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Animal Housing

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Electronic Book Animal Housing

I.S.B.N.977-17-6282-6

0
 2 Beef Cattle Housing
3- Sheep Housing
4-Bull Pen
Electronic Book
5-Horse Housing Animal Housing

6-Animal Waste
Introduction
CHAPTER 1
Dairy Cattle Housing
Systems for housing and milking

• In Egypt

-Cow House System

-Milking Parlor System

• In Temperate and cold countries

Milking Parlors

CHAPTER 2
Beef cattle housing
• In Egypt and Tropical countries
• In temperate and cold regions
• Polytunnel housing
CHAPTER 3
Sheep Housing
Extensification Systems (In cold regions)

Intensive housing
Polytunnel Housing
CHAPTER 4
Horse Housing
The environmental requirements of the horse
Types of housing
1-Stalls
2-Loose-Box
CHAPTER 5
Bull pen

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 Electronic Book Animal Housing

CHAPTER 6
Animal Wastes

Epidemiology and hygienic importance

Methods of disposal and control

MOVIE:
Dairy Housing
Milking Parlor
Calf Housing and Bull pen
Sheep Housing
Horse Housing

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Electronic Book Animal Housing

Introduction

There are two major groups of diseases are concerned with animal housing-
design respiratory and enteric. The problem of disease is also much greater during
the rearing stages than in adulthood , since from birth to maturity the animal is
passing through various stages when it is developing or losing immunity (active or
passive , natural or artificial) which can be extremely hazardous (Sainsbury and
Sainsbury, 1979).

The respiratory complex is probably the worst. Most animals are infected by
groups of viruses, bacteria, mycooplasma and parasites, so that it is almost
impossible to look for complete protection by vaccines. In any case, a healthy
animal which does not require a vaccine is virtually certain to be more profitable
than a vaccinated and challenged one. The design of the accommodation, therefore,
plays a major part in enabling the stock to be reared free form the risks of major
outbreaks of respiratory disease.

Effective housing for livestock should be designed to meet requirements and

comfort of the animals, convenience and comfort of the operator, efficiency of
labor and materials handling and compliance with applicable health regulations.

There are three essentially contrasting types of housing.

1 - Climatic type: Giving only a cover and protection

2-Controlled—environment type: Which regulates the microclimate as
completely as is required for the particular stock being housed.

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Electronic Book Animal Housing
3 - The kennel type:
Which is a halfway house between the other two and gives two environments in the
one house allowing some free and appropriate choice for the animal.

The methods of use of each of the types, and their suitability for different
countries climatic regions and forms of livestock vary greatly and must be carefully
defined. In recent years, there has been a pronounced trend towards the
intensification of methods of keeping livestock, livestock units, and the buildings
within them, are constantly increasing in size and complexity. It is common
nowadays to have five hundred cattle in one yard and as many as a hundred
thousand poultry on one site. The growth and well-being of all livestock are
affected by three principal factors: their genetic make-up, their nutrition and their
climatic environment. In addition, the health status of the animal is of profound
importance. If the stock is healthy, they will be able to make full use of their
genetic potential and their nutrition, but if disease-producing organisms are present
they may fail in both directions to exhibit their true capabilities.
In planning a livestock building great attention should be given to the
health requirements of the livestock and also to the needs of the stockman. The
following points should be taken into consideration in building animal houses:

A. General purposes

Some of the basic purposes of animal housing are listed below:

• Protect the farm animals from inclement weather.

• Provide the animal with ample opportunity to be well fed, Sufficient,

accessible feeding and watering areas must be a part of the system.

• The system must be comfortable enough to minimize risk of injuries caused

by narrow openings, slippery floors, etc.

• Provide an area for special handling and better observation and care of

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Electronic Book Animal Housing
animals.

• Provide comfortable working conditions for labor.

• The system must be economical to build, yet durable and have low
maintenance costs.

• The building must be flexible enough to allow further expansion if desired.

B- Sitting of the buildings
The sitting of livestock buildings is an important factor to consider, whether they are
intensive controlled environment houses or built on more traditional lines. The
general location of the farm and the climatic region in which it is situated affect
several structural details. For example, more ventilation is needed in the south and
insulation and ventilation control must be of a higher standard in the north of
Egypt.

• Animal accommodation must be built on an open, dry and well-drained site.

• The stable floor should be higher than the rest of the surroundings to avoid
increase of the relative humidity inside the stable by capillarity.

• The site of the stable should be near a main road or high way (better far
enough back from it with 80 - 100 feet to reduce the risk of disease conveyed
from stock passing along the road in trucks) for dispatching the animal
product.

• The system should be located as near to forage production areas as possible.

• Attention should be given to the use of existing trees as windbreaks or to the

planting or quick-growing trees if non-are present.

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Electronic Book Animal Housing
• We must allow a distance between the various buildings at-least equal to the
width of each building to avoid the risk of disease transfer from so close
together buildings and bad ventilation.
C- Aspect of the buildings

The building should not be confined with other buildings. The house aspect should
have: 1-Maximum warmth in winter

2- Maximum coolness in summer.

3-Better aspect at northwestern or southeastern direction to their long

axis.

NORTH

WEST <———————————> EAST

SOUTH
Fig.(1): Aspect of the buildings

• North aspect stables must be protected from cold winter by putting

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 Electronic Book Animal Housing
stores-bedding, food container in front of the stables.

• South aspect stables must be protected from glaring sunlight and hot
weather in summer by making 2-3 rows of trees or shade to reflect the direct
sunlight.

Any system that meets all these purposes can be defined as an ideal one. It will lead
to the health and productivity of the animal and profitability of the entire operation.

CHAPTER 1
Dairy Cattle Housing
Traditionally, cows housed in cowsheds and tied by the neck, using chains, leather straps

or metal yokes. After the Second World War the increase in labor costs provoked a move from

cowsheds and introduction of the loose housing system on straw. During the 1960s the yard and

parlor system was widely installed. Bucket milking and latterly pipeline milking were

increasingly replaced by the modern milking parlor.

Systems for housing and milking

There are three principal systems for
Dairy cattle:
1- The cow house system. (Dutch stable system - Cow byre).
2- The milking parlor, with or without loose housing (Milk house system).
3- The milking bail, which may be on a fixed site or portable.

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 Electronic Book Animal Housing

• In Egypt

1. Cow House System

With cow house system cows are confined close together on a plat-form and secured at the neck

by stanchions. Feed is provided at the stanchions and the cows are milked throughout the year

in the cow house (also called cowshed, shippon, byre or mistal). The system is well suited to the

small and medium-sized herd The most serious disadvantages are that the building is limited to

a fixed number of cows and extensions may be difficult. Adaptations for other classes of stock

can be expensive, deprive cows from exercise and sunlight, cows develop silent heat, and more

manual effort is required to carry milking machines and fodder to the cows in the cow house are

milked there throughout the winter and summer. For this reason the hygienic conditions under

which milk is produced must be considered as well as the health and comfort of the cows. This

requires a building with readily cleanable walls, floors and other surfaces, suitable drainage

facilities, ample light and ventilation, and a plentiful supply of pure water.

Sitting and genera! construction:

There are two principal arrangements for standing the cows:

1-The single-range cow house.

2-The double-range cow house.

Fig. (1): The single and double-range cow house

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 Electronic Book Animal Housing

. Fig.(2): The

single-range cow house

The double-range cow house with a central walk has many cow is slightly less than with the

single-range cow house. Feeding passages are not obligatory with either type of houses some

double-range sheds are arranged with cow facing each other and have a central feed passage

between the rows of cows. Disadvantages with this design are the additional wall cleaning

(which the tail-to tail double range shed reduces to the minimum), the difficulty of mechanizing

cleaning out, and the carrying involved when milking units and equipment are transferred from

one side of the shed to the other.

Feeding is simple, and this design might be justified with a complex feeding policy or with the

development of tower silos and mechanized feeding. In the single-range sheds it is desirable for

cows to face north with windows in the south wall, to take full advantage of sunlight and to

throw light onto the working area. The double-range shed should ideally have either

northwestern or southeastern direction to their long axis.

