of individual parts
6. Use the sketches to define the component size skeletal shape and location
within the assembly
7. Edit the assembly sketches as need as until the assembly layout is finalized
8. Create the individual parts and save them in their respective files.Make sure
ww each part reference the assembly sketch
w.E 9. Evaluate assembly after the parts are fully constructed. If needed modify the
assembly sketch and update the assembly
asy
10. Save the assembly file and exit the cad system
2. Discuss about the tolerance analysis and its methods? (Nov/Dec2015)(May/June
2016)
En
Geometric tolerance
gin
ee
Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing (GD&T) is a system for defining and
rin
communicating engineering tolerances. It uses a symbolic language on engineering
drawings and computer-generated three-dimensional solid models that explicitly
describes nominal geometry and its allowable variation. g.n
Tolerance stacks-up
et
Tolerance analysis is a title to a different approaches applied in product design to
know how deficiencies in parts as they are manufactured, and in assemblies, influence
the ability of a product to meet customer needs. Tolerance analysis is a way of accepting
how basis of deviation in part dimensions and assembly constraints distribute across
parts and assemblies, and how that total deviation affects the ability of a drawing to
reach its design necessities within the process capabilities of organizations and supply
chains.
Tolerance analysis is the general term for activities related to the study of
potential accumulated variation in mechanical parts and assemblies. Its methods may be
64

used on other types of systems subject to accumulated variation, such as mechanical and
electrical systems. Engineers analyze tolerances for the purpose of evaluating geometric
dimensioning and tolerance (GD&T). Methods include 2D tolerance stacks, 3D Monte
Carlo simulations, and datum conversions.
Fewer assumptions entail broader applicability but one also will get less out of a
tolerance stack analysis, i.e., one will wind up with fairly wide assembly tolerance
limits or, when trying to counteract that through the Ti, with very tight and thus costly
detail tolerance requirements.
In this section we will present various formulas for tolerance stacking. By
ww
tolerance stacking we mean a rule that combines the detail tolerances Ti into an
w.E
assembly tolerance Tassy. Typically Tassy is a monotone increasing function of the Ti.
Thus, if the resulting Tassy is too large, one can counteract that by reducing all or some
asy
of the Ti, which usually makes for costlier part production. On the other hand, if T assy is
smaller than required for successful assembly fit, then one can loosen the detail
tolerances Ti,
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
65

Arithmetic or Worst Case Tolerance
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
66

ww
w.E
Root Sum Square (RSS) Method or Statistical Tolerance:
asy
Under this method of tolerance stacking a very important new element is added
En
to the assumptions, namely that the detail variations from nominal are random and
gin
independent from part to part. In some sense this is a reaction to the worst case
paradigm of the previous section which many feel is overly conservative. It is costly in
ee
the sense that it often mandates very tight detail tolerances. That all deviations from
rin
nominal should arrange themselves in worst case fashion to yield the most extreme
g.n
assembly tolerance is a rather unlikely proposition. However, it had the benefit of
form operates under two basic assumptions et

guaranteeing the resulting assembly tolerance. Statistical tolerancing in its classical
Centered Normal Distribution: Rather than assuming that the Li can fall
anywhere within the tolerance interval [λi − Ti, λi + Ti], even to the point that someone
maliciously and deliberately selects parts for worst case assemblies, we assume here
that the Li are normal random variables, i.e., vary randomly according to a normal
distribution, centered on that same interval and with a ±3σ spread equal to the span of
that interval, so that 99.73% of all Li values fall within this interval, see below Figure.
The nature of the normal distribution is such that the Li occur with higher frequency in
the middle near λi and with less frequency near the interval endpoints. The match of the
67

±3σ spread with the span of the detail tolerance span is supposed to express that almost
all parts will satisfy the detail tolerance limits
ww
w.E
Independent Detail Variation:
The independence assumption is probably the most essential cornerstone of
asy
statistical tolerancing. It allows for some cancellation of variation from nominal.
En
Treating the Li as random variables, we also demand that these random variables are
(statistically) independent. This roughly means that the deviation Li − λi has nothing to
gin
do with the deviation Lj − λj for i = j. In particular, the deviations will not be mostly
ee
positive or mostly 13 negative. Under independence we expect to get a mixed bag of
rin
negative and positive deviations of various sizes which essentially leads to some
g.n
variation cancellation in the adding process. Randomness alone does not guarantee
such cancellation, especially not when all part dimension show random variation in the
et
same direction. This latter phenomenon is exactly what the independence assumption
intends to exclude.
Under the above assumptions of centered normality and independence we can
give the following statistical tolerance stacking formula
Where the latter formulation holds when ai = ±1 for all i = 1,...,n. The term RSS
for this type of stacking stems from its abbreviation for Root Sum of Squares.
68

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
69

3. Discuss about the mass property calculation?
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
70

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asy
En
gin
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g.n
et
71

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gin
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et
72

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gin
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g.n
et
73

