Biology semester 1 final test - jeslin 8.

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1. Transport in plants : Transpiration and Translocation

transpiration
• Transpiration is the process where plants absorb water through the roots and then give off
water vapour through pores in their leaves
• Plants transpires more rapidly in the light than in the dark. This largely because light stimulates
the opening of the stomata. Plants respires more rapidly at higher temperature because water
evaporates more rapidly as the temperature rises
• Transpiration happens from the soil through roots then to the stems and leaves. Most of water
absorbed turns to water vapour, but some are used for photosynthesis.
• The final destination is the ‘leaves’

translocation
• Translocation is the transport of materials from the leaves to other parts of plants.
• It mostly transport sugar
• Sugar are made on the leaves during photosynthesis and sugar are shared to the rest of plants
for energy
• Sugar are transported through phloem tubes. Between the phloem tubes, there are small pores.
It enable the movement of cell sap which is a liquid mixture of water + sugar
• Sugar could be directly for energy or stored for energy later

xylem
• The main activity of this tissue is to
transport minerals and water from roots and
carry them to other part of the plants.
• Present in leaves stems and roots
• Usually located in the process of
transpiration
• They live with hollow dead cells
• Rigid and hard, strengthen the plants

phloem
• Transport nutrients and food from leaves through other growing parts of plants
• Present in leaves, roots, stems but transport and grow in fruit seeds and roots.
• Consists of living cells
• Usually located in the process of translocation

2. Transport in animals: Blood and its components, Blood vessel

blood and its component

1. Plasma
• The liquid component of blood, a mixture of water, sugar, fat, protein and salts.
• It is used to transport blood cells throughout your body.
2. Red Blood Cells
• Transport oxygen to body cells and deliver carbon dioxide to the lungs.
• Have flexible disk-shape help to increase surface area.
• The second largest in size
3. White Blood Cells
• Protect the body from infection
• Much fewer in number than red blood cells
• The largest in size
4. Platelets
• Helps blood clotting process (pembekuan darah)
• The smallest in size

blood vessels
1. Arteries
• Normally have small lumen, thick tunics
• Flow blood from heart to organs
• Composed of elastic muscle
• Normally has 120mmHg pressure
• Contain 40% of total blood
• Smaller passageway
2. Capillaries
• Diffusion of materials happen here
• One cell thick
• Composed by 1 layer protector
• Very low pressure
• Smallest passageway
3. Veins
• Contain 60% of the total blood
• 80mmHg pressure
• Composed of less elastic muscle, valve found
• Flow blood from organs to heart
• Big lumen, thick tunics
• Wider passageway

3. Transport in animals: Double and single circulation

double circulation
• Blood flows through the heart twice
• Mainly takes place in amphibians, birds and mammals
• The pulmonary circuit carries blood to the lungs where carbon dioxide is removed and oxygen is
added to the blood.
• The systemic circuit then carries the oxygenated blood to all the parts of the body and the
deoxygenated blood back to the heart.
• In both the routes the blood is reaching the heart twice so it is called as double circulation.

single circulation
• Blood flows only one cycle of passage through the body
• Occurs only in fishes
• Only venous blood passes through the heart
• Fishes have two chambered heart, where the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide happens
across the gills instead of lungs

4. Respiration: Aerobic and Anaerobic Respiration

aerobic respriration
• Cells release energy from glucose by combining it with oxygen
• Uses oxygen
• Large amount of energy released from each molecule of glucose
• Carbon dioxide made

anaerobic respriration
• Release energy from sugar without using oxygen
• Does not use oxygen
• Much less energy release from each molecule of glucose
• Carbon dioxide is made by yeast and plants but not animals

5. Gas exchange: Part of it, inhaled and exhaled

pathway to the lungs

1. The nose and mouth
• Air can enter through either nose or mouth
• It is better to breathe through your nose,
because the structure of nose allows the air
to become warm, moist and filtered
• Hair in nose trap dust particles in the air
2. The trachea
• From the nose and mouth, then air passes
into the windpipe or trachea.
• Top of trachea is epiglottis, closes the trachea and stops food going down the trachea when
you swallow
 • Below the epiglottis is voice box or larynx, contain vocal cords that can be tightened by
muscles, so that they make sounds when air passes them.
3. The bronchi
• The trachea goes down through the neck and into the thorax
• In the thorax, the trachea divides into two, the branches called the right and left bronchi
• One bronchus goes to each lung and then branches out into smaller tubes called
bronchioles
4. The alveoli
• At the end of each bronchiole are many tiny air sacs called alveoli
• This is where gas exchange takes place
• Gas exchange is the delivery of oxygen from the lungs to the bloodstream, and the
elimination of carbon dioxide from the bloodstream to the lungs.
• It occurs in the lungs between the alveoli and a network of tiny blood vessels called
capillaries, which are located in the walls of the alveoli.