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 Electronic Book Animal Housing

Fig. (3): Different types of partions.

1. Dimensions

The regulations do not impose any rigid dimensions, so as not to interfere with local customs

and practice.

- Recommended internal dimensions are:

Width without feed
Double -range Single –range with feed passage 10.0 5.3 „
8. 4.4
Where buildings are being adapted for cow housing these widths may have to be modified.

Table(1):Dimensions required in the cow house are:

Single range Double-range

Width

Feeding passage 75-90 cm 1.8m

Mangers 75.90cm 1.8m
Standings 150cm 3.0m
Gutters 90cm 1.8m
Center or rear walk 150 cm 1.5m
Total - 5.5m 10m

Feed passages may be wider to allow for tractor feeding. Where gutters are constructed for

mechanical cleaning, they may be less than 90 cm in width. For manure scraping with a

mechanical tractor they are omitted altogether.

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 Electronic Book Animal Housing

The length and width of standing may require adjustment for large or small breeds of cow,

although with some types of tie it is possible to make adjustments without altering the basic

dimensions.

Doors:

Sufficient doors must be provided for access by cows, removing milk and dung and for the

movement of feedings stuffs. Doors can be either hinged or sliding.

Usual dimensions are 120 cm wide and 200 cm high: if hinged doors are constructed in two

halves, the lower half should be 120 cm high.

For double-range sheds the width of double floors will usually be 2.70 - 3.00 m, depending on

the width of the centre walk.

Drinking bowel and water supply:

Water should be freely available, or milk yield will be restricted. Types of drinking bowl

available are:

1. Pressure-fed bowls, where the cow controls the flow of water by operating a nose plate.

2. Gravity-fed bowls with a non-return valve.

3. Self-filling bowls in which the supply of water is controlled at a valve.

Suitably placed taps will be required for washing down the shed, and these should be protected

from damage by or injury to

Fig. (4): drinking bowl.

Drainage disposal:
The hygienic disposal of excreta and other solid

and liquid waste materials is of a great importance as it affects the health of the animals.

The first removal of solid excreta in cowsheds is a great help to the drainage system to let the

urine only find its way to the drain.

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 Electronic Book Animal Housing

Fig. (5): Drainage system.

The daily amount of excreta evacuated by animals vary with the nature and amount of diet

(cattle daily amount about 70-90 lbs).

-Drainage is a mixture of:

1. Surface drainage system:

Within the stables-where drains are mostly uncovered and purely surface and begin by the

gutter, which constructed of impervious material having a 1-% sloping.

2. under- ground or subsoil drains:

Effluent from the cow house must discharge to the subsoil drains outside the building and then

conveyed to a suitable point for disposal.

The drain directly outside the cow house can be either a trapped gulley or a catch pit. Where

drains are being connected into a foul drainage system, a trapped drain is essential to prevent

sewer gasses from creating a nuisance, and the gulley should have a removable grit bucket.

Where it is considered economic to serve urine for used as manure, a separate system for

washing-down and rain water will be required effluent from the trapped gulley or catch pit

should be conveyed in pipes at least 10 cm in diameter.

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 Electronic Book Animal Housing

When several drains or floodwater have to be dealt with, larger pipes will be essential, laid to a

suitable disposal point, which must be approved by the local authority.

2. Milking Parlor System

This system gives a greater flexibility of cow numbers linked to the increase in herd size and the

need for speeding up the milking process.

One disadvantage of loose housing associated with increasing cow numbers was the loss of the

opportunity for individual attention to cows. This feature was to some extent minimized by the

feeding systems, which operated through the sixties. Large cow numbers were associated at this

time with favored low input/low output systems, concerned with the balance that could be

achieved between silage and concentrate.

Advantages of the yard-and-parlor system over the traditional cowshed housing and milking

are:

The daily requirements of cleaning out the cowshed to meet milk and dairies regulations are

reduced to littering the sleeping area of the yard and scraping the loafing and feeding and

feeding area only. The strewed area builds up to a deep bed of farmyard manure by the end of

the winter period and this can be easily handled mechanically in a very short space of time.

During the sixties, there was move towards more intensive grassland management, leading to

higher stocking rates and greater cow numbers, which could be more easily accommodated by

the yard system.

Self-feed silage was another product of the improving grass technology and this also fitted in

with loose housing. Individual silage feeding is too heavy a task to be contemplated by farmers

using a cowshed system.

The parlor milking system has considerable advantages over the cowshed bucket milking

system; the introduction of circulation cleaning and bulk tanks has brought about greatly

improved labor use.

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 Electronic Book Animal Housing

5. If properly designed, it enables cows to be kept clean more easily, since milking is in a

separate area away from feed, manure and dust. This facilitates the production of quality milk.

Some of the major disadvantages of loose housing systems are the following:

Fig. (6): yard-and-parlor system

Illustrated Diagram for yard-and-parlor system

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1 - There is less opportunity for individual cow attention. Cows are housed fed and often

milked in groups.

2 - Spread of contagious diseases is enhanced because of the common use of feeding and

watering facilities.

• Units of the system which may be required are:

1. The milking unit:

Which will consist of a milking parlor, a milk room (dairy), a holding box for cows, which have

to be, segregated for individual attention and a store or storage space for concentrated

feedstuffs.

2. The cow-housing unit:

Which may comprise covered yards either strewed or with cubicle storage space for bulk

feedstuffs.

Fig. (7): The milking unit

• In Temperate and cold countries
1. Loose yarding

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 Electronic Book Animal Housing
Loose yarding and cubicle housing systems both have specific areas for milking (the parlor),
feeding and lying. The difference between the two systems is in the lying area. Cubicles consist
of individual areas where a cow can lie. Loose yards allow cows to lie where they wish-
although they are, of course, encouraged to lie on a clean, bedded area. Apart from hotter
climates, where sand is/ used in open yards, straw is the prime bedding material. A typical straw
yard layout is shown in Fig. (2.8) and diagrammatically in Fig (2.8 a and b). Access to the
straw-bedded area is from the front, where the cows are able to stand and eat from a feed
manger or through the feed fence (C). Often the feed passage (D), which should be wide enough
to accommodate a tractor and forage wagon, is itself the manger, the food being delivered up
against the feed fence. The standing area (E) should be sufficiently wide to permit the use of a
tractor and scraper and also to allow the easy passage and movement of cows when the feed
face is fully occupied by other feeding cows. The sitting of the water troughs (B) is vital. They
should be far enough from the straw-bedded area to avoid fouling and yet not sited such that
they are liable to become damaged or fouled when scraping out, feeding or rebedding the yards.
If placed B1, access must be restricted to only those cows in the standing area. If access is
permitted from the strewed area (A). Serious fouling could occur around the trough and part of
the bedded area would then become obliterated. Sitting at B2 is a possibility, but it reduces
available feeding space, risks becoming contaminated by food and may get damaged by the
feeder wagons. Sitting at B3, is acceptable in layout 2, where there is no division (G) between
the bedded and lying area, but in layout 2 it could cause an obstruction to the flow of cows and
fouling of the initial bedded area. Opinions vary over the value of the divisions. Some consider
that it reduces straw use, in that less straw is dragged down into the passage on cows’ feet.
Others consider that it reduces access to the bedded area and in so doing increases both the risk
of bullying of heifers and fouling of the bedded area, in that cows are less able and hence less
willing to move to the dunging/standing area (E) to urinate and defecate.

Kennels:
The difference between cubicles and kennels is that the latter are only roofed over the actual
part occupied by a cow while she is lying down. In order to obtain the maximum shelter from
cold winds and driving rain it is customary to build kennels in double rows.

Cubicles:

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It is most convenient to incorporate cubicles (Fig. 2.9) within a building that includes the
feeding space, and sometimes access to a strewed ‘loafing’ area and/or the silage face, if an ad
lib system of forage feeding is adopted.

Table(2):The dimensions of the cubicles are determined by the breed in the following manner:

Length, m Width, m

Friesian/Holstein weighing over 650 kg 2.08 1.12

Ayrshire weighing 400-650 kg 2.0 1.10

Channel Island weighing less than 400 kg 1.8 1.0

If cubicles are arranged on both sides of a passage, this should be 30m wide.

