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Subject Chemistry

Paper No and Title 7, Inorganic Chemistry II

Module No and Title 1, Crystal Field Theory

Module Tag CHE_P7_M1

CHEMISTRY PAPER No.7 : Inorganic Chemistry-II

MODULE No.1 : Crystal Field Theory
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Learning Outcomes

2. Introduction to Crystal Field Theory

3. Octahedral Crystal Field Splitting

3.1 Crystal Field

3.2 Octahedral Crystal Field

3.3 Electrons in Orbitals

4. Spectrochemical Series

4.1 Role of Spectrochemical series in Crystal Field Splitting

5. Summary

CHEMISTRY PAPER No.7 : Inorganic Chemistry-II

MODULE No.1 : Crystal Field Theory
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1. Learning Outcomes
After studying this module, you shall be able to

 Know the splitting pattern of d orbitals in octahedral crystal field.

 Learn why splitting takes place.
 Identify the strong and weak field ligands.
 Evaluate the extent of splitting in octahedral complexes.

2. Introduction
Crystal field theory was developed by Hans Bethe and Van Vleck in the year 1929 and 1935, respectively.
It was developed since the earlier Valence Bond Theory can only rationalize geometry and magnetic
properties of the coordination metal complexes on a simple level but cannot say anything about their
electronic spectra (color), why some ligands lead to high spin and some to low spin complexes and why
low spin d6complexes are kinetically inert etc.

3.3. Octahedral Crystal Field Splitting

3.1 Crystal field

For a given coordination metal complex having d or f electrons, the overall energy can be represented in
the form of Hamiltonian operator as H = H1+H2+H3 , where H1 represents the ligand field term, H2 is the
inter-electronic repulsion and H3 is the spin-orbit coupling parameter. The crystal field theory suggests that
most appropriate value for the above Hamiltonian can be calculated, byassuming the metal ion and all the
surrounding ligands aspoint charges so that theterm H1 will purely be of columbic nature taking care of the
electric field gradient interacting with the central metal cation. The H2 term is for the columbic repulsions
between the electrons, as well as their exchange parameters. The term H3 in general accounts for spin and
orbital coupling of the angular momentum of the d or f electrons. The name, crystal field, has been given
since it was originally developed for studying the optical properties of crystalline solids.

CHEMISTRY PAPER No.7 : Inorganic Chemistry-II

MODULE No.1 : Crystal Field Theory
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Figure 1
In an isolated gaseous free metal ion all the five d orbitals have same energy and are called degenerate
orbitals since the probability of electron occupying any of these orbitals is the same (Figure 2) During
complex formation, the approach of ligands towards the metal ion perturbs its electric field, due to electron
cloud on the ligands itself (columbic repulsive forces between two set of electrons), which tends to alter the
energy level of the d orbitals. If all the ligands approaching the metal ion are equidistant, these generated
symmetrical or spherical field, it raises the energy level for all the d orbitals to the same extent but
degeneracy of the orbitals is maintained. However, if the metal ion is placed under asymmetrical field due
to different orientations of the d orbitals their degeneracy is lifted and these split into two sets. Considering
the shape of various d-orbitals it can be seen that the orbitals having lobes directed along the direction of
approach of the ligands, will be repelled to greater extent relative to those directed away from the ligand.
Thus the energies of all the five d orbitals will not be same, rather it splits up and the splitting of five
degenerate orbitals into two sets of orbitals having different energy is known asCFS or crystal field splitting.

3.2 Octahedral Crystal Field

In an octahedral ligand field, six ligands approach the central metal ion from all the six directions of the
three coordinate axis. The dx2-y2 and dz2 orbitals are directed along the axis while dxy , dxz and dyz lies in
between x,y and z axes.. In this field, the greater repulsion between electrons in a metal dx2-y2 or dz2 orbital
and the electron pair from ligand, raises the energy of metal orbitals than other three. Thus the d orbitals
split up into t2g and eg where t2g comprises of three orbitals of lower energy namely dxy, dxz and dyz and eg
set having dx2-y2 and dz2 of higher energy (Figure 2).

CHEMISTRY PAPER No.7 : Inorganic Chemistry-II

MODULE No.1 : Crystal Field Theory
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Figure 2

It is also noticeable that the splitting of orbitals occurs in such a way that the overall energy of the system
remains constant, since the total increase in the energy of eg orbitals and decrease in energy of the t2g orbitals
from the Barry centre is same. The crystal field energy is represented by the symbol Δo or 10Dqand it defines
the crystal field strength of ligands. It means higher the strength of the ligand greater will be the value of
this splitting energy. Now it can also be noted that in case of the octahedral complexes the energy of t2g
level goes down by 0.6 Δo and the value of eg level goes up by 0.4 Δo, thus making overall energy again
equal to zero (Figure 3).

