Secondary fuels are the fuels that are derived from some primary fuels

through chemical or physical process. Ex. Kerosene, methane.

Primary fuels are the fuels that are found in nature and can be extracted,
cleaned or graded, without any sort of energy conversion or transformation
process. Ex. Coal, crude oil.

In the study of combustion, there are two types of adiabatic flame

temperature depending on how the process is completed: the constant
volume and constant pressure; both of which describe temperature that combustion
products theoretically can reach if no energy is lost to the outside environmenT

 A lean air/fuel mixture is when there is more air than required to burn the fuel. A rich
mixture is when there is too little air for the given quantity of fuel.

Boiler mountings are a set of safety device installed for the safe operation of a
boiler. There are seven main mountings on a boiler shell; safety valve, steam
stop valve, vent valve, pressure gauge, water level indicator, feed check valve
and fusible plug.
Vent valve is installed on the boiler shell to vent air from steam drum during
starting of boiler. These vent valves also comes handy during boiler shut down
as it let fresh air to enter the boiler drum avoiding its collapse under pressure. A
vent valve can also be used to release / dump moist steam at start.
A steam stop valve is connected to the boiler to stop and regulate steam flow
from boiler to the distribution lines. Main steam stop valve on boiler is kept shut
to avoid back-flow of steam to the boiler. The flange of the steam stop valve is
bolted on top of the steam drum.

Boiler accessories are devices which are not compulsory to be attached to it but if we use them it
increases efficiency and overall performance.

Boiler accessories are those components which are installed either inside or outside the boiler to
increase the efficiency of the plant and to help in the proper working of the plant.

Some accessories are listed below:-

 Feed water pump - it is used to feed water into the boiler.

 Pre-heater - its function is to heat the air before it enters the combustion chamber.
  Super-heater - it is used mainly for stationary boilers. It converts the dry saturated steam
into superheated steam to the desired temperature.
 Economizer - Considerable amount of heat is carried away with the flue gases, so in order
to utilize this heat an economizer is placed in the path of flue gases to pre-heat the water
and save energy which directly leads to the increase in the efficiency of the boiler.
 Injector - as the name states injecting means to supply, it’s function is the same as the
pump but it delivers the water under huge pressure.
 Pressure reducing valve - it’s function is to deliver a constant amount of pressure on the
delivery side irrespective to the fluctuating demand of the steam.
 Steam drier or Separator - it is used to separate water particles from the steam before it
reaches to the point of application.

Fusible Plug is a fitting used in Steam Boilers to enhance the safety during operation. It's working
depends upon the water level in the Boiler shell. A Fusible Plug is a threaded metallic cylindrical object,
with a tapered hole in it which goes through its entire length.

Blow-Off Cock Function: The function of blow-off cock is to discharge mud and other sediments
deposited in the bottom most part of the water space in the boiler, while boiler is in operation. It can
also be used to drain-off boiler water. Hence it is mounted at the lowest part of the boiler

ECONOMIZER : A common application of economizers in steam power plants is to capture the waste
heat from boiler stack gases (flue gas) and transfer it to the boiler feedwater. ... SUPERHEATER : A
superheater is a device used to convert saturated steam or wet steam into superheated steam or dry
steam.

Difference between Boiler Mountings and Accessories

Boiler Mountings Boiler Accessories

It amplifies the safety of a boiler It amplifies the efficiency of a boiler
Accessories are not necessary but their use is
Mountings are necessary for changeable the boiler.
enviable.
Commonly they are mounted on boiler shell. They are not located in the boiler shell.
Mountings are installed from simple working and Accessories are installed to amplify the
control of a boiler. efficiency of a boiler.
eg. Water level, indicator, Pressure gauge. eg. : Superheater, Economise

Boiler accessories are those components which are installed either inside or outside the boiler
to increase the efficiency of the plant and to help in the proper working of the plant.
Definition of equivalent evaporation. : the rate in pounds per hour at which water would be vaporized
in a given steam boiler if supplied and evaporated at the normal boiling point and normal atmospheric
pressure.

Boiler efficiency is a measure of how effectively chemical energy in fuel is converted into heat energy in
steam going to the turbines.

Boiler mountings are installed on the boiler to provide safe operation of the boiler.

Boilers cannot operate without boiler mountings. In other words mounting are necessary for the
boilers to operate.

Examples

Safety valves, steam stop valve, salinometer valve, water level indicator, water level alarms
cutout,feed check valve etc

Boiler mounting are very essential to run the boiler in safe manner. To control the Boiler also
mounting are required. That’s why IBR make the guidelines for mandatory use of Mountings is
Boiler

Boiler mountings are used to run a boiler in a safe way ex: safety valve, Water level indicators
etc. Boiler mountings are primarily intended for the safety of the boiler and for complete control
of steam generation process.

Boiler Mountings and Accessories both are the essential part of Boiler. One (Mounting) is for
safety purpose then another one (Accessories) are to improve efficiency of Boiler.

Application of Various Boiler Mountings

1.Water Level Indicator

•It is fitted in front of the boiler and generally present two in number.

•It is used to indicate the water level inside the boiler. It shows the instantaneous level of water
that is present inside the steam boiler which is necessary for its proper working.

2.Pressure gauge

•It is also present in front of the boiler.

•It is used to measure the pressure of the steam inside the boiler.
•The pressure gauges generally used are of Bourden type

3.Safety Valves

•Safety valves are attached to the steam boiler chest.

•It is used to prevent explosion due to excessive internal pressure. When the internal pressure
inside the boiler exceeds its working pressures than the safety valves blow off the steam and
maintains the internal pressure.

•Generally two safety valves are present on a boiler.

4. Stop Valve (steam stop valve)

•It is usually fitted on the highest part of the boiler with the help of a flange.

•The main function of the stop valve is to control the flow of steam from the boiler to the main
steam pipe.

•To completely shut off the steam supply when required.

5. Blow Off Cock

•It is fitted at the bottom of the boiler drum.

•The functions of blow off cock is to empty the boiler whenever required.

•To discharge the scale, mud and sediments which gets collected at the bottom of the boiler.

6. Feed Check Valve

•It is non-return valve and fitted to a screwed spindle to regulate the lift.

•It is fitted to the shell slightly below the normal water

level of the boiler. A boiler must have its spindle lifted before the pump is
started.

•It regulates the supply of water which is pumped into the boiler by feed pump.

7. Fusible Plug

•It is fitted to the crown plate of the furnace or firebox.