Yard Layout:
A yard area should consist of a lying or bedded area and a loafing or feeding area. The space
required for each animal depends upon the age and an allowance of 4.2 m2 for lying area and
2.0 m2 for loafing and feeding is typical. The feeding area can give access to a feed face or self-
feed silage area.
The sleeping area must be covered. A feed fence can be situated along the outside of the yard so
that feeding can be done by mechanical means such as forage boxes. All feeds and manure
should be handled as little as possible over the shortest possible distance.
Slatted floors may be used in the loafing area; normally 2.8-3.4 m2 per head should be allowed,
depending upon the breed. Slats are usually of concrete up to 3.5 m in length; depth, depending
upon span, 100-225 mm; top width 100-225 mm tapered, so that the base is narrower than the
top. The recommended width between slats is 25-40 mm. Slatted floor systems reduce bedding
and labor cost but are more expensive initially. Welfare codes recluse the use of slats over the
entire area.

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Fig.(8):Yard Layout

Cubicle Housing
The most widespread development in loose housing was the introduction of cow cubicles in a
covered yard, and cow kennels where only the lying area is covered. Kennels form a very low-
cost housing system. Cubicles give substantial savings in bedding costs and the cows are
cleaner, consequently saving washing time and speeding throughput in the milking parlor.
The cubicle should be comfortable and afford the cow protection against disturbance and injury
from its neighbors. Various designs of cubicle are now in widespread use. If sufficient regard is
not given to the needs of the animal, however, problems will arise, not only with disease and
injury but also with cows refusing to use the cubicles.

Fig (9): Diagram of cubicle house

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Table (3): Cubicle dimensions:

Cubicle dimensions (m)

length to wall 2.00 2.20 2.40 2.40

length behind trough+ 1.40 1.0 1.80 1.0

width between partitions 1.10 1.15 1.20 1.15

height of neck rail 1.00 1.05 1.10 1.05

Feeding face, width (m) 0.55 0.70 0.70 0.65

Losses housing (m2)

bedded area/head 3.2 5.0 5.8 4.0

feeding, etc./head 1.3 1.8 2.0 1.5

Fig (10): Three-Dimensional Diagram of cubicle house.

Milking Arrangements:

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In machine milking equipment, there are four distinct types of plant: The bucket type with a
tapped vacuum line fixed overhead, installed in a cowshed.

Pipeline milking involving a milk pipeline into which the milk is delivered direct from the teat
cups, without intervening buckets. Recording is done by the use of a milk-flow meter of which
there are several approved models available. A long pipeline should have as few vertical lifts
and right-angle bends as possible since these harbor milk residues which may develop taints as
a result of breakdown of milk fat.
The fixed milking parlor or movable bail for use with varied cows or cows at pasture.
The rotary system in which cows circulate on a revolving platform past the operator.
The principles involved in the parlor and bail systems are similar: by centralizing milking at one
point, the operator’s time is saved, as the cow does the walking. The operator concentrates on
washing and milking the cows in relay and probably feeds the concentrate ration to each cow-all
with a minimum amount of movement on his part. Conveyance of the milk from the milking
point is done by vacuum.

milking Fig (10):

parlors.

Milking Parlors
The design of milking parlors and equipment has made rapid strides over the years. The
main types of milking parlor are as follows:

1. Abreast:
The cows enter through the operator area and leave through the front of the stall. The standings
are raised 350-400 mm above the floor level of the operator. More attention can be paid to

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individual cows as they enter and leave singly. The amount of walking involved for the operator
is the limiting factor on the size of this type, thus making it more suitable for the smaller herd.

Abreast Parlor The circular Abreast parlor

Fig (11): Abreast Parlor

• Simple Abreast-Cows stand in line abreast. Parlors larger than six stalls involve too much
walking for the herdsman.

• Circular Abreast- The cows stand in single stalls forming a circle round the operator pit

in the centre. Walking is reduced, but the presence of cows in the working area poses a

disadvantage.(fig.11).

• Back-to Abreast-As its name suggests, the cows stand at either side of the operator pit in

single stalls. Both the circular and back-to-back allow the use of more stalls and allow the parlor

to cope with larger herds.

2. Tandem:
The cows stand-on in line to the operator’s pit between two rows of stalls. Each has separate
side entry and exit gates. Again the amount of walking
involved is a problem and a relatively large building is
required to accommodate a small parlor. This system is
no longer widely used.

Fig.(12): Tandem Parlor

3. The Chute:
This is a modification of the tandem particularly suitable

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for narrow buildings in which cows enter and leave in batches. For large herds, though, the
length of the parlor becomes unmanageable.

Fig.(13) :The

Chute Parlor

Herringbone:
The cows stand in groups at an angle of 30-35 degrees on either side of the central operator pit.
The average pit depth is about 0.9 m, the width will depend upon design, for example, a
distance of 1.8 m is allowed for a parlor with single row, eye level jars. The herringbone
substantially reduces the amount of walking, and relatively large parlors can be installed in
short buildings. This type of parlor can be easily automated-by the installation of mechanical
gates, automatic feeding and cluster removal- to make it more suitable for the larger herd.

Fig.(14):He

rringbone

parlor.

4. Polygons and Trigons:

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Fig.(15) :Polygons and Trigons.

Polygon parlor Trigon parlor

These are really in essence multi-sided herringbones. The polygon is, rotaries, polygons and
trigons, are 1/1 of necessity (that is one per unit).

Interest has been focused on the idea of dispensing with jars and milking direct to the pipeline.
This would improve the working area, but would create less vacuum reserve and increase the
risk of milk contamination.

5. Rotary:
The parlors rotate round or past the operator and incorporate either the tandem, herringbone or
abreast principle. The complete rotation may take six to seven minutes; however, movement can
be halted while cows move into and out of their stalls. Greater throughput is claimed but such
parlors are more expensive, can take up more building space and are obviously more prone to
mechanical breakdown

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Fig.(16): Different designs for Rotary parlor

Before installing a parlor, the following factors should be considered:

1. Feeding of Concentrate:
Two stalls per milking unit will usually give sufficient time for the cows to eat concentrates if
they are fed wholly in the parlor. Cows vary in the rate at which they eat; this is usually 0.5 kg
per minute for cubes, but slower for meal. Slow eaters or feeding of excessive concentrates will
slow down the milking process. The use of a feed fence outside the parlor alleviates this
problem.

2. Size of Herd:
If the total time spent on milking is not to exceed one and a half hours in the evening and two
hours in the morning, then there should be between ten and fifteen cows per unit, depending
upon the layout, yield per cow and the spread of calving pattern. The number of units a man can
handle without being overtaxed or underemployed is largely governed by what he has to do in
milking each cow-the so-called work routine. A typical work routine is shown in Table (4).
The potential throughput of a parlor depends on the milking – out time, the number of units and
the length of the work routine. Therefore, throughput can be improved by mechanization and
automation of certain

Table (4): Working routine time

Operation Min/cow

Let in and feed cow 0.15

Foremilk 0.10

Wash and dry udder 0.20

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Attach cluster 0.20

Remove cluster 0.10

Disinfect teats 0.10

Let out cow 0.10

Miscellaneous 0.05

Total 1.00

Operations, for example, mechanical entry and exit gates, concentrate feeding with the aid of
electronics, teat disinfection and washing sprays, milk recording and automatic cluster removal
(ACR). The main benefit of ACR may however be to prevent over milking rather than to save
time.
In the case of low yielding cows the limiting factor will be work routine; for high yielding cows
it will be milking – out time which allows ample time for full work routine.

3. Available Buildings:
The third consideration is whether an existing building can be adapted to house the chosen
parlor or whether to build afresh. Whatever the decision it is important to take account of the
need to site the parlor properly so as to allow easy passage of cows to and from it to the cow
housing.

Dairies:
When milk is collected in bulk from farms a refrigerated milk vat (tank) must be
installed and therefore the dairy must be large enough to accommodate this while leaving
sufficient headroom to allow calibration. In determining the size of the tank, allowance should
be made for possible herd expansion or increased yields per cow. At the time of collection the
tanker driver inspects the milk in the tank, checks the temperature, agitates the milk and takes a
sample for testing under the various schemes controlling milk quality. The quantity is measured
by either a dipstick and calibration chart or a flow meter.

