History of computer generation

Background

The ENIAC
Computers and electronics play an enormous role in today's society, impacting
everything from communication and medicine to science.
Although computers are typically viewed as a modern invention involving
electronics, computing predates the use of electrical devices. The ancient abacus
was perhaps the first digital computing device. Analog computing dates back
several millennia as primitive computing devices were used as early as the ancient
Greeks and Romans, the most known complex of which being the Antikythera
mechanism. Later devices such as the castle clock (1206), slide rule (c. 1624) and
Babbage's Difference Engine (1822) are other examples of early mechanical
analog computers.
The introduction of electric power in the 19th century led to the rise of electrical
and hybrid electro-mechanical devices to carry out both digital (Hollerith punch-
card machine) and analog (Bush’s differential analyzer) calculation. Telephone
switching came to be based on this technology, which led to the development of
machines that we would recognize as early computers.
The presentation of the Edison Effect in 1885 provided the theoretical background
for electronic devices. Originally in the form of vacuum tubes, electronic
components were rapidly integrated into electric devices, revolutionizing radio and
later television. It was in computers however, where the full impact of electronics
was felt. Analog computers used to calculate ballistics were crucial to the outcome
of World War II, and the Colossus and the ENIAC, the two earliest electronic
digital computers, were developed during the war.
With the invention of solid-state electronics, the transistor and ultimately the
integrated circuit, computers would become much smaller and eventually
affordable for the average consumer. Today “computers” are present in nearly
every aspect of everyday life, from watches to automobiles.

STARS Articles
STARS articles are peer-reviewed articles on the history of major developments in
technology. Available in the computers and information processing category are:

 Differential Analyzers
 Early Punched Card Equipment, 1880 - 1951
 Early Popular Computers, 1950 - 1970
 Electronic Calculators: Desktop to Pocket
 IBM System/360
 Inventing the Computer
 Software Industry
 Word Processing for the Japanese Language

Subcategories
 Automation - The use of information technologies and control systems to
reduce the need for human labor in the production of goods and services
 Circuitry - Included are topics which deal with the workings and issues dealing
with circuitry, such as circuit noise, silicon on insulator technology and circuit
synthesis
 Computational and artificial intelligence - Covers aspects dealing with
artificial intelligence from a computational standpoint
 Computer applications - Various practical applications of computing such as
computer aided design and telecommunications community
 Computer architecture - The inner workings of computers, including data
structures, system buses and distributed computing
 Computer classes - Different kinds of computers, such as calculators, analog
and digital computers.
 Computer networks - Topics dealing with networking, such as IP networks,
multicasting and WAN.
 Computer science - The mathematical, algorithmic and scientific elements of
computing are included here, such as algorithm analysis, programming and
graph theory.
 Computing - Various types of computing such as high performance, mobile
and optical computing
 Consumer electronics - Electronic devices designed for consumer purchases
such as sound systems
 Contacts - Electrical contacts for joining electrical circuits

