MAPÚA UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL AND MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING

ME139L/E02

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY 1

WRITTEN REPORT ON

PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

EXPERIMENT NO. 2

SUBMITTED BY:

SILVA, ETHAN THEODORE S.

2014141326

SUBMITTED TO:

ENGR. PAULO RAFAEL V. MERIS

December 2, 2019
ABSTRACT

- Determining the different types of pressure; gage pressure specifically and learning the
melting and freezing points is the primary goal in this experiment. In this experiment the
students were able to learn how to use different kinds of apparatus that could help them
determine the gage pressure, melting point and freezing point. Apparatus like Bourdon
gage, Digital thermometer and Analog thermometer were used in this experiment. In this
experiment the students were able to learn and widen their knowledge about gage
pressure and the boiling point and melting point of a substance. As an engineering
student this experiment helped us and was able to teach us better knowledge for us to use
in the future.

OBJECTIVES:

1. To learn the calibration of pressure gages with the use of bourdon dead weight gage
tester.
2. To learn the calibration of thermometers with known melting and freezing points.

3. To know the different types of pressure and temperature measuring devices.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE

ABSTRACT ii

OBJECTIVES ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS iii

THEORIES AND PRINCIPLES 1-3

DISCUSSION 4-6

FINAL DATA SHEET / SET-UP 7-10

CONCLUSION 11

RECOMMENDATION 12

REFERENCES 12

ATTACHMENTS

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THEORIES AND PRINCIPLE

Pressure is defined as a normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area. We speak of
pressure only when we deal with a gas or a liquid. The counterpart of pressure in solids is normal
stress. Since pressure is defined as force per unit area, it has the unit of newtons per square meter
(N/m2 ), which is called a pascal (Pa)

The pressure unit pascal is too small for pressures encountered in practice. Therefore, its
multiples kilopascal (1 kPa = 103 Pa) and megapascal (1 MPa = 106 Pa) are commonly used.
Three other pressure units commonly used in practice, especially in Europe, are bar, standard
atmosphere, and kilogram-force per square centimeter

Note the pressure units bar, atm, and kgf/cm2 are almost equivalent to each other. In the
English system, the pressure unit is pound-force per square inch (lbf/in2 , or psi), and 1 atm =
14.696 psi. The pressure units kgf/cm2 and lbf/in2 are also denoted by kg/cm2 and lb/in2 ,
respectively, and they are commonly used in tire gages. It can be shown that 1 kgf/cm2 = 14.223
psi.

Pressure is also used for solids as synonymous to normal stress, which is force acting
perpendicular to the surface per unit area. For example, a 150- pound person with a total foot
imprint area of 50 in2 exerts a pressure of 150 lbf/50 in2 = 3.0 psi on the floor (Fig. 3–1). If the
person stands on one foot, the pressure doubles. If the person gains excessive weight, he or she is
likely to encounter foot discomfort because of the increased pressure on the foot (the size of the
foot does not change with weight gain). This also explains how a person can walk on fresh snow
without sinking by wearing large snowshoes, and how a person cuts with little effort when using
a sharp knife

The actual pressure at a given position is called the absolute pressure, and it is measured
relative to absolute vacuum (i.e., absolute zero pressure). Most pressure-measuring devices,
however, are calibrated to read zero in the atmosphere (Fig. 3–2), and so they indicate the
difference between the absolute pressure and the local atmospheric pressure. This difference is
called the gage pressure. Pressures below atmospheric pressure are called vacuum pressures and
are measured by vacuum gages that indicate the difference between the atmospheric pressure and
the absolute pressure. Absolute, gage, and vacuum pressures are all positive quantities and are
related to each other by

Like other pressure gages, the gage used to measure the air pressure in an automobile tire
reads the gage pressure. Therefore, the common reading of 32 psi (2.25 kgf/cm2 ) indicates a
pressure of 32 psi above the atmospheric pressure. At a location where the atmospheric pressure
is 14.3 psi, for example, the absolute pressure in the tire is 32 + 14.3 = 46.3 psi.

In thermodynamic relations and tables, absolute pressure is almost always used.

Throughout this text, the pressure P will denote absolute pressure unless specified otherwise.

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Often the letters “a” (for absolute pressure) and “g” (for gage pressure) are added to pressure
units (such as psia and psig) to clarify what is meant

Pressures are measured either from a datum of absolute zero or from atmospheric
pressure. The term vacuum refers to a pressure measured downward from the atmospheric line;
hence when the barometer reads 30 in., the equivalent of a “vacuum of 10 in. mercury’ is an
absolute pressure of 20 in. of mercury.

