EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING

WHAT ARE EARTHQUAKES?

 - is a trembling or a shaking movement of the ground, caused by the slippage or

rupture of a fault within the Earth's crust.
 - are the Earth's natural means of releasing stress.
 -The size or magnitude of earthquakes is determined by measuring the amplitude
of the seismic waves recorded on a seismograph and the distance of the
seismograph from the earthquake.
 -Earthquakes happen when rocks break or slip along fault lines in the Earth’s
crust, releasing energy that causes the ground to move.
 -The movement of Earth’s crust resulting from the release of built up potential
energy between two stuck tectonic plates
 -Earthquakes may trigger other hazards, such as flooding, landslides, fires, or
avalanches. A large earthquake in the ocean floor can produce tsunami waves.
 -The shaking during an earthquake is caused by seismic waves. Seismic waves
are generated when rock within the crust breaks, producing a tremendous
amount of energy.
 -An earthquake is the movement of Earth’s crust resulting from the release of
built-up potential energy between two stuck lithospheric plates.

EARTHQUAKE’S LOCATION/ORIGIN

THE EPICENTER
  is the location on the surface of the earth directly above the focus/hypocenter of an
earthquake.
 A point on Earth’s surface that is directly above the focus of an earthquake, where the
shaking is strongest and most damage occurs.
 the point on the Earth's surface directly above the focus.

THE FOCUS OR HYPOCENTER

 is the location within the earth where underground rock moves and sends out
earthquake waves.
 The point below the surface where the rock breaks.
 the point on the surface right above the focus.
 point below Earth’s surface where the rock breaks along a fault and energy is released.
 the point where it originated within the Earth.

USE TO MEASURE THE EARTHQUAKE

MAGNITUDE

 is the most common measure of an earthquake's size.

 Magnitude measures the energy released at the source of the earthquake.
Magnitude is determined from measurements on seismographs.
 Earthquake magnitude was traditionally measured on the Richter scale.
 Magnitude is a quantitative measure of the actual size of the earthquake.

INTENSITY

 is a measure of the shaking and damage caused by the earthquake, and this value
changes from location to location.
 Intensity measures the strength of shaking produced by the earthquake at a
certain location. Intensity is determined from effects on people, human structures,
and the natural environment.
 Intensity is a qualitative measure of the actual shaking at a location during an
earthquake, and is assigned as Roman Capital Numerals.

ADDITIONAL INFO:

 there are smaller shocks that occur before the earthquake happens - foreshock and
after the earthquake - aftershock,a main earthquake - mainshock. Sometimes
foreshocks are so big and scientists are unsure if it is the main shock. Foreshocks and
aftershocks can occur for days, weeks and months of a main earthquake.
 What are the effects of Earthquake?

 Primary effects – are the immediate damage cause by the quake, such as collapsing
buildings, roads and bridges, which may kill many people.
 Secondary effects – are the after-effects of the earthquake, such as fires, tsunami,
landslide, and disease. Are those that result from primary effects. For example ground
shaking may result in cracking of gas and water pipes (primary effects) this can result in
severe fires due to explosion from escaping gas and difficulties in putting out fires due
to lack of water from burst mains (secondary effects). Other secondary effects, include
homelessness, business going bankrupt and closing etc.

Example of primary and secondary effects:

On feb.8, 1990 in Bohol the primary effects are damaged several buildings and the
secondary effects the quake caused a Tsunami.

WHAT ARE SEISMIC WAVES?

Seismic waves are the waves of energy caused by the sudden breaking of rock within
the earth or an explosion. They are the energy that travels through the earth and is recorded on
seismographs.

TYPES OF SEISMIC WAVES

There are several different kinds of seismic waves, and they all move in different ways. The two
main types of waves are body waves and surface waves. Body waves can travel through
the earth's inner layers, but surface waves can only move along the surface of the planet like
ripples on water. Earthquakes radiate seismic energy as both body and surface waves.

BODY WAVES
Traveling through the interior of the earth, body waves arrive before the surface waves
emitted by an earthquake. These waves are of a higher frequency than surface waves.
P WAVES
The first kind of body wave is the P wave or primary wave. This is the fastest kind of
seismic wave, and, consequently, the first to 'arrive' at a seismic station. The P wave can move
through solid rock and fluids, like water or the liquid layers of the earth. It pushes and pulls the
rock it moves through just like sound waves push and pull the air. Have you ever heard a big
clap of thunder and heard the windows rattle at the same time? The windows rattle because
the sound waves were pushing and pulling on the window glass much like P waves push and
pull on rock. Sometimes animals can hear the P waves of an earthquake. Dogs, for instance,
commonly begin barking hysterically just before an earthquake 'hits' (or more specifically,
before the surface waves arrive). Usually people can only feel the bump and rattle of these
waves.