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g.n
et
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4. Write short notes on Mechanism stimulation?
When creating a mechanism component can be defined as either moving or grounded.
This can be determined either automatically based on assembly relationships or manually by
the user.
A mechanism is a mechanical device that transfers motion and/or force from a source
to an output. It can be an abstraction (simplified model) of a mechanical system. A linkage
consists of links (or bodies), which are connected by joints (or connections), such as a
revolute joint, to form open or closed chains (or loops, see Figure 1-4). Such kinematic
chains, with at least one link fixed, become mechanisms. In this book, all links are assumed
rigid. In general, a mechanism can be represented by its corresponding schematic drawing
ww
for analysis purpose. For example, a slider-crank mechanism represents the engine motion,
as shown in Figure 1-5, which is a closed loop mechanism.
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
In general, there are two types of motion problems that you will have to solve in order
to answer questions regarding mechanism analysis and design: kinematic and dynamic.
Kinematics is the study of motion without regard for the forces that cause the motion. A
kinematic mechanism must be driven by a servomotor (or motion driver) so that the position,
velocity, and acceleration of each link of the mechanism can be analyzed at any given time.
Typically, a kinematic analysis must be conducted before dynamic behavior of the
mechanism can be simulated properly. Dynamic analysis is the study of motion in response
to externally applied loads. The dynamic behavior of a mechanism is governed by N e w t o
n ' s laws of motion. The simplest dynamic problem is the particle dynamics introduced in
Sophomore Dynamics—for example, a spring-mass-damper system shown in Figure 1-6. In
this case, motion of the mass is governed by the following equation derived from Newton‘s
second law,
where appearing on top of the physical quantities represents time derivative of the
quantities, m is the total mass of the block, k is the spring constant, and c is the damping
coefficient. For a rigid body, mass properties (such as the total mass, center of mass, moment
of inertia, etc.) are taken into account for dynamic analysis. For example, motion of a
pendulum shown in Figure 1-7 is governed by the following equation of motion,
YdM = -mgl s i n ø = 10 = m£2 ø
Where M is the external moment (or torque), / is the polar moment of inertia of the
pendulum, m is the pendulum mass, g is the gravitational acceleration, and ø is the angular
acceleration of the pendulum.
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
Dynamic analysis of a rigid body system, such as the single piston engine is a lot
more complicated than the single body problems. Usually, a system of differential and
et
algebraic equations governs the motion and the dynamic behavior of the system. Newton's
law must be obeyed by every single body in the system at all time. The motion of the system
will be determined by the loads acting on the bodies or joint axes (e.g., a torque driving the
system). Reaction loads at the joint connections hold the bodies together.

The overall process for analyzing a mechanism consists of three main steps: model
generation, analysis (or simulation), and result visualization (or post-processing), as
ww
illustrated in Figure 1-8. Key entities that constitute a motion model include ground parts
w.E
that are always fixed, moving parts that are movable, joints and constraints that connect and
restrict relative motion between parts, servo motors (or motion drivers) that drive the
asy
mechanism for kinematic analysis, external loads (force and torque), and the initial
conditions of the mechanism.
Interference Checking:
En
gin
Component interference, misaligned and mismatched holes and fasteners, and
ee
incorrect tolerancing of manufactured parts are the main causes of high rework and scrap
rin
costs on the assembly floor. When using only a 2D CAD tool, it is very difficult to uncover
these issues before going into manufacturing.
g.n
3D "dumb" solids are created in a way analogous to manipulations of real world
et
objects (not often used today). Basic three-dimensional geometric forms (prisms, cylinders,
spheres, and so on) have solid volumes added or subtracted from them, as if assembling or
cutting real-world objects. Two-dimensional projected views can easily be generated from
the models. Basic 3D solids don't usually include tools to easily allow motion of
components, set limits to their motion, or identify interference between components.

UNIT-5
CAD STANDARDS
1. Write any three CAD standards for exchange of modeling data. (May/June 2016)
 IGES (Initial Graphics Exchange Specification)

 DXF (Drawing / Data Exchange Format)
 STEP (Standard for the Exchange of Product model data)
2. What is the importance of standards in CAD? (May/June 2016)
 To save the time of drafting.