CHEMISTRY PAPER No.7 : Inorganic Chemistry-II

MODULE No.1 : Crystal Field Theory
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Figure 3
3.3 Electrons in Orbitals

For the octahedral case, the electrons are filled from lower (dxy,dxz,dyz) to higher (dx2-y2, dz2) energy orbitals
according to the Aufbau principle. Following Hund's rule, electrons are filled in order to have the highest
possible spin multiplicity as possible which means the arrangement should have maximum number of
unpaired electrons. For example, in the case of a d3 complex, in total there are three unpaired electrons.
Now with the addition of one more electron to the system, the electron has an option to occupy a higher
energy orbital (dz² or dx2-y2) or to get paired up with an electron residing in the dxy, dxz, or dyz orbitals. This
pairing of electrons requires energy (spin pairing energy). If the pairing energy is less than the crystal field
splitting energy, ∆o, then the next electron will enter into the dxy, dxz, or dyz orbitals due to higher stability
and allows minimum unpaired electrons, and called aslow spin.If pairing energy is more than ∆o, then the
next electron will enter into the higher energy dz2 or dx2-y2 orbitals as an unpaired electron. This situation is
opposite to last one and called as high spin (Figure 4). The ligands that cause a transition metal to have a
small crystal field splitting and leads to high spin are called weak-field ligands, while those producing large
CFS and known as strong field ligands.

Figure 4

Similarly with d5, d6 and d7 cases we can have either a low spin or a high spin complex as shown below
(Figures 5, 6, 7).

CHEMISTRY PAPER No.7 : Inorganic Chemistry-II

MODULE No.1 : Crystal Field Theory
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Figure 5

Figure 6

CHEMISTRY PAPER No.7 : Inorganic Chemistry-II

MODULE No.1 : Crystal Field Theory
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Figure 7

Once we move to the case of d8 , d9 and d10 systems, it can be seen that in all these cases electrons can
only be filled in only one way which leads to same configuration in high and low spin complexes. It is
also notable that in a similar way when we consider d1, d2 and d3 cases, again there is only possibility
(single configuration) whether we consider high or low spin complexes.

4. Spectrochemical Series

4.1 Role of the spectrochemical series in crystal field splitting

CFT is primarily based on the arrangement of the ligands about the central metal/ion and ligand field effects.
Once the electrons of the ligand interact with those of electron of the d-orbitals, electrostatic interactions
may cause the energy levels of d-orbitals to alter with orientation. Ligands are classified as strong or weak
based on their position in the spectrochemical series:

I-< Br-< S2-< SCN-< Cl-< NO3-< F-< OH-< C2O42-< H2O < NCS-< CH3CN <NH3<en<bipy<phen< NO2-<
PPh3< CN-< CO

Table-1

The ligands lying on the left side of the series are called weak field whereas those lying on the right side
are known as the strong field ligands. Thus spectrochemical series can be described as the arrangement of
ligands in a particular sequence such that the ligands on the left side of the series are those which have low
splitting tendency (weak field) and thus form high spin complexes, whereas the ligands on the right side

CHEMISTRY PAPER No.7 : Inorganic Chemistry-II

MODULE No.1 : Crystal Field Theory
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are those which have greater splitting tendency (strong field) and thus form low spin complexes (Table 1).
Consider the complexes [Co(NH3)6]3+ and [CoF6]3-, based on Co metal in the (+3) oxidation state, both
complexes have octahedral geometry but the complex with NH3 as the ligands forms a low spin diamagnetic
complex (where all the electrons are paired up) whereas the one with F forms a high spin complex. This
can be explained on the basis of different splitting ability of the coordinated ligands i.e, NH3 and F- with
the same metal ion. Here NH3 is a strong field ligand that leads to high amount of crystal field splitting and
thus leads to low spin complexes, whereas F- is a weak field ligand, creates lower amount of splitting and
thus forms high spin paramagnetic complexes.

5. Summary
 Crystal field theory was developed by Hans Bethe and Van Vleck in year 1929 and 1935
respectively.
 It was developed because Valence Bond Theory was unable to rationalize the electronic and
magnetic properties of the complexes.
 The name has been given since it was originally developed to account for the optical properties of
the crystalline solids.
 The five d orbitals split up into two sets of orbitals under the influence of ligand field. The d-
orbitals split up into two sets of orbitals namely t2g and egwhere t2g comprises of three orbitals of
lower energy namely dxy, dxz and dyz and eg set having dx2-y2 and dz2 orbital of higher energy
 The crystal field energy is represented by the symbol Δo and it defines the crytal field strength of
the ligands.
 Electrons are filled from lower (dxy, dxz, dyz) to higher (dx2-y2, dz2) energy orbitals according to the
Aufbau principle and Hund's rule where electrons are filled in orbitals in accordance with highest
spin multiplicity.
 Ligands are classified as strong or weak based on their position in the spectrochemical series
 The ligands lying at the extreme left side of the series are called weak field whereas those at the
right side of the series are called strong field ligands

CHEMISTRY PAPER No.7 : Inorganic Chemistry-II

MODULE No.1 : Crystal Field Theory