 Data systems - Topics dealing with systems that process data
 Digital systems - Systems like metropolitan area networks and token networks
are covered under this category
 Distributed computing - All aspects of distributed computing including client-
server systems, peer to peer computing and file servers are included in this
category
 Electron devices - Electron devices and tubes such as cathode ray tubes,
vacuum tubes and electron guns
 Electronic components - Topics pertaining to components such as capacitors,
resistors, diodes and switches
 Electronic equipment manufacture - Various elements related to the
manufacturing element of components, circuitry and devices are included in
this category
 Filtering - Different types of filtering methods such as active, Bragg and
harmonic filters
 High-speed electronics - Includes integrated circuits, networks, and Ultrafast
electronics.
 Image processing - Topics relating to processing of computer images
 Imaging - Devices which display an object's outward appearance
 Industrial electronics - Power electronics used in an industrial setting
 Information display - Electronic and liquid screens and displays
 Information theory - The processing of information via the use of applied
mathematics and electrical engineering
 Integrated circuits - One of the 20th century's largest breakthroughs in
electronics, integrated circuits paved the way for miniaturized electronics
 Logic devices - Logic gates and arrays are among the concepts which provide a
foundation for digital circuits
 Memory - Computer memory such as analog memory, flash memory and read
only memory are included
 Multitasking - Multitasking is the act of performing two or more tasks at the
same time
 Open systems - Computer systems which provide a platform of interoperability
 Oscillators - Various kinds of oscillators and their applications related to
electric devices
 Pattern recognition - Methods of using computers to recognize patterns such
as character recognition, data mining and text recognition
 Pervasive computing - A ubiquitous computing model in which information
processing is integrated with common objects
 Sensors - A sensor is a measurement device which produces a readable signal
 Software & software engineering - Topics dealing with various elements of
software and its design
 Solid state circuits - Devices composed of a solid material where the flow of
electronics is confined to the solid material
 System recovery - Various aspects of system recovery and backup such as core
dumps and debugging
 Thermal management of electronics - Topics dealing with heat in electronics
 Tunable circuits and devices - Topics dealing with circuits and devices which
may be tuned such as RLC circuits
The computer was born not for entertainment or email but out of a need
to solve a serious number-crunching crisis. By 1880, the U.S. population
had grown so large that it took more than seven years to tabulate the
U.S. Census results. The government sought a faster way to get the job
done, giving rise to punch-card based computers that took up entire
rooms.
Today, we carry more computing power on our smartphones than was
available in these early models. The following brief history of
computing is a timeline of how computers evolved from their humble
beginnings to the machines of today that surf the Internet, play games
and stream multimedia in addition to crunching numbers.
1801: In France, Joseph Marie Jacquard invents a loom that uses
punched wooden cards to automatically weave fabric designs. Early
computers would use similar punch cards.
1822: English mathematician Charles Babbage conceives of a steam-
driven calculating machine that would be able to compute tables of
numbers. The project, funded by the English government, is a failure.
More than a century later, however, the world's first computer was
actually built.
1890: Herman Hollerith designs a punch card system to calculate the
1880 census, accomplishing the task in just three years and saving the
government $5 million. He establishes a company that would ultimately
become IBM.
1936: Alan Turing presents the notion of a universal machine, later
called the Turing machine, capable of computing anything that is
computable. The central concept of the modern computer was based on
his ideas.
1937: J.V. Atanasoff, a professor of physics and mathematics at Iowa
State University, attempts to build the first computer without gears,
cams, belts or shafts.
1939: Hewlett-Packard is founded by David Packard and Bill Hewlett in
a Palo Alto, California, garage, according to the Computer History
Museum.
1941: Atanasoff and his graduate student, Clifford Berry, design a
computer that can solve 29 equations simultaneously. This marks the
first time a computer is able to store information on its main memory.
1943-1944: Two University of Pennsylvania professors, John Mauchly
and J. Presper Eckert, build the Electronic Numerical Integrator and
Calculator (ENIAC). Considered the grandfather of digital computers, it
fills a 20-foot by 40-foot room and has 18,000 vacuum tubes.
1946: Mauchly and Presper leave the University of Pennsylvania and
receive funding from the Census Bureau to build the UNIVAC, the first
commercial computer for business and government applications.
1947: William Shockley, John Bardeen and Walter Brattain of Bell
Laboratories invent the transistor. They discovered how to make an
electric switch with solid materials and no need for a vacuum.
1953: Grace Hopper develops the first computer language, which
eventually becomes known as COBOL. Thomas Johnson Watson Jr.,
son of IBM CEO Thomas Johnson Watson Sr., conceives the IBM 701
EDPM to help the United Nations keep tabs on Korea during the war.
1954: The FORTRAN programming language, an acronym for
FORmula TRANslation, is developed by a team of programmers at IBM
led by John Backus, according to the University of Michigan.
1958: Jack Kilby and Robert Noyce unveil the integrated circuit, known
as the computer chip. Kilby was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in
2000 for his work.
1964: Douglas Engelbart shows a prototype of the modern computer,
with a mouse and a graphical user interface (GUI). This marks the
evolution of the computer from a specialized machine for scientists and
mathematicians to technology that is more accessible to the general
public.
1969: A group of developers at Bell Labs produce UNIX, an operating
system that addressed compatibility issues. Written in the C
programming language, UNIX was portable across multiple platforms
and became the operating system of choice among mainframes at large
companies and government entities. Due to the slow nature of the
system, it never quite gained traction among home PC users.