•Its function is to extinguish fire in the furnace when the water level in the boiler falls to an
unsafe limit. This avoids the explosion that may takes place because of the overheating of the
furnace plate.
Theoretical Air and Air-Fuel Ratio -The minimum amount of air which
will allow the complete combustion of the fuel is called the Theoretical Air (also
referred to as Stoichiometric Air). In this case the products do not contain any
oxygen. If we supply less than theoretical air then the products could include carbon
monoxide (CO), thus it is normal practice to supply more than theoretical air to
prevent this occurrence. This Excess Air will result in oxygen appearing in the
products.

The standard measure of the amount of air used in a combustion process is the Air-
Fuel Ratio (AF), defined as follows:

Thus considering only the reactants of the methane combustion with theoretical air
presented above, we obtain:

The boiler accessories are auxiliary devices which are installed

either inside or outside the boiler. The boiler accessories are
used to increase the efficiency of the boiler and for proper
functioning of boiler. The following accessories are generally
used in the boiler:-
(a) Economiser
(b) Air preheater
(c) Superheater
(d) Feed pump
(i) Duplex
(ii) Injector
(e) Steam trap
(f) Steam separator
(g) Pressure reducing valve.
30.1. Relative Position of Superheater, Economiser and Air
Preheater
The relative positions of the air pre-heater, economiser and
superheater are shown in Fig. 30.1.
Fig. 30.1. Relative Position of Superheater, Economiser and
Air Pre-heater.
30.2. Economiser
Function: The function of the economiser is to extract some
heat which is carried away by the flue gases up in the chimney
or stack and utilize it for pre-heating the feed water supplied to
the boiler.
Location: It is placed in the path of the flue gases in between
the exit from the boiler and entry into air preheater/chimney (Fig
30.1 and Fig 30.2).
Fig. 30.2. Lancashire boilers fitted with an economiser
Why this device is called Economiser instead of Feed Water
Pre-heater?
As the temperature of feed water is raised before it is supplied in
boiler with the use of an economiser, water in the boiler needs
less heat for its conversion into steam. This results in a fuel
saving which improves the economy of the boiler plant. As the
recovery of additional heat improves the economy of the boiler
plant, so its name is given as economizer instead of feed water
pre-heater.
The percentage of saving in fuel consumption is given by
 S=
Where, S = percentage saving in fuel consumption
t2 = temperature of feed water at the outlet of economizer, °C
t1 = temperature of feed water at the inlet of economizer, °C
hg = enthalpy of dry steam at boiler pressure, kJ/kg
hsub,1 = enthalpy of water at t1 °C, kJ/kg
Cp = specific heat of water, kJ/kgK
Construction:
The Green’s economizer used with the stationary boilers is
shown in Fig. 30.3 along with its construction details. It consists
of a group of vertical cast iron tubes which are fitted between
top and bottom headers. For safety against high pressure, a
safety valve is mounted on the top of the header. Like boiler, it
has blow down valve fitted at the bottom to discharge sediments
collected at the bottom of economizer. Scrapers are provided on
the tubes to remove the soot of flue gas deposited on the tubes of
the economiser. The soot thus removed from the tubes is
collected in a chamber provided at the bottom of economizer.
The two stop valves, one at the bottom header and other at the
top header, are provided to stop or allow water into and out of
the economizer, respectively.
Operation:
The feed water from the feed pump first enters into the bottom
header of economizer before it enters into the boiler. From the
bottom header the water then passes through the vertical tubes
and reaches into the top header, from where it finally leads into
the boiler. At the same time the flue gas moves around the tubes
and gives off their heat to the water flowing inside the vertical
tubes and water is thereby heated in the economizer.
While economizer in operation of water heating, the scrapers
provided on the tubes are moved up and down continuously with
the help of chain and gear arrangement so that soot deposited on
the pipes may be removed and maximum efficiency of the
economizer may be achieved as the soot deposit on pipes reduce
the heat transfer to water.

Fig. 30.3. Green’s Economiser

A by-pass arrangement as shown in Fig. 30.4 is provided to
isolate the economiser when it is not required or when it is to be
cleaned or repaired. When the economiser is in service, the
damper A is closed while the dampers B and C are opened.
When the economiser is not in service then the dampers B and C
is closed and the damper A should be opened.

Fig. 30.4. A by-pass arrangement of an economiser in

Lancashire boilers
Advantages of an economiser:
(i) Increase in thermal efficiency of the boiler plant by
utilizing waste heat, saving in fuel.
(ii) Hot feed water causes increase in evaporative-capacity.
(iii) Longer life of the boiler as this reduces the temperature
difference between different parts of the boiler
(iv) A large quantity of scale forming impurities may be
removed by precipitation due to pre-heating the feed water.
(v) Dissolved gases such as air or CO2 may also be removed by
pre-heating the feed water, reducing corrosion and pitting.
Disadvantage:
It reduces natural draft as it obstructs the passage of flue gases.
Air Preheater
Function: Like economizer, an air preheater also recovers some
portion of the waste heat of the flue/chimney gases and utilizes
it for preheating of air supplied to the combustion chamber of
the boiler.
Location: Air preheater is usually placed after the economiser
and before the gases enters the chimney as shown in Fig 30.1.
Construction and operation:
Air preheaters can be classified as tubular type, plate type and
regenerative type:
(i) Tubular type: A tubular type
commonly used in smaller boiler plants
is shown in Fig. 30.5. The hot gases are
passed through the tubes and air is forced
to flow over the tubes. To increase the
period of contact between the air and hot
surface so that air is effectively heated,
air is forced to deflect by using baffles
and compelled to move in a zigzag path
for a number of times. The soot and
other material carried with gases are
collected in the hopper at the bottom and
removed periodically through the soot
gate.

Fig. 30.5.
Preheaters
(ii) Plate type: In this preheater,
alternative gas and air passages are
formed between closely spaced parallel
plates. The air flows through the
alternate spaces of these parallel plates
and flue gas passes through the
remaining passages as shown in Fig.
30.6.

Fig. 30.6.

