Republic of the Philippines

CAVITE STATE UNIVERSITY

Don Severino delas Alas Campus
Indang, Cavite

WENG 260 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE SYSTEMS

First Long Examination

Name: Babaan, Alisxandre Joshua P. Score

You may use illustrations/tables/graphs to support your explanation for each of the six items.
Follow the file name of the questionnaire when you save your exam.

Each item is given 10 points.

1. How would you summarize the historical development of irrigation in the Philippines?
Explain the highlights of each period. Which period would you consider had the most
significant impact on our irrigation and drainage practices?

Answer:

Pre-Spanish

Irrigation development in the country dates back to the pre-Spanish period as

evidenced by the centuries-old. Banawe terraces covering 20,000 hectares that were
built by the local community.

Spanish period

During the Spanish period, many small run-of-the river gravity irrigation
systems along coastal plains totaling about 200,000 hectares were constructed
largely in friarlands close to Manila and Ilocos region. These irrigation schemes were
built either through cooperative societies “Zanjeras” or by mobilizing labor for
construction and operation in large haciendas and friarlands.

American Period

Public investments in irrigation development under the American Period with

the establishment of an Irrigation Division in the Bureau of Public Works in 1908. This
division directly constructed and managed 12 irrigation systems in Central Luzon,
Ilocos, and the Panay Island in Western Visayas by the late 1920's. Although some
public support for communally built and managed small-scale irrigation were provided
in the 1930's and 1940's under the Philippine Commonwealth and Japanese
Regimes, it was not until the postwar period that major public support for irrigation
was resumed.
 1950's

This renewed expansion of irrigation in the 1950's included communal

irrigation and the first irrigation projects of foreign loans and grants in Mindanao and
other new areas.

1960’s

In the effort to further strengthen institutional support for irrigation

development, the National Irrigation Administration (NIA) was established in 1960’s
as a public corporation in place of the former Irrigation Division and provided greater
financial resources and financial flexibility. Integration of National Irrigation System
(NIS), Communal Irrigation System (CIS), and Public Irrigation System (PIS) began
in this era.

1970’s

Public expenditures for irrigation at its peak in the late 1970’s for nearly 20%
of total public investment in infrastructure and 40% of public support to the agriculture
sector. It has also been a major recipient of foreign loans and grants.

1980’s

The importance of continuing the heavy public investments in irrigation

expansion has began to be questioned in the early 1980’s as self-sufficiency in rice
was briefly achieved. With the sharp drop of world rice prices since the mid-1980’s,
foreign debt problems, and severe budgetary squeeze, public expenditures for
irrigation fell sharply in real terms, as well as in proportion to the total infrastructure
budget and to public support to agriculture.

1990’s

In 1990’s, with the transfer of National Irrigation Administration (NIA) to the

Department of Agriculture (DA), the irrigation-related (Small Water Impounding
Projects) projects of the DA’s Bureau of Soils and Water Management as well as
other agricultural programs are expected to be better coordinated with irrigation
concerns.

The period which consider had the most significant impact on our irrigation
and drainage practices is in the year 1990’s when NIA is to transfer to the DA
because many irrigation-related projects where constructed and funded. It is consider
as the “golden age” of NIA. Visitors came from abroad to see the changes first hand.
IMT was adopted in many locations in Asia. A decade later, Asian Development Bank
funded a study undertaken by the International Water Management Institute.

2. What do you think is the significance of understanding soil-water-plant relationships

in relation to irrigation and drainage?