Gas exchange surfaces

Has to be permeable, meaning:
1. They are thin to allow gases to diffuse quickly
2. They are close to an efficient transport system to take gases to and from exchange
surfaces
3. They have large surface area, so that a lot of gas can diffuse across at the same time
4. They have good supply of oxygen (often brought by breathing movement)

breathing in (inspiration)
• The muscles of the diaphragm contract
• This pulls the diaphragm downwards
• Which increases the volume in the thorax
• At the same time, the external intercostal muscles
contract
• This pulls the ribcage upwards and outward

breathing out (expiration)

• The muscles of the diaphragm relax
• The diaphragm spring back up into its domed shape
because it is made of elastic tissue.
• This decreases the volume in the thorax
• At the same time, the external intercostal muscles relax
• This pulls the ribcage upwards and outwards

6. Coordination and response: Part and type of neuron; signaling pathway of impulse

parts of neuron
Function: Neurons sends signals using action potentials. An action potential is a shift in the neuron’s
electric. Potential caused by the flow of ions in and out of the neural membrane.
1. Cell body
• Also known as a soma, the cell body is the neuron’s core
• The cell body carries genetic information, maintains the neuron’s structure, and provides
energy to drive activities
• Like other cell bodies, a neuron’s soma contains a nucleus and specialized organelles.
• It’s enclosed by a membrane which both protects it and allows it to interact with its
immediate surroundings.
2. Axon
• An axon is a long, tail-like structure which joins the cell body at a specialized junction called
the axon hillock.
• Many axons are insulated with a fatty substance called myelin.
• Myelin helps axons to conduct an electrical signal. Neurons generally have one main axon.
3. Dendrites
• Dendrites are fibrous roots that branch out from the cell body.
• Like antennae, dendrites receive and process signals from the axons of other neurons.
• Neurons can have more than one set of dendrites, known as dendritic trees. How many they
have generally depends on their role.

types of neurons
1. Sensory neurons
• Also known as a soma, the cell body is the neuron’s core
• Sensory neurons help you taste, smell, hear, see, feel things around you
• Sensory neurons are triggered by physical and chemical inputs from your environment
• Sound, touch, heat, and light are physical inputs
• Smell and taste are chemical inputs
• For example, stepping on hot sand activates sensory neurons in the soles of your feet
• Those neurons send a message to your brain, which makes you aware of the heat
2. Motor neurons
• Motor neurons play a role in movement, including voluntary and involuntary movements
• These neurons allow the brain and spinal cord to communicate with muscles, organs, and
glands all over the body
• There are two types of motor neurons: lower and upper
• Lower motor neurons carry signals from the spinal cord to the smooth muscles and the
skeletal muscles
• Upper motor neurons carry signals between your brain and spinal cord
• When you eat, for instance, lower motor neurons in your spinal cord send signals to the
smooth muscles in your esophagus, stomach, and intestines
• These muscles contract, which allows food to move through your digestive tract
3. Interneurons
 • Interneurons are neural intermediaries found in your brain and spinal cord. They’re the most
common type of neuron
• They pass signals from sensory neurons and other interneurons to motor neurons and other
interneurons
• Often, they form complex circuits that help you to react to external stimuli
• For instance, when you touch something hot, sensory neurons in your fingertips send a
signal to interneurons in your spinal cord
• Some interneurons pass the signal on to motor neurons in your hand, which allows you to
move your hand away
• Other interneurons send a signal to the pain center in your brain, and you experience pain

how impulses are sent

1. Impulses are picked up by a sensory receptor
2. It travels to the spinal cord along the axon from receptor cell (sensory neuron)
3. Neurons passes an impulse on to a several neurons
4. The relay neurons pass the impulse on to thr brain to an effectpr
5. The impulse travels to the muscle along the axon of a motor neuron

7. Coordination and response: Voluntary and Involuntary impulse

voluntary impulse
• When an action is produced with the involvement of thoughts
• It involves actions like walking, eating, jumping and running
• These actions are produced consciously
• Both spinal cord and brain are involved and these coordinate with PNS to generate
necessary movements
• Controlled by some parts of brain, all the body’s voluntary actions are controlled by the
motor cortex in the frontal lobe of the cerebrum

involuntary impulse
• Actions which take place without consciousness or willingness of an individual
• Digestion, heart beating, sneezing, etc are few examples of involuntary actions
• Controlled by some parts of brain, hindbrain and midbrain control the involuntary actions
like salivation, vomiting, etc

