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ENGINEERING MATERIALS
I. CRSTALLINE STRUCTURES
Crystallinity : Repeating or periodic array over large atomic distances. 3-D pattern in which each atom is bonded to
its nearest neighbors

Crystal structure: the manner in which atoms, ions, or molecules are spatially arranged.

Structure of Solids

Simple cubic structure ; Body centered cubic structure; Hexagonal close packed and cubic close packed structure

Crystalline solids, or crystals, are regarded as "true solids. Minerals is an example of a true solid

The atoms, ions and molecules of a mineral are arranged in ordered and symmetrical pattern. Ex: Table salt

Particles in the liquid occupy more space, and the liquid is less dense than the corresponding solid.
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SEMICONDUCTORS any of a class of crystalline solids intermediate in electrical conductivity between a conductor and
an insulator.

-are employed in the manufacture of various kinds of electronic devices, including diodes, transistors, and integrated circuits

-are those composed of single species of atoms, such as silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), and tin (Sn) in column IV and selenium (Se)
and tellurium (Te) in column VI of the periodic table

A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify or switch electronic signals and electrical power.

DIODE- is a two-terminal electronic component that conducts current primarily in one direction; it has low resistance in one
direction, and high resistance in the other.

CHIP or microchip, is a semiconductor wafer on which thousands or millions of tiny resistors, capacitors, and transistors are
fabricated.

An IC can function as an amplifier, oscillator, timer, counter, computer memory, or microprocessor.

BIOMATERIALS is any substance that has been engineered to interact with biological systems for a medical purpose

BIOTOLERANT Materials that are those that are not necessarily rejected when implanted into the living tissue, but are
surrounded by a fibrous layer in the form of capsule. The layer is induced by the implant release of monomers, ions, and/or
corrosion products. Almost all synthetic polymers and most metals are this category.

BIOINERT Materials that allows close apposition of bone on the surface, leading to contact osteogenesis

alumina, zirconia, titanium, tantalum, niobium, and carbon.

BIOACTIVE materials also allow the formation of new bone onto the surface, but ion exchange with hose tissue leads to the
formation of a chemical bond along the surface. (bonding osteogenesis) - Ca-phosphate, vitro-ceramic, and hydroxyapatite.

LIQUID CRSTALLINE STATE- A thermodynamically stable phase characterized by anisotropy of properties without the existence of
a three -dimensional crystal lattice , generally lying in the temperature range between the solid and isotropic liquid phase .
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II. METALS:
Metals are polycrystalline bodies which are having number of differentially oriented fine crystals.
All metals have: High thermal and electrical conductivity; Positive temperature coefficient of resistance;
and Resistance of metals increases with increase in temperature.
Pure metals are having very a low mechanical strength, which sometimes does not match with the
mechanical strength required for certain applications. To overcome this draw back alloys are used.
Metals can be further divided into two groups- Ferrous Metals and Non-Ferrous Metals
All Ferrous Metals are : Very high permeability; Suitable for construction of core of electrical machines.
Examples: Cast Iron, Wrought Iron, Steel, Silicon Steel, High Speed Steel, Spring Steel etc.
All non-ferrous metals have very low permeability. Example: Silver, Copper, Gold, Aluminum etc.
Metallurgy is a branch of metallurgical engineering wherein processes and methods of extraction of metals
from their natural mineral deposits are studied. The field is a material science, covering all aspects of the
types of ore, washing, concentration, separation, chemical processes and extraction of pure metal and
their alloying to suit various applications, sometimes for direct use as a finished product.
1.Hydrometallurgy - The use of aqueous chemistry for the recovery of metals from ores, concentrates, and
recycled or residual materials. This process is used in extraction of less electro positive or less reactive
metals like gold and silver.
2.Pyrometallurgy - To isolate many of the representative metals by chemical reduction using other
elements as reducing agents.
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3.Electrometallurgy - A common extraction process for the more reactive metals, e.g., for aluminum and
metals above it in the electrochemical series. It is one method of extracting copper and in the purification
of copper.
Ions of metals in of groups 1 and 2, along with aluminum, are very difficult to reduce; therefore, it is
necessary to prepare these elements by electrolysis, an important process discussed in the chapter on
electrochemistry.