1970: The newly formed Intel unveils the Intel 1103, the first Dynamic
Access Memory (DRAM) chip.
1971: Alan Shugart leads a team of IBM engineers who invent the
"floppy disk," allowing data to be shared among computers.
1973: Robert Metcalfe, a member of the research staff for Xerox,
develops Ethernet for connecting multiple computers and other
hardware.
1974-1977: A number of personal computers hit the market, including
Scelbi & Mark-8 Altair, IBM 5100, Radio Shack's TRS-80 —
affectionately known as the "Trash 80" — and the Commodore PET.
1975: The January issue of Popular Electronics magazine features the
Altair 8080, described as the "world's first minicomputer kit to rival
commercial models." Two "computer geeks," Paul Allen and Bill Gates,
offer to write software for the Altair, using the new BASIC language.
On April 4, after the success of this first endeavor, the two childhood
friends form their own software company, Microsoft.
1976: Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak start Apple Computers on April
Fool's Day and roll out the Apple I, the first computer with a single-
circuit board, according to Stanford University.
The TRS-80, introduced in 1977, was one of the first machines whose
documentation was intended for non-geeks
(Image credit: Radioshack)
1977: Radio Shack's initial production run of the TRS-80 was just 3,000.
It sold like crazy. For the first time, non-geeks could write programs and
make a computer do what they wished.
1977: Jobs and Wozniak incorporate Apple and show the Apple II at the
first West Coast Computer Faire. It offers color graphics and
incorporates an audio cassette drive for storage.
1978: Accountants rejoice at the introduction of VisiCalc, the first
computerized spreadsheet program.
1979: Word processing becomes a reality as MicroPro International
releases WordStar. "The defining change was to add margins and word
wrap," saidcreator Rob Barnaby in email to Mike Petrie in 2000.
"Additional changes included getting rid of command mode and adding
a print function. I was the technical brains — I figured out how to do it,
and did it, and documented it. "
The first IBM personal computer, introduced on Aug. 12, 1981, used the
MS-DOS operating system.
(Image credit: IBM)
1981: The first IBM personal computer, code-named "Acorn," is
introduced. It uses Microsoft's MS-DOS operating system. It has an Intel
chip, two floppy disks and an optional color monitor. Sears & Roebuck
and Computerland sell the machines, marking the first time a computer
is available through outside distributors. It also popularizes the term PC.
1983: Apple's Lisa is the first personal computer with a GUI. It also
features a drop-down menu and icons. It flops but eventually evolves
into the Macintosh. The Gavilan SC is the first portable computer with
the familiar flip form factor and the first to be marketed as a "laptop."
1985: Microsoft announces Windows, according to Encyclopedia
Britannica. This was the company's response to Apple's GUI.
Commodore unveils the Amiga 1000, which features advanced audio
and video capabilities.
1985: The first dot-com domain name is registered on March 15, years
before the World Wide Web would mark the formal beginning
of Internet history. The Symbolics Computer Company, a small
Massachusetts computer manufacturer, registers Symbolics.com. More
than two years later, only 100 dot-coms had been registered.
1986: Compaq brings the Deskpro 386 to market. Its 32-bit architecture
provides as speed comparable to mainframes.
1990: Tim Berners-Lee, a researcher at CERN, the high-energy physics
laboratory in Geneva, develops HyperText Markup Language (HTML),
giving rise to the World Wide Web.
1993: The Pentium microprocessor advances the use of graphics and
music on PCs.
1994: PCs become gaming machines as "Command & Conquer," "Alone
in the Dark 2," "Theme Park," "Magic Carpet," "Descent" and "Little
Big Adventure" are among the games to hit the market.
1996: Sergey Brin and Larry Page develop the Google search engine at
Stanford University.
1997: Microsoft invests $150 million in Apple, which was struggling at
the time, ending Apple's court case against Microsoft in which it alleged
that Microsoft copied the "look and feel" of its operating system.
1999: The term Wi-Fi becomes part of the computing language and
users begin connecting to the Internet without wires.
2001: Apple unveils the Mac OS X operating system, which provides
protected memory architecture and pre-emptive multi-tasking, among
other benefits. Not to be outdone, Microsoft rolls out Windows XP,
which has a significantly redesigned GUI.
2003: The first 64-bit processor, AMD's Athlon 64, becomes available to
the consumer market.
2004: Mozilla's Firefox 1.0 challenges Microsoft's Internet Explorer, the
dominant Web browser. Facebook, a social networking site, launches.
2005: YouTube, a video sharing service, is founded. Google acquires
Android, a Linux-based mobile phone operating system.
2006: Apple introduces the MacBook Pro, its first Intel-based, dual-core
mobile computer, as well as an Intel-based iMac. Nintendo's Wii game
console hits the market.
2007: The iPhone brings many computer functions to the smartphone.
2009: Microsoft launches Windows 7, which offers the ability to pin
applications to the taskbar and advances in touch and handwriting
recognition, among other features.
2010: Apple unveils the iPad, changing the way consumers view media
and jumpstarting the dormant tablet computer segment.
2011: Google releases the Chromebook, a laptop that runs the Google
Chrome OS.
2012: Facebook gains 1 billion users on October 4.
2015: Apple releases the Apple Watch. Microsoft releases Windows 10.
2016: The first reprogrammable quantum computer was created. "Until
now, there hasn't been any quantum-computing platform that had the
capability to program new algorithms into their system. They're usually
each tailored to attack a particular algorithm," said study lead author
Shantanu Debnath, a quantum physicist and optical engineer at the
University of Maryland, College Park.
2017: The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) is
developing a new "Molecular Informatics" program that uses molecules
as computers. "Chemistry offers a rich set of properties that we may be
able to harness for rapid, scalable information storage and processing,"
Anne Fischer, program manager in DARPA's Defense Sciences Office,
said in a statement. "Millions of molecules exist, and each molecule has
a unique three-dimensional atomic structure as well as variables such as
shape, size, or even color. This richness provides a vast design space for
exploring novel and multi-value ways to encode and process data
beyond the 0s and 1s of current logic-based, digital architectures.