Answer:

To identify the significance of soil-water-plant relationships in relation to

irrigation and drainage, we must first determine the scope of it like the soil’s physical
characteristics which include soil texture, soil structure, bulk density, and soil
porosity. They all affect the interaction between soil, water, and air. We can also
include the soil and water interactions

WEM 201 First Long Examination (LL Cero)

Soil’s Physical Characteristics

Soil Composition - A unit of soil is a combination of solid material,

composed of mineral and organic matter, and open space, called pores. By volume,
most soils are roughly 50 percent solids and 50 percent pore space. The mineral
matter makes up about 45 to 47 percent of the total soil volume. This mineral matter
consists of small particles of either sand, silt, or clay. Organic matter is made up of
decaying plant and animal substances and is distributed in and among the mineral
particles. Organic matter can account for up to about 5 percent of the overall soil
makeup by volume, but many agricultural soils have less than 1 percent organic
matter. The pores, spaces that occur between the mineral particles, are important
because they store air and water in the soil.

OM, 5%

Air, 25%

Mineral,
Water ,
45%
25%

Figure 1. Typical soil composition by Volume

Soil Texture - The size of the particles that make up the soil determine soil
texture. The traditional method of determining soil particle size consists of separating
the particles into three convenient size ranges. These soil fractions or separates are
sand, silt, and clay.

Soil Structure - Soil structure is the shape and arrangement of soil particles
into aggregates. Soil structure is an important characteristic used to classify soils and
heavily influences agricultural productivity and other uses, such as load-bearing
capacity for structures.

Soil Bulk Density and Porosity - Soil bulk density expresses the ratio of the
mass weight of dry soil to its total volume. The total volume includes both the solids
and the pore spaces. Soil bulk density is important because it is an indicator of the
soil’s porosity. The porosity of a soil is defined as the volume of pores in a soil. A
compacted soil has low porosity and thus a greater bulk density. A loose soil has a
greater porosity and a lower bulk density

WEM 201 First Long Examination (LL Cero)

 Figure 2. A soil textural classification triangle

Soil and Water Interactions

Soil properties directly affect the availability of water and nutrients to plants.
Soil water affects plant growth directly through its controlling effect on plant water
status and indirectly through its effect on aeration, temperature, nutrient uptake and
transport, and transformation.

The ratio of air to water stored in the pores changes as water is added to or
lost from the soil. The pore volume is actually a reservoir for holding soil water. This
is commonly known as water holding capacity of the soil. Water in the soil reservoir
comes in the form of drainage or gravitational water, capillary water and hygroscopic
water.

Figure 3. Schematic representation of soil water classification

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 The soil holds water in two ways – as a thin film on individual soil particles,
and as water stored in the pores of the soil. The water content or moisture content
(MC) of soil indicates the amount of water stored in it at any given time. As shown in
the above figure as well as in Figure 4 overleaf, the soil MC is described as
saturation, field capacity (FC), permanent wilting point (PWP), and oven-dry.

Note that not all of the water in the soil reservoir is available for plant use. The
water that percolates below the root zone due to the force of gravity is gravitational
water. It is deposited and forms part of the groundwater water in the aquifer. Unless it
is beyond the root zone, gravitational water is not readily available to plants.

During prolonged heavy rainfall or basin irrigation, the soil is at saturated

condition wherein all pore spaces are filled with water as shown in Figure 5. After 2 to
3 days, the soil is at FC. Under this condition, it contains the greatest amount of
water that is potentially available to plants. The actual volume of water present when
the soil is at FC depends on the soil texture.

When the soil is at or near saturation, some of the water is free to drain or
infiltrate due to the force of gravity. This excess water is referred to as drainage water
or gravitational water. FC is the amount of water remaining in the soil after rapid
infiltration of drainage water has occurred. It is defined to be at approximately one-
third atmosphere pressure or approximately 0.3 bar. At FC, it is very easy for the
plant to extract water from the soil.

Figure 4. Schematic representation of soil moisture content

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 Figure 5. Soil at saturated condition

PWP occurs when the potential of the plant root is balanced by the soil water
potential. Thus, plants are unable to absorb water beyond this tension. This occurs at
approximately 15 bars. Crops will die if soil water is allowed to reach the PWP.
Oven-dry soil condition does not occur naturally. Soil that has been oven dried in the
laboratory is used as a reference point for determining soil water content. This is
when all soil water has been removed from the soil. The soil water tension in an
oven-dried soil sample is approximately 10,000 bars.