Higher pressures are commonly measured by balancing the pressure against the
resistance of a metal spring. Deflection then becomes a measure of pressure, but of course this
device must be calibrated.

The ASME Test Codes recommend that a mercury barometer should always be used. In
many cases, pressures less than atmospheric are given in inches of mercury, vacuum. In such
cases, the vacuum recorded is the read on the scale of a mercury column.

In the bourdon gage the spring is a flattened tube, bent to form a circular arc. When
subjected to internal pressure the tube will tend to straighten out. The fixed end of tube is
connected to the pressure source, and the free end is sealed and connected to a multiplying and
indicating mechanism, from which the pressure is read. The common pressure ranges for full-
scale readings of bourdon gages are 15 to 10,000 psi, but higher ranges are also available.
Vacuum gages of the same type are calibrated in inches of mercury and compound gages are
marked in pounds per square inch above the atmosphere and inches of mercury below
atmosphere.

Temperature (sometimes called thermodynamic temperature) is a measure of the average

kinetic energy of the particles in a system. Temperature is the degree of "hotness" ( or
"coldness") - a measure of the heat intensity. The most common symbol or abbreviation for
temperature is T.

A thermometer can help us determine how cold or hot a substance is. Temperature is in most
of the world measured and reported in degrees Celsius (°C). In the U.S. it is common to report
temperature in degrees Fahrenheit (°F). In the Celsius and Fahrenheit scales the temperatures
where ice melts (water freezes) and water boils are used as reference points.

 In the Celsius scale the freezing point of water is defined as 0 °C and the boiling point is
defined as 100 °C

 In the Fahrenheit scale the water freezes at 32 °F and boils at 212 °F

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 In the Celsius scale there are 100 degrees between the freezing point and the boiling point of
water compared to 180 degrees in the Fahrenheit scale. This means that 1 °C = 1.8 °F (check the
section about temperature differences below).

Values can be converted between the two temperature units by using the equations:

T(°F) = 1.8 T(°C) + 32 (1)

T(°C) = (T(°F) - 32)/1.8 (2)

Three general types of instruments are commonly used for measuring temperatures below
the incandescent range, viz., expansion thermometers, resistance thermometers, and
thermocouples. Accurate temperature measurements are not easy to make, but the difficulties are
more often due to wrong methods of installation and use than to the instruments themselves.

ASME Tests of Temperature-measuring Instrument and Apparatus, under many of the

conditions met in power tests the desired accuracy in the measurement of temperature can be
obtained only by observance of suitable precautions in the installation and use of temperature-
measuring instruments, and in the interpretation of the results obtained with them.

Many of the instruments available for temperature measurements are capable of

indicating temperature far more accurately than is required in most tests. The difficulties in the
use of the instruments are due either to wrong installation or to careless use.

Three methods are readily available for checking thermometers and thermocouples. The
apparatus required is as follows:

1. Comparison with Standard instruments. A thermometer – comparison bath with

mechanical stirrer should be provided, and the instruments immersed in closed proximity in the
bath of water or oil. For high temperatures a bath of molten salt or an electric muffle furnace can
be used. The accuracy of the comparison standard must be certified, preferably by a Bureau of
Standards calibration. Stem-emergence corrections must be carefully determined for the
thermometers.

2. Checking by Reference to Known Boiling or Melting Points – Suitable beakers,

crucibles, and heat sources are required, depending on the materials used and on the temperature
range. For the boiling point of water, a total-immersion steam bath is preferred.

3. Checking by Reference to Saturated-steam Temperatures – this method is successful only

when a dead-weight platform or other very accurate method of measuring the steam pressure is
available. True temperatures are read from steam tables.

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DISCUSSION

Accurate measurement of temperature is of

importance both in laboratories and industries. An
instrument used for measurement of temperature is called
the thermometer, which works on the principle of Zeroth
law. For this reason, the thermometer is brought in contact
with the system, whose temperature is to be measured, for
enough time, so that both come in thermal equilibrium.
Pressure would depend on the temperature of the system;
more is the temperature more is the pressure. Thus, by
calibrating the thermometer, it is possible to find out the
actual temperature of the system. Calibration is a process
in which thermometer pressure is recorded at known
temperatures.

Calibration should include both the instrument and any

interchangeable probes used with that instrument. Each piece should
be separately identified in the calibration records with serial
numbers or agency equipment numbers. There are two methods for
calibrating thermometers. These are the ice point and the boiling
point.