The Role of the Motherboard

The motherboard is lovingly named, because it is either the origin point of other parts of the
computer or where every other component connects to. In a way, it is a lot like what you would refer
to your home country as: the motherland.

The motherboard is basically a circuit board of a decent size, depending on the size of the computer
we’re dealing with. It acts as a nexus of sorts because it facilitates the communication of the other
components in the computer. There are ports on the motherboard that face the outside of the
computer, allowing you to plug in different components into your computer and also to charge it.

Most motherboards also allow you to scale up by including slots that allow for expansion. You could
add in components like CPUs and RAMs, Video cards, and so on. You can also expand the
motherboard by adding more ports that allow you to connect even more auxiliary devices to your
computer. In other words, you have control over just what your computer’s capabilities are.

Apart from this, the motherboard plays other roles like storing some simple information when the
computer is off, such as the system time. That’s why your computer always tells you the correct
time, even when you turn it on after a long time.

The Power Supply

The power supply, as you might have already guessed is the powerhouse of the computer. It
ensures that every other component gets the juice that it needs to function properly. The power
supply looks like a black box of sorts, with a fan built into it. It is plugged into the motherboard, where
it supplies power to the other components of the computer.
On the one hand, the power supply is plugged into the motherboard. On the other, it is connected to
some kind of power source. If you’re using a laptop, then that power source is a removable or
permanent battery. If you’re using a desktop, then that power source is a power outlet.

The fan on the power source plays a very important role. It cools it down as it does its duty to
prevent the computer’s internals from overheating. It’s important to keep that fan clean so that the
computer’s power supply functions like it’s meant to.

The Central Processing Unit

You may have heard of the cliché that the central processing unit is the brain of the computer. Well,
the only reason it’s a cliché is that it’s true. The c_entral processing unit_, or CPU, is where all the
magic happens. It is to the computer what an engine is to a car.

The CPU mainly does arithmetic and logical tasks. It will make a bunch of calculations to ensure
the functions of the computer are carried out efficiently. The CPU doesn’t always function at a single
speed. The speed can vary depending on the priority and intensity of the task at hand. The CPU will
generate a lot of heat as it does its work and so that fan that comes built into the power supply
comes in real handy at this point.