BULK PROPERTIES OF METALS

Conductivity If electrons from an outside source were pushed into a metal wire at one end the electrons
would move through the wire and come out at the other end at the same rate (conductivity is the
movement of charge).
Malleability and Ductility: The protons acts like a cushion, when the metal is hammered on, for instance,
the overall composition of the structure of the metal is not harmed or changed.
Heat capacity: Ability of free electrons to move about the solid.
Luster Electrons on the surface can bounce back light at the same frequency that the light hits the
surface, therefore the metal appears to be shiny.

Alloys are the composition of two or more metals or metal and non-metals together. Alloys are having
good mechanical strength, low temperature coefficient of resistance.
Example: Steels, Brass, Bronze, Gunmetal, Invar. Super Alloys etc.

The bonding between two metals is best described as a combination of metallic electron "sharing" and covalent bonding, one
can't occur without the other and the proportion of one to the other changes depending on the constituents involved.

The different amount and strength of covalent bonds can change depending on the different specific metals involved and how
they are mixed. The covalent bonding is what is responsible for the crystal structure as well as the melting point and various
other physical properties.

A transition metal is one which forms one or more stable ions which have incompletely filled d orbitals.

Ex: Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu

III. POLYMERS

Any of a class of natural or synthetic substances composed of very large molecules, called macromolecules, that are multiples of
simpler chemical units called monomers.

Organic polymers play a crucial role in living things, providing basic structural materials and participating in vital life processes.

For example, the solid parts of all plants are made up of polymers. These include cellulose, lignin, and various resins.
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Cellulose is a polysaccharide, a polymer that is composed of sugar molecules. Lignin consists of a complicated three-dimensional
network of polymers. Wood resins are polymers of a simple hydrocarbon, isoprene.

Olefins - also called alkene, compound made up of hydrogen and carbon that contains one or more pairs of carbon atoms linked
by a double bond.

Polyethylene - polymerization of ethylene.

Polypropylene - polymerization of propylene.

There are four basic polymer structures which are shown in the figure below. In practice, some polymers might contain a
mixture of the various basic structures. The four basic polymer structures are linear, branched, crosslinked, and networked.

CLASSES OF POLYMERS

Thermoplastics are formed into products when they are molten: their ultimate shape and internal structure is determined by
cooling. If a malformation occurs, they can be re-heated, then reshaped, if need be. The polymer chains of thermoplastics,
whether branched or linear, will stay separated and distinct from each other.

Thermoset polymers, on the other hand, can exist in three distinct states:

Stage 1: Sometimes known as a resole, this is the stage where the thermoset resin can still be fused easily and remains soluble.

Stage 2: This is the stage where the thermosets are almost insoluble but can still be molded. Thermosets can only remain in
this molten state for only a short period, as the heat will eventually cause cross-linking of the material which leads to…

Stage 3: This is the final stage of polymerization where the cross linking reaction takes place at the time of molding the product
under controlled impact of heat and pressure over time.

In short, the final structure of thermosets is not complete until all three stages are complete, creating a three-dimensional
internal structural network of highly cross-linked polymer chains. The final product cannot be re-molded by the addition of heat,
and is insoluble.

Elastomers share the properties of both thermosets and thermoplastics. Initially, they behave like thermoplastic polymers, with
distinct chains, that only afterward develop a covalent crosslink network, like thermosets. Unlike thermosets, however,
elastomers form a crosslink network in a distinct vulcanization step known as post-polymerization.

Glass transition temperature differs between all three polymer classes. This is the temperature at which polymers reversibly
transmute between glassy and rubbery states. The glass transition temperature is below ambient temperature for elastomers.
However, the glass transition temperature is above the ambient temperature for thermosets and thermoplastics.

LINEAR polymer: These bonding types are relatively easy to break with heat and typically thermoplastic.

Heat breaks the bonds between the long chains allowing the chains to flow past each other, allowing the material to be
remolded. Upon cooling the bonds between the long chains reform, the polymer hardens.
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Since the short chains do not bridge from one longer backbone to another, heat will typically break the bonds between the
branched polymer chains and allow the polymer to be a thermoplastic, although there are some very complex branched
polymers that resist this ‘melting’ and thus break up (becoming hard in the

process) before softening, i.e., they are thermosetting.