Collecting Yards, Race and Crush:

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The shape of collecting yards alongside the dairy varies from rectangular to circular but
an average adequate space allowance is 1.4 m2/cow. The entrance gate must be the full width of
the yard and, in long rectangular yards, is placed opposite the dairy entrance.
A circular yard with a mechanically controlled backing gate helps to keep the cows
moving to the dairy entrance). A gate of radius 8.5 m is able to contain up to 150 cows in three-
quarters of a circle. From the exit of the milking parlor, there should be a gate that can be
opened to permit any cow needing veterinary attention to be separated and taken to pens for
insemination or to a crush.
Crush-this is a pen which accommodates a single beast with a yoke to secure the head
and a rump bar to secure the rear. Sideways movement should be prevented. The crush should
be the correct dimensions to suit the size of stock using it; it therefore needs to be adjustable.
Race-This is designed to get cattle into single file before entering the crush. It should
ideally be 75 cm wide, consisting of stout parallel fences with rails on the inside; it can be used
for simple treatments or inspections. A foot bath can be provided in the floor of the race.

The race and crush can be planned for use in conjunction with the collecting yard by-
passing the parlor. There should, however, be access to both ends of the crush.
A foot bath with a minimum depth 150-200 mm of liquid in two sections, each 2.13 m x
1.22 m, one for washing and one for disinfecting, should be incorporated in the exit races.

Ventilation in Dairy Cow Buildings:

Natural ventilation is always used, the aim being to provide ample draught-free air
movement by having space boarding from he top of a base of building blocks, brick or concrete,
having a height of 2.30 m. The space boarding to the eaves can have slats of 125 mm width and
a gap of 25 mm. An opening along the roof ridge is desirable.

Calves and Isolation Boxes:

These are required for isolation of cattle for disease control, treatment or calving. They
need to be sited away from the main block of buildings, and each box should be 4.2m x 3.6 m x
2.6m high. Ideally one box should be provided for every 20 cows, but in larger herds this can be
extended to 50.

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CHAPTER 2

Beef Cattle Housing

• In Egypt and Tropical countries

Stocks which are directed for fattening are either housed in open yards stalls or in loose-
boxes. After the first initial rearing stage. The animal requirements are greatly decreased due to
the restricted movement of fattened animals.

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Yards are usually similar to those constructed for dairy cattle. The yards are usually used
in tropical and semitropical countries. The floor of the yard in dry places may be of sand or
earth, but attention should be paid to over wetting which facilitate the clostridia infection
(blackleg).
Yards should be partially sheltered to safeguard hard weather of hot climate or rainfall
or excessive cold in winter time. The yard floor may be pave led or of concrete, and the area
should be covered by straw or other bedding material. This material should be turned after days
to prevent dampness. The floor of the yard should be sloped toward the gutter by 1/100 for
liquid manure collection.
To minimize the amount of bedding used in this system, the floor space is usually
divided into two parts, one is bedded and the other part is uncovered where the manger and
water troughs are present. As the animal spend most of the day time in eating and drinking, so
the bedded section of the yard will be dry and clean.
Usually the floor of the yard is surrounded by a strong fence with a height of 1.35 m. in
some cases the yard is completely covered, and the space between the wall and the roof is left
opened for natural ventilation, in other cases the uncovered part of the floor is surrounded by
walls which act as antiwind section.

Stalls and or loose boxes are used for housing baby beef. It is better to group the animal
in small numbers to prevent behavioral disorders as suckling of navel of others with subsequent
decrease in animal gain. The partitions of the stall should not from rusted metals, as some calves
prefer to like the metal with subsequent decrease in body gain and bad quality of the meat.

Table (5): space allowance for beef cattle in Tropical countries

Space allowance for animal

Age Manger length/head Area/animal (including manger)

(m) (m2)

Up to 6 0.6 3.6

months

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1 year 0.65 5.3

2 year 0.65 6.9

Bullock 0.75-0.85 9-12

• In temperate and cold regions

Beef Cattle Sheds:
There are three types of housing used on beef producing units : (1) calf-rearing; (2)
‘follow-on’ or grower pens; (3) fattening or finishing pens.
The majority of home-grown beef comes from the unwanted calves produced by dairy
farmers. The management and housing of calves up to weaning at 5-7 weeks, destined for beef,
is similar to those who will become dairy replacement heifers.
1-calf-rearing

Fig. (17): Calve Huts

Fig.(18):Different types of Calve Huts

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Grower Pens:
Whether calves are reared in an environment-controlled house or not, they are likely to
have been kept inside at a temperature above that to be found outside during the winter months.
The requirements of a house where the young, weaned animal will spend the 6-8 weeks
following weaning needs to be well bedded with straw, or other suitable material, and must aim
to provide conditions that permit the young animals to ‘harden-off in atmospheric temperatures
in as comfortable conditions as possible (facing the main opening, often an entirely open side of
the shed) If existing buildings are used, care must be taken to see that ventilation is really
adequate. The space requirement is 1.8-2.7m2 if bedding is used, with 45mm per beast of trough
space.
Monopitch Calf House:
Mitchell has designed a number of extremely successful specialist calf-rearing houses of
monopitch construction. One of these is illustrated in Fig.(2.17). In essence these buildings are
no more than well-built follow-on houses designed to provide calves with shelter but plenty of
fresh air. In fact, there is quite a strong argument in support of the case that the best form of calf
house is a good follow-on house. The Mitchell monopitch is a reasonably low cost affair and
has several features which make it particularly attractive in context of calf health and
husbandry.

Fig. (17): Monopitch Calf House

Poly-tunnel Housing of Beef cattle

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Fig.(19): Poly-tunnel Housing of Beef cattle

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CHAPTER 3
Sheep Housing

Extensification Systems (In cold regions)

Flocks which are truly extensively kept throughout the year face a variety of problems
such as adverse weather conditions (sudden snowfalls with drifting in winter, wind and rain or
snow around lambing time), lack of grazing during the winter, and predators. Added to this are
the physical difficulties of supplying fodder or concentrates and in adequately inspecting the
sheep. Good advance planning is necessary to help reduce the impact of problems which can be
foreseen, although the sudden onset of severe weather can still take people (including weather
forecasters) by surprise.

The popularity of winter housing (Fig.20), particularly encouraged when grants were
available to assist in building sheep sheds, means that some flocks which are run in a truly
extensive system in the summer months may be housed and kept under intensive conditions
during the worst months of winter, often until lambing is completed. Thus, the problems
associated with intensively housed sheep may be encountered in those same flocks.

Fig (20): sheep shed

“Extensification” may now also simply imply keeping fewer sheep on previously
heavily grazed good land, with reduced use of fertilizers and other chemicals. This system
should work to the benefit of the animals, particularly as far as internal parasites are concerned.

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Alternatively, extensification is being promoted on hills to reduce grazing pressure where
overgrazing has occurred to the detriment of the environment. However, as well as requiring an
overall reduction in sheep numbers, such schemes generally require a further reduction in
numbers during the winter months, which results in a concentration of animals on inbye
(enclosed) land, increasing stocking rates and, hence, the risk of infectious disease outbreaks.
Those farms which have too little in bye land, send ewes off the farm for away-wintering.
Unless these animals are well supervised, they may return home in poor condition and bring
disease into what are otherwise closed flocks.
Sheep kept extensively the whole year round are likely to be at less risk of some
infectious diseases than are intensively kept flocks; in particular, roundworms are unlikely to be
a significant problem. Liver fluke may, however, be a major problem on poorly drained land
(except on peaty soils where snails are unable to survive). The improvement of hill land by
liming and fertilizer application has produced ideal conditions for snails and fluke to flourish. In
addition, such pasture improvement has led to deficiencies in trace elements, especially copper,
as a result of altering the availability of various mineral constituents of the soil.
The major disease risks to extensively kept sheep are those caused by external parasites,
particularly sheep scab, blowflies, head fly and ticks. Recent concern about the safety to
humans of organophosphorus dip compounds has complicated the control of both scab and
blowflies, since at present there is no other single product available which gives the
comprehensive protection conferred by organophosphorus dips, if correctly used. The situation
is particularly worrying in the case of sheep scab, as it takes the presence of only a small
number of infected sheep to lead to extensive outbreaks on common grazing.