The more powerful a CPU is, the more capable it is of carrying out more and more intense work. For
the basic things that an everyday computer does, like word processing, preparing spreadsheets, and
browsing the internet, an average CPU will do. However, when you need to edit high definition video,
program complicated software, or play CPU-intensive games, you will need a powerful CPU.

The Random Access Memory

The Random Access Memory, or RAM, is a temporary form of memory. When you open an
application in our computer, the computer will place that application and all its data in the RAM.
When you close the application, then space in the RAM is freed. That is why your computer gets so
slow when you have too many applications open; your RAM is probably being used at capacity.

Since RAM is only temporary, it has a volatile nature. The minute you turn your computer off, all of
the memory that is stored in RAM is lost. That’s why you’re advised to keep saving the work you do
in applications as you go along to avoid losing all of it in case your computer suddenly goes off.

The more RAM you have, the greater the number of programs that you can run simultaneously.
The Hard Drive or Solid State Drive
Remember that we said RAM is volatile due to its temporary nature, which means the computer still
needs a more permanent form of data storage. That’s why the hard drive or solid state drive exists.
Traditionally, the hard drive is a drum with several platters piled on it and spinning, and physical arm
then writes data onto these platters. These disks are very slow because of the mechanics through
which data is stored, although latest hard drives, solid state drives, are much faster.

Solid state drives have the same kind of memory as the one on your phone or flash drive, also
known as flash memory. They cost more but are also faster and more efficient than traditional hard
drives.

The data stored in the hard drive does not disappear when you switch your computer off. It will be
there when you switch the computer back on. You are, however, advised to keep it far away from
magnets as they could damage it and cause you to lose your information.

The Video Card

The video card is a dedicated component that hands the images output by your monitor display.
They come with their own RAM, dedicated to this singular purpose. If your work involves highly
visual work at very high definitions, then you should get yourself a video card to take the load off
your RAM.

Sometimes, the computer may have integrated graphics, where some of the RAM is borrowed for
graphics processing. This happens frequently on laptops, because there is a need to save space.
Using integrated graphics is much less expensive using a graphics card, but is not sufficient for
intense graphics functions.

The Optical Drives

These have become a lot less common today, with many machines doing away with them
altogether. An optical drive is used to read CDs and DVDs, which can be used to listen to music or
watch movies. They can also be used to install software, play games, or write new information into a
disk.
Input/Output Devices
Depending on the type of computer you have, there are lots of devices you can connect to your
computer to input information and also output it. Some examples of input devices are the mouse, the
keyboard, and the webcam. Examples of output devices include monitors, speakers, and monitors.
There are also removable devices, such as SD cards and flash drives, which can be used to transfer
data to and from your computer.

Computer Cable Connections - How to Connect

Computer Cables
Learn how to identify computer cable connections and hook up your computer in minutes today...
with our computer cable guide (with pictures).

Let's begin with display cables. There are four types of computer cable connections to a monitor:
VGA, DVI, HDMI and DisplayPort.

If your monitor accepts two or more cables types (e.g. VGA and DVI), you should just connect a
single display cable to it. For this example, you can hook up your monitor to either a VGA cable or
DVI cable (but not both).

If your CPU has integrated graphics and you install a discrete graphics card, you'll end up with two
sets of display ports. In this case, ALWAYS connect your display cable to your graphics card and not
the motherboard.

1. VGA Cable
Also known as D-sub cable, analog video cable
Connect one end to: computer monitor, television (PC input port)

Connect other end to: VGA port on computer (see image below)
2. DVI Cable
Connect one end to: computer monitor

Connect other end to: DVI port on computer (see image below)
3. HDMI Cable
Connect one end to: computer monitor, television

Connect other end to: HDMI port on computer (see image below)

Note: If you're hooking up a television to your computer, then we would recommend that you use a
HDMI cable as your PC cable connection since it is able to transmit both display and sound - So you
can not only use your TV screen as a monitor, but also make use of your TV speakers to play PC
audio.
4. PS/2 Cable
Connect one end to: PS/2 keyboard, PS/2 mouse