Unlike linear polymers which are held together by weaker van der Waals forces, CROSSLINKED polymers are tied together via
covalent bonding. This much stronger bond makes most crosslinked polymers thermosetting, with only a few exceptions to the
rule: crosslinked polymers that happen to break their crosslinks at relatively low temperatures.

NETWORKED polymers are complex polymers that are heavily linked to form a complex network of three-dimensional linkages.
These polymers are nearly impossible to soften when heating without degrading the underlying polymer structure and are thus
thermosetting polymers.
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Crystallization of polymers is a process associated with partial alignment of their molecular chains.

These chains fold together and form ordered regions called lamellae, which compose larger spheroidal structures
named spherulites. Polymers can crystallize upon cooling from melting, mechanical stretching or solvent evaporation.

Crystallization affects optical, mechanical, thermal and chemical properties of the polymer.

The degree of crystallinity is estimated by different analytical methods and it typically ranges between 10 and 80%, with
crystallized polymers often called "semi-crystalline".

The properties of semi-crystalline polymers are determined not only by the degree of crystallinity, but also by the size and
orientation of the molecular chains.

Mechanical Properties of Polymers

1. STRENGTH

2. ELONGATION

3. MODULUS

4. TOUGHNESS

IV. NANOMATERIAL

A nanometer (nm) is one thousand millionth of a meter (10-9)

Nanomaterial is defined as the "material with any external dimension in the nanoscale or having internal structure or surface
structure in the nanoscale", with nanoscale defined as the "length range approximately from 1 nm to 100 nm".

Nanomaterials can be classified depending on the dimensions

a)0D spheres and clusters,

b)1D nanofibers, nanowires, and nanorods,

c)2D films, plates, and networks,

d)3D nanomaterials
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Gold nanoparticles are nanosized particles of gold. They are most frequently synthesized and kept as a suspension in aqueous
medium which is referred to as a colloidal suspension. Gold colloidal suspension with spherical particles in water shows an
intense red color. This color is due to the localized surface plasmonic resonance. The gold nanoparticles around 10-20 nm
diameter have strong absorption of light which peaks around 520 nm in aqueous solutions.

Colloidal Gold (Ag) – has unique optoelectronic properties. It was used by artists due to the vibrant colors produced by their
interaction with visible light. It has been widely utilized in electronics, photodynamic therapy, sensors, diagnostics, catalysis, etc.

Silver (Au) – has unique optical, electrical, and thermal properties and incorporated into products that range from photovoltaics
to biological and chemical sensors. Silver nanoparticles have high electrical conductivity, stability, and low sintering
temperatures

Platinum (Pt) – used in the form of colloid or suspension in a fluid. It has a remarkable antioxidant properties. Some of its
application are; polymer membranes, magnetic nano powders, coatings, and textiles.

Iron (Fe) – are sub-micrometer particles of iron metal. Iron is highly reactive to both air (oxygen) and water, and in nanoparticles,
it is even more rapid than the bulk material. This characteristic limits its use to inert environments. Iron nanoparticles are not
toxic.

Semiconductor nanoparticles are fluorescent materials. It have unique physical properties such as quantum size effects,
nonlinear optical properties and luminescence.

Silicon Oxide (SiO2) – also called as Silica, is the basis for a great deal of biomedical research due to their biocompatibility,
stability and low toxicity. Nano-silica are used as therapeutic methods in treating cancer tumors. Also used as transistors in
electronic devices.
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Zinc Oxide (ZnO) – may be available as powders and dispersions. They exhibit antibacterial, anti-corrosive, antifungal and UV
filtering properties. These nanoparticles are also used as sunscreens and anti-bacterial packaging methods via UV rays.

Aluminum Oxide (Al2O3) – or nanosized alumina, occurs in the form of spherical or nearly spherical nanoparticles, and in the
form of oriented or undirected fibers. It is widely used as adsorbent dues to its ability of chemosensitivity fluorine ions.