 To make training easier.
ww  To make outsourcing more efficient
w.E
3. What is meant by CAD data exchange? Mention its importance. (Nov/Dec 2015)
asy
CAD data exchange involves a number of software technologies and methods
to translate data from one Computer-aided design system to another CAD file format.
En
This PLM technology is required to facilitate collaborative work (CPD) between OEMs and
their suppliers.
gin
Cad representation level
Cad entities
ee
CAD data exchange standards
rin
e.g IGES STEP
g.n
Graphic primitives
Device independent picture
e.g CGM et
Image bitmap
Bitmap standards
4. Compare the shape based and the product data based exchange standards. (Nov/Dec
2015)

S.NO SHAPE BASED EXCHANGE PRODUCT DATA BASED
STANDARDS EXCHANGE STANDARDS
1 All data exchange data are neutral It has a specific file format
file
2 It has section of header table block It has a three layered architecture
entities and ends such as application logical and
physical layer
3 These file do not have any software The file must have any software
specific function specific function
4 EX : DXE & IGES Example STEP,SDF,EDIF &PDES
ww
5. Give the requirements of product data exchange between dissimilar CAD/CAM
systems?
w.E CAD data exchange involves a number of software technologies and methods
asy
to translate data from one Computer-aided design system to another CAD file format.
This PLM technology is required to facilitate collaborative work (CPD) between OEMs and
their suppliers.
En
gin
The main topic is with the translation of geometry (wireframe, surface and solid) but also
6. Compare IGES, PDES?

ee
of importance is other data such as attributes; metadata, assembly structure and feature data.
rin
g.n
The Initial Graphics Exchange Specification (IGES) (pronounced eye-jess) is a vendor-
et
neutral file format that allows the digital exchange of information among computer-aided
design (CAD) systems. Using IGES, a CAD user can exchange product data models in the
form of circuit diagrams, wireframe, freeform surface or solid modeling representations.
Standards for The Exchange of Product model data (STEP) is also called as Product
Design Exchange Specification (PDES). This is the standard data format used to store all the
data relevant to the entire life cycle of the product including design, analysis, manufacturing
quality assurance, testing and maintenance, in addition to the simple product definition data.
7. Write the scan-conversion process of a straight line in terms of pixel position.
 Digital Differential Analyzer (DDA)

 Floating Point Algorithms
8. Write the mathematical expression to scale a straight line about a fixed point.
I have a log-log graph with a straight line on it, and I want to find the line's equation.
The x-axis is scaled as 0.01, 0.1, 1, 10, 100and the y-axis is 10, 100, 1000, 10000.
9. Write any 2 properties of bezier curves.
Bezier curves exhibit a symmetry property: The same Bezier curve shape is obtained if
the control points are specified in the opposite order. The only difference will be the
parametric direction of the curve. The direction of increasing parameter reverses when the
control points are specified in the reverse order. Bezier curves are invariant under affine
transformations, but they are not invariant under projective transformations.
10. What is composite transformation?
ww A composite transformation (or composition of transformations) is two or more

transformations performed one after the other. Sometimes, a composition of transformations
w.E
is equivalent to a single transformation.
11. What are the types of parallel projection?
asy
 Isometric projection
 Diametric projection
En
 Trimetric projection
12. What is color model? gin
ee
A color model is a system for creating a full range of colors from a small set of
rin
primary colors. There are two types of color models: additive and subtractive.
13. What is color gamut?
g.n
et
While pure red can be expressed in the RGB color space, it cannot be expressed in the
CMYK color space; pure red is out of gamut in the CMYK color space. A device that is able
to reproduce the entire visible color space is an unrealized goal within the engineering
of color displays and printing processes.

Part B
1. Explain about exchanging images?
There are basically three methods of transferring data from one CAD system to
another.
 Direct CAD system export/import

 Direct 3rd party translators.
 Intermediate data exchange formats
Direct internal
Some CAD systems can directly read and/or write other CAD formats, simply by
ww
using file open and file save as options. As most CAD file formats are not open, this option is
w.E
limited to either system owned by the same company or via hacking of competitor's file
format.
Direct external
asy
En
There are a number of companies that specialize in CAD data translation software,
gin
providing software that can read one system and write the information in another CAD
system format. These systems have their own proprietary intermediate format some of which
ee
will allow reviewing the data during translation. Some of these translators work stand-alone
rin
while others require one or both of the CAD packages installed on the translation machine as
they use code (APIs) from these systems to read/write the data.
g.n
Data translation formats
et
A common method of translation is via an intermediary format. The sending CAD
system exports out to this format and the receiving CAD system reads in this format. Some
formats are independent of the CAD vendors being defined by standards organizations while
others, although owned by a company, are widely used and are regarded as quasi industry
standards. It is becoming increasingly common for companies owning these quasi industry
standards to further the use of their formats by openly publishing these data formats.
Bitmaps:-
FORMAT FILE SUFFIX COMPRESSED NOTES

NAMES

Window bitmap BMP NO Propriety came into
format use with window 3
Soft file format Pcx YES Proprietary one of the
oldest and most
common formats
Tagged image file Tifs/tif OPTIONAL Widely used
format especially for desktop
publishing
Graphics Gif YES Widely used in world
interchange wide web
format
Joint photography Jpeg YES Iso/iec 10918 user
lossy image
compression for max
image compression
wwTARGA
format
file TGA NO Propriety from true
vision the first popular
w.E format for

resolution image
high
asy
2. Graphics Kernel System (GKS)? (may/June 2016)
En
Graphics Kernal System is the first proposed standard for computer graphics by ISO
gin
and ANSI. GKS was developed in to need for a standardized method of developing graphics
ee
program. The main objective of the Graphical Kernel System, GKS, is the production and
rin
manipulation of pictures (in a way that does not depend on the computer or graphical device
g.n
being used). Such pictures vary from simple line graphs (to illustrate experimental results, for
example), to engineering drawings, to integrated circuit layouts (using colour to differentiate
et
between layers), to images representing medical data (from computerised tomography (CT)
scanners) or astronomical data (from telescopes) in grey scale or colour. Each of these various
pictures must be described to GKS, so that they may be drawn.