In the ice point method, break up ice into very small pieces
and pack into an insulated container or beaker. Stir this with cold
water into very thick slurry. Place the sensor at the very center of
the container to a depth of at least 50 mm and frequently agitate the slurry. Wait until the
temperature stabilizes and adjust the needle to 0.5°C from 0°C when calibrating a Celsius
thermometer or 2°F from 32°F when calibrating a Fahrenheit thermometer. Through the use of
ice bath, the ice point may be realized conveniently better than 0.01°C. A flask or beaker serves
as a container for the ice, the melting of the ice being retarded by the insulating properties of the
vessel. Gently tapping the thermometer just before reading may prevent the sticking of a falling
meniscus. On the other hand too vigorous a tap will occasionally cause the mercury to rebound
erroneously high reading.

Boil at least six inches of water. Once the water has reached a rolling boil, stick the
sensor part of the thermometer into the middle of the water, taking care to keep it at least two
inches from the sides, top, and bottom. After 30 seconds, the thermometer should read 212
degrees.

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 Water is known to freeze at 0°C and to boil at 100°C at an atmospheric pressure of 1 atm.
By placing a thermometer in mixture of ice water and allowing the thermometer liquid to reach a
stable height, the 0-degree mark can be placed upon the thermometer. Similarly, by placing the
thermometer in boiling water and allowing the liquid level to reach a stable height, the 100-
degree mark can be placed upon the thermometer. With these two markings placed upon the
thermometer, 100 equally spaced divisions can be placed between them to represent the 1-degree
marks. Since there is a linear relationship between the temperature and the height of the liquid,
the divisions between 0 degree and 100 degree
can be equally spaced. With a calibrated
thermometer, accurate measurements can be
made of the temperature of any object within the
temperature range for which it has been
calibrated.

Pressure and temperature are two very

important properties of materials in all phases.
Also, there are many properties that depend on
pressure and temperature and vice versa. For
these reasons, the determination and accurate
measurement of these properties should be done. Calibration is defined as a comparison between
measurement or a set of gradations that show values and position. Calibration is very important
in mechanical and electrical measuring devices since the movement of machine parts depend on
physical phenomena that affect the quantity being measured(e.g., force on pressure).

Since pressure is defined as force per unit area, it is apparent that

measurementsofpressureandforcearevirtuallythesamething.Measurementsofpressureareaccomplis
hedbybalancingthepressureto is measured against a known force. In barometers, manometers,
and dead-weight testers, the pressure is balanced against the force of gravity acting on a
measured column of liquid or a known weight. In bourdon and other spring gages, the known
force is produced by the deflection of a calibrated spring.

Barometers: The pressure is shown on your

barometer's dial, usually expressed in "inches"
referring to "inches of mercury" ("Hg). The early
barometers measured the pressure by the rise or fall of
a column of mercury. This mercury barometer was
invented back in 1643 by a pupil of Galileo named
Evangelista Torricelli.

Most dial type barometers employ an air

pressure sensor with a limited range of sensitivity.
Generally the working altitude range covers only

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about 3000 to 4000 feet. So be sure to choose a barometer that has a sensor range factory set for
use at your elevation (e.g.0-3000 ft.,3000-7000ft. or 7000ftand above).

When you receive your barometer it must be adjusted before being put to use and a local weather
broadcast will give barometric pressure for your approximate location. The adjusting screw is
located in a hole in the back of the barometer and can be reached with a small screw driver to
adjust your instrument to this reading. Turn the adjusting screw while observing the face of the
dial so the indicating hand moves clockwise to match the broadcast reading for your elevation.
Tap the display lightly and further adjust the hand if necessary to the desired setting.

The center knob on the barometer's front moves the set hand. Use it to mark or place over the
location of the black inside hand at the time you set the barometer. This outside set hand will
then serve as a reference marker so you can easily see if pressure is rising, falling or steady.

Manometers measure a pressure difference by balancing the weight of a fluid column between
the two pressures of interest. Large pressure differences are measured with heavy fluids, such as
mercury(e.g.760mmHg=1atmosphere). Small pressure differences, such as those experienced
in experimental wind tunnels or venture flowmeters,are measured by lighter fluids such as
water(27.7 inch H2O=1 psi;1cmH2O=98.1Pa).

Dead-weight pressure gages are devices by which exact values of fluid pressure may be
produced through the use of standard weight acting vertically on a frictionless piston of known
area. Dead-weight gages are also used for precise measurement and control of important
pressures, such as the operating steam pressure in a large electric central station.