Water between the FC and PWP is called capillary water. This is the water
retained in the soil pores after gravitational water has drained. Plants get most of
their water from capillary water. Surface tension or pressure holds capillary water
around the soil particles as shown in Figure 6. As water is removed by plants or by
evaporation from the soil surface, the films of water remaining around the soil
particles become thinner and are held by the soil particles more tightly.

Figure 6. Soil at field capacity

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 As water is depleted from the soil, the surface tension becomes high and the
plant hardly takes up water. This is called temporary wilting point wherein wilting is
evident during daytime but the plant recovers during nighttime when
evapotranspiration is relatively less. When the same condition persists and no water
is added to the soil, the surface tension becomes even higher until the plant is unable
to take up any of the remaining water and permanent wilting results. When the plant
has removed all available water, the soil moisture content has reached the PWP
(Figure 7). At PWP, the plant will eventually die even when water is added to the soil.

Figure 7. Soil at permanent wilting point

Plant growth depends on two important natural resources — soil and water.
Soil provides the mechanical support and nutrient reservoir necessary for plant
growth. Water is essential for plant life processes. Effective management of these
resources for crop production requires the producer to understand relationships
between soil, water, and plants. The significance of the understanding the soil-water-
plant relationships in relation to irrigation and drainage is inform the decision-making
process in agricultural operations or natural resource management, such as
determining what crops to plant, when to plant them, and when various management
practices should be schedule, which involves determination of moisture extraction
pattern of plants, effective root zone depth, rooting pattern. It also provides general
information on the physical characteristics of soil, soil and water interactions, and
how plants use water. The basic soil, water, and plant relationships are important to
agricultural producers, but especially to irrigation and drainage users that desire to
use best management practices such as irrigation scheduling. Irrigation scheduling
determines when and how much water needs to be added to a crop’s root zone to
promote optimum yields. Understanding these concepts is useful for addressing both
agronomic and policy issues related to agricultural water management.

WEM 201 First Long Examination (LL Cero)

3. One of the considerations in irrigation is the crop water requirement. How would you
assess the water requirement of crops in determining the amount of water needed
and the frequency of irrigation?

Answer:

There are several factors that determine when, where, and how much water a
plant will use. These factors include daily plant water need as influenced by
evapotranspiration (ET) which, in turn, is a function of climatic conditions and growth
stage, plant root depth, crop sensitivity to drought stress, proper irrigation scheduling
and soil and water quality. Crop water requirements (CWR) is a water requirements
and time of maximum demand vary with different crops. The rate of use varies also
with the degree of maturity.

Growth stage

A plant has different water needs at different growth stages. While a plant is
young it requires less water than when it is in the reproductive stage. When the plant
approaches maturity its water need drops (Figure 8).

At night when ET decreases to near zero, water steadily moves from the
wetter soil to the drier zone around the roots. The plant recovers turgor and wilting
ceases. This process of wilting during the day and recovering at night is referred to
as temporary wilting. When temporary wilting is manifested, irrigation water must be
applied within 3 to 5 days.

Most field crops will recover overnight from temporary wilting if less than 50
percent of the PAW has been depleted. However, the recommended volume may
range from 40 percent or less in sandy soils to greater than 60 percent in clayey
soils. The allowable depletion is also dependent on the type of crop, its stage of
development, and its sensitivity to drought stress. For example, the allowable
depletion recommended for some drought-sensitive crops particularly vegetable
crops is only 20 percent during critical stages of development. The allowable
depletion may approach 70 percent during non-critical periods for drought-tolerant
crops such as soybeans or cotton.

Figure 8. Crop water use at different growth stages

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Effective root depth

Rooting depth is the depth of the soil reservoir that the plant can reach to get
PAW. Plant roots do not extract water uniformly from the entire root zone. Thus, the
effective root depth is that portion of the root zone where the plant extracts the
majority of its water. Effective root depth is determined by both crop and soil
properties.