In GKS, pictures are considered to be constructed from a number of basic building
blocks. These basic building blocks, or primitives as they are called, are of a number of types
each of which can be used to describe a different component of a picture. The five main
primitives in GKS are:
1. polyline: which draws a sequence of connected line segments.

2. polymarker: which marks a sequence of points with the same symbol.
3. fill area: which displays a specified area.
4. text: which draws a string of characters.
5. cell array: which displays an image composed of a variety of colours or grey scales.
wwBasic set of primitives
w.E POLYLINE
POLYMARKER
FILLAREA asy
Example: En
X= (2, 5, 3.5, 2) Y= (2, 2, 5, 2)gin
ee
3. Standards for Computer Graphics?(Nov/Dec 2015)
rin
g.n
The following international organizations involved to develop the graphics standards:
 ACM ( Association for Computer Machinery )
 ANSI ( American National Standards Institute )
 ISO ( International Standards Organization )
et
 GIN ( German Standards Institute )

As a result of these international organization efforts, various standard functions at

various levels of the graphics system developed. These are:
 IGES (Initial Graphics Exchange Specification) enables an exchange of model data
basis among CAD system.
 DXF (Drawing / Data Exchange Format) file format was meant to provide an
exact representation of the data in the standard CAD file format.
ww
 STEP (Standard for the Exchange of Product model data) can be used to exchange
data between CAD, Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM) , Computer Aided
w.E
Engineering (CAE), product data management/enterprise data modeling (PDES) and
other CAx systems.
asy
En
 CALS (Computer Aided Acquisition and Logistic Support) is an US Department of
gin
Defense initiative with the aim of applying computer technology in Logistic support.
 GKS (Graphics Kernel System) provides a set of drawing features for two-dimensional
ee
vector graphics suitable for charting and similar duties.
rin
 PHIGS (Programmer‘s Hierarchical Interactive Graphic System) The PHIGS standard
g.n
defines a set of functions and data structures to be used by a programmer to
manipulate and display 3-D graphical objects.
et
 VDI (Virtual Device Interface) lies between GKS or PHIGS and the device driver
code. VDI is now called CGI (Computer Graphics Interface).
 VDM (Virtual Device Metafile) can be stored or transmitted from graphics device to
another. VDM is now called CGM (Computer Graphics Metafile).
 NAPLPS (North American Presentation- Level Protocol Syntax) describes text and
graphics in the form of sequences of bytes in ASCII code.
4. Write short notes on Drawing exchange format (DXF) standard? (May/June 2016)
Drawing exchange format (DXF) is a file format for graphics information. It is an

ASME/ANSI standard that is used for PC-based CAD/CAM platforms. DXF enables vector
data exchange as well as 2D and 3D graphics drawing.

AutoCAD DXF (Drawing Interchange Format, or Drawing Exchange Format) is a CAD
data file format developed by Autodesk for enabling data interoperability between AutoCAD
and other programs.
DXF was originally introduced in December 1982 as part of AutoCAD 1.0, and was
intended to provide an exact representation of the data in the AutoCAD native file format,
DWG (Drawing), for which Autodesk for many years did not publish specifications. Because
of this, correct imports of DXF files have been difficult. Autodesk now publishes the DXF
specifications as a PDF on its website version of AutoCAD from Release 10 (October 1988)
and up support both ASCII and binary forms of DXF. Earlier versions support only ASCII.
As AutoCAD has become more powerful, supporting more complex object types, DXF
ww
has become less useful. Certain object types, including ACIS solids and regions, are not
w.E
documented. Other object types, including AutoCAD 2006's dynamic blocks, and the entire
objects specific to the vertical market versions of AutoCAD, are partially documented, but
asy
not well enough to allow other developers to support them. For these reasons many CAD
En
applications use the DWG format which can be licensed from Autodesk or non-natively from
the Open Design Alliance.
gin
DXF coordinates are always without dimensions so that the reader or user needs to know
DXF: Units
ee
the drawing unit or has to extract it from the textual comments in the sheets.
rin
g.n
DXF file format does not store any information on units. Coordinates are just numbers.
et
So a scaled import can easily be happened. The Layout Editor will assume that the current
setting of user units had to be used to import/export the DXF. So please adjust the user units
before storing and loading it. Also there a macro to load DXF files, this will ask you for the
correct units before importing it. Starting with version 20130904 DXF units can be set in the
Setup Dialog.
DXF: Handling of layer names
The DXF file format only knows layer names. A numbering of layer like in the GDS
format does not exist. By opening a DXF file the Layout Editor analyzed the used layers. If a
used layername already exist in the current setup, this layer is used. If the layer name starts
with a number, this number is used. Otherwise the first unused layer is renamed.