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FINAL DATA SHEET/ SET-UP

 Bourdon Gage/ Dead weight Setup

- In Fig.1 the bourdon gage setup is shown. Before using it hydraulic oil is added inside of
it so we could have a better data. This setup includes a set of standard weights as shown
in Fig.1.2 also in Fig 1.1 we could measure the gage pressure by using a ruler.

Fig.1

Fig1.1 Fig1.2

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 Temperature Measurement Setup
- In this set-up it includes a beaker and of course a thermometer. This setup started by first
measuring the volume of the tap water to be heated as shown in Fig.2. After measuring
the tap water is heated in an electric stove as shown in Fig.2.1. When boiling point is
reached a digital thermometer is used to measure the temperature of the tap water as
shown in Fig2.2. The next setup is exactly the same but the liquid that was used in this
part is distilled water as shown in Fig2.3.

Fig.2 Fig.2.1

Fig.2.2 Fig.2.3

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FINAL DATA SHEET

A. Increasing Weight

GAGE
STANDARD EQUIVALENT PERCENT
TRIAL READING DIFFERENCE
(kg/cm2) (psi) DIFFERENCE
(psig)
1 0.5 7.112 8 0.888 12.49%
2 1 14.223 14 0.223 1.6%
3 1.5 21.335 21.5 0.165 0.77%
4 2 28.447 28 0.447 1.57%
5 2.6 36.981 37 0.019 0.05%
6 3.6 51.204 49 2.204 4.30%

B. Decreasing Weight

GAGE
STANDARD EQUIVALENT PERCENT
TRIAL READING DIFFERENCE
(kg/cm2) (psi) DIFFERENCE
(psi)
1 3.6 51.204 49 2.704 4.50%
2 2.6 36.903 36 0.903 2.508%
3 2 28.387 28 0.387 1.382%
4 1.5 21.290 21 0.290 1.381%
5 1 14.193 15 0.806 5.377%
6 0.3 7.097 8 0.903 11.2905%

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 C. Boiling point and Freezing point

TYPE OF STANDARD OBSERVED

VOLUME TIME ELAPSED
WATER BOILING POINT BOILING

DISTILLED
500ml 1000C 1010C 10.50 min
WATER

TAP
500ml 1000C 950C 10.47 min
WATER

VOLUME STANDARD OBSERVED MELTING

TIME ELAPSED
OF ICE MELTING POINT POINT

20ml 00C 40C 19.58min

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CONCLUSION

- The experiment is about measurement of pressure and temperature. The objectives of the
experiment were met. We were able to learn how to calibrate and use the bourdon dead
weight gage tester, to learn how to calibrate and use thermometers with known melting
and freezing points. Lastly, we were able to familiarize oneself with the different types of
pressure and temperature measuring devices. The two properties, temperature and
pressure, are very important to understand and to measure accurately for industrial, daily-
life, and experimental application. In order to get more accurate readings, calibration of
measurement instruments are done. Calibrating the Bourdon dead weight tester was done,
through the results obtained and by comparing it with computed values (true values) and
having slight difference between the two. The difference may be caused by uneven
reading.

- Using the known values of melting, freezing, and boiling points of known fluids (water
for this experiment) and by doing the steam bath tests and natural melting of ice, the
groups have also done the one of the objectives which is to calibrate thermometers.
Whilst having observed values lower than the true values, rather than defects on the
measuring device, human error is considered and the room temperature was also taken
note of.

- In general, by doing the experiment, as a learning method, we were able to familiarize

ourselves with the use of different pressure and temperature measurement instruments
such as the Bourdon gage dead weight tester, digital resistance thermometers, and analog
thermometers.

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RECOMMENDATIONS

- In this experiment obvious errors were usually met by human error. You could lessen
human error by double checking the data before actually accepting it. Also all materials
should be properly used so that we could achieve accurate and precise results.

REFERENCES

 http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/press.html

 Mechanical Engineering Lab Manual 1

 http://www.ashcroft.eu/pictures/pdf/CM_I-M002-10134-8-05.pdf

 http://instengram.tripod.com/temp1.html

 http://www.sciencecompany.com/-W135.aspx

 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressure_sensor#Applications

 http://extension.usu.edu/files/publications/factsheet/Ag_poultry_Vent_03.pdf

 http://water.me.vccs.edu/courses/CIV240/lesson9.htm

 http://www.kau.edu.sa/Files/0057863/Subjects/Chapter%203.pdf

 https://physics.info/pressure/practice.shtml

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