(iii) Regenerative type: The hot flue gas and air are made to
flow alternatively through the same path consisting wire mesh as
shown in Fig. 30.7. The hot flue gasses are made to pass through
wire mesh by opening valves 1 & 4 and closing valves 2 & 3.
While passing through wire mesh, the hot flue gasses reject and
store their heat into wire mesh. In the alternate pass, when the
atmosphere air is passed through wire mesh by opening valves 2
& 3 and closing valves 1 & 4, it receives heat from wire mesh
and as a result the air gets heated.
Fig. 30.7. Regenerative-preheater
Advantages of preheating of air:
(1) Waste heat from the flue gases is recovered for heating air
and causes a fuel saving of about 1.5% for each 100°C drop in
gas temperature.
(2) Inferior grades of coal can be burnt efficiently with
preheated air.
(3) Less excessive air is required to burn fuel and thus cost of
producing draught will be less.
(4) Combustion can be more efficient and an intense flame can
be achieved in the furnace. This increases the evaporation rate of
the boiler.
Disadvantages:
(i) Increase in the capital and running cost of the preheater as
induced draft fan for removing gases and forced fan for forcing
cold air through the air preheater are used.
Problem 30.2: The fuel used in a boiler is having a calorific
value of 25120 kJ/kg. The temperature of the gas leaving the
economizer chamber is 260°C and is reduced to 150°C while
leaving the pre-heater chamber. If 18 kg of air is supplied per kg
of coal burnt and the efficiency of pre-heater is 80% determine
(a) the percentage saving of heat of coal in the pre-heater, (b) the
temperature of air leaving the pre-heater if the initial
temperature of air is 27°C. Take Cp of air and flue gases equal to
1.05 kJ/kg.
Solution:
Given: Calorific value of fuel used in a boiler = 25120 kJ/kg
Temperature of the gas leaving the economiser and
entering pre-heater, tg,i= 260°C
Temperature of the gas leaving pre-heater, tg,e = 150°C
Temperature of the air entering pre-heater, ta,i = 27°C
Efficiency of pre-heater, ηcp = 80%
Mass of air supplied to boiler furnace per kg of coal
burnt = 18 kg
Cp of air and flue gases = 1.05 kJ/kg.
(a) Determine the percentage saving of heat of coal in the
pre-heater:
Formula: Percentage of saving of heat of coal in the pre-heater
=
Finding unknown,
Heat transferred to air in the pre-heater per kg of
coal burnt = mf .Cp .(te-ti). ηcp
Finding unknown, mf ;
Mass of flue gases/kg of coal, mf = mass of
coal + mass of air
=18 + 1 = 19 kg
Therefore, heat transferred to air in the pre-heater
= mf .Cp .(tg,e-tg,i). ηcp

= 19 x 1.05 x (260 - 150) x 0.8

= 1755.6 kJ/kg
Answer: Percentage of saving of heat of coal in the pre-heater
=
= = 6.988%
(b) Determine the temperature of air leaving the pre-heater
Let ta,e °C be the temperature of air leaving the preheater.
 Formula: Heat transferred by gas in the pre-heater = Heat
gain by air
= ma
.Cp . (ta,e – ta,i)
Answer: Heat transferred by gas to air in the pre-heater = ma
.Cp . (ta,e – ta,i)
1755.6 =
18 x 1.05 (ta,e - 27)
or ta,e =
119.888°C
30.4. Steam superheater
Function: In superheaters, the wet or saturated dry steam is
superheated by increasing steam temperature above its
saturation temperature.
Location: The superheater is installed in the path of flue gases
after the furnace as shown in Fig 30.1. Sometimes, for bigger
boilers, the superheater may be placed in an independent fire
furnace.
Construction and operation:
It consists of a set of tubes through which wet or saturated dry
steam flows and hot combustion gases pass around these tubes.
By this way, the wet or saturated dry steam takes heat from the
flue gases and become superheated.
Classification of Superheaters:
According to the mode of heat reception:
(i) Convective superheaters,
(ii) Radiant superheaters and
(ii) Combination superheaters
as shown in Fig. 30.8.
(i) Convective superheaters: In the convective
superheaters, the superheaters are placed between or
near the water tubes where the superheater tubes
receive heat by convection from combustion gases.
(ii) Radiant type superheaters: In the radiation
superheaters, the superheaters are placed in the walls of
the furnace of a steam boiler where the superheater
tubes receive heat by direct radiation from fire and re-
radiation from refractory walls.
(iii) Combination type: In combined superheaters, the
steam first enters the radiant superheater and then the
convective superheater. In this heat of combustion is
transferred to the superheater tubes by radiation and
then convection.
 Fig. 30.8. Posi
radiant and comb
According to the movement of gases and steam:
There types are
(i) Parallel flow,
(ii) Counterflow and
(iii) Combined flow
as shown in Fig. 30.9 (a,b,c).
(i) Parallel flow superheater: The hot flue gases and wet
steam flows in the same direction.
(ii) Counter flow superheater: The hot flue gases and wet
steam flows in opposite direction.
(iii) Combined flow superheater: The hot flue gases and wet
steam first flows in opposite direction and then in the same
direction.
From the above classification, the counter flow superheater is
commonly used because of its smaller size, lighter in weight
and maximum efficiency.
Fig. 30.9. (a) Parallel flow, (b) Counter flow and (c)
Combined flow superheaters
According to the arrangement of the superheater tubes:
(i) Overdeck. This is placed in the space over the water tubes as
shown in Babcock & Wilcox boiler in Fig. 28.3.
(ii) Interdeck. This is placed between the water tubes which are
located near the furnace.
(iii) Intertubes. This is placed between bank or row of water
tubes.
Advantages:
The following benefits are gained by superheating steam in
superheaters:
(1) It decreases the specific steam consumption of steam engines
or turbines.
(2) It decreases the condensation losses in the steam pipes and
steam engine cylinder.
(3) It eliminates the erosion of the turbine blades.
(4) The efficiency of the steam plant is increases.
30.5. Feed Pumps
Function:
The function of feed pump is to pump the feed water into the
boiler against the pressure of boiler.
Classification of feed pumps:
The three types of feed pumps commonly used are
(i) Rotary,
(ii) Reciprocating and
(iii) Injector.
(i) Rotary pumps: This type of pump is used when a large
amount of feed water is to be supplied to the boiler. These are
generally high speed centrifugal type driven by either electric
motor or small steam turbine which is run by the steam from the
same boiler to which water is to be fed.
(ii) Reciprocating pumps: The Duplex feed pump shown in
Fig 30.10 is a common type of reciprocating pump which is used
for medium size boilers.
The construction and operation of Duplex feed pump is
described below:
It is a double acting feed pump. It consists of two pumps,
namely water pump and steam pump, mounted side by side.
Both pumps have their own cylinder. The piston of both
cylinders are connected to its own piston rod which is finally
connected to a common cross head so that the steam pump
serves as driver of the water pump due to the expansion of steam
in the steam cylinder. In the steam pump, D-sliding valve,
driven by common cross head of two cylinders, is used to
control the admission and exhaust of steam in steam cylinder
whereas in water pump automatic operated suction and delivery
valves are used for intake and discharge of feed water in water
cylinder. For continuous supply of feed water at high pressure,
the water pump is continuously run by the steam pump with the
continuous supply of steam into steam cylinder from the same
boiler to which water is to be fed.
Fig. 30.10. Duplex feed pump
(iii) Injector: The injector is another type of feed pump in
which the energy of steam jet is used for feeding water into the
boiler. It is suitable of small boilers or where space is not
available for the installation of a feed of feed pump as in the
case of Locomotive boiler. Its maintenance cost is less and it is
thermally very efficient as the steam required to operate the
injector is returned to the boiler.
30.6. Steam Trap
Function: The function of steam trap is to drain off partial
condensed water from steam pipes without allowing the steam to
escape through it.
Location: It is arranged in the steam pipe near the engine or the
turbine.
Types of steam traps:
The steam trap are of two types:
(i) Bucket or float type
(ii) Thermal expansion type.