P waves are also known as compressional waves, because of the pushing and pulling they do.
Subjected to a P wave, particles move in the same direction that the wave is moving in, which is
the direction that the energy is traveling in, and is sometimes called the 'direction of wave
propagation'.
S WAVES
The second type of body wave is the S wave or secondary wave, which is the second wave
you feel in an earthquake. An S wave is slower than a P wave and can only move through solid
rock, not through any liquid medium. It is this property of S waves that led seismologists to
conclude that the Earth's outer core is a liquid. S waves move rock particles up and down,
or side-to-side--perpendicular to the direction that the wave is traveling in (the direction of
wave propagation).
SURFACE WAVES
Travelling only through the crust, surface waves are of a lower frequency than body waves,
and are easily distinguished on a seismogram as a result. Though they arrive after body waves,
it is surface waves that are almost enitrely responsible for the damage and destruction
associated with earthquakes. This damage and the strength of the surface waves are reduced in
deeper earthquakes.

LOVE WAVES
The first kind of surface wave is called a Love wave, named after A.E.H. Love, a British
mathematician who worked out the mathematical model for this kind of wave in 1911. It's the
fastest surface wave and moves the ground from side-to-side. Confined to the surface of the
crust, Love waves produce entirely horizontal motion.

RAYLEIGH WAVES
The other kind of surface wave is the Rayleigh wave, named for John William Strutt, Lord
Rayleigh, who mathematically predicted the existence of this kind of wave in 1885. A Rayleigh
wave rolls along the ground just like a wave rolls across a lake or an ocean. Because it rolls, it
moves the ground up and down and side-to-side in the same direction that the wave is moving.
Most of the shaking felt from an earthquake is due to the Rayleigh wave, which can be much
larger than the other waves.
Earthquake Categories according to it's intensity:

Intensity Scale Description

I Scarcely Perceptible - Perceptible to people
under favorable circumstances. Delicately
balanced objects are disturbed slightly. Still
Water in containers oscillates slowly.
II Slightly Felt - Felt by few individuals at rest
indoors. Hanging objects swing slightly. Still
Water in containers oscillates noticeably.
III Weak - Felt by many people indoors
especially in upper floors of buildings.
Vibration is felt like one passing of a light
truck. Dizziness and nausea are experienced
by some people. Hanging objects swing
moderately. Still water in containers oscillates
moderately.
IV Moderately Strong - Felt generally by
people indoors and by some people
outdoors. Light sleepers are awakened.
Vibration is felt like a passing of heavy truck.
Hanging objectsswing considerably. Dinner,
plates, glasses, windows and doors rattle.
Floors and walls of wood framed buildings
creak. Standing motor cars may rock slightly.
Liquids in containers are slightly disturbed.
Water in containers oscillate strongly.
Rumbling sound may sometimes be heard.
V Strong - Generally felt by most people
indoors and outdoors. Many sleeping people
are awakened. Some are frightened, some
run outdoors. Strong shaking and rocking felt
throughout building. Hanging objects swing
violently. Dining utensils clatter and clink;
some are broken. Small, light and unstable
objects may fall or overturn. Liquids spill from
filled open containers. Standing vehicles rock
noticeably. Shaking of leaves and twigs of
trees are noticeable.
VI Very Strong - Many people are frightened;
many run outdoors. Some people lose their
balance. motorists feel like driving in flat tires.
Heavy objects or furniture move or may be
shifted. Small church bells may ring. Wall
plaster may crack. Very old or poorly built
houses and man-made structures are slightly
damaged though well-built structures are not
affected. Limited rockfalls and rolling boulders
occur in hilly to mountainous areas and
escarpments. Trees are noticeably shaken.
VII Destructive - Most people are frightened and
run outdoors. People find it difficult to stand in
upper floors. Heavy objects and furniture
overturn or topple. Big church bells may ring.
Old or poorly-built structures suffer
considerably damage. Some well-built
structures are slightly damaged. Some cracks
may appear on dikes, fish ponds, road
surface, or concrete hollow block walls.
Limited liquefaction, lateral spreading and
landslides are observed. Trees are shaken
strongly. (Liquefaction is a process by which
loose saturated sand lose strength during an
earthquake and behave like liquid).
VIII Very Destructive - People panicky. People
find it difficult to stand even outdoors. Many
well-built buildings are considerably
 damaged. Concrete dikes and foundation of
bridges are destroyed by ground settling or
toppling. Railway tracks are bent or broken.
Tombstones may be displaced, twisted or
overturned. Utility posts, towers and
monuments mat tilt or topple. Water and
sewer pipes may be bent, twisted or broken.
Liquefaction and lateral spreading cause
man- made structure to sink, tilt or topple.
Numerous landslides and rockfalls occur in
mountainous and hilly areas. Boulders are
thrown out from their positions particularly
near the epicenter. Fissures and faults
rapture may be observed. Trees are violently
shaken. Water splash or stop over dikes or
banks of rivers.
IX Devastating - People are forcibly thrown to
ground. Many cry and shake with fear. Most
buildings are totally damaged. bridges and
elevated concrete structures are toppled or
destroyed. Numerous utility posts, towers and
monument are tilted, toppled or broken.
Water sewer pipes are bent, twisted or
broken. Landslides and liquefaction with
lateral spreadings and sandboils are
widespread. the ground is distorted into
undulations. Trees are shaken very violently
with some toppled or broken. Boulders are
commonly thrown out. River water splashes
violently on slops over dikes and banks.
X Completely Devastating - Practically all
man-made structures are destroyed. Massive
landslides and liquefaction, large scale
subsidence and uplifting of land forms and
many ground fissures are observed. Changes
in river courses and destructive seiches in
large lakes occur. Many trees are toppled,
broken and uprooted.