Titanium Oxide (TiO2) – are spherical or faceted high surface area metal particles. Commonly utilized in sunscreens due to its
ability to block UV radiation while remaining transparent on the skin.

Carbon atoms have a natural capacity to form covalent bonds with many other elements because of a property called
electronegativity. Electronegativity is a measure of how strongly an atom holds onto electrons orbiting about it. Because carbon
has an electronegativity rating in the middle of the range, it can form stable covalent bonds with a large number of elements.

It was named Carbon nanotubes due to a tubular structure of carbon atom sheets, with a thickness scaled in less than a few
nanometers

The carbon atoms in nanotubes are bonded to only three other atoms, so they have the capability to bond to a fourth atom.

The simplest carbon nanotube is composed of a single sheet of a honeycomb network of carbon atoms

Cylindrical molecules that consist of rolled-up sheets of single-layer carbon atoms called graphene

These cylinders are each a lattice of carbon atoms — with each atom covalently bonded to three others

Carbon nanotubes can occur as multiple concentric cylinders of carbon atoms, called multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCTs).
Logically enough, carbon nanotubes that have only one cylinder are called single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCTs). Both MWCT
and SWCT are used to strengthen composite materials.

The electrical properties of carbon nanotubes depend on how the hexagons are orientated along the axis of the tube. Three
orientations are possible: armchair, zigzag, and chiral.

Armchair carbon nanotubes have electrical properties similar to metals.

The zigzag and chiral carbon nanotubes share electrical properties similar to semiconductors. These two configurations of
nanotubes will only conduct an electric current when extra energy in the form of light or an electric field is applied to free
electrons from the carbon atoms. Semiconducting nanotubes could be useful in building ever smaller transistors used in
integrated circuits for all kinds of electronic devices.

Another interesting property of carbon nanotubes is that their electrical resistance changes significantly when other molecules
attach themselves to their carbon atoms. Companies are using this property to develop sensors that can detect chemical vapors
such as carbon monoxide or biological molecules.

The carbon atoms in nanotubes are great at forming covalent bonds with many other types of atoms for several reasons:

Carbon atoms have a natural capacity to form covalent bonds with many other elements because of a property called
electronegativity. Electronegativity is a measure of how strongly an atom holds onto electrons orbiting about it. Because carbon
has an electronegativity rating in the middle of the range, it can form stable covalent bonds with a large number of elements.
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A quantum dot is a nanoparticle made of any semiconductor material such as silicon, cadmium selenide, cadmium sulfide, or
indium arsenide.

Quantum dots are semiconductor nanoparticles that glow a particular color after being illuminated by light. The color they glow
depends on the size of the nanoparticle.

Nanotube are members of the fullerene structural family, derived from their long, hollow structure with walls formed by
one-atom-thick sheets of carbon, called graphene.

When the quantum dots are illuminated by UV light, some of the electrons receive enough energy to break free from the atoms.
This capability allows them to move around the nanoparticle, creating a conduction band in which electrons are free to move
through a material and conduct electricity.

When these electrons drop back into the outer orbit around the atom (the valence band), they emit light. The color of that light
depends on the energy difference between the conduction band and the valence band.

CHEMISTRY OF THE ENVIRONMENT

I. EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE
Composition of air
Nitrogen — 78 percent
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Oxygen — 21 percent

Argon — 0.93 percent

Carbon dioxide — 0.04 percent

Trace amounts of neon, helium, methane, krypton and hydrogen, as well as water vapor

Layers of the atmosphere

Troposphere

Stratosphere

Mesosphere

Thermosphere

Exosphere

Troposphere

It is the layer closest to Earth's surface. It is 4 to 12 miles (7 to 20 km) thick and contains half of Earth's atmosphere.
Air is warmer near the ground and gets colder higher up. Nearly all of the water vapor and dust in the atmosphere
are in this layer and that is why clouds are found here.

Stratosphere

It is the second layer. It starts above the troposphere and ends about 31 miles (50 km) above ground. Ozone is
abundant here and it heats the atmosphere while also absorbing harmful radiation from the sun. The air here is very
dry, and it is about a thousand times thinner here than it is at sea level. Because of that, this is where jet aircraft and
weather balloons fly.