DXF: save regular polygon as circle
The DXF file format allows handling circles. Circles are not supported by the Layout
Editor as basic elements; circles are stored as regular polygons. By activating this option any
regular polygon with more than 8 points will be saved as a circle element and not as a
polygon.
5. Write short notes on (Nov/Dec 2015)
(I) Open GL (ii) IGES (iii) STEP (iv) CALS
(i) Open GL(Nov/Dec 2015)
ww
Open Graphics Library (OpenGL) is a cross-language, cross-platform application
programming interface (API) for rendering 2D and 3D vector graphics. The API is typically
w.E
used to interact with a graphics processing unit (GPU), to achieve hardware-accelerated
rendering.
asy
The OpenGL specification describes an abstract API for drawing 2D and 3D graphics.
En
Although it is possible for the API to be implemented entirely in software, it is designed to be
gin
implemented mostly or entirely in hardware. Applications use it extensively in the fields of
computer-aided design (CAD), virtual reality, scientific visualization, information
ee
visualization, flight simulation, and video games.
rin
g.n
et

(ii) IGES
Initial Graphics Exchange Specification (IGES) is a neutral file format designed to

transfer 2D and 3D drawing data between dissimilar CAD systems. The IGES standard
defines two file formats: fixed-length ASCII, which stores information in 80-character
records, and compressed ASCII.
(iii) STEP
STEP file is a CAD file format, usually used to share 3D models between users with
different CAD systems.
Standard ISO 10303 is informally known as ―STEP‖, which stands for ―Standard for
the Exchange of Product model data‖. STEP-file (ISO 10303-21) is implementation method
ww
of STEP standard that can represent 3D object in Computer-aided design (CAD) and related
information.
w.E
(iv)CALS
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
"CALS" means "computer-aided logistics support", the word can be an extension of other
words such as CAD (computer-aided design), CAE (computer-aided engineering), CAM
(computer-aided manufacturing), and CIM (computer-integrated manufacturing). All of those
words contains a word "computer-integrated" or "computer-integrated" before the words that
indicate business processes and very easy to understand together with "CALS". The words
"design", "engineering", "manufacturing", and "logistics" are all expressions of business
processes, and the aim of CAD, CAE, CAM, CIM, and CALS is to support those business
processes by computers to shorten lead times and reduce costs through automation. Compared
to "design", "engineering", and "manufacturing", "logistics" has a broader meaning that
encompasses not only distribution but also functions such as procurement and manufacturing.
For that reason, the concept of "CALS" is expanded and regarded as a definitive methodology
for electronically conducting transactions between companies and some compare "CALS" to
"Black Boat" by the image of dominating world industries by the U.S. However, I think that
"CALS" strongly indicates "multimedia corporate society in the 21st century", "creation of
new industrial policies", and "technical infrastructures for communications".
Supply Chain Management (SCM) aims to "improvement of corporate management to

increase cash flow" that is built on those technical infrastructures and so it is rather
ww
management oriented than technology oriented. Management of throughput improvement
through improving lead times and service levels of a supply chain includes improvement of
w.E
company quality to increase company profitability.
asy
STEP (Standard for the Exchange of Product model Data)
En
gin
ee rin
 Standard for Exchange of Product Model Data g.n
 Uses a formal model f or data exchange
 Information is modeled using the EXPRESS language
et
 EXPRESS has elements of Pascal, C, and other languages
 It contains constructs for defining data types and structures, but not fo r processing
data
 EXPRESS describes geometry and other information in a standard, unambiguous
way

Classes of STEP Parts

 •Introductory
 •Description methods
 Implementation methods
 •Conformance testing methodology and framework
 •Integrated resources
 •Application protocols
ww
Status of STEP


•Abstract test suites
•Application interpreted constructs
w.E  •STEP has been under development for many years, and will
continue for many more
asy
 •Over a dozen STEP parts have been approved as international
standards
 •Many others are under development.
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et

PART-C
1. Steps involved in Engineering Design process and models of design process
ww
w.E
asy
En
Conceptual Design
gin
ee rin
It is a process in which we in itiate the design and come up with a number of design concepts
and then narrow down to the singl e best concept. This involved the following step s.
g.n
et
(1) Identification of customer needs: The mail objective of this is to completely understand the
customers‘ needs and to c ommunicate them to the design team
(2) Problem definition: The mail goal of this activity is to create a statement that describes what
all needs to be accomplished to meet the needs of the customers‘ requirem ents.
(3) Gathering Information: In this step, we collect all the information that can be helpful for
developing and translating the customers‘ needs into engineering design.
(4) Conceptualization: In thi s step, broad sets of concepts are generated th at can potentially
satisfy the problem statem ent
(5) Concept selection: The main objective of this step is to evaluate the various
concepts, modifying and evolving into a single preferred concept.