Different species of plants have different potential rooting depths. The

potential rooting depth is the maximum rooting depth of a crop when grown in a moist
soil with no barriers or restrictions that inhibit root elongation. Potential rooting depths
of most agricultural crops range from about 2 to 5 feet. For example, the potential
rooting depth of corn is about 4 feet.

Water uptake by a specific crop is closely related to its root development and
distribution in the soil. As shown in Figure 9, about 70 percent of a plant's roots are
found in the upper half of the crop's maximum rooting depth. Deeper roots can
extract moisture to keep the plant alive, but they do not extract sufficient water to
maintain optimum growth. When adequate moisture is present, water uptake by the
crop is about the same as its root distribution. Thus, about 70 percent of the water
used by the crop comes from the upper half of the root zone. This zone is the
effective root depth.

Figure 9. Moisture extraction or absorption at various root depths

The maximum rooting depth of crops is usually less than their potential
rooting depth and is restricted by soil chemical or physical barriers. A pH of about 4.5
to 5.0 has a limiting effect to root growth. Liming practices rarely improve soil pH
below the 2-foot depth. Shallow soils or soils with compacted tillage pans are
examples of soils with physical barriers that restrict root penetration below the plow
depth, usually less than 12 inches unless subsoiling is practiced. Thus, for example,
while corn has a potential rooting depth of 4 feet, when grown under these
conditions, its maximum rooting depth is about 2 feet.

WEM 201 First Long Examination (LL Cero)

 The effective root depth is the depth that should be used to compute the
volume of PAW in the soil reservoir. The effective root depth for a mature crop is
estimated to be one-half the maximum rooting depth reported in literatures. For
example, if a given crop has a maximum rooting depth of 2 feet, then the maximum
effective root depth is estimated to be 1 foot. Effective root depth is further influenced
by the stage of crop development. Effective root depth for most crops increases as
top growth increases until the reproductive stage is reached. After this time, effective
root depth remains fairly constant.

Crop sensitivity to drought stress

The reduction in crop yield or quality resulting from drought stress depends
on the stage of crop development. For example, corn is most susceptible to stresses
caused by dry conditions at silking stage. For a given level of stress, the yield
reduction for corn would be four times greater at silking stage than at knee-high
stage. From the yield standpoint, applying irrigation water at silking stage would be
worth four times more than if the same amount of water was applied during the knee-
high stage. Knowledge of this relationship is most useful when the irrigation capacity
or water supply is limited. When water is in short supply, irrigation should be delayed
or cancelled during the least susceptible crop growth stages. This water can then be
reserved for use during more sensitive growth stages.

For most field crops, the most critical irrigation period typically begins just
before the reproductive stage and lasts about 30 to 40 days to the end of the fruit
enlargement or grain development stage.

Irrigation Scheduling

The importance of irrigation scheduling is that it enables the irrigator to apply

the exact amount of water to achieve the goal. This increases irrigation efficiency. A
critical element is accurate measurement of the volume of water applied or the depth
of application.

Soil and water quality

Another factor on the amount of soil water available to the plant is the soil and
water quality. For optimum plant growth and development, the soil must have
adequate room for water and air movement, and for root growth. The soil structure
can be altered by certain soil management practices. For example, excessive tillage
can break apart aggregated soil and excessive traffic can cause compaction. Both of
these practices reduce the amount of pore space in the soil, and thus reduce the
availability of water and air, and reduce the room for root development.

The quality of the water is also important to plant development. Irrigation

water with a high content of soluble salt is not as available to the plant, so a higher
soil MC must be maintained in order to have water available to the plant. Increasing
salt content of the water reduces the potential to move water from the soil to the
roots. Some additional water would also be needed to leach the salt below the crop
root zone to prevent build-up in the soil. Poor quality water can affect soil structure.