Troposphere

It is the layer closest to Earth's surface. It is 4 to 12 miles (7 to 20 km) thick and contains half of Earth's atmosphere.
Air is warmer near the ground and gets colder higher up. Nearly all of the water vapor and dust in the atmosphere
are in this layer and that is why clouds are found here.

Stratosphere

It is the second layer. It starts above the troposphere and ends about 31 miles (50 km) above ground. Ozone is
abundant here and it heats the atmosphere while also absorbing harmful radiation from the sun. The air here is very
dry, and it is about a thousand times thinner here than it is at sea level. Because of that, this is where jet aircraft and
weather balloons fly.

Ozone layer

The ozone layer or ozone shield is a region of Earth's stratosphere that absorbs most of the sun's ultraviolet
radiation. It contains high concentration of ozone (O3) in relation to other parts of the atmosphere, although still
small in relation to other gases in the stratosphere.

Mesosphere

Starts at 31 miles (50 km) and extends to 53 miles (85 km) high. The top of the mesosphere, called the mesopause, is
the coldest part of Earth's atmosphere, with temperatures averaging about minus 130 degrees F (minus 90 C). This
layer is hard to study. Jets and balloons don't go high enough, and satellites and space shuttles orbit too high.
Scientists do know that meteors burn up in this layer.

Thermosphere
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Extends from about 56 miles (90 km) to between 310 and 620 miles (500 and 1,000 km). Temperatures can get up to
2,700 degrees F (1,500 C) at this altitude. The thermosphere is considered part of Earth's atmosphere, but air density
is so low that most of this layer is what is normally thought of as outer space. In fact, this is where the space
shuttles flew and where the International Space Station orbits Earth. This is also the layer where the auroras occur.

Exosphere

The highest layer, is extremely thin and is where the atmosphere merges into outer space. It is composed of very
widely dispersed particles of hydrogen and helium.

ATMOSPHERIC CHEMISTRY

REACTANTS - are individual chemical compounds that participate in reactions. Several types are important in atmospheric
processes

FREE RADICALS - Neutral compounds containing an odd number of electrons. These are highly reactive. The most important free
radical in the atmosphere is hydroxyl, which is the combination of oxygen and hydrogen atoms.

IONS -An atom or molecule that carries a positive or negative electric charge as a result of having lost or gained one or more
electrons.

II. CHEMISTRY OF WATER

SEAWATER- water that makes up the oceans and seas, covering more than 70 percent of Earth’s surface.

96.5% water ; 2.5% salts;

smaller amounts of other substances, including:

dissolved inorganic and organic materials; Particulates; a few atmospheric gases.

The chemical composition of seawater is influenced by a wide variety of chemical transport mechanisms:

Rivers; Wind-borne particulates; Hydrothermal solutions ; Organisms in the upper ocean;

Particulates in transit to the seafloor

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The six most abundant ions of seawater are:

chloride (Cl−)

sodium (Na+)

sulfate (SO24−)

magnesium (Mg2+)

calcium (Ca2+)

potassium (K+)

Other Major Dissolve Substances of Water

Carbon bromide boron strontium Fluoride

most notable: Phosphorous Nitrogen

Dissolved Atmospheric Gases:

Nitrogen Oxygen Argon Carbon dioxide

Dissolved Organic Substances:

Carbohydrates Amino acids

Salinity is used by oceanographers as a measure of the total salt content of seawater.

Practical salinity, along with temperature, can be used to calculate precisely the density of seawater samples.

It can also be used to directly calculate the concentrations of the major ions in seawater. The measure of practical
salinity was originally developed to provide an approximate measure of the total mass of salt in one kilogram of
seawater. Seawater with S equal to 35 contains approximately 35 grams of salt and 965 grams of water, or 35 ppt
(35 psu).

Desalination is a process that takes away mineral components from saline water, refers to the removal of salts and
minerals from a target substance

Methods of Desalination of Seawater:

Reverse Osmosis Desalination

Thermal Desalination

Electrochemically Mediated Seawater Desalination

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Reverse Osmosis Desalination- Most common desalination method; It is a water purification process that uses a
partially permeable membrane to remove ions, unwanted molecules and larger particles from drinking water.