8. Excretion: organ that play parts in excretion, definition

what is excretion?
• Excretion is the removal from organisms of waste products of metabolism, toxic materials
and substances in excess of requirements (water)
• Carbon dioxide is produce by all cells during respiration and excreted by lungs
 • Example, respiration produces not only energy, and may be able to make use of the water.
The carbon dioxide is a waste product. The carbon dioxide from respiration is excreted from
lungs, gills or other gas exchange surface

organs that play part in excretion

1. Skin
• The skin is part of the integumentary system, but it also plays a role in excretion through the
production of sweat by sweat glands in the dermis.
• Although the main role of sweat production is to cool the body and
maintain temperature homeostasis, sweating also eliminates excess water and salts, as well
as a small amount of urea
• When sweating is copious, as in the figure below, ingestion of salts and water may be helpful
to maintain homeostasis in the body
2. Liver
• The liver has numerous major functions, including secreting bile for digestion of lipids,
synthesising many proteins and other compounds, storing glycogen and other substances,
and secreting endocrine hormones
• In addition to all of these functions, the liver is a very important
organ of excretion
• The liver breaks down many substances in the blood, including
toxins
• For example, the liver transforms ammonia — a poisonous by-
product of protein catabolism — into urea, which is filtered from
the blood by the kidneys and excreted in urine
• The liver also excretes in its bile the protein bilirubin, a
byproduct of hemoglobin catabolism that forms when
red blood cells die
• Bile travels to the small intestine and is then excreted in feces
by the large intestine
3. Large intestine
• The large intestine is an important part of the digestive
system and the final organ in the gastrointestinal tract
• As an organ of excretion, its main function is to
eliminate solid wastes that remain after the digestion of food and the extraction of water
from indigestible matter in food waste
• The large intestine also collects wastes from throughout the body
• Bile secreted into the gastrointestinal tract, for example, contains the waste product bilirubin
from the liver
• Bilirubin is a brown pigment that gives human feces their characteristic brown color
4. Kidneys
• The paired kidneys are often considered the main organs of excretion
 • The primary function of the kidneys is the elimination of excess
water and wastes from the bloodstream by the production of
the liquid waste known as urine
• The main structural and functional units of the kidneys are tiny
structures called nephrons
• Nephrons filter materials out of the blood, return to the blood
what is needed, and excrete the rest as urine
• As shown in the diagram below, the kidneys are organs of
the urinary system, which also includes the ureters, bladder, and
urethra — organs that transport, store, and eliminate urine,
respectively
The urinary system consists of two kidneys (1), two ureters (2)
the urinary bladder (3), and the urethra (4).

9. Homeostasis: balancing our body

what is homeostatis?
• Homeostasis refers to stability, balance, or equilibrium within a cell or the body
• It is an organism’s ability to keep a constant internal environment
• Homeostasis is an important characteristic of living things
• Keeping a stable internal environment requires constant adjustments as conditions change
inside and outside the cell
• The adjusting of systems within a cell is called homeostatic regulation
• Because the internal and external environments of a cell are constantly changing,
adjustments must be made continuously to stay at or near the set point (the normal level or
range)
• Homeostasis can be thought of as a dynamic equilibrium rather than a constant,
unchanging state.

10. Reproduction in plants: parts of a flower and its function

parts of flower and its function

• petal: to attract insects and mammals to the flower for pollination
• receptacle: support the flower while elevating to
attract insects
• stigma: the part of pistil where pollen
germinates. Stigmas are adapted to trap the
pollen to increase the efficiency
• ovary: contain egg cells and supports cells
necessary for reproduction
• ovule: a small structure in a seed plant that
contains embryo sac and develops into a seed
 after fertilization
• anther: to produce and bear the pollen of the flower
• filament: holds up the anther
• sepal: to provide support and protection for a flower as they close up around it until it is
ready to bloom
• nectaries: the part bees go to get what they need for honey. Nectaries secrete nectar

11. Asexual and sexual reproduction

asexual reproduction
• One parent needed
• Cell divide by fission, budding or regeneration (mitosis)
• Found in lower organisms
• Completed in a very short period of time
• The offspring is 2 or more

sexual reproduction
• Two parents are required to mate
• Cell divide bye meiosis
• Found in higher invertebrates and all vertebrates
• Can take several months to complete
• The offspring is 1 or more

12. Mitosis and meiosis

mitosis
• Somatic cells divide once
• Two daughter cells are produced
• Each cell is diploid containing the same number of chromosomes
• The resulting daughter cell are genetic clones (identical)

meiosis
• Reproductive cells divide twice
• Four daughter cells are produce
• Each cell is haploid containing one-half the number of chromosomes as the original cell
• The resulting daughter cell contains different combination of genes

13. Continuous and discontinuous variation

continuous
• No distinct categories
• No limit of the value
• Tends to be quantitive
 • examples: height, weight, heart rate, finger length, leaf length
• Controlled by a lot of genes and environment

discontinuous
• Distinct categories
• No in-between categories
• Tends to be qualitative
• examples: gender, eye colour, blood type
• Controlled by a few genes

14. Differentiate between co-dominance, complete dominance and incomplete dominance

complete dominance
• Red + White = Red (more dominant)

co-dominance
• Red + White = Red and White (combination)

incomplete dominance
• Red + White = Pink (mixed)

15. Types of adaptation

structural adaptation
• Physical features of an organism that enable them to survive in their environment
• ex: thick fur coats

physiological adaptation
• Internal and/or cellular features of an organism that enable them to survive in their
environment
• ex: hibernation

behavioural adaptation
• Actions of an organism that enable them to survive in their environment
• ex: basking in sun