30.7. Steam Separator

Function: The function of a steam separator
is to separate suspended water particles
carried by steam on its way from the boiler to
the engine or turbine without allowing the
steam to escape through it.
Location: It is installed in the main steam
pipe very near to the engine or turbine.
Construction and operation:
Refer Fig. 30.11. The steam from the boiler
enters the steam separator through a flange
‘A’ and flows downward. During its passage
down, it strikes the baffles and changes its
direction. While changing direction, the
suspended water partials in steam fall to the
bottom of the separator due to greater inertia
and the dry steam deflected up comes out
through the flange ‘B’. The water collected Fig. 30.11. Steam
at the bottom is drained out by the drain
arrangement. A water gauge glass is fitted in
the separator to see the level of water in the
separator.
30.8. Pressure Reducing Valve
Function: The function of a pressure reducing valve is to Fig. 30.12. Pr
supply steam at constant pressure on its delivery side by
throttling inconsistent supply of steam from the boiler on its
inlet side.
Location: The pressure reducing valves are installed in
steam supply pipe to supply constant pressure steam lower
than the boiler pressure required by the prime movers.
Construction and operation:
Fig. 30.12 shows a pressure reducing valve. The high
pressure steam from the boiler enters the steam inlet

flange. After entering into pressure

reducing valve, the steam passes through the throttle valve
where it is throttled to low required pressure and hence the
steam at the outlet of pressure reducing valve is achieved at
reduced pressure. To achieve required reduced pressure at
the outlet of the valve, the throttled valve actuated by spring
and valve rod mechanism is adjusted accordingly by the
adjusting screw F.

Loeffler Boiler – Construction, Working with Diagram

March 3, 2017 Pankaj Mishra 0 Comments boiler, Boilers, Thermal engineering

Loeffler Boiler is a forced circulation, high pressure, and water tube boiler with internally fired
furnace. In this boiler, the 2/3 of superheated steam is used to evaporate the water in the
evaporating drum and remaining 1/3 of the steam from the superheater is used by the turbine. A
steam circulating pump is used to circulate the steam into the boiler

Working Principle
Its main working principle is to evaporate the feed water by the use of superheated steam from
the superheater. 2/3 of the total steam generated by the superheater is made to flow into the
evaporator drum. The superheated steam changes the feed water into saturated steam. And 1/3
part of the superheated steam is used by the turbine to do work.

Also Read:

 Lamont Boiler – Main Parts, Working, Advantages and Disadvantages

 Cochran Boiler – Main Parts, Working, Advantages and Disadvantages
 Babcock and Wilcox Boiler – Construction, Working, Application, Advantages and
Disadvantages

Construction or Main Parts

The main parts of Loeffler boiler are
 Image source

1. Economiser: It preheats the feed water before entering into the evaporating drum.

2. Evaporating drum: It is placed at lower portion of the boiler. It contains the mixing nozzle.
Here the feed water is converted into saturated steam with the help of the superheated steam
from the superheater.

3. Steam circulating pump: It is present in between the evaporating drum and radiant
superheater. It circulates the steam into the boiler.

4. Radiant superheater: It superheats the steam with the help of radiations produced by the
burnt fuel in the boiler.

5. Convective superheater: Convective superheater superheats the steam to the desired

temperature of about 500 degree C.

6. Mixing nozzle: It is present inside the evaporating drum. It mixes the steam from the
superheater with feed water and evaporates them.

Also Read:
  Locomotive Boiler – Construction Working and Application
 Scotch Marine Boiler Construction, Working, Advantages with Diagram
 Benson Boiler – Construction, Working Principle and Advantages with Diagram

Working

 In loeffler boiler, the feed pump forces the water to enter into the economiser. The
economiser preheats the feed water and then it is passed to the evaporator drum.
 The evaporator drum has nozzles. The 2/3 of the superheated steam from the
superheater enters into the nozzles of the evaporator drum and the nozzles mix this
superheated steam with the feed water. This changes the feed water into saturated
steam. This saturated steam is then drawn from the evaporating drum by a steam
circulating pump and allows it to passes through the radiant superheater.
 The radiant superheater superheats the saturated steam with help of radiation energy
produce from the burning of the fuel. The radiant superheater tubes are placed in
furnace. The heat transfer to the water takes place through the radiation produced. After
the radiant superheater, the steam is passed to the convective superheater.
 The convective superheater is placed in the path of hot flue gases. It superheats the
steam coming from the radiant superheater to a temperature of about 500 degree C.
This superheated steam is than flows to the turbine and evaporating drum. In this boiler,
the 2/3 part of the superheated steam is used to evaporate the feed water into the
evaporating drum and remaining 1/3 part flows to the turbine.
 Loeffler boiler has the capacity to produce 100 tonnes/ h of steam at a temperature of
500 degree C and pressure of 140 bar.

Advantages

 It can use salt water for the steam generation.

 The problem of deposition of sediments and scale in the boiler tubes are eliminated.
 It is compact in size.

High Pressure Boilers: Features and Advantages


 ME Mechanical Team

 Last updated: Oct 27, 2016

Show/Hide Page Index

 A boiler is called a high-pressure boiler when it operates with a steam pressure above 80
 bars. The high-pressure boilers are widely used for power generation in thermal power
plants.
 In a high-pressure boiler, if the feed-water pressure increases, the saturation
temperature of water rises and the latent heat of vaporization decreases. The feed water
can be heated to saturation of temperature in the economizer with the help of waste
heat. Recovery from the exhaust gases is escaping to the chimney. Then the boiler
supplies only latent heat of vaporization and superheat. Thus, a boiler operation at high
pressure will require less heat addition for steam generation.