Thermal Desalination -process uses energy to evaporate water and subsequently condense it again

- It mimics the natural process of the water cycle – evaporation from the ocean, accumulation in the atmosphere,
the process is often linked to power plants and refineries to use waste heat.

Electrochemically Mediated Seawater Desalination

is an energy efficient and emerging method for membraneless seawater desalination. The technique separates ions
from water as a result of oxidizing a small fraction of naturally abundant chloride ions. It consumes less energy and is
dramatically simpler than conventional techniques. By creating a small electrical field that removes salts from
seawater

Why is desalination of seawater important?

The main purpose of desalination is to make water available in those areas that have limited resources of fresh
water. It provides a reliable and safe supply of water to growing communities.

What makes desalination expensive?

The process of removing the salt from water requires electricity to pump or force the water into the membranes and
also the treatment of water to kill microbes and the replacement of the filter.

Dissolved Oxygen

Oxygen from the atmosphere dissolves in river and lake water, and it is this oxygen that fish and other aquatic
animals use to breathe. When water in creeks and rivers pours over rocks, oxygen can enter into the water.

How do we measure Dissolved Oxygen?

best measured directly in the water using a calibrated dissolved oxygen sensor.

This sensor can measure the amount of dissolved oxygen directly in the water as mg/L or as a percent dissolved
oxygen (%DO). Water at lower temperatures should have higher mg/L of dissolved oxygen and higher %DO while
warmer, polluted waters will have lower mg/L and %DO. Healthy water should generally have dissolved oxygen
concentrations above 6.5-8 mg/Land between about 80-120 %

Each type of fish living in the water requires a different amount of dissolved oxygen to live. For example, Northern
Pike cannot survive in less than about 6 milligrams of dissolved oxygen per liter of water (6 mg/L). If dissolved oxygen
levels decrease to about 3-4 mg/L, even the strongest fish may suffocate

Why is it important?

It is essential for the survival of fish and other aquatic organisms.

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Oxygen is also introduced into the water as a byproduct of aquatic plant photosynthesis

Quality of Water refers to the chemical, physical, biological, and radiological characteristics of water.

Why is the quality of water important?

Quality drinking water is important to our health and well-being. We use water daily throughout our homes for
cooking, cleaning, bathing, laundry and a host of other purposes. Water is critical to most items we purchase and
consume in one way or another.

What are the good qualities of water?

Contaminant free

Mineral rich

Alkaline pH

Antioxidant

Good taste

Super Hydration

How does water become contaminated?

Air Pollution

Chemicals

Detergents

Animal Waste

Fertilizers

Pesticides

Herbicides

Water Supply

Water supply is the provision of water by public utilities, commercial organizations, community endeavors or by
individuals, usually via a system of pumps and pipes.

Types of Water Supply

Surface Water Ground Water Purchased Water:

Water Treatment is any process that improves the quality of water to make it more acceptable for a specific
end-use. The end use may be drinking, industrial water supply, irrigation, river flow maintenance, water recreation
or many other uses, including being safely returned to the environment.
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Most common steps in water treatment used by water systems:

1. Coagulation and Flocculation first steps in water treatment. Chemicals with a positive charge are added to the
water. The positive charge of these chemicals neutralizes the negative charge of dirt and other dissolved particles in
the water. When this occurs, the particles bind with the chemicals and form larger particles, called floc.

2. Sedimentation - During sedimentation, floc settles to the bottom of the water supply, due to its weight. This
settling process is called sedimentation.

3. Filtration - Once the floc has settled to the bottom of the water supply, the clear water on top will pass through
filters of varying compositions (sand, gravel, and charcoal) and pore sizes, in order to remove dissolved particles,
such as dust, parasites, bacteria, viruses, and chemicals.

4. Disinfection- After the water has been filtered, a disinfectant may be added in order to kill any remaining parasites,
bacteria, and viruses, and to protect the water from germs when it is piped to homes and businesses.