Embodiment Design
It is a process where the structured development of the design concepts takes place. It is
in this phase that decisions are made on strength, material selection, size shape and spatial
compatibility. Embodiment design is concerned with three major tasks – product architecture,
configuration design, and parametric design.
(1) Product architecture: It is concerned with dividing the overall design system into
small subsystems and modules. It is in this step we decide how the physical
components of the design are to be arranged in order to combine them to carry out the
ww functional duties of the design.
w.E
(2) Configuration design: In this process we determine what all features are required in the
various parts / components and how these features are to be arranged in space relative
to each other.
asy
En
(3) Parametric design: It starts with information from the configuration design process and
aims to establish the exact dimensions and tolerances of the product. Also, final
gin
decisions on the material and manufacturing processes are done if it has not been fixed
in the previous process. One of the important aspects of parametric designs is to
Detail Design
ee
examine if the design is robust or not.
rin
g.n
et
It is in this phase the design is brought to a state where it has the complete engineering
description of a tested and a producible product. Any missing information about the
arrangement, form, material, manufacturing process, dimensions, tolerances etc of each part is
added and detailed engineering drawing suitable for manufacturing are prepared.
II) Models of the Design Process
Designers have to:
Explore - the problem ‘territory’

Generate - solution concepts
Evaluate - alternative solution concepts
Communicate - a final proposal
91

A simple model of the design process, derived from what designers have to do
ww French’s model VDI model
w.E
asy
En
gin
Cross’s basic model ee rin
g.n
et
2. Draw the layout of Intelligent Assembly modeling and Simulation
The goal of IAM S is to avoid this expensive and time-consuming process by

facilitating semblability checking in a virtual, simulated environment.
92

In addition to par t-part interference checking, the IAMS tool will check for tool
accessibility, stability, and ergonomics.
Intelligent Assembly Modeling and Simulation
ww
w.E
asy
3. Given the triangle, described by the homogenous points matrix below scale is by a
En
factor ¾ keeping the centroid in the same location use (i) separate matrix method
(Nov/Dec2015)
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
93

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
94

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
95

4. Explain Monte Carlo method in detail?
Monte Carlo methods (or Monte Carlo experiments) are a broad class of computational
algorithms that rely on repeated random sampling to obtain numerical results. Their essential
idea is using randomness to solve problems that might be deterministic in principle. They are
often used in physical and mathematical problems and are most useful when it is difficult or
impossible to use other approaches. Monte Carlo methods are mainly used in three distinct
problem classes optimization, numerical integration, and generating draws from a probability
distribution.
In physics-related problems, Monte Carlo methods are useful for simulating systems with many
coupled degrees of freedom, such as fluids, disordered materials, strongly coupled solids, and
cellular structures (see cellular Potts model, interacting particle systems, McKean-Vlasov
ww
processes, kinetic models of gases). Other examples include modeling phenomena with
significant uncertainty in inputs such as the calculation of risk in business and, in math,
evaluation of multidimensional definite integrals with complicated boundary conditions. In
w.E
application to space and oil exploration problems, Monte Carlo–based predictions of failure, cost
overruns and schedule overruns are routinely better than human intuition or alternative "soft"
methods.
asy
In principle, Monte Carlo methods can be used to solve any problem having a probabilistic
interpretation.
En
gin
The monte carlo simulation procedure is described below
2. Generate the random number r1

3. Find X1 correspond to r1
ee
1. Specify the statistical distribution for the variation in each component dimention. The
distribution may be described algebraically or empirically.
rin
g.n
4. Repeat step 1 to 3 for all other parts, say n number of parts, in the assembly.
5. Calculate the assembly function Xo=X1 + X2 + X3 + ….+ Xn
7. Draw histogram and check the acceptance criteria of assembly. et

6. Calculate mean, standard deviation, median, variance, skewness, kurtosis, max, min, etc.
This simulation can be applied to the solid model of a mechanical assembly. Here, the solid
model is used as the assembly function to calculate the assembly resultants. This approach
provides the user with a tool for 2D and 3D tolerance simulation.
Widely used in tolerance analysis for assemblies which have linear or explicit non linear
function.
Limitation:
Large computation time, for the simulation of above three technique are adequate and have
acceptable precision.
Requires explicit assembly function, each assemble variable must be expressed as a single
algebraic function of the manufactured dimensions of the components in the assembly.
96

5. Explain communication standards in detail?
Communication standards
In local area network (LAN) and wide area network (WAN) there are wide variation in physical
means such as twisting pairs and coaxial cables, optical fiber links, microwave links in format
used in encoding the data. For successful communication, standards should be well defined
ww
w.E
asy
En
Level of graphics standards communication
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
97