Features of High-pressure Boilers:

High-pressure boilers have the following functions:

1. Forced circulation of water – in all modern high-pressure boilers, the force circulation of
water is maintained with the help of pumps. It increases the help of pumps. It raises the
mean temperature of heat addition and evaporation capacity if the boiler.
2. Large number of small diameter tubes – the surface-area-to-volume-ratio (area density)
increases with the use of small-diameter tubes. It helps in a high rate of the heat transfer
to water flowing inside the tubes. Therefore, a large number of small density tubes in a
zigzag manner are used for water circulation in forced circulation. Further, use of a short
tube reduces the pressure loss and gives the better control the quality of steam.
3. Higher steam pressure and temperature – the steam is generated at a pressure of 80 to
300 bars and temperature of 450°C to 585°C with two superheaters in series. The use of
such stream is very suitable for power generation. It increases the thermal efficiency of
the plant and reduces the moisture contents in low-pressure stages of expansion in the
turbine.
4. Improved mode of heat transfer – modern high-pressure boilers use the heat transfer by
radiation along with conduction and convection. The total heat-receiving equipment is
divided into several parts. So they can easily be located in various zones of the furnace
for most efficient heat transfer to the water circuit.
5. Improved mode of heating – the high-pressure boilers use the following methods for
improved heat transfer rate:
o Evaporative of water above the critical pressure of steam.
o Heating of water by mixing superheated steam for high heat transfer rate.
o Increasing the combustion of air velocity over the tube.
6. Pressurized combustion – for increasing the combustion rate and thus heat-release rate,
pressurized air is used in the furnace. It gives a large amount of heat in a small space.
7. Compactness – the high rate of heat transfer inside the boiler reduces the overall size of
the boiler, and the boiler becomes compact.
8. High efficiency – High-pressure boilers have better firing methods, monitoring, furnace
conditions, control flue gases and water velocity.
9. Intensive heating – the furnace temperature in high-pressure boilers is high enough and
therefore, 70% of heat is transferred to water by radiation. This is a faster way of heat
transfer.
10. Once through construction – in high-pressure boiler operating at and above the critical
pressure, the water directly flashes into steam in the tube itself. It eliminates the need of
 a boiler drum.

Advantages of High-pressure Boilers:

 High-pressure boilers use the forced circulation of water which ensures the positive
circulation of water and increased evaporative capacity.
 They require less heat of vaporization.
 They are compact and thus require less floor space.
 Due to the high velocity of water, the tendency of scale formation is minimized.
 All parts are uniformly heated and the danger of overheating is minimized.
 The steam can be raised quickly to meet the variable load requirements without the use
of complicated control devices.
 The plant efficiency is increased.
 With the use of high-pressure boilers, the steam generation is economical.

HIGH PRESSURE BOILER LOW PRESSURE BOILER

In this type of boilers, steam pressure is In this type of boilers, steam pressure never
1.
above 15 psi. exceeds 15 psi.
Hot water pressure always exceeds 260
2. Water pressure never exceeds 260 psi
psi
Temperature will always be greater than
3.
250oC
Temperature will never be greater than 250oC
.
For the safety due to high working pressures, Since these boilers work on low working
4 these boilers are required to be monitored all pressure, they don’t need continuous
the time. monitoring.
Applications involve production of steam in These are used for water heating and
5
industries and in power plant steam from it used to heat rooms.
For similar size, the output is relatively
6 For similar size, the output is relatively high.
less.
7 High maintenance is required Low maintenance required
8 Operating costs are relatively higher Operating costs are relatively low.

What is Cochran Boiler?

Cochran Boiler is a vertical drum axis, natural circulation, natural draft, low pressure,
multi-tubular, solid fuel fired, fire tube boiler with internally fired furnace. It is the
modified form of a simple vertical boiler. In this boiler, the fire tubes are placed
horizontally. The efficiency of this boiler is much better than the simple vertical boiler.
Main Parts and Construction

1. Shell: It has a vertical axis cylindrical drum with a hemispherical dome-type shell at the
top.

2. Grate: It is the platform on which the solid fuel is burnt.

3. Combustion Chamber: The burning of fuel takes place in the combustion chamber.

4. Fire Tubes: Cochran boiler has multi-tubular fire tubes. The hot flue gases from the
combustion chamber travels to the smokebox through these fire tubes. The fire tubes helps
in the exchange of heat from the hot flue gases to the water.
5. Fire Hole: It is the hole provided to fire the fuel inside the furnace.

6. Furnace: It lies at the bottom of the boiler. Furnace is the place where all the fuel is
burnt. Without furnace, the working of this boiler is not possible.

7. Chimney: The chimney is attached to the smokebox. It transfer smoke to the

environment. The size of the chimney is small as compared with other boiler.

8. Fire Brick Lining. The fire brick lining is present in the combustion chamber and
helps in the combustion of the fuel.

9. Manhole: A manhole is provided for the cleaning and inspecting of the boiler from
inside.

10. Flue Pipe: It is a small passage connecting the firebox and combustion chamber. The
hot gases enter into the combustion chamber through the flue pipe.

Other Boiler mountings and accessories attached to the this boiler are:

1. Pressure Gauge: It measures the pressure of steam inside the boiler.

2. Safety Valve: It blows off the extra steam when the steam pressure inside the boiler
reaches above safety level.
3. Water level Indicator: The position of the water level in the Cochran boiler is
indicated by the water level indicator.
4. Stop Valve: Stop valve is used to transfer steam to the desired location when it is
required. Otherwise, it stops the steam in the boiler.
5. Blow off Valve: It is used to blow off the settle down impurities, mud and sediments
present in the boiler water.

Also Read:

 Babcock and Wilcox Boiler – Construction, Working, Application, Advantages and

Disadvantages
 Locomotive Boiler – Construction Working and Application with Diagram
 Benson Boiler – Construction, Working Principle and Advantages with Diagram

Working

 In Cochran boiler first the fuel is inserted into the firebox and placed on the grate. The
fuel is ignited through the fire hole provided at the right bottom of the boiler.
 The fuel is burnt in the firebox, and due to the burning of the fuel, smoke and hot flue
gases emerge out. The hot flue gases enter into the combustion chamber through flue
pipes.
 From the combustion chamber, hot gases enter into the fire tubes. The fire tubes are
surrounded by water. The hot flue gases inside the tubes exchange the heat from the hot
 gases to the water. Due to the exchange of heat, the temperature of the water starts
increasing and it gets converted into steam. The steam produced rises upward and
collected at top of the boiler in the hemispherical dome. An anti-priming pipe is installed
at top of the boiler which separates the water from the steam and makes it dry steam.
This dry steam is then transferred to the turbines through the steam stop valve.
 The hot flue gases and smoke after exchanging heat moves to the smokebox. From the
smokebox, the burnt gases and smoke is discharged to the atmosphere through the
chimney.
 Burnt fuel is transferred to the ash pit. Blow off Valve is preset at left bottom of the
boiler and is used to blow off the impurities, mud, and sediment from the boiler water.
 A fusible plug is also provided at the top of the combustion chamber. When the
temperature of the combustion chamber crosses the permissible level, the fusible plug
melts and the water through the combustion chamber enters into the furnace of the
boiler and stops the fire. In this way, a big fire accident can be prevented to take place
and also protects the boiler from damage.
 Various boiler mounting and accessories are attached to the boiler for its efficient
working.