Intensive Housing

Types of Housing. There are three main types of accommodation for sheep:

Open yards:
These are satisfactory in areas of low rainfall and are formed by using temporary walling
of straw bales or linked, where convenient, to the side of existing buildings. Straw used as litter
should prevent undue soiling, but where straw is in short supply a raised slatted floor should be
considered (Fig.25). It is important to provide these topless pens with protection against wind
and draughts

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Fig. (21): open yards.

Open yards and temporary buildings:

A few topless in-wintering yards modern development of the open straw yard however,
an open-topped yard has been used successfully. The yard comprises an expanded, galvanized
steel mesh floor supported by concrete blocks with plywood panels offering shelter against the
prevailing wind. The performance of store lambs is comparable with lambs housed in more
expensive and conventional roofed structures. Temporary structures are often erected for extra
shelter and accommodation at lambing time. Big straw bales are flexible for this purpose and
marquees have also been hired on occasions.

Partly covered yards:

These may be adapted cattle courts or open yards linked to limited covered space. In this
system the sheep are exposed to weather for some of the time and this may lead to a very damp
humid atmosphere in the covered area when they take shelter. It is essential that the open yard is
well drained and that there is free movement of air in the covered area. In the case of an apex
roof the ridge should have an opening of 150-200 mm. Monopitch buildings should have an
opening of 230-300 mm along the back wall

Fig.(.22): Partly covered yard

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Closed and Permanent Structures:
-Permanent structures (Fig.23):
Boe et al., (1991) showed clearly that uninsulated buildings are well suited for sheep. In
the UK, portal frames are the most sophisticated structure. This type of building can offer the
greatest labor saving but is expensive. Stocking rate can be difficult to maximize because of
building shape. The ideal sheep pen is long and narrow to provide adequate feeding space and
this design is unsuited to a portal frame building.
Timber buildings range from the low cost structure built with local or second-hand
materials to those built from sophisticated construction kits with many refinements. Monopitch
buildings can provide many of the basic requirements for ewes as well as being ideal for silage
transport and feeding. However they are not readily adapted to other enterprises.

Fig.(23):Permanent structures

Fig. (24) Closed and permanent structure (Slatted floor)

Polytunnel Housing
The polythene-tunnel has also been used in many situations and has withstood the
British climate remarkably well. The long, narrow shape caters well for the basic needs of the
pregnant ewe. The major drawback is that the air inlet is at animal height with the risk of

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draughts for the shorn or recently lambed ewe. An interesting solution to this problem was
described by Charles and Stubbing (1992). A trough is set alongside the outside of the tunnel
and provides both a windbreak and air inlet which directs airflow upwards and away from the
sheep. This design gave an excellent atmosphere in the building.
It is customary not to keep more than 10 ewes in one pen. The smaller the number kept
together, the more certain can the stockman be that all are getting sufficient food. Hay is usually
fed in racks (150-200 mm per ewe) on either side of pen partitions and concentrates in troughs
(400-450 mm per ewe). A combined rack and trough known as the ‘Scandinavian feed box’ has
recently become much used. The box can fit between the bars of a pen division and is 470 mm
wide x 300 mm deep x 2400 mm long. Concentrate mixture or pellets are put into the bottom of
the box, a length of standard weld mesh (15 x 75 m) is placed on top and the hay distributed
above it.

Fig. (25):

Polytonal

Housing

Electric light: Buildings in which lambing takes place should have adequate lighting for

inspections at night.

Lambing pens: It is the custom to put up temporary pens of about 0.4 m2 by using straw bales
or hurdles with a wall or thatched hurdles behind to break the wind. Circular roofless structures

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with only one south-facing entrance, made of stone, steel or treated wood called ‘stalls’ have for
long offered protection in bad weather for hill flocks.

CHAPTER 4

Horse Housing
Micro climate and the principal essentials for stables are as follows:

1. A reasonably uniform temperature, eliminating as far as possible extremes.

2. A dry atmosphere and freedom from condensation on the surfaces of the building.

3. Generous air movement and ventilation without draughts.

4. Sound, dry flooring.

5. Good drainage.

6. Adequate lighting, both natural and artificial.

7. Good feeding and watering arrangements.

• The environmental requirements of the horse:

Horses have suffered from a worrying increase in problems due to environmental stress

within very recent times. There is certainly an increasing incidence of respiratory disease and

a daunting number of causes have been suggested. It is generally accepted that the increase

in the environmental and disease problems may be associated with the trend towards placing

larger numbers of horses in close proximity within totally enclosed buildings. It is probably

aggravated by the rapid movement of horses in substantial numbers from continent to

continent by land and air.

In order to provide the horse with the correct climatic environment in its housing and

reduce the likelihood of disease, it is essential to have a basic understanding of the horse’s

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physiological needs. The principal elements of the climatic environment which affect the

hors are ambient temperature, relative humidity, ventilation rate, air movement and light

Ambient temperature:

A horse can readily tolerate a wide range, e.g. 5o-27oC of ambient temperatures without

harm, depending on the degree to which the individual has been allowed to acclimatize and

provided the atmosphere is free of damp and draught.

Temperature per se can be a misleading guide to the suitability of the environment and

should never be used as the sole criterion. In practice there is a risk that, in attempting to

keep horses “warm”, air flow and ventilation are restricted to a serious extent.

A healthy, well-fed adult horse has a wide thermal tolerance and, with

acclimatization, can withstand temperatures as low as – 10oC. The lower critical temperature
of a two-day-old foal is approximately 25oC and health well-fed foals can tolerate

temperatures down to 5oC without a fall in deep body temperature. Disease and malnutrition

increase the lower critical temperature because of a decrease in metabolic rate. Wind or

draughts also increase the lower critical temperature especially of wet animals. Foals are the

most susceptible to hypothermia and extra heat sources may be required; quartz-halogen

radiant heat lamps are particularly beneficial. Rugging and deep bedding restrict heat loss.

Like all animals horses are intolerant of draughts, particularly after exercise or when clipped

but not rugged and therefore the air supply should not be associated with air speeds over

0.15ms-1.

Newborn foals are less tolerant of low temperature, and this can give difficulties when

mare and foal share accommodation.

Relative humidity:

The burden on the horse, especially on the respiratory system, is intensified if the air is damp

(i.e. the relative humidity is near saturation) and there is condensation on the internal

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surfaces of the building. the worst conditions are those of low temperature and high

humidity, the optimal conditions for the viability and inhalation of pathogens. Few stables

are of sufficiently insulated construction and any restriction of ventilation causes severe

condensation on the walls, roof and windows.

Ventilation rate and air movement

Ventilation rates are based primarily on: (1) the maximum rates to keep the building

cool in warm weather ;(2) the minimum rates to eliminate from the environment, even in

the coldest weather, the humidity arising from the animals’ exhalation and evaporation form

their excreta.

Provided the minimum requirements are observed will be no problem with gaseous

exchange. Quite a wide range of ventilation rates will be required to satisfy criteria-

approximately a ratio of 10 to 1 from the hottest to coldest weather-and this must be

achieved without extremes of draught of stagnation. Just what constitutes these extremes it

is difficult to define accurately but a suggested range for air movement is from 0.15 to 0.5

m/sec (30 to 100 ft/min), at a minimal ventilation rate of 0.2m3/h/kg body weight (bwt) to
2..0m3/h/kg bwt (0.05ft3/min/lb bwt to 0.5 ft3/min/lb bwt).

The ventilation rates quoted here can only be achieved accurately if mechanical

systems are installed and it is the area of air outlets and inlets that are important in traditional

systems of natural air flow. Safe margins are, for the outlet, 0.1m2 (1ft2) and for the inlet, a

controllable area of at least 0.3 m2 (1ft2) and, for the inlet, a controllable area of at least 0.3

m2 (3ft2)/horse. These areas are quite easily obtained but the location and design of the

ventilators are critical.