Connect other end to: PS/2 ports on computer (see image below)

 Purple PS/2 port: keyboard

 Green PS/2 port: mouse
5. Ethernet Cable
Also known as RJ-45 cable
Connect one end to: router, network switch

Connect other end to: Ethernet port on computer (see image below)
6. 3.5mm Audio Cable
Also known as phone connector (since 3.5mm jacks are often found on mobile phones too)
Connect one end to: computer speakers, 3.5mm headphones, 3.5mm microphone

Connect other end to: audio ports on computer (see image below)

 Green audio port: computer speakers or headphones

 Pink audio port: microphone
 Blue audio port: MP3 player, CD player, DVD player, turntable, electric guitar etc (line-in
port to play and record sounds from the above devices)
7. USB Cable
For USB computer cable connections, there are two popular formats: USB 2.0 and the newer USB
3.0

How to tell USB 2.0 and 3.0 cables apart: USB 3.0 cables have a blue tip, and sometimes you can
find a SS "Super Speed" label on it. See image below:
Since USB was intended to be the one computer cable connection to replace them all, it's no surprise
that the possible uses for a USB port are quite mind-blowing. For this computer cable guide, we have
listed its more common uses below:

Connect one end to: USB device

 Storage devices: USB flash drive, external hard drive, external optical drive
 Input devices: USB keyboard (wired and wireless), USB mouse (wired and wireless),
webcam, scanner, gamepad
 Output devices: printer, all-in-one office machine, USB speaker
 Wireless adapters: network (Wi-Fi) adapter, bluetooth adapter, 3G adapter
 Data (and charging) cable for mobile devices such as mobile phone, tablet, MP3 player

Connect other end to: USB ports on computer (see image below)

How to tell USB 2.0 and 3.0 ports apart: USB 2.0 ports have black tips while USB 3.0 ports come
with blue tips. See image below:
USB 3.0 is backwards-compatible... meaning that you can connect a USB 2.0 device to a USB 3.0
port and vice versa (but the USB 3.0 devices hooked up to a USB 2.0 port will perform at lowered
rates) - Click here to learn more about the difference between USB 2.0 and 3.0.

8. Computer Power Cord

Connect one end to: AC power socket

Connect other end to: power supply unit (see image below), computer monitor

Note: Always turn off your power supply unit (with the 1-0 switch at the back) before connecting a
power cord to it.
Booting the Computer
PREV NEXT

This is the message you receive if a disk is in the drive when you restart your computer.

Whenever you turn on your computer, the first thing you see is the BIOS software
doing its thing. On many machines, the BIOS displays text describing things like
the amount of memory installed in your computer, the type of hard disk and so
on. It turns out that, during this boot sequence, the BIOS is doing a remarkable
amount of work to get your computer ready to run. This section briefly describes
some of those activities for a typical PC.

After checking the CMOS Setup and loading the interrupt handlers, the BIOS
determines whether the video card is operational. Most video cards have a
miniature BIOS of their own that initializes the memory and graphics processor
on the card. If they do not, there is usually video driver information on another
ROM on the motherboard that the BIOS can load.

Next, the BIOS checks to see if this is a cold boot or a reboot. It does this by
checking the value at memory address 0000:0472. A value of 1234h indicates a
reboot, and the BIOS skips the rest of POST. Anything else is considered a cold
boot.

If it is a cold boot, the BIOS verifies RAM by performing a read/write test of each
memory address. It checks the PS/2 ports or USB ports for a keyboard and a
mouse. It looks for a peripheral component interconnect (PCI) bus and, if it
finds one, checks all the PCI cards. If the BIOS finds any errors during the POST, it
will notify you by a series of beeps or a text message displayed on the screen. An
error at this point is almost always a hardware problem.
The BIOS then displays some details about your system. This typically includes
information about:

 The processor
 The floppy drive and hard drive
 Memory
 BIOS revision and date
 Display
Any special drivers, such as the ones for small computer system interface (SCSI)
adapters, are loaded from the adapter, and the BIOS displays the information.
The BIOS then looks at the sequence of storage devices identified
as boot devices in the CMOS Setup. "Boot" is short for "bootstrap," as in the old
phrase, "Lift yourself up by your bootstraps." Boot refers to the process of
launching the operating system. The BIOS will try to initiate the boot sequence
from the first device. If the BIOS does not find a device, it will try the next device
in the list. If it does not find the proper files on a device, the startup process will
halt. If you have ever left a disk when you restarted your computer, you have
probably seen this message.