Advantages

(i) Low initial installation cost.

(ii) It requires less floor area.
(iii) Easy to operate and handle.
(iv) Transportation of Cochran boiler is easy.
(V) It can use all types of fuel.

Disadvantages

(i) Low rate of steam generation.

(ii) Inspection and maintenance is difficult.
(iii) High room head is required for its installation due to the vertical design.
(iv) It has limited pressure range.

Boiler Selection Considerations6BOILER SELECTION Six

criteria should be considered when selecting a boiler to meet the
applicationneeds. The criteria are: 1. Codes and standards requirements
2. Steam or Hot Water 3. Boiler load 4. Number of boilers 5.
Performance considerations 6. Special considerations Codes and
Standards There are a number of codes and standards, laws, and
regulations covering boilersand related equipment that should be
considered when designing a system.Regulatory requirements are
dictated by a variety of sources and are all focusedprimarily on safety.
For more information on how the various rules affect boilerselection and
operation, you may want to contact your local Cleaver-Brooksauthorized
representative. Here are some key rules to consider: • The boiler
industry is tightly regulated by the American Society of
MechanicalEngineers (ASME) and the ASME Codes, which governs
boiler design,inspection, and quality assurance. The boiler’s pressure
vessel must have anASME stamp. (Deaerators, economizers, and other
pressure vessels must alsobe ASME stamped). • The insurance
company insuring the facility or boiler may dictate
additionalrequirements. Boiler manufacturers provide special boiler trim
according to therequirements of the major insurance companies. Special
boiler trim itemsusually pertain to added safety controls.