Level 1: The data is communicated between graphics utility SW and graphics output device.
VDI(Virtual Device Interface) or CGI(Computer Graphics Interface) is the most important
standard in this category. VDI specified a standard format for transferring GD between graphics
utility and device drives.
Level 2: The data is communicated between applied SW and graphics utility. GKS most
universally accepted standard development in W. Germany in 1979. GKS provides interface
between application package and graphics utility programs for any CAD system through CORE
(American software equivalent to GKS). PHIGS (Programmers Hierarchical Interface for
Graphics) has been proposed to eliminate restrictions of GKS
Level 3: The data is communicated between different CAD system such as IGES (Initial
Graphics Exchange Specification) and ANSI. Standard format of codes is for CADCAM data. It
ww
is completely independent of any system supplier. It enables both graphical and manufacturing
data to be transferred between dissimilar systems.
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
98

B.E /B.TECH DEGREEEXAMINATIONS, NOV/ DEC 2015

ME-6501 COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN
(Regulation 2013)
PART-A
1. Mention any four application of computer aided design in mechanical engineering?
(Refer Page no:1 )
2. List and difference the type of 2D geometric transformation? (Refer Page no:1 )
3. Generate the conical surface obtained by rotation of the line segment AB around the
ww Z-axis with A=(1,0,1) and (7,0,7) (Refer Page no:23 )

4. Differentiate between analytical curves, interpolated curves and approximated curves?
w.E (Refer Page no:21 )

5. Define interpolative shading and list the two methods used for interpolative shading?
asy
(Refer Page no:38 )
En
6. What is meant by visible surface determination in 3D computer graphics?
(Refer Page no:38 )
gin
7. Mention the importance of geometric tolerancing? (Refer Page no:58 )
) ee
8. Define the following term (i) interference fit (ii) running and sliding fit(Refer Page no:57
rin
9. Compare the shape based and the product data based exchange standards? (Refer Page
no:76 )
g.n
et
10. What is meant by cad data exchange? Mention its importance? (Refer Page no:75 )
PART-B
11. (a) (i) rotate the rectangle (0,0),(2,0),(0,2) shown in fig I 30 0 counter clockwise about its
centered and find the new coordinates of the rectangle (Refer Page no:17 )
99

12. (ii) given the triangle described by the homogenous points matrix below scale it by a
factor ¾ keeping the centroid in the same location. Use (1) separate matrix operation (2)
ww condensed matrix for transformation (Refer Page no:19 )
w.E
asy Or
En
(b) (i) write short notes on concurrent engineering(Refer Page no:3 ) (6)
gin
(ii) Rotate the rectangle shown in fig, 300 counter clockwise about the line EF
and find the new coordinate of the rectangle (Refer Page no:13 )
(10)
ee rin
g.n
et
12 (a) Briefly explain the difference scheme used to generate a solid model (16)
(Refer Page no:32)
OR
(b) Write short notes on approximated synthetic curve (Refer Page no: 24 ) (16)
100

13 (a) Explain the difference types of hidden line algorithm (16)

(Refer Page no: 57 )
OR
(b) Briefly explain the user driven procedural and data-driven animation (16)
techniques
14 (a) briefly explain the following traditional tolerance analysis method with (16)
examples (Refer Page no: 62)
(i) Worst case analysis (ii) root sum of squares
ww OR
w.E (b) Write short notes on (i) mechanism simulation (ii) assembly modeling
(Refer Page no: 72,59 )
15
asy
(a) explain the initial graphics exchange specification methodology
(Refer Page no: 85)
(16)
En OR
gin
(b) Write short notes on (16)
(i) Open GL
ee
(ii) standard for computer graphics
(Refer Page no: 85, 82)
rin
g.n
et
101

B.E /B.TECH DEGREEEXAMINATIONS, MAY/ JUNE 2016

(Regulation 2013)
PART-A
1. List the various stage in life cycle of a product? (Refer Page no:3 )
2. What is the design process? Mention the steps involved in shigley‘s modelfor the design
process? (Refer Page no:1 )
ww
3. What are the limitations of hermite curve? (Refer Page no:21 )
4. What are the advantages and disadvantages of wire frame modeling? (Refer Page no:21 )
w.E
5. What are the improvements brought by gouraud shading compared with other shading
techniques? (Refer Page no:38 )
asy
6. Mention the importance of coloring of three dimensional objects in computer graphics?
(Refer Page no:38 )
En
7. What is meant by assembly modeling? (Refer Page no:57 )
8. What are the uses of tolerance stacks-up? (Refer Page no:57 )
gin
9. What is importance of standards in CAD? (Refer Page no:75 )
10. Write any three CAD standards for exchange of modeling data? (Refer Page no: 75 )
ee PART-B
rin
g.n
11. (a)Write short notes on (i) design process (ii) cad system architecture (Refer Page no:1 )
OR
engineering
(Refer Page no:1 )
et
(b) What is concurrent engineering? Describe the various scheme of concurrent
12. (a) what is Bezier curves? Discuss its importance properties? (Refer Page no:27 )
OR
(b) What do you understand by boundary representation (B-rep) technique of solid
modeling? Explain briefly the data structure of B-rep solid model
(Refer Page no:3 )
13.(a) Explain the following color models used in computer graphics