Air change for horses:

Horses appear to be particularly susceptible to air quality, including high levels of

ammonia, humidity, dusts and mould spores. These agents can cause respiratory stresses,

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which are particularly serious to the welfare and usefulness of an animal expected to perform

exercise over a long life. The stressors operate as irritants or allergens and some have been

specifically associated with named disorders. An important example is the association

between Aspergillus fumigates and Micropolyspora faeni and chronic obstructive pulmonary

disease (COPD). Rye grass pollen also causes allergies, and ventilation is even more critical

if the bedding or fodder is other than first class. Thus the values given in table (6) for air

change rates should be applied with a great deal of judgment, and of course without draughts.

Grouped horses need more air per animal than individually housed horses.

Light:

Light affects the cyclicity of equine reproduction, shedding of coats, behavioral needs

and the survival of airborne microbes. Photoperiod is the primary factor which governs

seasonal estrus activity in mares. Artificial lighting in stables can be used to bring mares into

season early in the year. Standard light bulbs or fluorescent lighting will provide suitable

light intensities and wavelengths, the target light intensity being between 100 and 200 lux.

Extending day length to between 14 and 16 hours in late November is effective in

stimulating early estrus. The provision of 2.5 hours of artificial light after sunset but before

sunrise or a 1 hour exposure to light 9 to 10 hours after natural sunset are other approaches

which stimulate mares to cycle. Photoperiod also affects plasma levels of testosterone,

testicular size, seminal characteristics and sexual behavior in stallions. Photoperiod is also

the primary factor which stimulates changes in coat length. Decreasing day length stimulates

the horse to lose its summer coat while increasing day length leads to the loss of the winter

coat. The association between hormone levels and changing hair coat could provide a

physiological explanation for the observation of many racehorse trainers that the appearance

of the longer winter coat at the end of the racing season is associated with decreasing racing

performance.
Climatic environment and health
Ethological studies have shown that that horses prefer bright to poorly lit stables. Natural light receives

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inadequate attention in stables. The ultraviolet fraction of sunlight is a natural killer of airborne microbes.

Plastic skylights or ultraviolet-pervious glass are preferable to normal glass since the latter does not allow

the penetration of ultraviolet rays; 10% of skylight in the roof is suitable as a general guideline.

Table (6) Summary of the range of climatic environmental requirements stabled horse

Factor Metric Imperial

Ambient temperature 0.30OC 32-85OF

T
Relative humidity 30-70% 30-70%
yp
Air movement 0.15-0.5m/sec 30-100ft/min
es
Ventilation rate 0.2-2.0m3/h/kg bwt 0.05-0.5ft/min Lb bwt of

Outlet ventilation area 0.1m2horses Lft2horse

ho

usi
Inlet ventilation area 0.3 m2/horse 3 ft2/horse
ng

There are three basic types of stables:

1. Stalls: Horses remain tethered in stalls though controversy exists regarding their use.

(Fig.26).

2. Looseboxes are typically constructed in rows. An overhang over the front of the boxes
can provide shelter for horses and staff in inclement weather. An open top half of the stable

door allows horses to enjoy fresh air and a stimulating environment. Looseboxes can also be

constructed around a courtyard design.

3. Barns. Horse barns com in many sizes and shapes ranging form large low barns housing

up to 100 horses to mini barns which house a dozen horses. Barns have many advantages and

disadvantages. They are cost effective to build, provide an excellent working environment

and use an open concept, i.e. open bars between boxes within the barn, to help meet the

behavioral needs of horses. The primary disadvantage is associated with large barns of low

height in which proper mixing of air can be difficult to attain. Mini barns housing between

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12 and 20 horses can be used to take full advantage of barn type structures. There are many

variations on the above. For example, one barn type construction comprises effectively

parallel rows of loose-boxes linked with a roof.

1- Stalls

Stalls, though rarely used nowadays, should be a minimum width of 2m (6ft). and a

length of approximately 3.3m (10ft). There is also a passageway at the rear of not less than 2

m (6ft), so that the minimum width of a building to take a single row of stalls would be 5 m

(16ft). All details relating to fittings and construction are similar to those with loose-boxes.

Fig,(26):Different designs of horse stalls.

In stalls, heavy horses are allowed 4 x 2 m (13 ft x 6 ft 6 in) while for hunters, 3 x 1.8

m (10 x 6 ft) is sufficient. Divisions either wholly of wooden boarding or with an open

barred top and wooden bottom are made either between each horse, or more commonly,

between pairs of horses. Each stall slopes from its front, having a width of 2 m (6 ft. 6 in) to

the back, where it is 1.37 m (4 ft 6 in). The post at the back holding the stall division has

been known as the ‘heel post’. In front of the stalls there is often a passage to permit feeding

into the mangers. Each horse can be secured with a neck strap from which a rope passes

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down through a hole in the manger frame, on the end of which is hung a weight sufficient to

keep the rope taut, or to a ring bolted onto the wall.

A space of 2.4 m. (8 ft) must be allowed behind each stall if there is a single row or one twice as

wide if there is a double row of stalls, there should be a hay-rack incorporated in the manger.

Fig. (27) Gives a general plan of a single row of stalls.

A channel for drainage must be constructed behind each stall. With a single row, the usual

dimension is20 cm wide x 8 cm deep.

Table (7) Recommendations for stable dimensions.
Type Dimension (m)

Loosebox

Horses 3.6 X 3.6

Foaling or isolation box 5.0 X 5.0

Stall

Width, minimum 1.7

Length 3.3

rear passageway, minimum 2.0

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Door

Height 2.4

Width 1.2

Isolation box:

It is wise to have at least one isolation box for sick animals in any sizeable unit. Such a

box is an essential if a horse is suffering from a contagious and infectious disease, but an

isolation box is useful for all horses requiring special treatment. The box or boxes must be

quite separate from the remainder of the establishment. The box should be readily accessible

and the horse should not only be able to see people-and be seen-but should also be in sight of

other horses if at all possible. An isolation box should be considerably larger than the

ordinary box - about 5 m x 5 m (15 ft x 15 ft) is ideal, and with such special fittings as may

be required for the handling of sick or injured horses. For example, it is desirable to have a

strong beam or girder at a height of 3m (10 ft) to support a horse on slings.

The feed room:

The feed room is used for storing fodder which is for immediate use, as opposed to the feed
store, where the longer term supplies are kept. Its dimensions and that of the store will depend
on the establishment’s size. Daily feeds are prepared in this room and it will contain separate
bins for the individual feeds, e.g. bran barley.

Tack room:

The tack room is the most important service room in a group of stables. Within this

room must be fitted the brackets, shelves and cupboards to take all the saddles, bridles, hits

and so on associated with horses. It is also preferable to have closed cupboards and/or chests

for the blankets and other clothing for the horses. The room should be well insulated and

ventilated and have some form of heating.

2- Loose-Boxes

The usual measurements are 35 x 35 x 3 m high (Fig.28). If only ponies are to be

housed, 3 x 3 x 3 m is sufficient. In temperate climates the roof and wall insulation should

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have a U value of 0.30. The floor must be carefully laid in concrete to give a small slope of 5

cm in 3 m to a drain and be made non-slip. It is important to have the interior walls strongly

constructed to withstand occasional rough usage and be finished with an impervious surface

to permit repeated cleaning.

If a line of loose boxes is to be built, consideration could be given to only extending

the dividing walls to 153 cm and having a grille of steel bars up to the ceiling. These can be

of 2 cm diameter at 7 cm centers. Divisions between boxes may be of timber, but if so a steel

plate 30 to 46 cm high by 5 mm thick must be put along each side at floor level to prevent

damage from kicking.

Fig.(28):Three –

dimensional drawing

For loose –box and tack

room.

The door is placed to the side of the box and must be at least 1.2 m wide and 2.3 m

hight. If the entrance opens directly to the open air, the doors are always in two leaves, the

lower half being about 1.37 m in height. They must open outwards and should then swing

close to the wall to cause no obstruction. They must be of robust construction and the lower

door must have either a metal bar or sheet metal fitted along and over its upper edge to

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discourage crib-biting. A stout bolt is fitted to the upper leaf and two bolts or catches put on

the lower leaf.