Some industries, such as food processing, brewing, or pharmaceuticals, may

alsohave additional regulations that have an impact on the boiler and the
boiler room. • A UL, ULC, cUL, CSA or CGA listing, or Canadian Registration
Number (CRN)may be required. State, local, or provincial authorities may
require data on theboiler controls or basic design criteria. • Most areas have
established a maximum temperature at which water can bedischarged to the
sewer. In this case, a blowdown separator aftercooler isrequired. • Most state,
local or provincial authorities require a permit to install and/oroperate a boiler.
Additional restrictions may apply in non-attainment areaswhere air quality
does not meet the national ambient air quality standards andemission
regulations are more stringent. • For all new boilers with inputs over 10
MMBtu/hr, U.S. Federal emissionstandards apply, including permitting and
reporting procedures. • Limits on fuel sulfur content are frequently set at 0.5%
maximum. • A full-time boiler operator may be required. Operator requirement
depends onthe boiler’s size, pressure, heating surface or volume of water.
Boilers can beselected which minimize the requirements, either by falling
under therequirements and being exempt or with special equipment that gives
theoperator more freedom in the facility. • Most states or provinces require an
annual boiler inspection. There may be otherrequirements on piping as well.
Before beginning the selection process, refer to Table 2, which shows
multipleconsiderations for selecting a packaged boiler. Steam or Hot Water
Now that you have a general overview of the types of boilers and code
andstandards requirements, it’s time to look at the facility’s application in order
to seehow the boiler will be used. Keep in mind, the primary purpose of the
boiler is tosupply energy to the facility’s operations - for heat, manufacturing
process, laundry,kitchen, etc. The nature of the facility’s operation will dictate
whether a steam or hotwater boiler should be used. Hot water is commonly
used in heating applications with the boiler supplying waterto the system at
180 °F to 220 °F. The operating pressure for hot water heatingsystems usually
is 30 psig to 125 psig. Under these conditions, there is a widerange of hot
water boiler products available. If system requirements are for hotwater of
more than 240 °F, a high temperature water boiler should be considered.
Steam boilers are designed for low pressure or high pressure applications.
Lowpressure boilers are limited to 15 psig design, and are typically used for
heatingapplications. High pressure boilers are typically used for process loads
and can havean operating pressure of 75 to 700 psig. Most steam boiler
systems requiresaturated steam. Steam and hot water boilers are defined
according to design pressure and operatingpressure. Design pressure is the
maximum pressure used in the design of the boilerfor the purpose of
calculating the minimum permissible thickness or physicalcharacteristics of
the pressure vessel parts of the boiler. Typically, the safety valvesare set at or
below design pressure. Operating pressure is the pressure of the boilerat
which it normally operates. The operating pressure usually is maintained at a
Boiler Selection Considerations8suitable level below the setting of the
pressure relieving valve(s) to prevent theirfrequent opening during normal
operation. Some steam applications may require superheated steam. It should
be noted thatsuperheated steam has a high enthalpy, so there is more energy
per pound of steamand higher (drier) steam quality. One example of an
application where superheatedsteam may be required is with a steam turbine.
The turbine’s blades require verydry steam because the moisture can destroy
the blades. When very high pressure orsuperheated steam is required, an
industrial watertube boiler should be selected. System Load In addition to the
system load considerations provided in this section, manyexcellent reference
manuals are available to help further define specific load detailsand
characteristics. For more information, refer to the ABMA Firetube
EngineeringGuide, the ASHRAE Handbook, or contact your local Cleaver-
Brooks authorizedrepresentative. System load is measured in either Btus or
pounds of steam (at a specific pressureand temperature). When discussing
the system load, we will include references toboth steam and hot water.
However, not all situations or criteria apply to both. Itwould be nearly
impossible to size and select a boiler(s) without knowing thesystem load
requirements. Knowing the system load provides the followinginformation: The
boiler(s) capacity, taken from the maximum system load requirement. The
boiler(s) turndown, taken from the minimum system load requirement.
Conditions for maximum efficiency, taken from the average system
loadrequirement. Determining the total system load requires an understanding
of the type(s) of loadin the system. There are three types of loads: heating,
process, and combination. MINIMUMWEIGHTED AVERAGEMAXIMUMHeating Load
1Heating Load 2Heating Load 3Total Heating LoadProcess Load 1Process Load 2Process Load
3Total Process LoadInstantaneous LoadTotal LoadUtilize a load demand matrix to analyze each load
and determine minimum, average, and maximum load require-ments.Table 3. Load Demand
Matrix
Boiler Selection Considerations9Heating Load A heating load is typically low
pressure steam or hot water, and is relatively simpleto define because there is
not a great deal of instantaneous changes to the load.And, once a heating
load is computed, the number can easily be transferred into theequipment
size requirements. A heating load is used to maintain building heat.Cooling
loads, using steam to run an absorption chiller, also are included
whencomputing a heating load. Characteristics of a heating load include large
seasonalvariations but small instantaneous demand changes. The boiler
should be sized forthe worst possible weather conditions, which means that
true capacity is rarelyreached. Process Load A process load is usually a high
pressure steam load. A process load pertains tomanufacturing operations,
where heat from steam or hot water is used in theprocess. A process load is
further defined as either continuous or batch. In acontinuous load, the demand
is fairly constant - such as in a heating load. Thebatch load is characterized by
short-term demands. The batch load is a key issuewhen selecting equipment,
because a batch-type process load can have a very largeinstantaneous
demand that can be several times larger than the rating of the boiler.For
example, based on its size, a heating coil can consume a large amount of
steamsimply to fill and pressurize the coil. When designing a boiler room for a
processload with instantaneous demand, a more careful boiler selection
process should takeplace. Combination Load Many facilities have a mixture of
loads - different types of process loads andcombinations of heating and
process loads. The information just given on heatingand process loads should
be taken into consideration when dealing with acombination load. Defining
Load Variations Loads vary and a power plant must be capable of handling the
minimum load, themaximum load, and any load variations. Boiler selection is
often dictated by thevariation in load demand, rather than by the total quantity
of steam or hot waterrequired. There are three basic types of load variations:
seasonal, daily, and instantaneous. Seasonal Variations. For a heating
system, seasonal variations can mean no demandin the summer, light
demand in the fall and spring, and heavy demand in the winter.Manufacturing
operations often have seasonal variations, because the demand forproduction
may vary. When selecting boiler equipment, the minimum and maximumload
for each season should be determined. Daily Variation. Daily variation can
occur due to variations in the work hours, or theheat required at various times
of the day or weekend. Minimum and maximumseasonal variations mentioned
earlier may already reflect these changes if theyoccur daily. If not, the
minimum and maximum daily loads should be included. The seasonal and
daily variations define the size of the load that the boiler(s) musthandle.
Seasonal and daily variations also help define the number of boilers
andturndown requirements.
Boiler Selection Considerations10Instantaneous Demand. Instantaneous
demand is a sudden peak load change thatis usually of short duration. These
types of loads are sometimes hidden. Manymachines or processes are rated
in pounds of steam per hour or Btu/hr as runningloads, under balanced
operating conditions, and there is no recognition given to“cold startup,” “peak”
or “pickup loads.” The instantaneous load demand isimportant to consider
when selecting a boiler to ensure that these load variationsare taken into
account. If the instantaneous demand is not included in the systemload
calculations, the boiler(s) may be undersized. System Load Summary The load
demand matrix shown in Table 3 can be used as a work sheet indetermining
the minimum, maximum, and average system loads. Load Tracking Load
tracking is the ability of a boiler to respond to changes in steam or hot
waterdemand. Most often associated with process loads, load tracking
focuses on theboiler’s ability to supply a constant volume of steam at the
required pressure. The ability of the boiler to track a variable load depends on
the boiler type, burnerturndown capability, feedwater valve control, and
combustion control design. If theanalysis of the load shows highly variable
load conditions, a more complex controlpackage may be necessary. This type
of control is achieved with sophisticated boilermanagement systems.If the
application has instantaneous load demands, whereby a large volume
ofsteam is required for a short period of time, a boiler with a large energy
storagereserve, such as a firetube, should be considered. If the application
dictates largevariances in load demand, where the load swings frequently for
long periods oftime, the best choice is probably a watertube type boiler,
because it contains lesswater and can respond to the variances more rapidly.