The BIOS has tried to boot the computer off of the disk left in the drive. Since it
did not find the correct system files, it could not continue. Of course, this is an
easy fix. Simply pop out the disk and press a key to continue.
 How to Install an Operating System
on a Brand New Computer

Insert the installation disk or flash drive. To install a new operating system on
Windows, you must have the operating system's install tool on a DVD or flash drive, and
the disk or flash drive must be inserted into your computer. If you don't have a version of
the operating system you want to download, you can download one for the following
operating systems:
 Windows 10
 Windows 8
 Windows 7

Restart your computer. Press and hold your computer's Power button to turn it off,
wait for a few seconds, and then press the Power button again to turn the computer
back on.

3
Wait for the computer's first startup screen to appear. Once the startup screen
appears, you'll have a very limited window in which you can press the setup key.
 It's best to start pressing the setup key as soon as the computer begins to restart.

4
Press and hold Del or F2 to enter the BIOS page. The key you're prompted to press
might also be different; if so, use that key instead. This will load your computer's BIOS
page, from which point you can select your installation disk or drive.
 You'll typically use the "F" keys to access the BIOS. These are at the top of your
keyboard, though you may have to locate and hold the Fn key while pressing the proper
"F" key.
 You can look at your computer model's manual or online support page to confirm your
computer's BIOS key.

5
Locate the "Boot Order" section. This section is normally on the main page of the
BIOS, though you may need to use the arrow keys to navigate over to the "Boot" or
"Advanced" tab.
 The "Boot Order" section varies from BIOS to BIOS. If you can't find your BIOS' "Boot
Order" page, consult your motherboard's manual or look up your computer model online
to find direct instruction for your specific BIOS page.

6
Select the location from which you want to start your computer. In this case, you'll
be starting your computer either from the disk drive or from an external drive, such as a
flash drive.
 The disk drive option is usually labeled CD-ROM Drive, while external drives will show
up as Removable Devices.

7
Move your selected location to the top of the list. Typically, you'll press the + key
with the boot location you want to use selected until it's at the top of the "Boot Order"
list.
 You can double-check the key that you're supposed to use in the legend that's usually
on the right side or the bottom of the BIOS page.
 8
Save your settings and exit the BIOS. There should be a "Save and Exit" key listed in
the BIOS' key legend; press the key listed there to save your settings and exit the BIOS.
 You may have to confirm this decision by pressing ↵ Enter with Yes selected.

9
Restart your computer. Once your computer begins to start up again, it will select your
disk or flash drive as the boot location, which means that it will begin installing the
operating system.

On Mac

1
Restart your Mac. Press and hold your Mac's Power button until the computer turns off,
then press the Power button again to turn your Mac on.
 If your Mac is already off, just press the Power button to turn it on.
 You will need Internet access to perform this process on your Mac.

2
Hold down ⌘ Command , ⌥ Option , and R at the same time. You'll need to start doing
this before the Mac start-up sound plays.
 3
Release the keys when you see the globe icon. Once the image of a spinning globe
and the words "Starting Internet Recovery. This may take a while" appear, release the
keys.
 You may be prompted to select a wireless network and enter the network's password
before continuing.

4
Wait for your Mac's operating system to download. This can take anywhere from a
few minutes to a few hours depending on your Internet connection and the operating
system itself.
 Your Mac will download the operating system that came installed on it. For example, if
your Mac was running OS X Yosemite when you bought it, Yosemite is the operating
system that will be installed.

 5
 Select an installation location. On the operating system page, click your
Mac's disk drive icon, which is a grey box in the middle of the page.

 6
 Click Install . It's in the bottom-right corner of the page.

 7
 Wait for the operating system to install. Again, this can take several
minutes to several hours depending on your Mac and the operating system.
Once the installation is complete, your Mac will restart into your new
operating system.