WEM 201 First Long Examination (LL Cero)

4. Compare and contrast the various types of irrigation methods as applied in the
Philippine setting.

Answer:

There are many different types of irrigation methods, depending on how the
water is distributed throughout the field. Some common types of irrigation methods
applied in the Philippine setting include: Surface Irrigation: Wild Flooding (e.g. Free
Flooding) and Controlled Flooding (e.g. Border Flooding, Check Flooding, Basin
Flooding, and Furrow Irrigation Method), Sprinkler Irrigation, and Drip Irrigation

Compare and contrast the various types of irrigation methods in terms of the
type of crops, required labor inputs, and cost and benefits.

Type of Crops

Surface irrigation can be used for all types of crops (e.g. rice). Sprinkler and
drip are seldom used for the lower value staple crops. Drip irrigation is suited to
irrigating individual plants or trees or row crops such as vegetables and sugarcane. It
is not suitable for close growing crops.

Required Labor Inputs

Surface irrigation often requires a much higher labor input - for construction,
operation and maintenance and also higher water losses - than sprinkler or drip
irrigation. Drip Irrigation is essential for skilled system operation, application of
fertigation and maintenance of the head control unit equipment (filters, injectors,
etc.). Sprinkler Irrigation can be automated to reduce labor requirements.

Costs and Benefits

The choice of an irrigation method also depends on the irrigation tradition

within the region or country. All of the various types of irrigation methods have a
higher initial cost. But have differences in terms of benefits, surface irrigation has the
least minimal understanding of how to operate and maintain the system. Energy
requirements for surface irrigation systems come from gravity. This is a significant
advantage in today's economy using negligible energy means. Surface systems are
better able to utilize water supplies that are available less frequently, more uncertain,
and more variable in rate and duration. Drip Irrigation is a water-saving method, the
planted area is partially wetted with precisely controlled water amounts. Thus, large
quantities of irrigation water are saved and the irrigated area can be expanded with
the same water supply. With drip irrigation, low soil moisture tensions in the root zone
can be maintained continuously with frequent applications. The dissolved salts
accumulate at the periphery of the wetted soil mass, and the plants can easily obtain
the moisture needed. This enables the use of saline water containing more than 3
000 mg/litre TDS, which would be unsuitable for use with other methods. Sprinkler
Irrigation can be eliminated the runoff and erosion. Land leveling is not required.
Shallow soils in steep and rolling topography can be easily irrigated. The efficiency
can be achieved up to 80%.

WEM 201 First Long Examination (LL Cero)

5. Describe the applications and problems associated with irrigation structures
commonly used in the local setting.

Answer:

The irrigation system consists of an intake structure or pumping station, a

conveyance system, a distribution system, a field application system, and a drainage
system.

Figure 10. Irrigation system

The first to consider is the Main Intake Structures where it is the entry to the
irrigation system. The purpose of it is to direct the water from the original source of
supply (lake, river, reservoir, etc.) into the irrigation system.

Next, is the pumping station where some of irrigation water source is below
the level of irrigated fields so the pump must be used to supply the water in the
irrigation system. The commonly used pump in the irrigation system is the centrifugal
pump.

Then the Conveyance and Distribution System consists of canals

transporting the water through the whole irrigation system. Canal structures are
required for the control and measurement of the water flow. An Open canal,
channel, or ditch, is an open waterway whose purpose is to carry water from one
place to another. Channels and canals refer to main waterways supplying water to
one or more farms. Field ditches have smaller dimensions and convey water from the
farm entrance to the irrigated fields.

There are different canal characteristics to consider including the shape of

their cross-section (e.g. rectangular, triangular, trapezoidal, circular, parabolic, and
irregular or natural). Earthen and Lined Canals are used in the said system. Earthen
canals are simply dug in the ground and the bank is made up of the removed earth.
But the risk of using earthen canals was the side slopes collapsing and the water loss

WEM 201 First Long Examination (LL Cero)

due to seepage. They also require continuous maintenance to control weed growth
and to repair the damage done by livestock and rodents. Lined Canals is an effective
way to control canal bottom and bank erosion. The materials mostly used for canal
lining are concrete (in precast slabs or cast in place), brick or rock masonry and
asphaltic concrete (a mixture of sand, gravel, and asphalt. The construction cost is
much higher than for earthen canals. Maintenance is reduced for lined canals, but
skilled labor is required.