Record of earthquakes in the Philippines since 2000-2016 with a

magnitude of 7.0 and higher:
 A magnitude of 7.5 quake struck Mindanao on January 1, 2001 at a depth of 33 km.
  A magnitude of 7.5 quake struck Central and Southern Mindanao on March 5, 2002 at a
depth of 31 km.At least 15 people were killed, 100 injured and 800 buildings were
damaged or destroyed.
 An earthquake with magnitude 7.6 struck 106 km near Guiuan, Eastern Samar on August
31, 2012. It was felt in certain areas of Visayas and Mindanao. 1 person died, and
another one was injured in Cagayan de Oro City after being trapped in a collapsed house
due to a landslide. Minutes after the quake, power interruptions occurred in the
affected areas. The National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Council reported
that a house in Agusan del Sur province caught fire sparked by a gas lamp that was
toppled during the earthquake. It also reported that two bridges in Eastern Samar,
particularly the Buyayawan Bridge in Mercedes town and the Barangay Casuroy Bridge
in San Julian town, were partially damaged. The Abreeza Mall in Bajada, Davao City
suffered minor cracks on the floor due to the earthquake.In General MacArthur, Eastern
Samar, 77 homes were damaged. There were also 6 houses damaged in Barangay
Casoroy, San Julian.In Balangiga, Eastern Samar, a hospital sustained serious damage. A
wall from an old building collapsed in Butuan City. The NDRRMC reported on Saturday
noon there were cracks on some roads and bridges and other establishments in areas
where the quake was felt.Most of the homes destroyed were those made of light
materials, while overall damage to infrastructure remained minimal. A tsunami warning
of Level 3 was raised by the Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology, but was
lifted 5 hours after the quake only caused tiny waves.[
 A magnitude of 7.2 earthquake struck Bohol on October 15, 2013 at 8:12 a.m. (PST). Its
epicenter was located 6 kilometres (3.7 mi) SW of Sagbayan at a depth of 12 kilometres
(7.5 mi). According to the official report by the National Disaster Risk Reduction and
Management Council, 222 were reported dead while 796 people were injured. Tens of
thousands of structures were damaged by the earthquake. Most notable were the
national historical churches in Bohol and Cebu.

What is PHIVOLCS?
Stands for Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS) is a Philippine
national institution dedicated to provide information on the activities of volcanoes,
earthquakes, and tsunamis, as well as other specialized information and services primarily for
the protection of life and property and in support of economic, productivity, and sustainable
development. It is one of the service agencies of the Department of Science and Technology.

Who is the Head?

 The head of PHIVOLCS is Renato U. Solidum jr. Dr. Solidum started his career in
PHIVOLCS in 1984 as a Science Research Specialist I (SRS I). He served as Officer-In-
Charge of the Volcano Monitoring and Eruption Prediction Division from March 1992-
February 1994. In 1999, he was appointed as Chief SRS of the Geology & Geophysics
Research and Development Division. A recognized expert in Geochemistry, Marine
Geology, Volcano and Earthquake Geology, Geologic Hazards Assessment and
Awareness, and Earth Science Education, he holds a Master’s Degree in Geological
Science from the University of Illinois and completed his PhD in Earth Science at the
Scripps Institute of Oceanography, University of California in San Diego.