(i)RGB (ii) CMY
(Refer Page no: 51 )
OR
102

(b) Write short notes on the following hidden surface algorithm

(i) back-face removal (ii) Z-buffer algorithm
(Refer Page no:40 )
13. (a) Briefly explain the mechanism analysis

(Refer Page no:72 )
OR
(b) Write short notes on statistical tolerance analysis (Refer Page no:62 )
15. (a) Briefly explain any one of the known graphics standard (Refer Page no:80 )
OR
(b) Write short notes on drawing exchange format (DXF) standard
ww (Refer Page no: 83 )
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
103

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
104

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
105

B.E /B.TECH DEGREEEXAMINATIONS, APRIL/MAY 2017

(Regulation 2013)
PART-A
1. State any two benefits of CAD. (Refer Page no:5 )

2. What is concurrent engineering? (Refer Page no:6 )
3. Define quadratic Bezier curve. (Refer Page no:31 )
4. What is the significance of CSG? (Refer Page no:34 )
ww
5. Name the hidden line removal algorithms. (Refer Page no:57 )
6. What is powder shading?
w.E
7. What is top-down assembly modelling? (Refer Page no:61 )
asy
8. List the advantage of Tolerance analysis. (Refer Page no:59 )
9. Define Graphics Kernel System (GKS) (Refer Page no:82 )
En
10. What is open graphics library?
gin
ee PART-B
rin
11.(a) Compare and contrast sequential and concurrent Engineering with suitable
examples. (Refer Page no:7 )
(or) g.n
(b).Explain with block diagram, the CAD process with suitable example.
et
12. (a) Explain different types of geometric modelling with suitable example. (Refer
Page no:34 )
(or)
(b). Explain various curve generation techniques with suitable example. (Refer
Page no:29 )
13. (a) Discuss any two hidden surface removal technique with suitable example (Refer
Page no:42 )
(or)
(b). Explain the hidden solid removal ray tracking algorithm with suitable
106

examples, (Refer Page no:46 )

14.(a) Explain assembly modeling in CAD and its type with suitable examples. (Refer
Page no:61 )
(or)
(b). Discuss the four type of geometric tolerance with suitable examples.
(Refer Page no:64 )
15.(a) Explain the IGES structure and methodology with suitable examples.
(Refer Page no:86 )
ww(b) write short notes on :

(or)
w.E (i) Data Exchange standards. (Refer Page no:84 )

(ii) Communication standards. (Refer Page no:97 )
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
107

ww
w.E
a syE
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
et
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S.NO TOPIC PAGE NO.

6 ww Unit-II – GEOMETRIC MODELING

8 Part - A (2 Marks Q &A) syE 40

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AIM AND OBJECTIVE OF THE SUBJECT

Aim and Objective of the subject:

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ME6501 COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN L T P C

To provide an overview of how computers are being used in mechanical component

UNIT I FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTER GRAPHICS 9

Hidden – Line-Surface-Solid removal algorithms – shading – colouring – computer

Assembly modelling – interferences of positions and orientation – tolerance analysis-

UNIT V CAD STANDARDS 9

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OUTCOMES: TOTAL : 45 PERIODS

1. Ibrahim Zeid “Mastering CAD CAM” Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Co.2007

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DETAILED LESSON PLAN

Subject Name : COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN Code : ME6501

Year : III Semester : V

Degree & Branch : B.E. – MECHANICAL

Ref. Books: 1. asy

1. To provide an overview of how computers are being used in mechanical

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I-FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTER GRAPHICS

1 Product Cycle, Design process, 1 1 T1,R5

2 Sequential Engineering 1 2 T1,R5

4 Computer aided design 1 4 R5

13 Representation of curves, Hermite curve 1 13 T1

16 Techniques for surface modelling. 1 16 R5

21 Solid modelling techniques 1 21 R5

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24 Overview and discussion 1 24

26 Hidden, Line & Surface 2 26 T1

27 Solid removal algorithm 2 28 T1

32w.E Assembly modelling 2 35 R5

Standards for exchange images 2

42 Open Graphics Library 1 48 R5

46 Application of all graphics 1 52

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6. Define Concurrent Engineering?

w.E The main drawback in terms of representation of objects in wireframe model is

Design Planning gin Manufacturing Quality

10. What are the disadvantages of Beizer Curve ? g.n

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ww 2. Explain in detailed about product cycle?

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3. Dicuss about 2D and 3D transformation?

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4. EXPLAIN IN DETAILED ABOUT DESIGN PROCESS? (May/June 2016)

 Identification of customer needs