In all cases, operation of the burner should be taken into account in selecting
aboiler(s) to meet system demand. The burner will require proper operating
controlsthat can accurately sense the varying demands and be capable of the
turndownrequirements. The boiler feedwater valve and control design are also
critical if loadswings are expected. Number of Boilers Back-Up Boilers When
selecting the boiler(s), consideration should be given to back-up equipmentto
accommodate future expansion, emergency repairs, and maintenance. There
area number of considerations for a backup boiler. Type of Load Heating
systems and non-critical loads that do not result in a sudden loss ofproduction
generally have little or no backup. While this is not recommended, it isstill
common practice. These types of applications rely on the ability to make
repairsquickly to reduce downtime. The risk involved in having no backup is a
total loss ofheat when the boiler is not in service.
Boiler Selection Considerations11When process or heating loads use
multiple boilers during peak times, and oneboiler during most other times, the
availability of an additional boiler to provide fullbackup during maximum
demand should be considered. In applications with critical steam or hot water
requirements, laws or codes mayrequire a backup. Even if laws or codes do
not require a backup, there are manycases where the operation cannot
tolerate downtime. For example, a hotel uses hotwater 24 hours a day, seven
days a week. During periods of maintenance or in anemergency, a backup
boiler is required. Downtime Another way to determine whether a backup
boiler is a wise decision is to computethe cost of downtime to the owner or the
user, as shown in the following threeexamples: A chemical company
manufactures dry cell battery compound in a batch process. The process
temperature must be maintained within 2 degrees. The boiler shuts down on a
flame failure. They have 20 minutes to recover steam or the batch is scrap.
The value of the product is $250,000. A Midwestern insurance company
building has comfort heat supplied by one boiler. There are over 2000 workers
in the building. The boiler shuts down due to a failed gas valve. Outside, it’s
11°F. Inside, the temperature continues to drop and, at 1:30 in the afternoon,
all 2,000 workers are sent home. A meat processing company makes its
entire packaged ham line in a Southern plant. It operates 24 hours a day,
every day. A single boiler provides heat for curing, sterilizing, and cleaning.
The boiler goes down due to a lack of feedwater. Each hour of steam loss
results in four hours of lost production. Boiler Turndown Boiler turndown is the
ratio between full boiler output and the boiler output whenoperating at low fire.
Typical boiler turndown is 4:1. For example, a 400 horsepowerboiler, with a
4:1 turndown burner, will modulate down to 100 horsepower beforecycling off.
The same boiler with a 10:1 turndown burner will modulate down to
40horsepower. The ability of the burner to turn down reduces frequent on and
off cycling. Fullymodulating burners are typically designed to operate down to
25% of rated capacity.At a load that is 20% of the rated capacity, the boiler
will turn off and cyclefrequently. A boiler operating at low load conditions can
cycle as frequently as 12 times perhour, or 288 times per day. With each
cycle, pre- and post-purge air flow removesheat from the boiler and sends it
out the stack. The energy loss can be eliminated bykeeping the boiler on at
low firing rates. Every time the boiler cycles off, it must gothrough a specific
start-up sequence for safety assurance. It requires about one totwo minutes to
place the boiler back on line. And, if there’s a sudden load demand,the start-
up sequence cannot be accelerated. Keeping the boiler on line assures
thequickest response to load changes. Frequent cycling also accelerates wear
of boilercomponents. Maintenance increases and, more importantly, the
chance ofcomponent failure increases. As discussed earlier, boiler(s) capacity
requirement determined by many different
Boiler Selection Considerations12types of load variations in the system.
Boiler over-sizing occurs when futureexpansion and safety factors are added
to assure that the boiler is large enough forthe application. If the boiler is
oversized, the ability of the boiler to handle minimumloads without cycling is
reduced. Therefore, capacity and turndown should beconsidered together for
proper boiler selection to meet overall system loadrequirements. AVERAGE
OUTPUTBOILER EFFICIENCY86%84%82%80%78%76% BHP
100262727282929200525354565759300788082848688400104106109112114117500130133136140143147600156
159163168172176700182186191196200206800208213218224229235900234239245252257264100026026627228
0286294* Based on 150,000 Btu/gallon.Table 4. Typical Firetube Boiler Fuel Consumption
Rates - N0. 6 Oil (gal/hr)*AVERAGE OUTPUTBOILER EFFICIENCY 86%84%82%80%78%76%
BHP10028282930313120056575860616330083858790929440011111411712012312650013914214614915315760
016717117517918418970019519920420921522080022222823323924525290025025626226927628310002782852
92299307315* Based on 140,000 Btu/gallon.Table
5. Typical Firetube Boiler Fuel
Consumption Rates - No. 2 Oil (gal/hr)*
Boiler Selection Considerations13AVERAGEOUTPUTBOILER
EFFICIENCY86%84%82%80%78%76%
BHP1003.893.994.084.184.294.412007.787.988.168.368.588.8230011.6711.9712.2412.5412.8713.2340015.5615.9
616.3216.7217.1617.6450019.4519.9520.4020.9021.4522.0560023.3423.9424.4825.0825.7426.4670027.2327.9328.
5629.2630.0330.8780031.1231.9232.6433.4434.3235.2890035.0135.9136.7237.6238.6139.69100038.9039.9040.80
41.8042.9044.10Table6. Typical Firetube Boiler Fuel Consumption Rates - Natural
Gas (MM/Btu/hr)Performance Considerations Three important considerations
pertain to fuels, emissions, and efficiency. All threehave important impact on
boiler performance, and can affect long-term boileroperating costs. Fuels
Remember, from an operating perspective, fuel costs typically account
forapproximately 10% of a facility’s total operating budget. Therefore, fuel is
animportant consideration. Normally, the fuels of choice are natural gas,
propane, orlight oil. Increasingly stringent emission standards have greatly
reduced the use ofheavy oil and solid fuels such as coal and wood. Of the
fossil fuels, natural gasburns cleanest and leaves less residue; therefore less
maintenance is required.It can be advantageous to supply a boiler with a
combination burner that can burntwo fuels independently - for example, oil or
natural gas. A combination burnerallows the customer to take advantage of
“peak time” rates, which substantiallyreduces the costs of a therm of gas
when operating “off peak” by merely switchingto the back up fuel. Dual fuel
capability also is beneficial if the primary fuel supplymust be shut down for
safety or maintenance reasons.Some waste streams can be used as fuel in
the boiler. In addition to reducing fuelcosts, firing an alternate fuel in a boiler
can greatly reduce disposal costs. Wastestreams are typically used in
combination with standard fuels to ensure safeoperation and to provide
additional operating flexibility. Emissions Emission standards for boilers have
become very stringent in many areas, becauseof the new clean air
regulations. The ability of the boiler to meet emissionregulations depends on
the type of boiler and burner options. Efficiency Efficiency is used in the
measure of economic performance of any piece ofequipment. In the boiler
industry, there are four common definitions of efficiency,but only one true
measurement. Following are the definitions and how to measure
Boiler Selection Considerations14efficiency. Combustion Efficiency
Combustion efficiency is the effectiveness of the burner only and relates to its
abilityto completely burn the fuel. The boiler has little bearing on combustion
efficiency. Awell- designed burner will operate with as little as 15 to 20%
excess air, whileconverting all combustibles in the fuel to thermal energy.
Thermal Efficiency Thermal efficiency is the effectiveness of the heat transfer
in a boiler. It does nottake into account boiler radiation and convection losses
- for example, from theboiler shell, water column piping, etc. Boiler Efficiency
The term “boiler efficiency” is often substituted for combustion or
thermalefficiency. True boiler efficiency is the measure of fuel-to-steam
efficiency. Fuel-to-Steam Efficiency Cleaver-Brooks guaranteed boiler
efficiencies are fuel-to- steam efficiencies. Fuel-to-steam efficiency is the
correct definition to use when determining boilerefficiency. Fuel-to-steam
efficiency is calculated using either of two methods, asprescribed by the
ASME Power Test Code, PTC 4.1. The first method is input-output. This is the
ratio of Btu output divided by Btu input x 100. The second method is heat
balance. This method considers stack temperature andlosses, excess air
levels, and radiation and convection losses. Therefore, the heatbalance
calculation for fuel-to-steam efficiency is 100 minus the total percent stackloss
and minus the percent radiation and convection losses. Stack Temperature and
Losses Stack temperature is the temperature of the combustion gases (dry and
watervapor) leaving the boiler. A well-designed boiler removes as much heat
as possiblefrom the combustion gases. Thus, lower stack temperature
represents moreeffective heat transfer and lower heat loss up the stack. The
stack temperaturereflects the energy that did not transfer from the fuel to
steam or hot water. Stacktemperature is a visible indicator of boiler efficiency.
Any time efficiency isguaranteed, predicted stack temperatures should be
verified. Stack loss is a measure of the amount of heat carried away by dry
flue gases(unused heat) and the moisture loss (product of combustion), based
on the fuelanalysis of the specific fuel being used, moisture in the combustion
air, etc. Excess Air Excess air provides safe operation above stoichiometric
conditions. A burner istypically set up with 15 to 20% excess air. Higher
excess air levels result in fuelbeing used to heat the air instead of transferring
it to usable energy, increasing stacklosses.