Canal Structures where flow of irrigation water in the canals must always be
under control. For this purpose, canal structures are required. They help regulate the
flow and deliver the correct amount of water to the different branches of the system
and onward to the irrigated fields. There are four main types of structures: erosion
control structures, distribution control structures, crossing structures and water
measurement structures.

The Distribution Control Structures are required for easy and accurate
water distribution within the irrigation system and on the farm (e.g. Division Boxes,
Turnouts, Checks). Crossing structure and Water Measurement Structure can be
also used in the irrigation system. It is often necessary to carry irrigation water across
roads, hillsides, and natural depressions. Crossing structures, such as flumes,
culverts and inverted siphons, are then required. Water Measurement Structure has
its principal objective of measuring irrigation water is to permit efficient distribution
and application. By measuring the flow of water, a farmer knows how much water is
applied during each irrigation. The most commonly used water measuring structures
are weirs and flumes.

The common problem associated with irrigation structures commonly used in

the local setting was the leakage, erosion, siltation and rot and rust (corrosion).

Leakage

The water level upstream of a structure is higher than the downstream water
level. Therefore water may search for another way underneath or along with the
structure, or even through a crack in the bottom or sides of the structure to this lower
level. The moment that water has found a small path there is a leakage problem, and
at the same time the beginning of an erosion problem. Leaking water will enlarge the
path by washing out the soil and so the leakage will increase. Finally, the structure
will collapse if the process is not stopped. To avoid such a problem, the structure can
be equipped with vertical cut-offs. They hinder the water flow along and underneath
the structure. The cut-offs are part of a structure and can be driven into the bed and
the embankments of a canal.

Erosion

Sections of an unlined canal immediately downstream of a structure or

downstream of a lined canal section often suffer from erosion. Downstream of a
structure the canal bed may suffer from a water jet that flows through a gate or pipe,
or it will be caved in by water that spills over a weir. In both situations a stilling basin
is needed to dissipate the energy of the incoming water. The basin should be

WEM 201 First Long Examination (LL Cero)

 constructed immediately downstream of the weir or pipe. It is usually part of the
structure.

Siltation

The deposition of soil and debris can affect the functioning of a structure. If,
for instance, a stilling basin collects soil deposits the available water mass dimin-
ishes and energy dissipation will be less effective. Similarly in the case of soil
deposits in a flow division box, the division of the flow will be less accurate due to
changes in flow velocities and water levels. Siltation is difficult to avoid. Depending
on the local conditions, large sand traps could be constructed at the upper end of the
main canal. Deposition of sand will be concentrated in these traps and can be
removed by regular cleaning.

Rot and Rust (Corrosion)

Wooden and steel parts in structures suffer from being alternately wet and
dry. The wooden parts will rot and disintegrate, while steel parts will rust, expand and
get jammed in the slides. All such corrosion affects in a negative way the operation of
the structures. Routine maintenance is necessary to avoid these problems, or to
reduce their effect to a minimum.

6. How would you design the drainage system of the Main Campus?

Figure 11. Satellite Map of Cavite State University-Main Campus

Cavite State University-Main Campus is one of the finest colleges in the

Province of Cavite but it seems there is a huge problem in terms of the drainage

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system. A flood occurs in the waiting shed areas when heavy rainfall occurs.
Designing a proper drainage system can lessen the flood in the area.

As shown in Figure 11, the green line serves as where the lined concrete
canals will be installed. The blue arrow (Gate 1) serves as the inlet of runoff which
seems very appropriate because of gravity flow, the runoff will flow from higher to
lower elevation. The red arrow serves as the direction of flow of runoff where it goes
to the different outlet (NCRDEC Bridge, CEIT Bridge or Salusoy River)

WEM 201 First Long Examination (LL Cero)