Why is it implemented?
To provide the protection of life and property and in support of economic, productivity, and
sustainable development.

Another reason is the disastrous eruption of volcano hibok-hibok on 1952. Because of it the
COMVOL is created it was restructured under executive order no.784 to become phivolcs but
later Reba mend again when the seismological arm of PAGASA was transferred to phivolcs it is
then officially known as PHIVOLCS.

How it works?

 Predict the occurrence of volcanic eruptions and earthquakes.

 Determine how eruptions and earthquakes shall occur and also areas likely to be
affected.
 Generate sufficient data for forecasting volcanic eruptions and earthquakes.
 Mitigate hazards of volcanic activities through appropriate detection, forecast and
warning system.
 Formulate appropriate disaster preparedness plans

What is NDRRMC?
Stands for National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Council (NDRRMC)
is the agency tasked to prepare for, and respond to, natural calamities, like typhoons
and earthquakes. It also monitors human-induced emergencies, such as armed conflicts
and maritime accidents.

Responsible for ensuring the protection and welfare of the people during disasters or
emergencies.

Who is the head?

 Former Navy chief Alexander Pama lead the NDRRMC.

Is the 32nd Flag Officer in Command of the Philippine Navy. He succeeded

Rear Admiral Danilo Cortez on January 4, 2010. Before being appointed to
the highest position of the Navy, Pama was the Vice Commander of and the
Naval Inspection General. He is a member of the Philippine Military Academy
Class of 1979.

Why is it implemented?
To keep the country safe from disasters or minimize the impact of disasters and ensure
quick recovery afterwards.

How do they work?

The NDRRMC uses strategies to mitigate the impact of disasters and increase the
resiliency of both the national government and local government units (LGUs) in the
face of disasters.

They formulate a national Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Council which serve as
a principal guide to disaster risk reduction and management efforts in the country.

The Richter scale

-The Richter magnitude scale was developed in 1935 by Charles F. Richter of the California
Institute of Technology as a mathematical device to compare the size of earthquakes. The magnitude of an
earthquake is determined from the logarithm of the amplitude of waves recorded by seismographs;
magnitude is expressed in whole numbers and decimal fractions. Because of the logarithmic basis of the
scale, each whole number increase in magnitude represents a tenfold increase in measured amplitude; as
an estimate of energy, each whole number step in the magnitude scale corresponds to the release of about
31-33 times more energy than the amount associated with the preceding whole number value.
Mercalli Scale
-It was developed in 1931 by the American seismologists Harry Wood and Frank Neumann. The
effect of an earthquake on the Earth's surface is called the intensity. The intensity scale consists of a series
of certain key responses such as people awakening, movement of furniture, damage to chimneys, and
finally - total destruction. This scale, composed of increasing levels of intensity that range from
imperceptible shaking to catastrophic destruction, is designated by Roman numerals. It does not have a
mathematical basis; instead it is an arbitrary ranking based on observed effects.
-The Modified Mercalli Intensity value assigned to a specific site after an earthquake has a more
meaningful measure of severity to the nonscientist than the magnitude because intensity refers to the
effects actually experienced at that place.
-The lower numbers of the intensity scale generally deal with the manner in which the earthquake
is felt by people. The higher numbers of the scale are based on observed structural damage. Structural
engineers usually contribute information for assigning intensity values of VIII or above.
Moment Scale

-Moment magnitude (Mw) was introduced in 1979 by Hanks and Kanamori and has since become
the most commonly used method of describing the size of a microseism. Moment magnitude measures the
size of events in terms of how much energy is released. Specifically, moment magnitude relates to the
amount of movement by rock and the area of the fault or fracture surface. Since moment magnitude can
describe something physical about the event, calculated values can be easily compared to magnitude
values for other events. The moment magnitude is also a more accurate scale for describing the size of
events.

-Since magnitude scales are logarithmic, an increase of one unit of magnitude on a magnitude
scale is equivalent to an increase of 10 times the amplitude recorded by a seismograph and approximately
30 times the energy.

Seismograph

A seismograph is an instrument for measuring earthquake (seismic) waves. They are held in a very
solid position, either on the bedrock or on a concrete base.

A seismograph, or seismometer, is an instrument used to detect and record earthquakes.

Generally, it consists of a mass attached to a fixed base. During an earthquake, the base moves and the
mass does not. The motion of the base with respect to the mass is commonly transformed into an electrical
voltage. The electrical voltage is recorded on paper, magnetic tape, or another recording medium. This
record is proportional to the motion of the seismometer mass relative to the earth, but it can be
mathematically converted to a record of the absolute motion of the ground.

It generally refers to the seismometer and its recording device as a single unit.