Green chemistry is the design of chemical products and processes that reduce or eliminate the use or
generation of hazardous substances. Green chemistry applies across the life cycle of a chemical product,
including its design, manufacture, use, and ultimate disposal.

Solvent- A solvent is a substance that dissolves a solute, resulting in a solution

Solute- a solute is a substance dissolved in another substance, known as a solvent.

Examples of Solute: Oxygen Carbon Dioxide Tin Sugar Salt

Reagent

A reagent is a substance or compound added to a system to cause a chemical reaction, or added to test if a reaction
occurs. The terms reactant and reagent are often used interchangeably—however, a reactant is more specifically a
substance consumed in the course of a chemical reaction

Example of Reagent: Ethane Propane Butane Benzene

Methods of Purifying Water:

Purification on Large scale

Purification on Medium Scale

Purification on Small Scale(Domestic Methods)

Purification on Large Scale:

When sources of water are Rivers, Streams, Lakes etc. then water is Purified by

Purification on Medium Scale:

When sources of water are wells, Springs, Tanks etc. Then water is purified by the addition of Bleaching
powder/Chlorinated Lime as it is
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Purification on Small Scale:

BOILING: for 5-10 minutes kills almost all organisms & removes temporary Hardness.

DISTILLATION: not commonly used due to higher cost, used in Labs. etc.

Addition of Chemicals

Bleaching Powder: 5% solution is used Dose: 3-6 drops/L contact time of ½ hour. Chlorine Tablets/Halazone Tablets.
one tablet/litre.

Iodine Solution: 02 drops of 2% Soln./litre

KMnO4: an amount that gives just pink coloration to the Water.

Alum: used for turbid water in a dose of 0.1-0.4 grains/5 litres of Water

III. SOIL CHEMISTRY

All exposed rock is in the path of weathering and erosion.

Weathering is the process that breaks down rock and other substances at the Earth’s surface.

Heat, cold, water, ice, carbon dioxide, oxygen etc.. all contribute to weathering.

Weathering examples: Repeated freezing and thawing. Rainwater dissolving minerals.

Erosion is the movement of rock particles by wind water, ice, or gravity.

Weathering and erosion work together to carry away the rocks at the surface.

There are two types of weathering: Mechanical Weathering and Chemical Weathering

Mechanical Weathering: rock is physically broken into smaller pieces that have the same chemical composition as
the rock they came from. Examples: freezing and thawing, release of pressure, growth of plants,

actions of animals, and abrasion (grinding away of rock by particles in the wind and water).

Chemical Weathering: the process that breaks down rock through chemical changes and produces rock particles
that have a different mineral makeup from the rock they came from.

Examples: Hot or soft spots in rock ; Water; Oxygen; Carbon Dioxide; Living organisms;Acid Rain

The most important factors that determine the rate at which weathering occurs are the type of rock and climate .

Permeable rocks (full of tiny air spaces) weather faster.

Weathering occurs faster in wet climates and higher temperatures.

Over many years, weathering and erosion will cause the formation of soil.

Soil is the loose, weathered material on the Earth’s surface in which plants can grow.
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Soil forms as rock is broken down by weathering and mixes with other materials on the surface.

Soil is constantly being formed wherever bedrock is exposed.

Bedrock is the solid layer of rock beneath the soil.

Soil is a mixture of rock particles, minerals, decayed organic material, air, and water.

The decayed organic material in the soil is humus.

Humus is a dark-colored substance that forms as plant and animal remains decay.

Soil texture depends on the size of individual soil particles.

Soil texture is important for plant growth.

A soil horizon is a layer of soil that differs in color and texture from the layers above or below it.

Topsoil (A horizon) is a crumbly, dark brown soil that is a mixture of humus, clay, and other materials.

Subsoil (B horizon) usually consists of clay, and other particles washed down from the topsoil, but little humus.

C horizon contains only partly weathered rock.

The rate at which soil forms depends on the climate and type of rock.

Some organisms mix the soil and make spaces in it for air and water.

Other soil organisms make humus, the material that makes soil fertile.

Humus forms through decomposition.

Fertile soil is rich in nutrients that plants need.

As plants shed leaves, they form a loose layer called litter.

CHEMICAL SAFETY