Each loose box must be fitted with a trough to hold cereals or concentrates and a hay

rack. Water may be provided either in a small automatically filled water trough, or by

bucket. But if the latter is used it is essential that it is firmly held to the wall by metal hoops.

Fig. (29): Loose box

Ventilation:

Natural ventilation has been the common method used, although the availability of reliable

variable speed fans that may have heating elements incorporated has, in places experiencing

very cold winters, offered the possibility of using a mechanical ventilation system.

Two criteria must be met if the ventilation of the stable is to be satisfactory. There

must be no draughts and there must be a sufficient rate of air flow. The latter is measured by

the rate of air change each hour, and must therefore relate to the size of horse being kept and

the dimensions of the loose box. An average hunter or riding horse of moderate size is likely

to weigh approximately 450 kg and will require 28.3 m3 per hour. It is accepted that eight
changes of air per hour represents a maximum and that three per hour is a minimum.

The difficulty is to make the right assumption over the wind effect resulting from the

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situation of the building. If it is in an exposed position, there are many parts of the northern

temperate region where the average wind speed is in the region 14-18 km per hour; while in

sheltered places it may be as low as 1 km per hour.

Draughts are avoided by arranging for the outlet of air to the building or loose box to

be in the ceiling or, if in the wall, well above the backs of the horses. The simplest method of

providing ample ventilation is the use of hopper-type windows with side cheeks that are

adjustable. These must be above the level of the horses’ heads, and if there can be a similar

window on the other wall it should not be placed directly opposite.

The normal practice is to have stable doors or loose box half-doors open during the day

and only closed at night. If there is a likelihood of having doors closed for longer periods, the

removal of stale air by means of utilizing the ‘stack’ effect and taking the exhausted air out

through roof ventilators should be considered. The regular flow of air results from the well-

known fact that heat moves air upwards. If the size of the entry and exit are correctly

expressed, there will be a steady flow of fresh air.

The air flow resulting from the stack effect can be calculated and is found to function

satisfactorily if the ratio of inlet to outlet is at least 2:1. A method that can be used to

calculate the sizes and outlets relates the rate of air flow (m3 per h) needed by each horse
(taken to weigh 450 kg) with the mean wind speed (km per h), using a constant varying with

the ratio of inlet to outlet. Taking this as 2 : 1, and the height of the outlets above the inlets as

4 m, and a 10oC difference from outside to inside, there will be a requirement for an outlet

area for each horse of 0.05 m2 and an inlet of 0.1 m2. Fig. (29) Shows how this can be

constructed on a line of loose boxes.

When new loose boxes are being planned, particularly if a number of brood marts are

to be kept, it is important to consider the sitting and dimensions of various other buildings

that may be needed.

Sick horse box:

A separate box for sick animals should be placed at least 6 m away from other loose

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boxes. Its door should face other stabling, so that any horse confined due to injury or illness

need not feel entirely cut off. Although the placing of a sick or injured horse in a sling is not

nowadays a frequent necessity, it is advisable to incorporate a beam capable of withstanding

a weight of up to 1.5 tones, 3 m above the floor. Heavy horses may weigh more than one

tone. Feed trough, hay rack and water bowl should be placed as near the door as possible. It

is desirable to have this box about 50 per cent lager than the normal loose box.

CHAPTER 5
Bull pen

An essential accompaniment for the dairy farm is safe, strong and comfortable accommodation
for the bull.

The following essential features will be required for constructing the bull- pen:
1 — A dequate covered space and a good exercising area: giving a completely healthy
environment.

2 - Sliding doorways between the bull box (pen) and yard, which can be remotely controlled
from pulled ropes outside. There are also sliding doorways into the feeding passage, which enables
complete security to be maintained.

3 - A feeding passage conveniently placed so the pen can be serviced in safety and under cover.

4 - The exercising yard incorporate service pen and provided with steel stanchion in a small
comer of the yard as a refuge in the event of emergency, while the yard is being cleared out.
The service pen is separated from the yard during service by a control gate approximately 2.1-
m long and 2 m high. This gate is hinged in such a way that the cow may be admitted to the service
pen from outside the buildings while the bull is confined to the yard.

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5 - The design of the bull- pen should be built strongly; solid double brickwork is
recommended. It should be rendered on the inside.

Fig.(30):Diagram illustrated the floor area of Bull pen.

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Fig. (31): Side-view illustrated the of Bull pen

CHAPTER 6
Animal wastes
Animal wastes: are materials, which are generated during the production of meat. Milk,
eggs or work animals.

The properties and amount of these wastes are affected by many factors including animal
species, size and age, animal feed and water intake. Dairy cows produce urine and faeces at a
rate of about 8% of their body weight daily. This amounts to about 19 tone / 1.300-IB cow
annually.

Epidemiology and hygienic importance

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The increasing use of confined animal production techniques in agriculture has led to a
greater appreciation of the problems that may occur during or following the disposal of the
excrement from such enterprises, these problems include:

1-The need for an adequate area of land for disposal of excrement.

2-The objectionable smell of fresh or stored excrement.

3-The possibility of causing chemical and microbial pollution of water

courses.
Environmental Health Concerns Associated With Animal Wastes

-Visual Impact:

By-products of animal waste production that are considered to be nuisances include aesthetics
of appearance, odor, dust, feathers and flies.

-Air Pollution;

Air pollution resulting from livestock operations is generally divided into two major
components, dust and odors. Both are considered to be nuisance pollutants and as potential
health treat.

Dust caused by animal operations constitutes a significant impact oh human and

animal health. Reduction of weight gain and decline in general health in cattle has been
attributed to dusty conditions. Moreover, bacterial spores known to be disease agents in
human and animals can be transported in dust.

Odorous compounds are formed from the anaerobic microbial processes involved, in
the degradation of plant fiber and proteins. These processes commence in the gut of animals
and continue in livestock buildings and manure stores. Volatilization of ammonia from
livestock systems can add to the nitrate pollution of water supplies and may contribute to the

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problems of acid rains.

Sufficiently high concentrations of some odorous gases, primarily hydrogen

sulphide and ammonia, can be dangerous and even lethal to animals and, in some cases,
humans if allowed to accumulate.
-The possibility of disseminating pathogenic microorganisms (bacteria, viruses &
parasitic infective stages) in the surrounding environments.

-The possibility of inducing undesirable changes in soil or crops.

Therefore, recently in almost all countries of the world, there has been a continuous
trend towards the imposition of legislation that prohibits the fanner from polluting rivers,
streams and watercourses with effluent form livestock enterprises.

-Water Pollution:

◘When a large amount of manure is produced in a confined area, there is a greater

possibility of runoff into surface waters following rains.

◘ Coupled with this problem is the possibility of ground water pollution beneath feedlots,
waste management facilities and lands used for manure spreading.

◘Nitrogen, phosphorus and to a lesser extent, potassium are the nutrients contained in
animal wastes. Excessive concentrations of these nutrients, particularly nitrogen and
phosphorus, can create problems in ordinary balanced ecosystems.

◘ Excess amounts of nutrients in water can increase the growth of algae and other plants;
the result is an increase in the rate of eutrophication and eventual stagnation and oxygen
depletion of water. A consequence of this oxygen depletion is the creation of an environment
lethal to fish and other aerobic organisms in polluted lakes and streams.

◘ Nitrogen in the compound form of nitrates and nitrites is a water pollution problem that

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affects the health of both animals and humans.
Methods of disposal and control
(Hygienic treatment of livestock effluents):

Keeping animals in large confinements create special problems in epidemiology of

infectious diseases and environmental protection. There are a variety of physical, chemical
and biological treatment methods.

Chemical disinfection or physical treatment of animal manure (during or composting)

shall help to avoid spreading of infectious microorganisms by using excrements as fertilizers.

Recently there are several of the non-mechanical and mechanical biological

methods, currently in use either commercially or experimentally.

Their purpose is to encourage the development of aerobic microorganisms using raw

waste as a substrate. The principal difference between these systems is the method of oxygen
supplies e.g., surface absorption, diffusion or mechanical aeration.

a. Aerobic treatments:

They rely on the action of microorganisms, which use dissolved oxygen for their respiration.

Organic material is broken down to mainly CO; and water with a residual sludge.

There is no offensive smell from aerobic treatment.

b. Anaerobic Treatments:

This relies on bacteria that break down manure in the absence of Q;, releasing mainly hydrogen
sulphide, ammonia, methane and carbon dioxide.

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Storage of anaerobic ally decomposing waste or its use for irrigation may release odors, which
are unacceptable to the local population

Number of methods for disposal and utilization of animal wastes are available.
To properly handle and dispose of animal wastes fire distinct and separate unit operations must be
performed.

1- Storing

2- Collecting

3- Transporting

4- Processing

5- Discharging the processed waste to the environment without degrading the

environment.

The first three unit done somewhat as a group, and may be done several times in varying
sequence before the animal wastes are actually processed and discharged to the environment.

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Fig. :( 32): Collection of animal manure.

Animal waste stays in their location until it is skip loaded and hauled away to another location,
if the wastes can not be pot on a field when it is removed from the pen, it is stockpiled until it
is finally transported to the point of use or discharge to the environment.

The final and most critical step in waste management is discharge to the environment without
degrading the environment. Wastes pot on crop land and beneficially uses are wastes properly
discharged to the environment.

Wastes that some how get washed into a stream or blown as dust across a high way are wastes
improperly discharged in many ways, the fourth step, waste processing, is the key to whether
or not the discharge to the environment is satisfactory.

1- Fertilizer:(Compositing)

Animal and poultry wastes have played an important role in improving the fertility of the soil,
animal waste as a fertilizer must compete with chemical nutrients. The farmer can pay no
more for manure to increase obtained with chemicals.

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 Electronic Book Animal Housing
The argument that manure improves soil health is weak and health is not a criterion for manure
use-only crop yield generates dollars for the farmer, and he must ultimately base his decisions
on yield.

Fig.(33):Compositing.

Since manure is so bulky per unit of nutrient, considerable expense is involved in hauling and
applying it on fields.

Spreading of accumulations of solid poultry manures on crop land is probably still the most
profitable disposal method if the value of the poultry manure merely equaled the cost of
application, because its use as a fertilizer saves the cost of disposal.

Also poultry manure would have more value if it was packaged and sold to the home gardener.
Florist, or nursery man-after its drying and addition of inorganic fertilizer supplements.
2- Drying:

Waste drying reduces weight and increases value, renders waste unattractive to flies and
reduces odors.

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 Electronic Book Animal Housing
In total drying is an attractive and desirable waste processing procedure, providing it does not
create a dost problem, in many areas drying occurs naturally in which sunlight has a
germicidal effect on many of micro-organisms, and the dried wastes needs only to be removed
for sale or stockpiling.

The use of artificial heat was costly for drying not only because of the labor involved but also
because of the expensive equipment required and fuel costs.

Another system for removing water from animal waste was by electro-osmosis. Such a system
would involve placing electrodes with positive and negative poles in the well animal waste.

The current would pass through the wastes in such away that water would be removed and
filtered off in the process.

Usually in this system two weeks were required to dry animal wastes from 60 % moisture to
appoint of non-conduction of electricity. Costs could be a major factor in determine the
practical operation of this method of disposal

3- Feed supplements:

Several reports have reported on the use of animal wastes as a feed supplement, and as another
method of disposal.

It was reported that there is a growth factor in cow manure, this factor stimulate the growth of
chicks fed a practical diet free from animal protein.

Cattle waste has been shown to have economic advantages for feed sufficient to encourage
daily cleaning of feeding areas.

Also poultry litter can be used as a potential source of nitrogen for ruminants that rumen
microorganisms can utilize uric acid as a nitrogen source.

Usually ewes fed chicken litter as the protein supplement performed as well as those fed Soya

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 Electronic Book Animal Housing
bean meal.

Fattening steers fed 15 or 30 % ground corncob poultry litter gained at approximately the same
rate as those fed a control ration containing cottonseed meal as the protein supplement.

Also for cattle it was found that a ration formulated to contain 40 % wastage and corn has
supported more satisfactory rate of gain and feed efficiency than conventionally formulated
high concentrate ration.

4- Lagoons:

Lagoons have been common for a number of years in many animal and poultry farms.

Basically, lagoons are storage processing units for water that is polluted with wastes, they are
not processing units for manure, that is a lagoon can be a satisfactory device to hold and treat
the run off water from a feedlot however, a lagoon is not really the proper storage treatment
facility for animal wastes. A lagoon could be a satisfactory means for poultry manure
disposal.

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 Electronic Book Animal Housing
Fig.(34): Lagoons

Poultry house lagoons have been located in doors away from direct sunlight where they do not
favor growth of algae.

If bacterial decomposition of the contents does not occur then the lagoons need to be pumped
out periodically and spread on the land.

Usually a one-acre lagoon with a six-foot depth could digest manure from 15.000 chickens.

5- Incineration:

Burning animal wastes as a means of disposal can be effective because, once during begins, it
continues in definitely if a proper moisture level is maintained, the heat of combustion was
high enough to support continuous burning, theoretically, the burning should continue as long
as the moisture content of the animal waste does not exceed 75 %.

Ashes from these wastes contained phosphorus and potassium and had same value.

If a mechanical device could remove the froe water, incineration might be the most economical
method of disposal of animal wastes.
6- Compositing:

◘ Composting has been proposed as a method of animal waste disposal a variety of

organic wastes could be treated by composting.

◘ In some areas generally very selective owners of small flocks had some success
indisposing animal wastes that had been composted.

◘ Success had generally been achieved where there was either a local acceptance or
demand for the product, or a local operator of green house who desired such material for
vegetable production of flower forcing.

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◘ The major factor determining success was to make sure that the material was well
aerated for aerobic bacterial growth, in order to composite a material in a semi fluid state
without forced aeration, the wet animal waste would need to be mixed with a drying agent.
Climatic conditions would undoubtedly affect the success for any composting operation and
excessive rain or snow

would be harmful because of its dilution effect.

◘Usually bacterial activity decreased with a decline in temperature until all activity
ceased at 32° F (0°C), prolonged freezing might kill the bacteria but heat was produced during
the compositing, which might help prevent damage to the composite pile during cold weather.

◘ Much of the valuable nitrogen is immediately lost by evaporation of ammonia.

Aerobic and an aerobic decomposition occur with an additional loss of nutrients when there
are not enough nutrients left to support these microorganisms, fungi, decomposition begins.
◘ In each process of decomposition heat is generated "loss of energy" and a decrease in
total volume in addition to the release or transformation of nutrients with each process, and
with the passage of the time, a once rich and valuable natural resource is reduced to only a
fraction of its original value.

7- Gas production:

◘It has been reported that during anaerobic digestion of animal wastes, gases were
produced that had commercial value when consistently high rates of digestion could be
maintained, usually one could get 12-16 cubic feet of gas per pound of volatile solids
destroyed and usually about 60-80 % of the generated gas was methane.

◘With the use of anaerobic digester bacteria would attack the animal wastes, producing
methane gas which could be collected in gas holders and used in brooders incubators and
small gas engines and feed mixers ...etc.

◘ The energy requirements consist of pumping, mixing, gas compression and heating.

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 Electronic Book Animal Housing
◘In practical farm situations anaerobic waste system may involve the mechanical
separation of the solids from the liquids and the subsequent aeration of the liquid. This
aeration stimulates the bacterial activity, causing the breakdown of organic substances and
simultaneously releasing heat.
8- Spraying and Disinfection:

◘ The possibility of disposal of animal waste by spraying liquid manure from holding
tanks has been reported, liquid manure systems should become popular because it is easier to
pump a waste than to shovel it, by this method evaporation is eliminated and no fly breeding
occurs.

◘ Some people reported that addition of chemical disinfectant will destroy to a greater
extent large number of microorganisms, which may be present in animal waste, they reported
that:
•Creolin"l:25",
•Compound solution of Cresol" 1:50",
• Calcium hypochlorite "1:100",
• Antigerm "1:500" Formalin "1:30" and
• Calcium hydroxide suspension "1:4",

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